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which book is season 6 game of thrones | Game of Thrones (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on April 24, 2016, and concluded on June 26, 2016. It consists of ten episodes, each of approximately 50 -- 60 minutes, largely of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series. Some story elements were derived from the novels and from information Martin revealed to the show - runners. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. HBO ordered the season on April 8, 2014, together with the fifth season, which began filming in July 2015 primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Iceland and Canada. Each episode cost over $10 million.
The season follows the continuing struggle between the Starks and other noble families of Westeros for the Iron Throne. The Starks defeat the Bolton forces in battle, and Jon Snow is proclaimed the King in the North. Tyrion attempts to rule Meereen while Daenerys is held captive by a Dothraki tribe. At King 's Landing, the Tyrell army attempts to liberate Margaery and Loras, but Margaery capitulates to the High Sparrow, who becomes more powerful by influencing King Tommen. At her trial, Cersei burns the Great Sept, killing her rivals, while Tommen kills himself. Cersei is crowned Queen of Westeros. Ellaria Sand and three of Oberyn Martell 's daughters kill Doran and Trystane Martell and seize control of Dorne. In Essos, Daenerys Targaryen is captured by Khal Moro who takes her before the khals; she burns them alive and takes command of the Dothraki. Olenna and the Dornish ally with Daenerys.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington. The season introduced new cast members, including Max von Sydow, Pilou Asbæk and Essie Davis.
Critics praised its production values, writing, plot development, and cast. Game of Thrones received most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, with 23 nominations, and won twelve, including that for Outstanding Drama Series for the second year in a row. U.S. viewership rose compared to the previous season, and by approximately 13 % over its course, from 7.9 million to 8.9 million by the finale.
Following their escape from Winterfell, Sansa Stark journeys to the Wall, while Theon Greyjoy returns to the Iron Islands. In Winterfell, Ramsay Bolton secures his claim on the North by killing Roose and Walda Bolton and his new - born half - brother. At the Wall, Melisandre resurrects Jon Snow, who is reunited with Sansa; they gather loyalists and a battle ensues. Aided by the Knights of the Vale, the Starks defeat the Bolton forces. Sansa feeds Ramsay to his hounds and Jon is proclaimed the King in the North.
Beyond the Wall, Bran Stark trains with the Three - Eyed Raven but alerts the Night King, who launches an attack of White Walkers. Bran and Meera escape and are rescued by Benjen Stark. Bran subsequently has a vision to the Tower of Joy years prior, revealing that Jon is not Ned Stark 's bastard but rather the child of Lyanna Stark and Rhaegar Targaryen.
At King 's Landing, Jaime Lannister and the Tyrell army attempt to liberate Margaery and Loras, but Margaery capitulates to the High Sparrow and Tommen forges an alliance with the Faith. During Loras and Cersei 's trial, Cersei uses wildfire to burn the Great Sept, killing the High Sparrow, Margaery, Loras, Mace, Kevan, and Lancel, while Tommen kills himself after witnessing the events. Unopposed, Cersei is crowned Queen of Westeros. Ellaria Sand and three of Oberyn Martell 's daughters kill Doran and Trystane Martell and seize control of Dorne, and Olenna meets with Ellaria, at a summit brokered by Varys, to discuss allying with the Targaryens.
In Braavos, Arya continues her training with the Faceless Men, and soon regains her eyesight. When she refuses to accomplish a mission, the Waif is ordered to kill Arya, who kills the Waif instead. Arya reasserts her identity as a Stark and returns to Westeros.
In the Riverlands, the Hound, revealed to have survived his injuries, pursues the Brotherhood Without Banners for massacring the people who saved him. He finds Lord Beric Dondarrion executing traitorous bannermen, and is asked to join the Brotherhood traveling north. Jaime Lannister besieges Riverrun and takes the castle, killing the Blackfish after forcing Edmure Tully to order a surrender. Walder Frey celebrates the victory before being killed by Arya.
Sam Tarly, Gilly and her son travel to the Citadel at Oldtown, stopping to visit Sam 's family.
In Essos, Daenerys Targaryen is captured by Khal Moro, who takes her before the khals; she burns them alive when they refuse to serve her and takes command of the Dothraki. Tyrion Lannister brings a short - lived peace to Meereen, which is reinforced when Daenerys returns and flies her dragons into battle against the slavers. Yara and Theon arrive and pledge allegiance to Daenerys after Euron Greyjoy kills their father and usurps leadership of the Iron Islands. Jorah Mormont departs to find a cure for greyscale and Daario is left in command of Meereen, while Daenerys sails for Westeros.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 6. They are listed by the region in which they first appear:
The writing staff for the sixth season includes executive producers and showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, producer Bryan Cogman and Dave Hill. Author George R.R. Martin, who had written one episode for each of the first four seasons, did not write an episode for the sixth season, as he was working to finish writing the sixth A Song of Ice and Fire novel, The Winds of Winter. The directing staff for the sixth season was Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 2), Daniel Sackheim (episodes 3 and 4), Jack Bender (episodes 5 and 6), Mark Mylod (episodes 7 and 8), and Miguel Sapochnik (episodes 9 and 10). Sackheim and Bender were first - time Game of Thrones directors, with the rest each having directed two episodes in the previous season.
With the end of the fifth season, the content of the show has reached the plot of the latest novel in Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, A Dance with Dragons. Season 6 director Jeremy Podeswa said in August 2015: "Right now in season six, what we 're shooting currently is n't based on anything in the book. It 's fully based on discussions the writers have had with George Martin, because the series has now surpassed the books in terms of what 's available. '' Actress Natalie Dormer, who plays Margaery Tyrell, later added that the show 's writers "know where it 's got to go and what (George Martin) 's intentions for the characters are. But they are just filling in the gaps. ''
The season premiere starts off right where the fifth season ended. A plot from The Winds of Winter regarding a traveling theater troupe located in Braavos that stages a play called "The Bloody Hand '', about the events that have taken place in King 's Landing since the beginning of the series, is included in the sixth season.
Filming for season six began in July 2015, and ended on December 17, 2015. The budget for the sixth season increased compared to the previous seasons as each episode did cost over $10 million per episode, totaling over $100 million for the full season and setting a new high for the series. The season filmed in five different countries, Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Iceland and Canada.
Like the previous seasons, a large amount of production took place in Northern Ireland, mainly in Belfast and on the Causeway Coast, including film locations in the Binevenagh, Magilligan area which was used to film scenes for the Dothraki Grasslands, and Larrybane Quarry and Ballintoy Harbour, both used for scenes in the Iron Islands. The small village of Corbet was also used, for the siege of Riverrun. As in previous seasons, some of Castle Black was set at the abandoned Magheramorne quarry.
From September 3 to October 23, 2015 the show also filmed in Spain, specifically in Girona, Navarre, Peniscola, and Almería. Some filming locations in Spain included the Castle of Zafra in Guadalajara, the Bardenas Reales Natural Park in Navarre, the Alcazaba in Almería, and the Castle of Santa Florentina in Canet de Mar.
In August 2015, HBO announced that for the first time since season 1, the show would not be filming any scenes in Croatia. The Croatian city of Dubrovnik has stood in for King 's Landing since the beginning of season 2; nearby cities such as Klis, Split and Šibenik have been used to depict various other locations. Contradicting the statement by HBO, cast of the show were seen in costume in Dubrovnik in October 2015.
Only a very small portion of the season was filmed in Canada (north of Calgary, Alberta): the scenes featuring Jon Snow 's wolf Ghost (played by animal actor Quigly). However, some of the special effects were created at Montreal 's Rodeo FX studios which has won Emmy Awards previously for its work on the series.
The sixth season saw the return of Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark, Kristian Nairn as Hodor, Ellie Kendrick as Meera Reed, Gemma Whelan as Yara Greyjoy, and Rory McCann as Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane, who did not appear in the fifth season. Clive Russell, Tobias Menzies, Patrick Malahide, Richard Dormer and Paul Kaye also returned to the show as Brynden Tully, Edmure Tully, Balon Greyjoy, Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr after not appearing since the third season. Jonathan Pryce as the High Sparrow was added to the series main cast after appearing in a recurring role in the previous season.
Across the Narrow Sea, Melanie Liburd plays a Red priestess from Asshai who is in R'hllor 's service. At the Reach, House Tarly is introduced, with Freddie Stroma joining the cast as Samwell Tarly 's brother Dickon Tarly, a character who was mentioned in the novels but has yet to appear in them. Other members of House Tarly that were introduced were Randyll Tarly, played by James Faulkner; Melessa Tarly, played by Samantha Spiro and Talla Tarly, who was portrayed by Rebecca Benson.
Veteran actor Max von Sydow was cast to play the Three - Eyed - Raven, who is training Bran. The character was previously played by Struan Rodger in the fourth - season finale "The Children ''. David Bradley confirmed in August 2015, that he would be returning to the show as Walder Frey after last appearing in the third - season finale "Mhysa '', but he did not confirm when he would be returning. After the second official trailer was released, it was confirmed that Bradley would appear in the sixth season. Danish actor Pilou Asbæk joins the show as Theon Greyjoy 's uncle, pirate captain Euron Greyjoy. Members of the Icelandic band Of Monsters and Men made cameo appearances. Ricky Champ played Gatins, an outlaw who is a part of a band using religion to justify extorting the people of the countryside. A young Ned Stark was portrayed by Sebastian Croft in a flashback scene.
The sixth season also included a traveling theater troupe located in Braavos that stages a play called "The Bloody Hand '', about the events that have taken place in King 's Landing since the beginning of the series. Essie Davis and Kevin Eldon joined the cast in this theater troupe, portraying actors playing Cersei Lannister and Ned Stark, respectively, while Richard E. Grant was cast as the troupe 's manager. Members of Icelandic indie band Of Monsters and Men appear as the musicians of the Braavos theatre group.
After the fifth - season finale "Mother 's Mercy '', the fates of several key characters, such as Sansa Stark, Theon Greyjoy, Stannis Baratheon, Myrcella Baratheon and Jon Snow were left unknown. It was later confirmed at the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con that Sophie Turner and Alfie Allen would return for the sixth season, implying that their characters Sansa and Theon / Reek survived the jump from the castle walls of Winterfell. The director of "Mother 's Mercy '', David Nutter, said later in an interview that Stannis ' death was intended by the episode 's script. Showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss also confirmed that Myrcella died after being poisoned by Ellaria Sand.
Although Weiss had stated that Jon Snow is indeed dead, photos of Kit Harington, the actor playing Jon Snow, arriving in Belfast surfaced in July 2015. Since the season 6 script read - throughs were being held in Belfast, these photos fueled speculation that his character might not be dead after all. However, Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair pointed out that Charles Dance was seen at Belfast the previous year, and his character Tywin Lannister only appeared in the first episode of the subsequent season and only as a corpse, although Dance himself confirmed the nature of his role shortly after the announcement. Another photo, showing Harington on set in Belfast in a costume that varied from the Night 's Watch outfit, was published on September 25, 2015. There has been considerable fan speculation regarding how Jon might have survived, including spiritually possessing his direwolf 's body and being brought back to life by Melisandre. In February 2016, actor Nikolaj Coster - Waldau revealed that the opening scene of the sixth season will "kind of reveal that Jon Snow is... dead. '' In March 2016, Harington confirmed in an interview that he did in fact film new scenes for the sixth season as a corpse, and that he knows for how long his character is to remain that way.
On November 23, 2015, a teaser poster displaying Jon Snow was released on the official Game of Thrones Twitter account. A 41 - second teaser trailer was released on December 3, featuring Jon Snow from the fifth season episode "Hardhome '', as well as many of the previous seasons ' highlights, and a voice - over from Max von Sydow as the Three - Eyed Raven and Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on December 6, 2015, showcasing scenes involving Daenerys Targaryen, Ramsay Bolton, Cersei Lannister, and Tommen Baratheon. On December 28, 2015, Entertainment Weekly released its "Exclusive First Look '' issue, featuring an image of Bran Stark, who was noticeably older from his last appearance in season four, and with shorter hair.
On January 22, 2016, three teaser trailers were released, with each teaser depicting the banners of the houses Targaryen, Lannister and Stark, and included voice - overs by Iwan Rheon as Ramsay Bolton, Jonathan Pryce as The High Sparrow and an unknown character speaking in Dothraki. On February 11, 2016, HBO released 28 exclusive photos from the sixth season, picturing several of the main characters during the season and confirming the fates of Theon, Sansa and Myrcella, while Jon Snow was notably absent. HBO released a teaser trailer on February 14, 2016, that shows the faces of a number of living as well as deceased characters such as Ned Stark, Robb Stark, Catelyn Stark, Joffrey Baratheon, Tywin Lannister, Stannis Baratheon, Ygritte and, controversially, Jon Snow in the House of Black and White. On February 24, 2016, HBO released 16 character posters of both deceased and alive characters, and two official posters featuring various characters.
A behind - the - scenes video of the sixth season was released on February 29, 2016, focusing on camera operators working on the show. The first official trailer for season 6 was released on March 8, 2016. Another behind - the - scenes video was released on March 22, 2016, focusing on the creative process of prosthetics, specifically the White Walkers. The video also contained new footage of White Walkers from the sixth season. On March 24, Entertainment Weekly revealed a series of new issues titled "Dame of Thrones '', featuring six of the female lead characters from the series and focus on the sixth season. On March 26, 2016, new photos from season six, in addition to a new promo named "March Madness '' with new footage, was released by HBO. After the screening of the season premiere "The Red Woman '', HBO released a second official trailer. As well, in July 2016, HBO released a "blooper reel '' online, a video of outtakes from season 6.
The soundtrack for the season was digitally released on June 24, 2016, and was released on CD on July 29, 2016. The album reached # 27 on the Billboard 200, # 1 on Soundtrack chart, and # 79 on the Canadian Albums chart on its digital release, with the track from the season finale "Light of the Seven '' reaching # 1 on Billboard 's Spotify Viral 50 chart.
After the Thrones, a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series, airs on the stand - alone streaming service HBO Now on the Monday following each episode of the show 's sixth season.
The season received highly positive reviews, with special praise directed at the episodes "The Door '', "Battle of the Bastards '' and "The Winds of Winter ''. On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the sixth season has a 96 percent approval rating from 29 critics with an average rating of 8.4 out of 10. The season also received a 95 % episode average score on Rotten Tomatoes.
The season finale had 8.89 million viewers on its initial airing on HBO, up ten percent from the previous season 's finale, which was the most - watched episode prior to this episode. The average gross viewing figure per episode for the show, which include streaming, DVR recordings and repeat showings, reached over 25 million this season, and it was described as the last consensus show on television. The figure went up by 25 % compared to previous year, and viewing figures of the show this season on its on demand services HBO Now and HBO Go went up by over 90 %, which were new records for HBO. Almost 40 % of viewers of the show watched this season on HBO digital platforms. The show also broke records on pay television channels in 2016 in the United Kingdom with an average audience of more than five million across all platforms, and in Australia with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million viewers.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
For the 32nd TCA Awards, the series was nominated for Program of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Drama. For the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 23 nominations, the most of any series. It won 12 awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "Battle of the Bastards '', and Miguel Sapochnik for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for "Battle of the Bastards ''. For the 7th Critics ' Choice Television Awards, the series won for Best Drama Series.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. The set includes extra background, behind - the - scenes material and deleted scenes.
Blu - ray exclusive:
The sixth season of Game of Thrones was the most - pirated TV series in 2016.
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when does the third maze runner come out | Maze Runner: the Death Cure - wikipedia
Maze Runner: The Death Cure (also known simply as The Death Cure) is an upcoming American dystopian science - fiction action thriller film directed by Wes Ball, based on The Death Cure, the final book in The Maze Runner trilogy, written by James Dashner, with a screenplay by T.S. Nowlin. It is the sequel to the 2015 film Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials and the third and final installment in the Maze Runner film series.
Maze Runner: The Death Cure was originally set to be released on February 17, 2017, in the United States by 20th Century Fox, but the studio rescheduled the film for January 26, 2018 in 3D, 2D and IMAX 3D, allowing time for Dylan O'Brien to fully recover from his injuries sustained on - set.
In the conclusion to the Maze Runner trilogy, Thomas leads his group of escaped Gladers on their final and most dangerous mission yet. To save their friends, they must break into the legendary Last City, a WCKD - controlled labyrinth that may turn out to be the deadliest maze of all. Anyone who makes it out alive will get answers to the questions the Gladers have been asking since they first arrived in the maze.
In March 2015, it was confirmed that T.S. Nowlin, who co-wrote the first and wrote the second film, would adapt Maze Runner: The Death Cure.
Wes Ball confirmed that, if he returns to direct, the film will not be split into two parts of film.
On September 16, 2015, it was confirmed that Ball would return to direct the final film.
Principal photography began on March 14, 2016, in Vancouver. Previously it was revealed at San Diego Comic - Con International that filming would begin in February 2016.
On March 18, 2016, it was reported that actor Dylan O'Brien was injured on set and was hospitalized. James Dashner announced via Twitter that the production was postponed after the accident. It was said that the producers were "looking to '' resume filming around mid-May. According to the Directors Guild of Canada 's production list, the film was scheduled to resume filming on May 9, and complete principal photography on July 26. However, on April 29, 2016, production was shut down indefinitely as O'Brien's injuries were more serious than previously thought.
Filming resumed on March 6, 2017 in Cape Town, South Africa. In May 2017, it was announced that Walton Goggins would play the part of Lawrence, described as "an unusual and dangerous character who is part - revolutionary, part - anarchist, and a voice for the voiceless people. '' Principal photography wrapped on June 3, 2017.
It was originally scheduled to be released in the United States on February 17, 2017. However, due to Dylan O'Brien's injuries, the studio said that it was unlikely that this date was going to be met. On May 27, 2016, 20th Century Fox rescheduled the film for January 12, 2018, allowing time for Dylan O'Brien to fully recover.
On April 22, 2017, the studio delayed the release date once again, to February 9, 2018, in order to allow more time for post-production; months later, on August 25, the studio moved the release forward two weeks. The film will premiere on January 26, 2018 in 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D.
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rene and angela do you really love me | René & Angela - Wikipedia
René & Angela were an American R&B duo consisting of musical artists and producers René Moore and Angela Winbush. They formed in 1979 and disbanded in 1986. They are most remembered for their 1985 hit "I 'll Be Good ''.
They recorded three albums for Capitol Records: their 1980 self - titled debut René & Angela, the second album Wall to Wall and their final album for the label, 1983 's Rise.
They later moved to Mercury Records to release 1985 's Street Called Desire. Despite the success of the album, the group disbanded by the end of 1986. Disagreements and conflicts caused tension within the band. Moore claimed the source of tension was due to Winbush lending her songwriting and production talents to other artists -- most notably, The Isley Brothers, with whom she wrote and produced their 1987 album Smooth Sailin '. However, Winbush said the demise of the group was due to Moore 's alleged violent behavior - including an onstage incident in Cleveland, Ohio in 1986, as well as Winbush singing sole lead on the song "Your Smile '', which became a number one hit.
Winbush said of the dissolution of their partnership:
"It was a shame to break up just when we finally got hot. PolyGram did n't want us to break up. But there was no choice. I could n't work with him anymore. ''
The duo had a less than amicable split and the animosity was so intense that Moore and Winbush had to communicate through attorneys.
Moore and Winbush went on to successful solo careers as performers, songwriters, and producers. Moore lent his songwriting and production talents to Michael Jackson 's 1991 Dangerous and 1995 HIStory albums and later formed Multi-Media Communications, which operated radio stations from 2008 to 2012. Winbush went on to score five top ten R&B hits as a solo artist and wrote and / or produced songs for Sheena Easton, Stephanie Mills and Lalah Hathaway, among others.
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who sings i'm a man yes i am | I 'm a Man (the Spencer Davis Group song) - wikipedia
"I 'm a Man '' is a song written by The Spencer Davis Group singer - songwriter Steve Winwood and record producer Jimmy Miller.
The original recording was a fast, Hammond organ - driven blues rock track released as a single by the Spencer Davis Group in early 1967, reaching number nine in the UK Singles Chart and number 10 in the U.S. (the US edition was slightly edited) Billboard Hot 100. It was the last hit single by the band before the brothers Steve and Muff Winwood left to pursue their own separate careers.
"I 'm a Man '' was included on the band 's summer 1967 album, I 'm a Man, as well as being featured on the 2005 Spencer Davis Group DVD Gimme Some Lovin ' Live 1966. Although the recording is said to be late 1966, this date is in fact controversial. In an article and an interview on the "Living Archives '' (Elävä arkisto) website of YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation, the producer of the original live recording, Mr. Tapani Karhu, clearly states that the date of the show was 19 March 1967.
Chicago Transit Authority (now known as Chicago) recorded a cover version of "I 'm a Man '' for their 1969 debut album, The Chicago Transit Authority. When the band 's popularity surged after their second album, "I 'm a Man '' was released as the B - side to a re-release of "Questions 67 and 68 ''. Radio stations ended up playing both sides, and "I 'm a Man '' reached # 49 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1971. The song reached # 13 in Ireland.
Chicago 's cover arrangement features an extended percussion and drum section with a total run time of 7 minutes and 40 seconds, and is based around the distortion - heavy blues - rock guitar of Terry Kath, the drumming of Danny Seraphine, the bass of Peter Cetera, the soaring Hammond organ of Robert Lamm and the horn players periodically switching over to auxiliary percussion instruments, such as claves, cowbell, maracas, and tambourine. Kath, Cetera and Lamm each sing a verse apiece (not singing the lyrics as they were originally written, but as they misheard and / or revised them), preluding Seraphine 's extended drum solo before a return to the second and third verses with the horn section and choruses that bring the song to a climactic drum roll, and finally leading into a guitar solo to bring the song to a dramatic close. This version is featured on the 1971 four record live album Chicago at Carnegie Hall and Chicago Live in Japan and has remained a fan favorite and concert staple throughout Chicago 's career. Santana has also used a small part of this song in the track "Waiting '' which appears on their self titled 1969 debut album.
Chicago Personnel:
It is unclear if the maracas were performed by Lamm or overdubbed by Seraphine during his drum solo.
The Serfs album The Early Bird Cafe, Capitol, 1968, featured a percussion - heavy intro (pre-dating Chicago 's) and Mike Finnigan 's lead vocal. Their arrangement segued into Bo Diddley 's song of the same name.
Hungarian progressive band Syrius often played the song - combined with Brian Auger song Black Cat - in their concerts between 1970 and 1973. The studio version of the song has been recorded in 1971 in Australia, but it has been released more than twenty years later in 1994 on album Most, Mult, Lesz.
Former Chicago drummer Danny Seraphine 's current band, California Transit Authority (CTA), performed "I 'm a Man '' at their appearance at the 2006 Modern Drummer Festival in New Jersey. The performance featured extensive drumset and percussion solos. The tune also appears on CTA 's first album, Full Circle, released in 2007.
Marzio Vincenzi (lead and background vocalist originally from Bologna, Italy) and Mauro Malavasi produced in 1978 a version of "I 'm a Man '' under the name Macho which is a classic of disco music, or as some have classified it, "rosco music '', a hybrid between rock and disco genres.
A further disco - flavored version is the one released by keyboardist Keith Emerson in his soundtrack album of the 1981 film Nighthawks, featuring him providing unlikely lead vocals. The song underpins a key scene in the movie in a slightly different version which features a longer instrumental coda not included in the original record.
In 1987 the Italian producer Gianfranco Bortolotti edited as Club House the maxi - single "I 'm a man / Yéké Yéké '' remixing both tracks.
Guitarist Roy Z 's band, Tribe of Gypsies, included a cover of "I 'm a Man '' on their 1997 (Japanese import only) mini-album, Nothing Lasts Forever, adding a strong Latin rock flavor to the song.
A remix of the original was featured on Gravy: Remixes & Rarities in 2007 released by Acid Jazz Records.
Los Lonely Boys recorded a version on their 2008 album Forgiven.
Volkswagen aired a UK television commercial titled "Dog '' in late winter 2008, which featured a dog miming singing "I 'm a Man ''. The version used in the advert for the Polo was a cover version by a young British singer - songwriter, Charlie Winston. The Noam Murro - directed advert was banned after complaints from the RSPCA and over 750 viewers.
An instrumental disco version of the song is occasionally featured in the game show The Price Is Right mostly for reveals of new cars.
The Live365 Internet radio service Radio Vietnam uses excerpts from "I 'm a Man '' as one of their station IDs.
The song was used in the Mad Men Season 7 premiere episode, "Time Zones ''.
The song was featured in the 2014 film Pawn Sacrifice.
The 2015 film Minions featured the song and is also on the film 's soundtrack.
In 2016, the original Spencer Davis Group version of "I 'm A Man '' was used in an advert for Amazon Prime in the UK and Germany.
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when did south africa gained independence from britain | History of South Africa - Wikipedia
The first humans are believed to have inhabited South Africa more than 100,000 years ago. The historical record of this ethnically diverse country is generally divided into five distinct periods: the pre-colonial era, the colonial era, the post-colonial and apartheid eras, and the post-apartheid era. Much of this history, particularly of the colonial and post-colonial eras, is characterised by clashes of culture, violent territorial disputes between European settlers and indigenous people, dispossession and repression, and other racial and political tensions.
The discoveries of diamonds and gold in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the fortunes of the region, propelling it onto the world stage and introducing a shift away from an exclusively agrarian - based economy towards industrialisation and the development of urban infrastructure. The discoveries also led to new conflicts culminating in open warfare between the Boer settlers and the British Empire, fought essentially for control over the nascent South African mining industry.
Following the defeat of the Boers in the Anglo - Boer or South African War (1899 -- 1902), the Union of South Africa was created as a dominion of the British Empire in terms of the South Africa Act 1909, which amalgamated the four previously separate British colonies: Cape Colony, Natal Colony, Transvaal Colony, and Orange River Colony. The country became a self - governing nation state within the British Empire, in 1934 following enactment of the Status of the Union Act. The dominion came to an end on 31 May 1961 as the consequence of a 1960 referendum, which legitimised the country becoming a sovereign state named Republic of South Africa. A republican constitution was adopted.
From 1948 -- 1994, South African politics were dominated by Afrikaner nationalism. Racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as apartheid, an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness '', came into existence in 1948 (under British rule), and become an official law of segregation when South Africa became a republic. It was an extension of segregationist legislation enacted in 1960. On 27 April 1994, after decades of armed struggle and international opposition to apartheid, during which military and political support was provided primarily by the Soviet Union to the non-racial African National Congress (ANC), the ANC achieved victory in the country 's first democratic election in which all races could vote. Since then, the African National Congress has dominated the politics of South Africa, in an uneasy alliance with the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.
Scientists researching the periods before written historical records were made have established that the territory of what is now referred to generically as South Africa was one of the important centers of human evolution. It was inhabited by Australopithecines since at least 2.5 million years ago. Modern human settlement occurred around 125,000 years ago in the Middle Stone Age, as shown by archaeological discoveries at Klasies River Caves. The first human habitation is associated with a DNA group originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa and still prevalent in the indigenous Khoisan (Khoi and San). Southern Africa was reached later by the migration of the ethnically different, dark - skinned, Bantu - speaking or African people originating in the northwestern region of southern Africa during the early centuries AD.
At the Blombos cave Professor Raymond Dart discovered the skull of a 2.51 million year old Taung Child in 1924, the first example of Australopithecus africanus ever found. Following in Dart 's footsteps Robert Broom discovered a new much more robust hominid in 1938 Paranthropus robustus at Kromdraai, and in 1947 uncovered several more examples of Australopithecus africanus at Sterkfontein. In further research at the Blombos cave in 2002, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as the earliest example ever discovered of abstract art or symbolic art created by Homo sapiens.
Many more species of early hominid have come to light in recent decades. The oldest is Little Foot, a collection of footbones of an unknown hominid between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, discovered at Sterkfontein by Ronald J. Clarke. An important recent find was that of 1.9 million year old Australopithecus sediba, discovered in 2008. In 2015, the discovery near Johannesburg of a previously unknown species of Homo was announced, named Homo naledi. It has been described as one of the most important paleontological discoveries in modern times.
The descendants of the Middle Paleolithic populations are thought to be the aboriginal San and Khoikhoi tribes. The settlement of southern Africa by the ancestors of the Khoisan corresponds to the earliest separation of the extant Homo sapiens populations altogether, associated in genetic science with what is described in scientific terms as matrilinear haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) and patrilinear haplogroup A (Y - DNA), originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa.
The San and Khoikhoi are grouped under the term Khoisan, and are essentially distinguished only by their respective occupations. Whereas the San were hunter - gathers, the Khoikhoi were pastoral herders.
Archaeological discoveries of livestock bones on the Cape Peninsula indicate that the Khoikhoi began to settle there by about 2000 years ago. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese mariners, who were the first Europeans at the Cape, encountered pastoral Khoikhoi with livestock. Later, English and Dutch seafarers in the late 16th and 17th centuries exchanged metals for cattle and sheep with the Khoikhoi. The conventional view is that availability of livestock was one reason why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a staging post where the port city of Cape Town is today situated. The initial origin of the Khoikhoi remains uncertain.
The establishment of the staging post by the Dutch East India Company at the Cape in 1652 soon brought the Khoikhoi into conflict with Dutch settlers over land ownership. Cattle rustling and livestock theft ensued, with the Khoikhoi being ultimately expelled from the peninsula by force, after a succession of wars. The first Khoikhoi -- Dutch War broke out in 1659, the second in 1673, and the third 1674 -- 1677. By the time of their defeat and expulsion from the Cape Peninsula and surrounding districts, the Khoikhoi population was decimated by a smallpox epidemic, against which the Khoikhoi had no natural resistance or indigenous medicines. The disease had been brought to the Cape by Dutch sailors.
The Bantu expansion was one of the major demographic movements in human prehistory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Bantu - speaking communities would have reached southern Africa from the Congo basin by the early centuries AD. The advancing Bantu encroached on the Khoikhoi territory, forcing the original inhabitants of the region to move to more arid areas. Some of the migrant groups, ancestral to today 's Nguni peoples (the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele), preferred to live near the eastern coast of what is present - day South Africa. Others, now known as the Sotho -- Tswana peoples (Tswana, Pedi, and Sotho), settled in the interior on the plateau known as the Highveld, while today 's Venda, Lemba, and Shangaan - Tsonga peoples made their homes in the north - eastern areas of present - day South Africa.
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe, which was located near the northern border of present - day South Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers adjacent to present - day Zimbabwe and Botswana, was the first indigenous kingdom in southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300. It developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned because of climatic changes in the 14th century. Smiths created objects of iron, copper and gold both for local decorative use and for foreign trade. The kingdom controlled trade through the east African ports to Arabia, India and China, and throughout southern Africa, making it wealthy through the exchange of gold and ivory for imports such as Chinese porcelain and Persian glass beads.
Specifics of the contact between Bantu - speakers and the indigenous Khoisan ethnic group remain largely unresearched, although linguistic proof of some assimilation exists, as several southern Bantu languages (notably Xhosa and Zulu) incorporate many click consonants of the Khoisan languages. The assimilation is not dissimilar to that of the European settlers, who adapted and assimilated the Dutch, Flemish, German and Malay languages into the Dutch patois of Afrikaans.
The Portuguese mariner Bartolomeu Dias was the first European to explore the coastline of South Africa in 1488, while attempting to discover a trade route to the Far East via the southernmost cape of South Africa, which he named Cabo das Tormentas, meaning Cape of Storms. In November 1497, a fleet of Portuguese ships under the command of the Portuguese mariner Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. By 16 December, the fleet had passed the Great Fish River on the east coast of South Africa, where Dias had earlier turned back. Da Gama gave the name Natal to the coast he was passing, which in Portuguese means Christmas. Da Gama 's fleet proceeded northwards to Zanzibar and later sailed eastwards, eventually reaching India and thereby opening the Cape Route between Europe and Asia.
The Dutch East India Company (in the Dutch of the day: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement at the Cape. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the spice route to the East, had no intention of colonising the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter and be serviced, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit, and vegetables. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of Jan van Riebeeck reached Table Bay on 6 April 1652.
The VOC had settled at the Cape in order to supply their trading ships. As the Khoikhoi were not agricultural farmers, there was no food to trade for at the Cape and the VOC had to import Dutch farmers to establish farms to supply the passing ships as well as to supply the growing VOC settlement. The small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the Khoikhoi. The free burghers were ex-VOC soldiers and gardeners, who were unable to return to Holland when their contracts were completed with the VOC. The VOC also brought some 71,000 slaves to Cape Town from India, Indonesia, East Africa, Mauritius, and Madagascar.
The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but there were also some Germans. who often happened to be Lutherans. In 1688, the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French Huguenots, who were Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under its Catholic ruler, King Louis XIV.
Van Riebeeck considered it impolitic to enslave the local Khoi and San aboriginals, so the VOC began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from the Dutch colonies in Indonesia. Eventually, van Riebeeck and the VOC began to make indentured servants out of the Khoikhoi and the San. The offspring from miscegenation between the Dutch settlers and the Khoi - San and Malay slaves became known officially as the Cape Coloureds and the Cape Malays, respectively. A significant number of the offspring from the white and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto - Afrikaans speaking white population. The racially mixed genealogical origins of many so - called "white '' South Africans have been traced to interracial unions at the Cape between the European occupying population and imported Asian and African slaves, the indigenous Khoi and San, and their vari - hued offspring. Simon van der Stel, the first Governor of the Dutch settlement, famous for his development of the lucrative South African wine industry, was himself of mixed race - origin.
In 1787, shortly before the French Revolution, a faction within the politics of the Dutch Republic known as the Patriot Party attempted to overthrow the regime of stadtholder William V. Though the revolt was crushed, it was resurrected after the French invasion of the Netherlands in 1794 / 1795 which resulted in the stadtholder fleeing the country. The Patriot revolutionaries then proclaimed the Batavian Republic, which was closely allied to revolutionary France. In response, the stadtholder, who had taken up residence in England, issued the Kew Letters, ordering colonial governors to surrender to the British. The British then seized the Cape in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands. The Cape was relinquished back to the Dutch in 1803. In 1805, the British inherited the Cape as a prize during the Napoleonic Wars, again seizing the Cape from the French controlled Kingdom of Holland which had replaced the Batavian Republic.
Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape Colony, other than as a strategically located port. The Cape Articles of Capitulation of 1806 allowed the colony to retain "all their rights and privileges which they have enjoyed hitherto '', and this launched South Africa on a divergent course from the rest of the British Empire, allowing the continuance of Roman - Dutch law. British sovereignty of the area was recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Dutch accepting a payment of 6 million pounds for the colony. As one of their first tasks they outlawed the use of the Dutch language in 1806 with the view of converting the European settlers to the British language and culture. This had the effect of forcing more of the Dutch colonists to move (or trek) away from British administrative reach. Much later, in 1820 the British authorities persuaded about 5,000 middle - class British immigrants (most of them "in trade '') to leave Great Britain. Many of the 1820 Settlers eventually settled in Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth.
British policy with regard to South Africa would vacillate with successive governments, but the overarching imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India while incurring as little expense as possible within the colony. This aim was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, who soon developed a distaste for British authority.
Colonel Robert Jacob Gordon of the Dutch East India Company was the first European to explore parts of the interior while commanding the Dutch garrison at the renamed Cape of Good Hope, from 1780 to 1795. The four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings known collectively as the Gordon Atlas, as well as in his journals, which were only discovered in 1964.
Early relations between the European settlers and the Xhosa, the first Bantu peoples they met when they ventured inward, were peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids from 1779.
The British explorers David Livingstone and William Oswell, setting out from a mission station in the northern Cape Colony, are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari desert in 1849. The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingstone a gold medal for his discovery of Lake Ngami in the desert.
The Zulu people are part of the Nguni tribe and were originally a minor clan in what is today northern KwaZulu - Natal, founded ca. 1709 by Zulu kaNtombela.
The 1820s saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the Zulu Kingdom, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. Sotho - speakers know this period as the difaqane ("forced migration ''); Zulu - speakers call it the mfecane ("crushing '').
Various theories have been advanced for the causes of the difaqane, ranging from ecological factors to competition in the ivory trade. Another theory attributes the epicentre of Zulu violence to the slave trade out of Delgoa Bay in Mozambique situated to the north of Zululand. According to this theory, Portuguese slavers had been driven southwards because of increased naval activity during the Napoleonic wars; it was the rush of refugees away from the encroaching slavers that precipitated violent instability in the region.
In 1818, Nguni tribes in Zululand became a militaristic kingdom under the driving force of Shaka kaSenzangakhona, son of the chief of the Zulu clan. Shaka built large armies, breaking from clan tradition by placing the armies under the control of his own officers rather than of hereditary chiefs. He then set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His impis (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death.
Peoples in the path of Shaka 's armies moved out of his way, becoming in their turn aggressors against their neighbours. This wave of displacement spread throughout southern Africa and beyond. It also accelerated the formation of several new nation - states, notably those of the Sotho (present - day Lesotho) and of the Swazi (now Swaziland).
In 1828 Shaka was killed by his half - brothers Dingaan and Umhlangana. The weaker and less - skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence. Estimates for the death toll resulting from the Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million.
After 1806, a number of Dutch - speaking inhabitants of the Cape Colony trekked inland, first in small groups. Eventually, in the 1830s, large numbers of Boers migrated in what came to be known as the Great Trek. Among the initial reasons for their leaving the Cape colony were the English language rule. Religion was a very important aspect of the settlers culture and the bible and church services were in Dutch. Similarly, schools, justice and trade up to the arrival of the British, were all managed in the Dutch language. The language law caused friction, distrust and dissatisfaction.
Another reason for Dutch - speaking white farmers trekking away from the Cape was the abolition of slavery by the British government on Emancipation Day, 1 December 1838. The farmers complained they could not replace the labour of their slaves without losing an excessive amount of money. The farmers had invested large amounts of capital in slaves. Owners who had purchased slaves on credit or put them up as surety against loans faced financial ruin. This is to be queried as the Boers were in favor of abolishment of slavery Bloemfontein (1854) and Sand River conventions (1852, Art. 4), Britain had allocated the sum of 1 200 000 British Pounds as compensation to the Dutch settlers, on condition the Dutch farmers had to lodge their claims in Britain as well as the fact that the value of the slaves was many times the allocated amount. This caused further dissatisfaction among the Dutch settlers. The settlers, incorrectly, believed that the Cape Colony administration had taken the money due to them as payment for freeing their slaves. Those settlers who were allocated money could only claim it in Britain in person or through an agent. The commission charged by agents was the same as the payment for one slave, thus those settlers only claiming for one slave would receive nothing.
The South African Republic (Dutch: Zuid - Afrikaansche Republiek or ZAR, not to be confused with the much later Republic of South Africa), is often referred to as The Transvaal and sometimes as the Republic of Transvaal. It was an independent and internationally recognised nation - state in southern Africa from 1852 to 1902. Independent sovereignty of the republic was formally recognised by Great Britain with the signing of the Sand River Convention on 17 January 1852. The republic, under the premiership of Paul Kruger, defeated British forces in the First Boer War and remained independent until the end of the Second Boer War on 31 May 1902, when it was forced to surrender to the British. The territory of the South African Republic became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony.
The independent Boer republic of Orange Free State evolved from colonial Britain 's Orange River Sovereignty, enforced by the presence of British troops, which lasted from 1848 to 1854 in the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers, named Transorange. Britain, due to the military burden imposed on it by the Crimean War in Europe, then withdrew its troops from the territory in 1854, when the territory along with other areas in the region was claimed by the Boers as an independent Boer republic, which they named the Orange Free State. In March 1858, after land disputes, cattle rustling and a series of raids and counter-raids, the Orange Free State declared war on the Basotho kingdom, which it failed to defeat. A succession of wars were conducted between the Boers and the Basotho for the next 10 years. The name Orange Free State was again changed to the Orange River Colony, created by Britain after the latter occupied it in 1900 and then annexed it in 1902 during the Second Boer War. The colony, with an estimated population of less than 400,000 in 1904 ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as the Orange Free State Province.
Natalia was a short - lived Boer republic established in 1839 by Boer voortrekkers emigrating from the Cape Colony. In 1824 a party of 25 men under British Lieutenant FG Farewell arrived from the Cape Colony and established a settlement on the northern shore of the Bay of Natal, which would later become the port of Durban, so named after Sir Benjamin d'Urban, a governor of the Cape Colony. Boer voortrekkers in 1838 established the Republic of Natalia in the surrounding region, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg. On the night of 23 / 24 May 1842 British colonial forces attacked the voortrekker camp at Congella. The attack failed, with British forces then retreating back to Durban, which the Boers besieged. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni, who later became folk heroes, were able to escape the blockade and ride to Grahamstown, a distance of 600 km (372.82 miles) in 14 days to raise British reinforcements. The reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the siege was broken and the voortrekkers retreated. The Boers accepted British annexation in 1844. Many of the Natalia Boers who refused to acknowledge British rule trekked over the Drakensberg mountains to settle in the Orange Free State and Transvaal republics.
Between 1847 and 1854, Sir Harry Smith, governor and high commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed territories far to the north of original British and Dutch settlement.
Smith 's expansion of the Cape Colony resulted in conflict with disaffected Boers in the Orange River Sovereignty who in 1848 mounted an abortive rebellion at Boomplaats, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of the Cape Mounted Rifles. Annexation also precipitated a war between British colonial forces and the indigenous Xhosa nation in 1850, in the eastern coastal region.
Starting from the mid-1800s, the Cape of Good Hope, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began moving towards greater independence from Britain. In 1854, it was granted its first locally elected legislature, the Cape Parliament.
In 1872, after a long political struggle, it attained responsible government with a locally accountable executive and Prime Minister. The Cape nonetheless remained nominally part of the British Empire, even though it was self - governing in practice.
The Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibited any discrimination on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections were held according to the non-racial Cape Qualified Franchise system, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race.
Initially, a period of strong economic growth and social development ensued. However, an ill - informed British attempt to force the states of southern Africa into a British federation led to inter-ethnic tensions and the First Boer War. Meanwhile, the discovery of diamonds around Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal led to a later return to instability, particularly because they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist Cecil Rhodes. As Cape Prime Minister, Rhodes curtailed the multi-racial franchise, and his expansionist policies set the stage for the Second Boer War.
Indian slaves from the Dutch colonies had been introduced into the Cape area of South Africa by the Dutch settlers in 1654.
By the end of 1847, following annexation by Britain of the former Boer republic of Natalia, nearly all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of the Boer settlers was replaced by subsidised British immigrants of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851.
By 1860, with slavery having been abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonialists in Natal (now kwaZulu - Natal) turned to India to resolve a labour shortage. Men of the local Zulu warrior nation were refusing to adopt the servile position of labourers. In that year, the SS Truro arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 Indians on board.
Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more indentured Indian servants and labourers arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians, '' building the base for what would become the largest Indian community outside India.
By 1893, when the lawyer and social activist Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. The civil rights struggle of Gandhi 's Natal Indian Congress failed; until the 1994 advent of democracy, Indians in South Africa were subject to most of the discriminatory laws that applied to all non-white inhabitants of the country.
By the late 1700s, the Cape Colony population had grown to include a large number of mixed - race so - called "coloureds '' who were the offspring of extensive miscegenation between white, male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi females, and female slaves imported from Dutch colonies in the East. Members of this mixed - race community formed the core of what was to become the Griqua people.
Under the leadership of a former slave named Adam Kok, these "coloureds '' or Basters (meaning Bastards) as they were named by the Dutch, started trekking northward into the interior, through what is today named Northern Cape Province. The trek of the Griquas to escape the influence of the Cape Colony has been described as "one of the great epics of the 19th century. '' They were joined on their long journey by a number of San and Khoikhoi aboriginals, local African tribesmen, and also some white renegades. Around 1800, they started crossing the northern frontier formed by the Orange River, arriving ultimately in an uninhabited area, which they named Griqualand.
In 1825, a faction of the Griqua people was induced by Dr John Philip, superintendent of the London Missionary Society in Southern Africa, to relocate to a place called Philippolis, a mission station for the San, several hundred miles southeast of Griqualand. Philip 's intention was for the Griquas to protect the missionary station there against banditti in the region, and as a bulwark against the northward movement of white settlers from the Cape Colony. Friction between the Griquas and the settlers over land rights resulted in British troops being sent to the region in 1845. It marked the beginning of nine years of British intervention in the affairs of the region, which the British named Transorange.
In 1861, to avoid the imminent prospect of either being colonised by the Cape Colony or coming into conflict with the expanding Boer Republic of Orange Free State, most of the Philippolis Griquas embarked on a further trek. They moved about 500 miles eastward, over the Quathlamba (today known as the Drakensberg mountain range), settling ultimately in an area officially designated as "Nomansland '', which the Griquas renamed Griqualand East. East Griqualand was subsequently annexed by Britain in 1874 and incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1879.
The original Griqualand, north of the Orange River, was annexed by Britain 's Cape Colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world 's richest deposit of diamonds at Kimberley, so named after the British Colonial Secretary, Earl Kimberley.
Although no formally surveyed boundaries existed, Griqua leader Nicolaas Waterboer claimed the diamond fields were situated on land belonging to the Griquas. The Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State also vied for ownership of the land, but Britain, being the preeminent force in the region, won control over the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led an unsuccessful rebellion against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled.
In early South Africa, European notions of national boundaries and land ownership had no counterparts in African political culture. To the local African chieftains, customary tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented acceptance by the reigning chief of land use under his authority. To both the Boer and the British settlers, the same form of tribute was believed to constitute purchase and permanent ownership of the land under independent authority. As British and Boer settlers started establishing permanent farms after trekking across the country in search of prime agricultural land, they encountered resistance from the local Bantu people who had originally migrated southwards from central Africa hundreds of years earlier. The consequent frontier wars, known as the Xhosa Wars, were unofficially referred to by the British colonial authorities as the "Kaffir '' wars.
In the southeastern part of South Africa, The Boers and the Xhosa clashed along the Great Fish River, and in 1779 the first of nine frontier wars erupted. For nearly 100 years subsequently, the Xhosa fought the settlers sporadically, first the Boers or Afrikaners and later the British. In the Fourth Frontier War, which lasted from 1811 to 1812, the British forced the Xhosa back across the Great Fish River and established forts along this boundary.
The increasing economic involvement of the British in southern Africa from the 1820s, and especially following the discovery of first diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, resulted in pressure for land and African labour, and led to increasingly tense relations with African states.
In 1818 differences between two Xhosa leaders, Ndlambe and Ngqika, ended in Ngqika 's defeat, but the British continued to recognise Ngqika as the paramount chief. He appealed to the British for help against Ndlambe, who retaliated in 1819 during the Fifth Frontier War by attacking the British colonial town of Grahamstown. The Xhosa prophet Nxele emerged at this time and led the Xhosa armies in several attacks. He was subsequently captured and imprisoned on Robben Island. After this war the British attempted unsuccessfully to declare the area between the Great Fish and the Keiskamma rivers neutral territory. More fighting took place, until eventually all Xhosa territories were incorporated into the Cape Colony.
In the eastern part of what is today South Africa, in the region named Natalia by the Boer trekkers, the latter negotiated an agreement with Zulu King Dingane kaSenzangakhona allowing the Boers to settle in part of the then Zulu kingdom. Cattle rustling ensued and a party of Boers under the leadership of Piet Retief was massacred.
The Boers retaliated at the Ncome River on 16 December 1838, when they killed about three thousand Zulu warriors in a clash known historically as the Battle of Blood River.
In the later annexation of the Zulu kingdom by imperial Britain, an Anglo - Zulu War was fought in 1879. Following Lord Carnarvon 's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa.
In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its army. Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, had presented an ultimatum on 11 December 1878, to the Zulu king Cetshwayo with which the Zulu king could not comply. Bartle Frere then sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including an overwhelming victory by the Zulu at the Battle of Isandlwana, as well as for being a landmark in the timeline of imperialism in the region.
Britain 's eventual defeat of the Zulus, marking the end of the Zulu nation 's independence, was accomplished with the assistance of Zulu collaborators who harboured cultural and political resentments against centralised Zulu authority. The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area today named KwaZulu - Natal Province.
From the 1830s onwards, numbers of white settlers from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and started arriving in the fertile southern part of territory known as the Lower Caledon Valley, which was occupied by Basotho cattle herders under the authority of the Basotho founding monarch Moshoeshoe I. In 1845, a treaty was signed between the British colonists and Moshoeshoe, which recognised white settlement in the area. No firm boundaries were drawn between the area of white settlement and Moshoeshoe 's kingdom, which led to border clashes. Moshoeshoe was under the impression he was loaning grazing land to the settlers in accordance with African precepts of occupation rather than ownership, while the settlers believed they had been granted permanent land rights. Afrikaner settlers in particular were loathe to live under Moshoesoe 's authority and among Africans.
The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Vaal Rivers called the Orange River Sovereignty, decided a discernible boundary was necessary and proclaimed a line named the Warden Line, dividing the area between British and Basotho territories. This led to conflict between the Basotho and the British, who were defeated by Moshoeshoe 's warriors at the battle of Viervoet in 1851.
As punishment to the Basotho, the governor and commander - in - chief of the Cape Colony, Sir George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshoeshoe was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, a battle broke out on the Berea Plateau in 1852, where the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers through the signing of the Sand River Convention. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of the Orange Free State.
A succession of wars followed from 1858 to 1868 between the Basotho kingdom and the Boer republic of Orange Free State. In the battles that followed, the Orange Free State tried unsuccessfully to capture Moshoeshoe 's mountain stronghold at Thaba Bosiu, while the Sotho conducted raids in Free State territories. Both sides adopted scorched - earth tactics, with large swathes of pasturage and cropland being destroyed. Faced with starvation, Moshoeshoe signed a peace treaty on 15 October 1858, though crucial boundary issues remained unresolved. War broke out again in 1865. After an unsuccessful appeal for aid from the British Empire, Moshoeshoe signed the 1866 treaty of Thaba Bosiu, with the Basotho ceding substantial territory to the Orange Free State. On 12 March 1868, the British parliament declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate and part of the British Empire. Open hostilities ceased between the Orange Free State and the Basotho. The country was subsequently named Basutoland and is presently named Lesotho.
In 1836, when Boer voortrekkers (meaning advance trekkers) arrived in the northwestern part of present - day South Africa, they came into conflict with a Ndebele sub-group that the settlers named "Matabele '', under chief Mzilikazi. A series of battles ensued, in which Mzilikazi was eventually defeated. He withdrew from the area and led his people northwards to what would later become the Matabele region of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
Other members of the Ndebele ethnic language group in different areas of the region similarly came into conflict with the Voortrekkers, notably in the area that would later become the Northern Transvaal. In September 1854, 28 Boers accused of cattle rustling were killed in three separate incidents by an alliance of the Ndebele chiefdoms of Mokopane and Mankopane. Mokopane and his followers, anticipating retaliation by the settlers, retreated into the mountain caves known as Gwasa, (or Makapansgat in Afrikaans). In late October, Boer commandos supported by local Kgatla tribal collaborators laid siege to the caves. By the end of the siege, about three weeks later, Mokopane and between 1,000 and 3,000 people had died in the caves. The survivors were captured and allegedly enslaved.
The Bapedi wars, also known as the Sekukuni wars, consisted of three separate campaigns fought between 1876 and 1879 against the Bapedi under their reigning monarch King Sekukuni, in the northeastern region known as Sekukuniland, bordering on Swaziland. The wars were an outcome of constant friction between the Bapedi and the Boers, who claimed that Bapedi carrying arms were continually stealing livestock, whilst the Bapedi claimed that neighbouring Boer settlers stole children to be forced into farm labour. Further friction was caused by the refusal of Sekukuni to allow prospectors to search for gold in territory he considered to be sovereign and independent under his authority. The First Sekukuni War of 1876 was conducted by the Boers, and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekukuni War of 1878 / 1879 were conducted by the British.
During the final campaign, Sekukuni (also spelled Sekhukhune) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered to a combined deputation of Boer and British forces on 2 December 1879. Sekukuni, members of his family and some Bapedi generals were subsequently imprisoned in Pretoria for two years, with Sekukuniland becoming part of the Transvaal Republic. No gold was ever discovered in the annexed territory.
The first diamond discoveries between 1866 and 1867 were alluvial, on the southern banks of the Orange River. By 1869, diamonds were found at some distance from any stream or river, in hard rock called blue ground, later called kimberlite, after the mining town of Kimberley where the diamond diggings were concentrated. The diggings were located in an area of vague boundaries and disputed land ownership. Claimants to the site included the South African (Transvaal) Republic, the Orange Free State Republic, and the mixed - race Griqua nation under Nicolaas Waterboer. Cape Colony Governor Sir Henry Barkly persuaded all claimants to submit themselves to a decision of an arbitrator and so Robert W Keate, Lieutenant - Governor of Natal was asked to arbitrate. Keate awarded ownership to the Griquas. Waterboer, fearing conflict with the Boer republic of Orange Free State, subsequently asked for and received British protection. Griqualand then became a separate Crown Colony renamed Griqualand West in 1871, with a Lieutenant - General and legislative council.
The Crown Colony of Griqualand West was annexed into the Cape Colony in 1877, enacted into law in 1880. No material benefits accrued to the Griquas as a result of either colonisation or annexation; they did not receive any share of the diamond wealth generated at Kimberley. The Griqua community became subsequently dissimulated.
By the 1870s and 1880s the mines at Kimberley were producing 95 % of the world 's diamonds. The widening search for gold and other resources were financed by the wealth produced and the practical experience gained at Kimberley. Revenue accruing to the Cape Colony from the Kimberley diamond diggings enabled the Cape Colony to be granted responsible government status in 1872, since it was no longer dependent on the British Treasury and hence allowing it to be fully self - governing in similar fashion to the federation of Canada, New Zealand and some of the Australian states. The wealth derived from Kimberley diamond mining, having effectively tripled the customs revenue of the Cape Colony from 1871 to 1875, also doubled its population, and allowed it to expand its boundaries and railways to the north.
In 1888, British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes co-founded De Beers Consolidated Mines at Kimberley, after buying up and amalgamating the individual claims with finance provided by the Rothschild dynasty. Abundant, cheap African labour was central to the success of Kimberley diamond mining, as it would later also be to the success of gold mining on the Witwatersrand. It has been suggested in some academic circles that the wealth produced at Kimberley was a significant factor influencing the Scramble for Africa, in which European powers had by 1902 competed with each other in drawing arbitrary boundaries across almost the entire continent and dividing it among themselves.
Although many tales abound, there is no conclusive evidence as to who first discovered gold or the manner in which it was originally discovered in the late 19th Century on the Witwatersrand (meaning White Waters Ridge) of the Transvaal. The discovery of gold in February 1886 at a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand in particular precipitated a gold rush by prospectors and fortune seekers from all over the world. Except in rare outcrops, however, the main gold deposits had over many years become covered gradually by thousands of feet of hard rock. Finding and extracting the deposits far below the ground called for the capital and engineering skills that would soon result in the deep - level mines of the Witwatersrand producing a quarter of the world 's gold, with the "instant city '' of Johannesburg arising astride the main Witwatersrand gold reef.
Within two years of gold being discovered on the Witwatersrand, four mining finance houses had been established. The first was formed by Hermann Eckstein in 1887, eventually becoming Rand Mines. Cecil Rhodes and Charles Rudd followed, with their Gold Fields of South Africa company. Rhodes and Rudd had earlier made fortunes from diamond mining at Kimberley. In 1895 there was an investment boom in Witwatersrand gold - mining shares. The precious metal that underpinned international trade would dominate South African exports for decades to come.
Of the leading 25 foreign industrialists who were instrumental in opening up deep level mining operations at the Witwatersrand gold fields, 15 were Jewish, 11 of the total were from Germany or Austria, and nine of that latter category were also Jewish. The commercial opportunities opened by the discovery of gold attracted many other people of European Jewish origin. The Jewish population of South Africa in 1880 numbered approximately 4,000; by 1914 it had grown to more than 40,000, mostly migrants from Lithuania.
The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian has described it, was "dangerous, brutal and onerous '', and therefor unpopular among local black Africans. Recruitment of black labour began to prove difficult, even with an offer of improved wages. In mid-1903 there remained barely half of the 90,000 black labourers who had been employed in the industry in mid-1899. The decision was made to start importing Chinese indentured labourers who were prepared to work for far less wages than local African labourers. The first 1,000 indentured Chinese labourers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese labourers were working in the gold mines.
The Transvaal Boer republic was forcefully annexed by Britain in 1877, during Britain 's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. Long - standing Boer resentment turned into full - blown rebellion in the Transvaal and the first Anglo - Boer War, also known as the Boer Insurrection, broke out in 1880. The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a decisive Boer victory at Battle of Majuba Hill (27 February 1881).
The republic regained its independence as the Zuid - Afrikaansche Republiek ("South African Republic ''), or ZAR. Paul Kruger, one of the leaders of the uprising, became President of the ZAR in 1883. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat at Majuba as an aberration, forged ahead with their desire to federate the Southern African colonies and republics. They saw this as the best way to come to terms with the fact of a white Afrikaner majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area.
The cause of the Anglo - Boer wars has been attributed to a contest over which nation would control and benefit most from the Witwatersrand gold mines. The enormous wealth of the mines was in the hands of European "Randlords '' overseeing the mainly British foreign managers, mining foremen, engineers and technical specialists, characterised by the Boers as uitlander, meaning aliens. The "aliens '' objected to being denied parliamentary representation and the right to vote, and they complained also of bureaucratic government delays in the issuing of licenses and permits, and general administrative incompetence on the part of the government.
In 1895, a column of mercenaries in the employ of Cecil John Rhodes ' Rhodesian - based Charter Company and led by Captain Leander Starr Jameson had entered the ZAR with the intention of sparking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and installing a British administration there. The armed incursion became known as the Jameson Raid. It ended when the invading column was ambushed and captured by Boer commandos. President Kruger suspected the insurgency had received at least the tacit approval of the Cape Colony government under the premiership of Cecil John Rhodes, and that Kruger 's South African Republic faced imminent danger. Kruger reacted by forming an alliance with the neighbouring Boer republic of Orange Free State. This did not prevent the outbreak of a Second Anglo - Boer war.
Renewed tensions between Britain and the Boers peaked in 1899 when the British demanded voting rights for the 60,000 foreign whites on the Witwatersrand. Until that point, President Paul Kruger 's government had excluded all foreigners from the franchise. Kruger rejected the British demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops from the borders of the South African Republic. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This Second Anglo - Boer War, also known as the South African War lasted longer than the first, with British troops being supplemented by colonial troops from Southern Rhodesia, Canada, India, Australia and New Zealand. It has been estimated that the total number of British and colonial troops deployed in South Africa during the war outnumbered the population of the two Boer Republics by more than 150,000.
By June 1900, Pretoria, the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer bittereinders (meaning those who would fight to the bitter end) continued for two more years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with scorched earth tactics. The Boers kept on fighting.
The British suffragette Emily Hobhouse visited British concentration camps in South Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions there. By 1902, 26,000 Boer women and children had died of disease and neglect in the camps.
The Anglo - Boer War affected all race groups in South Africa. Black people were conscripted or otherwise coerced by both sides into working for them either as combatants or non-combatants to sustain the respective war efforts of both the Boers and the British. The official statistics of blacks killed in action are inaccurate. Most of the bodies were dumped in unmarked graves. It has, however, been verified that 17,182 black people died mainly of diseases in the Cape concentration camps alone, but this figure is not accepted historically as a true reflection of the overall numbers. Concentration camp superintendents did not always record the deaths of black inmates in the camps.
From the outset of hostilities in October 1899 to the signing of peace on 31 May 1902 the war claimed the lives of 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters. In terms of the peace agreement known as the Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control.
During the years immediately following the Anglo - Boer wars, Britain set about unifying the four colonies including the former Boer republics into a single self - governed country called the Union of South Africa. This was accomplished after several years of negotiations, when the South Africa Act 1909 consolidated the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State into one nation. Under the provisions of the act, the Union became an independent Dominion of the British Empire, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the British monarch represented by a Governor - General. Prosecutions before the courts of the Union of South Africa were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. The British High Commission territories of Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Swaziland continued under direct rule from Britain.
Among other harsh segregationist laws, including denial of voting rights to black people, the Union parliament enacted the 1913 Natives ' Land Act, which earmarked only eight percent of South Africa 's available land for black occupancy. White people, who constituted 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. The Land Act would form a cornerstone of legalised racial discrimination for the next nine decades.
General Louis Botha headed the first government of the new Union, with General Jan Smuts as his deputy. Their South African National Party, later known as the South African Party or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white - unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of General Barry Hertzog, forming the National Party (NP) in 1914. The National Party championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups, and independence from Britain.
Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Union 's affairs reached a climax in September 1914, when impoverished Boers, anti-British Boers and bitter - enders launched a rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed, and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad.
In 1924 the Afrikaner - dominated National Party came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Afrikaans, previously regarded as a low - level Dutch patois, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union. English and Dutch became the two official languages in 1925.
The Union of South Africa came to an end after a referendum on 5 October 1960, during which, a majority of white South Africans voted in favour of unilateral withdrawal from the British Commonwealth and the establishment of a Republic of South Africa.
At the outbreak of World War I, South Africa joined Great Britain and the Allies against the German Empire. Both Prime Minister Louis Botha and Defence Minister Jan Smuts, were former Second Boer War generals who had previously fought against the British, but they now became active and respected members of the Imperial War Cabinet. Elements of the South African Army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the government; they rose in an open revolt known as the Maritz Rebellion. The government declared martial law on 14 October 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts defeated the rebellion. The rebel leaders were prosecuted, fined heavily and sentenced to imprisonment ranging from six to seven years.
Nearly 250,000 South Africans served in the South African military units supporting the Allies during World War I. This included 43,000 in German South West Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the Royal Flying Corps. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600. South Africa assisted the Allied war effort by capturing the two German colonies of German West Africa and German East Africa, as well as participating in battles in Western Europe and the Middle East. In July 1916, four battalions of the South African Brigade attached to the 9th Scottish Division suffered 766 fatalities among the approximately 3,150 South African soldiers who fought in the Battle of Delville Wood, France,. It was the most costly action fought by the South African Brigade on the Western Front. The dead outnumbered the wounded by four to one.
Public opinion in South Africa split along racial and ethnic lines. The British elements strongly supported the war, and formed by far the largest military component. Likewise the Indian element (led by Mahatma Gandhi) generally supported the war effort. Afrikaners were split, with some like Botha and Smuts taking a prominent leadership role in the British war effort. This position was rejected by many rural Afrikaners who supported the Maritz Rebellion. The trade union movement was divided. Many urban blacks supported the war expecting it would raise their status in society. Others said it was not relevant to the struggle for their rights. The Coloured element was generally supportive and many served in a Coloured Corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better themselves after the war.
25,000 Black South Africans were recruited at the request of the British War Cabinet to serve as non-combatant labourers in the South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 of them were deployed to France as stevedores at French ports, where they were housed in segregated compounds. A total of 616 men from the Fifth Battalion of the SANLC drowned on 21 February 1917 when the troopship SS Mendi, on which they were being transported to France, collided with another vessel near the Isle of Wight. The Mendi disaster was one of South Africa 's worst tragedies of the Great War, second perhaps only to the Battle of Delville Wood. The South African government issued no war service medal to the black servicemen and the special medal issued by King George V to "native troops '' that served the Empire, the British War Medal in bronze, was disallowed and not issued to the SANLC. Black and mixed - race South Africans who had supported the war were embittered when post-war South Africa saw no easing of white domination and racial segregation.
South Africa 's main economic role was as the country that supplied two - thirds of gold production in the British Empire, most of the remainder coming from Australia. When the war began, Bank of England officials worked with the government of South Africa to block any gold shipments to Germany, and force the mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the United States and neutral countries.
During World War II, South Africa 's ports and harbours, such as at Cape Town, Durban, and Simon 's Town, were important strategic assets to the British Royal Navy. South Africa 's top - secret Special Signals Service played a significant role in the early development and deployment of radio detection and ranging (radar) technology used in protecting the vital coastal shipping route around southern Africa. By August 1945, South African Air Force aircraft in conjunction with British and Dutch aircraft stationed in South Africa had intercepted 17 enemy ships, assisted in the rescue of 437 survivors of sunken ships, attacked 26 of the 36 enemy submarines operating the vicinity of the South African coast, and flown 15,000 coastal patrol sorties.
About 334,000 South Africans volunteered for full - time military service in support of the Allies abroad. Nearly 9,000 were killed in action. On 21 June 1942 nearly 10,000 South African soldiers, representing one - third of the entire South African force in the field, were taken prisoner by German Field Marshal Rommel 's forces in the fall of Tobruk, Libya. A number of South African fighter pilots served with distinction in the Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain, including Group Captain Adolph "Sailor '' Malan who led 74 Squadron and established a record of personally destroying 27 enemy aircraft.
General Jan Smuts was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain 's war - time Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Smuts was invited to the Imperial War Cabinet in 1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. On 28 May 1941, Smuts was appointed a Field Marshal of the British Army, becoming the first South African to hold that rank. When the war ended, Smuts represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter in May 1945. Just as he had done in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the League of Nations, the UN would have teeth. Smuts also signed the Paris Peace Treaty, resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatory of both the treaty ending the First World War, and that which ended the Second.
After the suppression of the abortive, pro-German Maritz Rebellion during the South African World War I campaign against German South West Africa in 1914, the South African rebel General Manie Maritz escaped to Spain. He returned in 1923, and continued working in the Union of South Africa as a German Spy for the Third Reich.
In 1896, the German Kaiser Kaiser Wilhelm had enraged Britain by sending congratulations to Boer republican leader Paul Kruger after Kruger 's commandos captured a column of British South Africa Company soldiers engaged in an armed incursion and abortive insurrection, known historically as the Jameson Raid, into Boer territory. Germany was the primary supplier of weapons to the Boers during the subsequent Anglo - Boer war. Kaiser Wilhelm 's government arranged for the two Boer Republics to purchase modern breech - loading Mauser rifles and millions of smokeless gunpowder cartridges. Germany 's Ludwig Loewe company, later known as Deutsche Waffen - und Munitionfabriken, delivered 55,000 of these rifles to the Boers in 1896.
The early - 1940s saw the pro-Nazi Ossewa Brandwag (OB) movement become half - a-million strong, including future prime minister John Vorster and Hendrik van den Bergh, the future head of police intelligence. The anti-semitic Boerenasie (Boer Nation) and other similar groups soon joined them. When the war ended, the OB was one of the anti-parliamentary groups absorbed into the National Party.
The South African Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging or AWB (meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a militant neo-Nazi, mainly Afrikaner white supremacist movement that arose in the 1970s, and was active until the mid-1990s, openly used a flag that closely resembled the swastika. In the early to mid-1990s, the AWB attempted unsuccessfully through various acts of public violence and intimidation to derail the country 's transition to democracy. After the country 's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994, a number of terrorist bomb blasts were linked to the AWB. On 11 March 1994, several hundred AWB members formed part of an armed right - wing force that invaded the nominally independent "homeland '' territory of Bophuthatswana, in a failed attempt to prop up its unpopular, conservative leader Chief Lucas Mangope. The AWB leader Eugène Terre'Blanche was murdered by farm workers on 3 April 2010.
A majority of politically moderate Afrikaners were pragmatic and did not support the AWB 's extremism.
Racist legislation during the apartheid era was a continuation and extension of discriminatory and segregationist laws forming a continuum that had commenced in 1856, under Dutch rule in the Cape and continued throughout the country under British colonialism.
From 1948, successive National Party administrations formalised and extended the existing system of racial discrimination and denial of human rights into the legal system of apartheid, which lasted until 1991. A key act of legislation during this time was the Homeland Citizens Act of 1970. This act augmented the Native Land Act of 1913 through the establishment of so - called "homelands '' or "reserves ''. It authorised the forced evictions of thousands of African people from urban centres in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) to what became described colloquially as "Bantustans '' or the "original homes '', as they were officially referred to, of the black tribes of South Africa. The same legislation applied also to South West Africa over which South Africa had continued after World War I to exercise a disputed League of Nations mandate. Apartheid apologists attempted to justify the "homelands '' policy by citing the 1947 partition of India, when the British had done much the same thing without arousing international condemnation.
Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central pivot around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved, including violent conflict and the militarisation of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditure amounted to about 28 % of the national budget.
In the aftermath of the 1976 Soweto uprising and the security clampdown that accompanied it, Joint Management Centres (JMCs) operating in at least 34 State - designated "high - risk '' areas became the key element in a National Security Management System. The police and military who controlled the JMCs by the mid-1980s were endowed with influence in decision - making at every level, from the Cabinet down to local government.
On 16 December 1966, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2202 A (XXI) identified apartheid as a "crime against humanity ''. The Apartheid Convention, as it came to be known, was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973 with 91 member states voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984 the UN Security Council endorsed this formal determination. The convention declared that apartheid was both unlawful and criminal because it violated the Charter of the United Nations. The General Assembly had already suspended South Africa from the UN organisation on 12 November 1974. On 4 November 1977, the Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo in terms of Resolution 181 calling upon all States to cease the sale and shipment of arms, ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa. The country would only be readmitted to the UN in 1994 following its transition to democracy. Apartheid South Africa reacted to the UN arms embargo by strengthening its military ties with Israel, and establishing its own arms manufacturing industry: with the help of Israel. Four hundred M - 113A1 armoured personnel carriers, and 106mm recoilless rifles manufactured in the United States were delivered to South Africa via Israel.
In the mid-1980s, police and army death squads conducted state - sponsored assassinations of dissidents and activists. By mid-1987 the Human Rights Commission knew of at least 140 political assassinations in the country, while about 200 people died at the hands of South African agents in neighbouring states. The exact numbers of all the victims may never be known. Strict censorship disallowed journalists from reporting, filming or photographing such incidents, while the government ran its own covert disinformation programme that provided distorted accounts of the extrajudicial killings. At the same time, State - sponsored vigilante groups carried out violent attacks on communities and community leaders associated with resistance to apartheid. The attacks were then falsely attributed by the government to "black - on - black '' or factional violence within the communities.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) would later establish that a covert, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, frequently acting in conjunction with extreme right - wing elements, was involved in actions that could be construed as fomenting violence and which resulted in gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings. Between 1960 -- 1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the Inkatha Freedom Party was responsible for 4,500 deaths, South African Police 2,700, and the ANC about 1,300.
In early 2002, a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as the Boeremag (Boer Force) was foiled by the South African police. Two dozen conspirators including senior South African Army officers were arrested on charges of treason and murder, after a bomb explosion in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in foiling the planned coup strengthened public perceptions that the democratic order was irreversible.
The TRC, at the conclusion of its mandate in 2004, handed over a list of 300 names of alleged perpetrators to the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for investigation and prosecution by the NPA 's Priority Crimes Litigation Unit. Less than a handful of prosecutions were ever pursued.
South African security forces during the latter part of the apartheid era, had a policy of destabilising neighbouring states supporting opposition movements, conducting sabotage operations and attacking ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those states. These states, forming a regional alliance of southern African states, were named collectively as the Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe.
In early - November 1975, immediately after Portugal granted independence to its former African colony of Angola, civil war broke out between the rival UNITA and MPLA movements. In order to prevent UNITA 's collapse and cement the rule of a friendly government, South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola in order to fight the MPLA. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large - scale military intervention nicknamed Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. Cuba had initially provided the MPLA with 230 military advisers prior to the South African intervention. The Cuban intervention was decisive in helping reverse SADF and UNITA advances and cement MPLA rule in Angola. More than a decade later 36,000 Cuban troops were deployed throughout the country helping providing support for MPLA 's fight with UNITA. The civil war in Angola resulted in 550,000 -- 1,250,000 deaths in total mostly from famine. Most of the deaths occurred between 1992 and 1993, after South African and Cuban involvement had ended. Direct war damage in Angola alone amounted to over $17,000,000,000 in the period 1980 -- 88. Loss of farm production amounted to a further $1,000,000,000.
Between 1975 and 1988, the SADF continued to stage massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN 's forward operating bases across the border from Namibia as well as provide support for UNITA. A controversial bombing and airborne assault conducted by 200 South African paratroopers on 4 May 1978 at Cassinga in southern Angola, resulted in around 700 South West Africans being killed, including PLAN millitants and a large number of women and children. Colonel Jan Breytenbach, the South African parachute battalion commander, claimed it was "recognised in Western military circles as the most successful airborne assault since World War II. '' The Angolan government described the target of the attack as a refugee camp. The United Nations Security Council on 6 May 1978 condemned South Africa for the attack. On 23 August 1981 South African troops again launched an incursion into Angola with collaboration and encouragement provided by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The Angolan army, in resisting what it perceived as a South African invasion, was supported by a combination of Cuban forces and PLAN and ANC guerrillas, all armed with weapons supplied by the Soviet Union. The apartheid - era South African military and political intelligence services, for their part, worked closely with American, British and West German secret services throughout the Cold War.
Both South Africa and Cuba claimed victory at the decisive battle of Cuito Cuanavale, which have been described as "the fiercest in Africa since World War II ''. However, the South African military had lost air superiority and its technological advantage, largely due to an international arms embargo against the country. South African involvement in Angola ended formally after the signing of a United Nations - brokered agreement known as the New York Accords between the governments of Angola, Cuba and South Africa, resulting in the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Angola and also South Africa 's withdrawal from South West Africa (now Namibia), which the UN regarded as illegally occupied since 1966.
South Africa in the 1980s also provided logistical and other covert support to Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) rebels, in neighbouring Mozambique fighting the FRELIMO - run government during the Mozambique Civil War, and it launched cross-border raids into Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles. The civil war in Mozambique resulted in an estimated 1,000,000 deaths from violence and famine.
Organised resistance to Afrikaner nationalism was not confined exclusively to activists of the oppressed, dark - skinned population. A movement known as the Torch Commando was formed in the 1950s, led by white war veterans who had fought fascism in Europe and North Africa during World War II, only to find fascism on the rise in South Africa when they returned home. With 250,000 paid - up members at the height of its existence, it was the largest white protest movement in the country 's history. By 1952, the brief flame of mass - based white radicalism was extinguished, when the Torch Commando disbanded due to government legislation under the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950. Some members of the Torch Commando subsequently became leading figures in the armed wing of the banned African National Congress.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, anti-apartheid resistance within the country took the form mainly of passive resistance, influenced in part by the pacifist ideology of Mahatma Gandhi. After the March 1960 massacre of 69 peaceful demonstrators at Sharpeville, and the subsequent declaration of a state of emergency, and the banning of anti-apartheid parties including the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), and the Communist Party of South Africa, the focus of national resistance turned to armed struggle and underground activity. The armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto weSizwe (abbreviation MK, meaning Spear of the Nation) claimed moral legitimacy for the resort to violence on the grounds of necessary defence and just war. From the 1960s onwards until 1989, MK carried out numerous acts of sabotage and attacks on military and police personnel. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission noted in 2003 that, despite the ANC 's stated policy of attacking only military and police targets, "the majority of casualties of MK operations were civilians. ''
The national liberation movement was divided in the early 1960s when an "Africanist '' faction within the ANC objected to an alliance between the ANC and the Communist Party of South Africa. Leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa were mostly white. The Africanists broke away from the ANC to form the Pan-Africanist Congress and its military wing named Poqo, which became active mainly in the Cape provinces. During the early - 1990s, Poqo was renamed Azanian People 's Liberation Army (APLA). Its underground cells conducted armed robberies to raise funds and obtain weapons and vehicles. Civilians were killed or injured in many of these robberies. In 1993, attacks on white civilian targets in public places increased. APLA denied the attacks were racist in character, claiming that the attacks were directed against the apartheid government as all whites, according to the PAC, were complicit in the policy of apartheid. An attack on a Christian church in Cape Town in 1993, left eleven people dead and 58 injured.
Hundreds of students and others who fled to neighbouring countries, especially Botswana, to avoid arrest after the Soweto uprising of 16 June 1976, provided a fertile recruiting ground for the military wings of both the ANC and PAC. The uprising had been precipitated by Government legislation forcing African students to accept Afrikaans as the official medium for tuition. with support from the wider Black Consciousness Movement. The uprising spread throughout the country. By the time it was finally quelled, hundreds of protesters had been shot dead with many more wounded or arrested by police.
A non-racial United Democratic Front (UDF) coalition of about 400 civic, church, student, trade union and other organisations emerged in 1983. At its peak in 1987, the UDF had some 700 affiliates and about 3,000,000 members. It pursued a non-violent strategy known as "ungovernability '' including rent boycotts, student protests, and strike campaigns. A strong relationship existed between the African National Congress (ANC) and the UDF, based on the shared mission statement of the Freedom Charter. Following restrictions placed on its activities, the UDF was replaced in 1988 by the Mass Democratic Movement, a loose and amorphous alliance of anti-apartheid groups that had no permanent structure, making it difficult for the government to place a ban on its activities.
A total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of Pretoria Central Prison between 1960 and 1990. The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan Africanist Congress and United Democratic Front.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late - 1980s meant the African National Congress (ANC) in alliance with the South African Communist Party, could no longer depend on the Soviet Union for weaponry and political support. It also meant the apartheid government could no longer link apartheid and its purported legitimacy to the protection of Christian values and civilisation in the face of the rooi gevaar, meaning "red danger '' or the threat of communism. Both sides were forced to the negotiating table, with the result that in June 1991, all apartheid laws were finally rescinded - opening the way for the country 's first multiracial democratic elections three years later. As the culmination of mounting local and international opposition to apartheid in the 1980s, including the armed struggle, widespread civil unrest, economic and cultural sanctions by the international community, and pressure from the anti-apartheid movement around the world, State President FW de Klerk announced the lifting of the ban on the African National Congress, the Pan Africanist Congress and the South African Communist Party, as well as the release of political prisoner Nelson Mandela on 2 February 1990, after twenty - seven years in prison. In a referendum held on 17 March 1992, the white electorate voted 68 % in favour of democracy.
After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), a draft constitution was published on 26 July 1993, containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting - rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature.
From 26 -- 29 April 1994, the South African population voted in the first universal suffrage general elections. The African National Congress won, well ahead of the governing National Party and the Inkatha Freedom Party. The Democratic Party and Pan Africanist Congress, among others, formed a parliamentary opposition in the country 's first non-racial parliament. Nelson Mandela was elected as President on 9 May 1994 and formed a Government of National Unity, consisting of the ANC, the National Party and Inkatha. On 10 May 1994 Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa 's new President in Pretoria with Thabo Mbeki and F.W. De Klerk as his vice-presidents. The Government of National Unity lapsed at the end of the first parliament sitting in 1999, with the ANC becoming the sole party in power while maintaining a strategic alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party. After considerable debate, and following submissions from advocacy groups, individuals and ordinary citizens, the Parliament enacted a new Constitution and Bill of Rights in 1996. The death penalty was abolished, land reform and redistribution policies were introduced, and equitable labour laws legislated.
The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid safety concerns. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English - and Afrikaans - speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the UK to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated.
The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign debt repayments in the mid-1980s, when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the new democratic government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to 86,700,000,000 rands ($14,000,000,000 at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash - strapped post-apartheid government was obliged to repay this debt or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions. The debt was finally settled in September 2001.
A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV / AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV / AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV - related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS - related deaths in 2011 than in 2005.
Migrant labour remained a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million mostly black miners. Labour unrest in the industry resulted in a massacre in mid-August 2012, when anti-riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many more in what is known as the Marikana massacre. The incident was widely criticised by the public, civil society organisations and religious leaders. The migrant labour system was identified as a primary cause of the unrest. Multi-national mining corporations including Anglo - American Corporation, Lonmin, and Anglo Platinum, were accused of failing to address the enduring legacies of apartheid.
By 2014, around 47 % of mostly black South Africans continued to live in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world. Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio - economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014, when almost 80 % of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities. The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the tripartite alliance between the ANC, the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.
The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies. The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people ''. ANC icon Nelson Mandela, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable. '' But, after the ANC 's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC - led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted neoliberalism instead. A wealth tax on the super-rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government 's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that (will) haunt South Africa for generations to come ''.
The post-apartheid period has been marked by numerous outbreaks of xenophobic attacks against foreign migrants and asylum seekers from various conflict zones in Africa. An academic study conducted in 2006, found that South Africans showed levels of xenophobia greater than anywhere else in the world. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) found that competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing gave rise to tension among refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and host communities, identified as a main cause of the xenophobic violence. South Africa received more than 207,000 individual asylum applications in 2008 and a further 222,300 in 2009, representing nearly a four-fold rise in both years over the levels seen in 2007. These refugees and asylum seekers originated mainly from Zimbabwe, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.
Under the post-apartheid Constitution the president is head of both state and government. The president is elected by the National Assembly and serves a term that expires at the next general election; a president may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the Deputy President serves as Acting President.
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where is solar energy used most in the world | Solar power by country - Wikipedia
Worldwide electric capacity of solar power by technology. Total of 232 GW in 2015.
Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:
Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country. By the end of 2016, cumulative photovoltaic capacity increased by more than 75 gigawatt (GW) and reached at least 303 GW, sufficient to supply 1.8 percent of the world 's total electricity consumption. The top installers of 2016 were China, the United States, and India. There are more than 24 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt. Austria, Chile, and South Africa, all crossed the one gigawatt - mark in 2016. The available solar PV capacity in Honduras is now sufficient to supply 12.5 % of the nation 's electrical power while Italy, Germany and Greece can produce between 7 % and 8 % of their respective domestic electricity consumption.
After an almost two decade long hiatus, deployment of CSP resumed in 2007, with significant growth only in the most recent years. However, the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics. Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States, while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions.
As of January 2017, the largest solar power plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV and the 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States for CSP. Other large CSP facilities include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW) and the first part of Shams solar power station (United Arab Emirates, 100 MW).
Find historical and recent international deployment figures of solar power in these articles:
Many African countries receive on average a very high amount of days per year with bright sunlight, especially the dry areas, which include the deserts (such as the Sahara) and the steppes (such as the Sahel). This gives solar power the potential to bring energy to virtually any location in Africa without the need for expensive large scale grid level infrastructural developments. The distribution of solar resources across Africa is fairly uniform, with more than 85 % of the continent 's landscape receiving at least 2,000 kWh / (m2 year). A recent study indicates that a solar generating facility covering just 0.3 % of the area comprising North Africa could supply all of the energy required by the European Union.
Solar power in Morocco is enabled by the country having one of the highest rates of solar insolation among other countries -- about 3,000 hours per year of sunshine but up to 3,600 hours in the desert. Morocco has launched one of the world 's largest solar energy projects costing an estimated $9 billion. The aim of the project is to create 2,000 megawatts of solar generation capacity by the year 2020. Five solar power stations are to be constructed, including both photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technology. The Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN), a public - private venture, has been established to lead the project. The first plant will be commissioned in 2015, and the entire project in 2020. Once completed, the solar project will provide 38 % of Morocco 's annual electricity generation.
South Africa had 1329 MW of PV installations and 100 MW of concentrating solar thermal at the end of 2016. It is expected to reach an installed capacity 8,400 MW by 2030, along with 8,400 MW of wind power. The country 's insolation greatly exceeds the average values in Europe, Russia, and most of North America.
Solar power in the People 's Republic of China is one of the biggest industries in mainland China. In 2007 China produced 1700 MW of solar panels, nearly half of the world production of 3800 MW, although 99 % was exported. Chinese solar panel production reportedly quadrupled between 2009 and 2011 to surpass the entire global demand. As a result, the EU accused China of dumping its solar panels in Europe at below - cost prices, involving 20 billion U.S. dollars of trade between the two powers. As well, solar water heating is extensively implemented. By the end of March 2015 China had an installed capacity of 33.12 GW of solar power with recent announcements that a target of an additional 15GW of solar power to be installed by the end of 2015. Large PV power plants in China include the 200MW Golmud Solar Park.
In July 2009, India unveiled a US $19 bn plan to install 20 GW of solar power capacity by 2020. Under the plan, the use of solar - powered equipment and applications would be made compulsory in all government buildings, as well as hospitals and hotels. India launched its National Solar Mission in 2010 under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, with plans to generate 20 GW by 2022. This was later revised to a target of 100 GW by the same time frame.
India 's installed PV generation has been expanding at a very rapid pace in recent years, with the total capacity increasing from 10 MW in 2010 to over 16,200 MW as of September 2017. The falling prices of PV panels, mostly from China but also from the United States, has coincided with the growing cost of grid power in India. Government support and ample solar resources have also helped to increase solar adoption, but perhaps the biggest factor has been need. India, "as a growing economy with a surging middle class, is now facing a severe electricity deficit that often runs between 10 and 13 percent of daily need ''.
Several large grid - scale solar parks are in operation. Among them, the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park, commissioned on April 19, 2012, and the Gujarat solar parks with a combined capacity of 605 MW.
Solar power in Japan has been expanding since the late 1990s. The country is a leading manufacturer of solar panels and is in the top 5 ranking for countries with the most solar PV installed, with 4,914 MW installed at the end of 2011, making it third in the world in total solar power (behind Germany and Italy), with most of it grid connected. The insolation is good at about 4.3 to 4.8 kWh / (m2 day).
Japan was the world 's second largest market for solar PV growth in 2013 and 2014, adding a record 6.9 GW and 9.6 GW of nominal nameplate capacity, respectively. By the end of 2014, cumulative capacity reached 23.3 GW, surpassing Italy (18.5 GW) and becoming the world 's third largest power producer from solar PV, behind Germany (38.2 GW) and China (28.2 GW). Overall installed capacity is now estimated to be sufficient to supply 2.5 % of the nation 's annual electricity demand.
Pakistan has set up a solar power park, funded by the Chinese company TBEA, in the Cholistan desert near Yazman, about 30 kilometers from the eastern city of Bahawalpur. The solar project, which is set up on 5,000 acres, is producing 100 MW. Another Chinese company, Zonergy is setting up 900MW of Solar Power Plant in the same region.
The first unit was completed with a cost of 15 billion rupees in a short period of eleven months. The electricity generated by the project will be added to the national grid through grid stations and power supply transmission lines. Second phase of the park will comprise 900 MW which will be completed with the help of Chinese Government...
In 2012, the Philippines generated a modest 1,320 MWh of solar energy.
The Sinan solar power plant is a 24 MW photovoltaic power station in Sinan, Jeollanam - do, South Korea. As of 2009, it is the largest photovoltaic installation in Asia. The project was developed by the German company Conergy and it cost US $150 million. It was built by the Dongyang Engineering & Construction Corporation.
The government has a long - term plan to make the solar capacity become 4,500 MW by 2020 and to make 7.5 million Taiwan residents to utilize solar energy by 2030. To give further incentives, the government has designated solar energy and LED industries as two industries to actively develop in the near future.
In 2015, Thailand has more solar power capacity than all the rest of Southeast Asia combined. Thailand 's solar capacity will rise to 2,500 - 2,800 MW in the end of 2015 from about 1,300 MW in 2014. Thailand aims to increase its solar capacity to 6,000 MW by 2036. That would account for 9 % of total electricity generation.
There is no oil on Israeli land and the country 's tenuous relations with its oil - rich neighbors (see Arab -- Israeli conflict) has made the search for a stable source of energy a national priority. So Israel has embraced solar energy. Israeli innovation and research has advanced solar technology to a degree that it is almost cost - competitive with fossil fuels. Its abundant sun made the country a natural location for the promising technology. The high amount of sunshine received by the Negev Desert every year has spurred an internationally renowned solar research and development industry, with Arnold Goldman (founder of Luz, Luz II and BrightSource Energy), Harry Tabor and David Faiman of the National Solar Energy Center its more prominent members. At the end of 2008 a feed - in tariff scheme was approved, which immediately put in motion the building of many residential and commercial solar energy power station projects. Luz and Bright Source R&D centers in Jerusalem pioneered industrial scale solar energy fields with initial installations in California 's Mojave Desert.
The Saudi agency in charge of developing the nations renewable energy sector, Ka - care, announced in May 2012 that the nation would install 41 gigawatts of solar capacity by 2032, this plan was later was revised to 9.5 GW installed capacity. At the time of this announcement, Saudi Arabia had only 0.003 gigawatts of installed solar energy capacity.
In 2013, the Shams solar power station, a 100 MW Concentrated solar power plant near Abu Dhabi became operational. The US $600 million Shams 1 is the largest CSP plant outside the United States and Spain and is expected to be followed by two more stations, Shams 2 and Shams 3.
European deployment of photovoltaics has slowed down considerably since the record year of 2011. This is mainly due to the strong decline of new installations in some major markets such as Germany and Italy, while the United Kingdom and some smaller European countries are still expected to break new records in 2014. Spain deployed about 350 MW (+ 18 %) of concentrated solar power (CSP) in 2013, and remains a worldwide leader of this technology. European countries still account for about 60 percent of worldwide deployed capacity of solar power in 2013.
Austria had 421.7 MW of photovoltaics at the end of 2012, 234.5 MW of which was installed that year. Most of it is grid connected. Photovoltaic deployment in Austria had been rather modest for many years, while in other European countries, such as Germany, Italy or Spain installations were booming with new records year after year until 2011. The tide has turned in 2012. New PV installations jumped to more than 200 megawatt per year in Austria in an overall declining European solar market. The European Photovoltaic Industry Association forecasts, that Austria, together with other midsized countries, will contribute significantly to European PV deployment in the coming years.
In October 2009, the city of Antwerp announced that they wanted to install 2,500 m2 of solar panels on the roofs of public buildings, which would be worth 265,000 kWh per annum.
In December 2009, Katoen Natie announced that they would install 800,000 m2 of solar panels in various places, including Antwerp. It is expected that the installed solar power in the Flemish region will be increased by 25 % when finished, resulting in the largest installation in Europe., the total cost being 166 million euros.
Bulgaria had seen a record year in 2012 when its PV capacity multiplied several times over to more than 1 GW. In 2013, however, further deployment came to an halt.
Germany is the world 's leader of photovoltaic capacity since 2005. The overall capacity has reached 36 gigawatts (GW) by February 2014. Photovoltaics contribute almost 6 % to the national electricity demands. However, the boom period has ended in 2012, and Germany 's national PV market has since declined significantly, due to the amendments in the German Renewable Energy Act (EEG) that reduced feed - in tariffs and set constraints on utility - scaled installations, limiting their size to no more than 10 MW.
The current version of the EEG only guarantees financial assistance as long as the overall PV capacity has not yet reached 52 GW. It also foresees to regulate annual PV growth within a range of 2.5 GW to 3.5 GW by adjusting the guaranteed fees accordingly. The legislative reforms stipulates a 40 to 45 percent share from renewable energy sources by 2025 and a 55 to 60 percent share by 2035.
Germany has seen an outstanding period of photovoltaic installations from 2010 until 2012. During this boom, about 22 GW, or a third of the worldwide PV installations of that period was deployed in Germany alone.
Large PV power plants in Germany include Senftenberg Solarpark, Finsterwalde Solar Park, Lieberose Photovoltaic Park, Strasskirchen Solar Park, Waldpolenz Solar Park, and Köthen Solar Park.
By September 2013, the total installed photovoltaic capacity in Greece had reached 2,523.5 MWp from which the 987.2 MWp were installed in the period between January -- September 2013 despite the unprecedented financial crisis. Greece ranks 5th worldwide with regard to per capita installed PV capacity. It is expected that PV produced energy will cover up to 7 % of the country 's electricity demand in 2014.
A large solar PV plant is planned for the island of Crete. Research continues into ways to make the actual solar collecting cells less expensive and more efficient. Smaller solar PV farms exist throughout the country.
As of the end of 2010, there are 155,977 solar PV plants, with a total capacity of 3,469.9 MW. The number of plants and the total capacity surged in 2009 and 2010 following high incentives from Conto Energia. The total power capacity installed tripled and plants installed doubled in 2010 compared to 2009, with an increase of plant 's average dimensions.
Energy production from photovoltaics was 1,905.7 GWh in 2010. Annual growth rates were fast in recent years: 251 % in 2009 and 182 % in 2010. More than a fifth of the total production in 2010 came from the southern region of Apulia.
In December 2012, solar PV in Italy is approaching the time to 17 GW of installed capacity and provides employment to 100,000 people especially in design and installation.
A large photovoltaic power project, the Serpa solar power plant, has been completed in Portugal, in one of Europe 's sunniest areas. The 11 megawatt plant covers 150 acres (0.61 km) and comprises 52,000 PV panels. The panels are raised 2 metres off the ground and the area will remain productive grazing land. The project will provide enough energy for 8,000 homes and will save an estimated 30,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per year.
The Moura photovoltaic power station is located in the municipality of Moura, in the interior region of Alentejo, Portugal. Its construction involves two stages, with the first one being constructed in 13 months and completed in 2008, and the other will be completed by 2010, at a total cost of € 250 million for the project.
Romania has an installed capacity of 1.2 GW as of 2014. Romania is located in an area with a good solar potential of 210 sunny days per year and with an annual solar energy flux between 1,000 kWh / m2 / year and 1,300 kWh / m2 / year. The most important solar regions of Romania are the Black Sea coast, Dobrogea and Oltenia.
Current production of 5 MW is very modest, however there are plans for an expansion in capacity by 70 MW in 2012 - 13 in a $210 million joint project by Rosnano and Renova.
Spain is one of the most advanced countries in the development of solar energy, since it is one of the countries of Europe with more hours of sunshine. The Spanish government committed to achieving a target of 12 percent of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010 with an installed solar generating capacity of 3000 megawatts (MW). Spain is the fourth largest manufacturer in the world of solar power technology and exports 80 percent of this output to Germany. Spain added a record 2.6 GW of solar power in 2008, increasing capacity to 3.5 GW. Total solar power in Spain was 4 GW by the end of 2010 and solar energy produced 6.9 terawatt - hours (TW h), covering 2.7 % of the electricity demand in 2010.
Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004, the Spanish government removed economic barriers to the connection of renewable energy technologies to the electricity grid. The Royal Decree 436 / 2004 equalized conditions for large - scale solar thermal and photovoltaic plants and guaranteed feed - in tariffs. In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, the Spanish government drastically cut its subsidies for solar power and capped future increases in capacity at 500 MW per year, with effects upon the industry worldwide.
In 2014, total installed PV capacity in Turkey grew by 40 megawatts to 58 MW by the end of the year.
At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750 megawatts (MW). By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000 MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed - in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4 million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000 MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020. As of April 2015, PV capacity had risen to 6,562 MW across 698,860 installations.
Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant near Sarnia, Ontario, was in September 2010 the world 's largest photovoltaic plant with an installed capacity of 80 MW. until surpassed by a plant in China. The Sarnia plant covers 950 acres (380 ha) and contains about 966,000 square metres (96.6 ha), which is about 1.3 million thin film panels. The expected annual energy yield is about 120,000 MW h, which if produced in a coal - fired plant would require emission of 39,000 tonnes of CO per year.
Canada has many regions that are sparsely populated and difficult to access, but also does not have optimal access to sunlight given the high latitudes of much of the country. Photovoltaic cells are increasingly used as standalone units, mostly as off - grid distributed electricity generation to power remote homes, telecommunications equipment, oil and pipeline monitoring stations and navigational devices. The Canadian PV market has grown quickly and Canadian companies make solar modules, controls, specialized water pumps, high efficiency refrigerators and solar lighting systems. Ontario has subsidized solar power energy to promote its growth.
One of the most important uses for PV cells is in northern communities, many of which depend on high - cost diesel fuel to generate electricity. Since the 1970s, the federal government and industry has encouraged the development of solar technologies for these communities. Some of these efforts have focused on the use of hybrid systems that provide power 24 hours a day, using solar power when sunlight is available, in combination with another energy source.
The 246MW El Romero solar photovoltaic plant open in November 2016 at Vallenar in the Atacama region It was the largest solar farm in Latin America when it opened.
By the first half of 2015 Chile reached 546 MW of PV installed capacity, and 1,647 MW are under construction.
In the Dominican Republic, the Monte Plata Project is the largest operating solar plant in the Caribbean with an installed capacity of 33.5 MW. A planned second phase would double its capacity and would produce 51,000,000 kWh per year.
In 2014, a 1.6 MW photovoltaic rooftop system at a seaside resort, located near the parish capital, Lucea in the parish of Hanover, was inaugurated. It was developed by Sofos Jamaica, and is the largest in Jamaica until a 20 MW utility - scale solar PV plant is constructed in the Parish of Clarendon in 2015.
No central database yet exists with information on installed capacity but, web searches reveal media articles, press releases and vendor web pages that share some details. Based on these sources up to the middle of 2015, there was over 3.7 MW connected to the grid but, a sizeable portion of that total, including the 1.6 MW rooftop system of a seaside resort and a commercial 500 kW - system in the country 's capital, Kingston, do not feed power back to the grid despite being interconnected.
Mexico was the greatest solar energy producer in Latin America until passed by Chile. It is planning a solar trough based plant with 30 MW which will use a combined cycle gas turbine about 400 MW to provide electricity to the city of Agua Prieta, Sonora. To date, the World Bank has given US $50 million to finance this project.
Solar power in the United States includes utility - scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation, mostly from rooftop photovoltaics. Installations have been growing rapidly in recent years as costs have declined with the U.S. hitting 27 GW of installed solar capacity (25.6 GW solar PV; 1.8 GW concentrated solar power) at the end of 2015. The American Solar Energy Industries Association projects that an additional ~ 90 GW of solar PV will be added over the next six years, quadrupling total capacity to over 100 GW by 2021.
Electrical generation has been rising in tandem with capacity as U.S. Energy Information Administration data show that utility - scale solar power generated 0.65 % of total U.S. electricity in 2015, up from 0.01 % in 2005. This figure is even higher in certain states, already reaching 7 % of generation in California for example.
The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power and is among the top countries in the world in deploying the technology, being home to 7 of the 10 largest utility - scale photovoltaic power stations in the world as of March 2016. The energy resource continues to be encouraged through official policy with 29 states having set mandatory renewable energy targets as of October 2015, solar power being specifically included in 20 of them. Aside from utility projects, roughly 784,000 homes and businesses in the nation have installed solar systems through the second quarter of 2015.
A number of Pacific island states have committed to high percentages of renewable energy use, both to serve as an example to other countries and to cut the high costs of imported fuels. A number of solar installations have been financed and assisted by Japan, New Zealand and the United Arab Emirates. Solar farms have gone online in Tuvalu, Fiji and Kiribati. UAE - Pacific Partnership Fund solar projects completed by Masdar in 2016 included: 1MW in the Solomon Islands, 500 kW in Nauru, 600 kW in the Marshall Islands, 600 kW in Micronesia and a 450 kW solar - diesel hybrid plant in Palau. American Samoa has 2 MW of solar installed at Pago Pago Airport.
Australia had over 6,517 megawatts (MW) of installed photovoltaic (PV) solar power by September 2017. The largest solar power station in Australia is the 100 MW Nyngan solar plant, which was the largest in the southern hemisphere when completed. Other significant solar arrays include the 56 MW Moree Solar Farm, the 53 MW Broken Hill Solar Plant, the 20 MW Royalla solar farm, and the 10 MW (megawatts, peak) Greenough River Solar Farm near Geraldton, Western Australia.
A 9 MW (megawatts, electrical) solar thermal ` coal saver ' system was constructed at Liddell power station. The system used ` compact linear Fresnel reflector ' technology developed in Australia. It provided solar - powered steam to the 600 MW black coal power station 's boiler feedwater heater. By 2016, it was "effectively '' closed and an effort to build a similar 40 MW solar boost at Kogan Creek coal power station was stopped.
Solar power in New Zealand currently only generates 0.1 percent of New Zealand 's electricity since more emphasis has been placed on hydroelectric, geothermal, and wind power in New Zealand 's push for renewable energy. Solar power systems were installed in 42 schools in New Zealand in the Schoolgen program, a program developed by Genesis Energy to educate students in solar power. Each participating school has a 2 kW solar panel. Between February 2007 and 29 December 29, 2012, 395.714 MWh were produced.
In 2010, New Zealand 's largest thin film solar array was the 20 kW array installed at Hubbard Foods A 21.6 kW photovoltaic array was installed in Queenstown in 2009. In April 2012, New Zealand 's largest solar power plant was the 68.4 kW array installed to meet 70 % of the electricity needs of South Auckland Forging Engineering Ltd, which is expected to pay for itself in eight to nine years.
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who has won the most ncaa tournament championships | NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament, also informally known and branded as NCAA March Madness, is a single - elimination tournament played each spring in the United States, currently featuring 68 college basketball teams from the Division I level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), to determine the national championship. The tournament was created in 1939 by the National Association of Basketball Coaches, and was the idea of The Ohio State University coach Harold Olsen. Played mostly during March, it has become one of the most famous annual sporting events in the United States.
The tournament teams include champions from 32 Division I conferences (which receive automatic bids), and 36 teams which are awarded at - large berths. These "at - large '' teams are chosen by an NCAA selection committee, then announced in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the "First Four '' play - in games, currently held in Dayton, Ohio, and dubbed Selection Sunday. The 68 teams are divided into four regions and organized into a single - elimination "bracket '', which pre-determines, when a team wins a game, which team it will face next. Each team is "seeded '', or ranked, within its region from 1 to 16. After the First Four, the tournament occurs during the course of three weekends, at pre-selected neutral sites across the United States. Teams, seeded by rank, proceed through a single - game elimination bracket beginning with a "first four '' consisting of 8 low - seeded teams playing in 4 games for a position in the first round the Tuesday and Wednesday before the first round begins, a first round consisting of 64 teams playing in 32 games over the course of a week, the "Sweet Sixteen '' and "Elite Eight '' rounds the next week and weekend, respectively, and -- for the last weekend of the tournament -- the "Final Four '' round. The Final Four is usually played during the first weekend of April. These four teams, one from each region (East, South, Midwest, and West), compete in a preselected location for the national championship.
The tournament has been at least partially televised since 1969. Currently, the games are broadcast by CBS, TBS, TNT, and truTV under the trade - name NCAA March Madness. Since 2011, all games are available for viewing nationwide and internationally, such as in the Philippines and Canada. As television coverage has grown, so too has the tournament 's popularity. Currently, millions of Americans fill out a bracket, attempting to correctly predict the outcome of 63 games of the tournament (not including the First Four games)
With 11 national titles, UCLA has the record for the most NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championships; John Wooden coached UCLA to 10 of its 11 titles. The University of Kentucky (UK) is second, with eight national titles. The University of North Carolina is third, with six national titles, and Duke University and Indiana University are tied for fourth with five national titles. The University of Connecticut is sixth with four national titles. The University of Kansas (KU) & Villanova are tied for 7th with three national titles. Since 1985, when the tournament expanded to 64 teams, Duke has won five championships; North Carolina and Connecticut have each won four; Kentucky & Villanova have three; Kansas & Florida have two; and UCLA, Indiana, Michigan State, Louisville have one. During that time Villanova, Michigan, UNLV, Duke, Arkansas, Arizona, Connecticut, Maryland, Syracuse, and Florida all won their first championships.
The NCAA has changed the tournament format several times since its inception, most often representing an increase of the number of teams. This section describes the tournament as it has operated since 2011.
A total of 68 teams qualify for the tournament played during March and April. Thirty - two teams earn automatic bids as their respective conference champions. Of the 32 Division I "all - sports '' conferences (defined as those that sponsor men 's and women 's basketball), all 32 currently hold championship tournaments to determine which team receives the automatic qualification. The Ivy League was the last Division I conference that did not conduct a tournament; through the 2015 -- 16 season, it awarded its tournament berth to the regular - season champion. If two or more Ivies shared a regular - season championship, a one - game playoff (or series of such playoffs) was used to decide the tournament participant. Since 2017, the league conducts their own postseason tournament.
The remaining 36 tournament slots are granted to at - large bids, which are determined by the Selection Committee in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the First Four play - in tournament and dubbed Selection Sunday by the media and fans, by a group primarily of conference commissioners and school athletic directors who are appointed into service by the NCAA. The committee also determines where all sixty - eight teams are seeded and placed in the bracket.
The tournament is divided into four regions and each region has at least sixteen teams, but four additional teams are added per the decision of the Selection Committee. (See: First Four, below.) The committee is charged with making each of the four regions as close as possible in overall quality of teams from wherever they come from.
The names of the regions vary from year to year, and are broadly geographic (such as "West '', "South '', "East '', and "Midwest ''). From 1957 to 1984, the "Mideast '', roughly corresponding to the Southeastern region of the United States, designation was used. From 1985 to 1998, the Mideast region was known as "Southeast '' and again changed to "South '' starting from 1999. The selected names roughly correspond to the location of the four cities hosting the regional finals. From 2004 to 2006, the regions were named after their host cities, e.g. the Phoenix Regional in 2004, the Chicago Regional in 2005, and the Minneapolis Regional in 2006, but reverted to the traditional geographic designations beginning in 2007. For example, during 2012, the regions were named South (Atlanta, Georgia), East (Boston, Massachusetts), Midwest (St. Louis, Missouri), and West (Phoenix, Arizona).
The selection committee ranks the whole field of 68 teams from 1 to 68. (It did not make this information public until 2012.) The committee then divides the teams amongst the regions. The top four teams will be distributed among the four regions, and each will receive a No. 1 seed within that region. The next four ranked teams will then be distributed among the four regions, each receiving a No. 2 seed in their region, and the process continues down the line, with some exceptions (as is explained below). Carried to its logical conclusion, this would give each region seventeen teams -- seeded from No. 1 to No. 17 -- but, each region has only sixteen teams (from No. 1 to No. 16). As can be seen below, the actual seeding depends on (among other factors) the rankings of the eight teams that the committee selects for the "First Four '' opening round (see the next paragraph and the "First Four '' section below).
The selection committee is also instructed to place teams so that whenever possible, teams from the same conference can not meet until the regional finals. Additionally, it is also instructed to avoid any possible rematches of regular - season or previous year 's tournament games during the First and Second rounds. Further restrictions are listed in the Venues section below. To comply with these other requirements, the selection committee may move one or several teams up or down one seed from their respective original seed line. Thus, for example, the 40th overall ranked team, originally slated to be a No. 10 seed within a particular region, may instead be moved up to a No. 9 seed or moved down to a No. 11 seed. In addition, the rankings of the eight teams selected for the "First Four '' play - in round will likewise affect the final seedlings.
The bracket is thus established, and during the semifinals, the champion of the top - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the fourth - ranked number 1 seed 's region, and the champion of the second - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the third - ranked number 1 seed 's region.
In the men 's tournament, all sites are nominally neutral: teams are prohibited from playing tournament games on their home courts prior to the Final Four (though in some cases, a team may be fortunate enough to play in or near its home state or city). By current NCAA rules, any court on which a team hosts more than three regular - season games (in other words, not including conference tournament games) is considered a "home court ''. The exception to this rule is the University of Dayton, which would be allowed to play a game in the "First Four '' round in their home arena as they did in 2015.
However, while a team can be moved to a different region if its home court is being used during any of the first two weeks of the tournament, the Final Four venue is determined years in advance, and can not be changed regardless of participants. For this reason a team could potentially play in a Final Four on its home court, though this is unlikely, since the Final Four is staged at venues larger than most college basketball arenas. (The most recent team to play the Final Four in its home city was Butler during 2010; its home court then seated only 10,000, as opposed to the 70,000 - plus capacity of Lucas Oil Stadium, the Final Four venue.)
The tournament consists of several rounds. They are currently named, in order of first to last:
The tournament is single - elimination, which increases the chance of an underdog and lower - seeded "Cinderella team '' advancing to subsequent rounds. Although these lower - ranked teams are forced to play stronger teams, they need only one win to advance (instead of needing to win a majority of games in a series, as in professional basketball).
First held during 2011, the First Four are games between the four lowest - ranked at - large teams and the four lowest - ranked automatic - bid (conference - champion) teams.
During the First Round (the Round of 64), the No. 1 seed plays the No. 16 seed in all regions; the No. 2 team plays the No. 15, and so on. The effect of this seeding structure ensures that the better a team is ranked (and therefore seeded), the worse - ranked (and presumably weaker) their opponents will be. Sixteen first - round games are played on the Thursday following the "First Four '' round. The remaining sixteen first - round games are played Friday. At this point the contestants are reduced to 32 teams.
The Second Round (the Round of 32) is played on Saturday and Sunday immediately after the first round. The second round consists of Thursday 's winners playing in eight games on Saturday, followed by Friday 's winners playing in the remaining eight second - round games on Sunday. Thus, after the first weekend, 16 teams remain, commonly known as the "Sweet Sixteen. ''
The teams that are still competing after the first weekend advance to the regional semifinals (the Sweet Sixteen) and finals (the Elite Eight), which are played during the second weekend of the tournament (again, the games are split into Thursday / Saturday and Friday / Sunday). Four regional semi-final games are played Thursday and four are played Friday. After Friday 's games, 8 teams (the Elite Eight) remain. Saturday features two regional final games matching Thursday 's winners and Sunday 's two final games match Friday 's winners. After the second weekend of the tournament, the four regional champions are the "Final Four. ''
The winners of each region advance to the Final Four, where the national semifinals are played on Saturday and the national championship is played on Monday. As is noted above, which regional champion will play which, and in which semifinal they play, is determined by the overall rankings of the four No. 1 seeds in the original bracket, not on the ranks of the eventual Final Four teams themselves.
* 2013 title vacated by NCAA.
Mid-major teams -- which are defined, as of 2018, as teams from the America East Conference (America East), Atlantic Sun Conference (ASUN), Big Sky Conference (Big Sky), Big South Conference (Big South), Big West Conference (Big West), Colonial Athletic Conference (CAA), Conference USA (C - USA), Horizon League (Horizon), Ivy League (Ivy), Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), Mid-American Conference (MAC), Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC), Missouri Valley Conference (MVC), Mountain West Conference (MW), Northeast Conference (NEC), Ohio Valley Conference (OVC), Patriot League (Patriot), Southern Conference (SoCon), Southland Conference (Southland), Southwest Athletic Conference (SWAC), Summit League (Summit), Sun Belt Conference (Sun Belt), West Coast Conference (WCC), and the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) -- have experienced success in the tournament at various times.
The last time, as of 2018, a mid-major team won the National Championship was 1990 when UNLV won with a 103 - 73 win over Duke, since UNLV was then a member of the Big West and since 2011 has been a member of the MW; the Big West was not then considered a power conference, nor is the MW today. The last time, as of 2018, an independent mid-major team won the National Championship was 1977 when Marquette won with a 67 - 59 win over North Carolina. However, at the time, a significant minority of NCAA Division I schools were still independents, with several of these, including Marquette, being traditional basketball powers. (Marquette is now a member of the Big East Conference, the one non-football league that is universally considered a major basketball conference.) The last time, as of the present day, a mid-major team from a small media market (defined as a market out of the top 25 television markets in the United States in 2018) won the National Championship was arguably 1962 when Cincinnati, then in the MVC, won 71 -- 59 over Ohio State of the Big Ten, since Cincinnati 's TV market is listed 35th in the nation as of 2018. However, there was much less of a division between "major '' and "mid-major '' conferences in 1962.
The last time the Final Four was composed, as of 2018, of at least 75 % of mid-major teams (3 / 4), i.e. excluding all present - day major conferences or their predecessors, was 1979, where Indiana State, then as now of the Missouri Valley Conference; Penn, then as now in the Ivy League; and DePaul, then an independent, participated in the Final Four, only to see Indiana State lose to Michigan State. The last time, as of 2018, the Final Four has been composed of at least 50 % of mid-major teams (2 / 4) was 2011, when VCU, then of the Colonial Athletic Association, and Butler, then of the Horizon League, participated in the Final Four, only to see Butler lose to Connecticut. The two most recent Final Fours have involved a single "mid-major '' team by the definition used here -- the 2017 and 2018 tournaments, in which Gonzaga and Loyola -- Chicago were respectively involved (although Gonzaga is arguably not a "mid-major '' team despite its WCC membership, given that 2018 marked its 20th straight appearance in the tournament). To date, as of 2018, no Final Four has been composed of 100 % mid-major teams (4 / 4), therefore guaranteeing a mid-major team winning the National Championship.
Arguably the tournament with the most mid-major success was the 1970 tournament, where the Sweet Sixteen, Elite Eight, Final Four, and National Championship Game had 63 % representation of mid-major teams in the Sweet 16 (10 / 16), 75 % representation in the Elite 8 (6 / 8), 75 % representation in the Final 4 (3 / 4), and 50 % representation in the National Championship Game (1 / 2). Jacksonville lost to UCLA in the National Championship, with New Mexico State defeating St. Bonaventure for third place.
Below is a table that shows the performance of mid-major teams from the Sweet Sixteen round to the National Championship Game from 1939 -- the tournament 's first year -- to 2018.
This table shows mid-major teams that saw success in the tournament from now - defunct conferences or were independents.
List of schools with the longest time between NCAA tournament appearances (minimum 20 - year drought):
Through 2018, four schools that were considered "major college '' by the Associated Press when it published its first college basketball rankings in 1948, and have been continuously in the AP 's "major '' classification, have yet to reach the national tournament. While the NCAA did not split into divisions until 1956 (university and college), the AP has distinguished "major colleges '' from "small colleges '' throughout the history of its basketball rankings.
The NCAA tournament has changed its format many times over the years, many of which are listed below.
The NCAA tournament has expanded a number of times throughout its history.
After the conclusion of the 2010 tournament, there was speculation about increasing the tournament size to as many as 128 teams. On April 1, 2010, the NCAA announced that it was looking at expanding to 96 teams for 2011. On April 22, the NCAA announced a new television contract with CBS / Turner that expanded the field to 68 teams.
From 2011 to 2015, the round of 64 was deemed to be the second round; beginning in 2016, the round of 64 was again deemed to be the first round.
The process of seeding was first used in 1978 for automatically qualified (Q) and at - large (L) teams respectively, and then for all teams within their respective region in 1979. Starting in 2004, the NCAA began releasing full seeding numbers making known the overall # 1 Seed.
When seeding, the NCAA has used the following names for the four regions with the exception of 2004 to 2006 when they were named after host cities:
* Vacated. Bold denotes team also won tournament. † Overall # 1 Seed starting in 2004. To date, only Kentucky and Virginia have had a # 1 Seed in each of the four regions
Last updated through 2018 tournament. * Vacated appearances excluded (see # 1 seeds by year and region).
For a list of all the cities and arenas that have hosted the Final Four, go to Host cities, below.
Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri hosted the Final Four nine times followed by the third Madison Square Garden in New York City which hosted seven times, and Louisville 's Freedom Hall which hosted six times. Additionally, Indianapolis has hosted the Final Four seven times, across three venues.
From 1997 to 2013, the NCAA required that all Final Four sessions take place in domed stadiums with a minimum capacity of 40,000, usually having only half of the dome in use. The Metrodome in Minneapolis, which usually hosted baseball and football, had one of the long ends of the court along the first base line with temporary stands surrounding the court so that much of the outfield is isolated from the action. The same was true of football stadiums like the Alamodome in San Antonio and the RCA Dome in Indianapolis. The last NBA arena to host the Final Four was the Meadowlands Arena, then known as Continental Airlines Arena, in 1996. As of 2009, the minimum was increased to 70,000, by adding additional seating on the floor of the dome, and raising the court on a platform three feet above the dome 's floor, which is usually crowned for football, like the setup at Ford Field in Detroit which hosted the 2009 Final Four.
In September 2012, the NCAA began preliminary discussions on the possibility of returning occasional Final Fours to basketball - specific arenas in major metropolitan areas. According to ESPN.com writer Andy Katz, when Mark Lewis was hired as NCAA executive vice president for championships during 2012, "he took out a United States map and saw that both coasts are largely left off from hosting the Final Four. '' Lewis added in an interview with Katz,
I do n't know where this will lead, if anywhere, but the right thing is to sit down and have these conversations and see if we want our championship in more than eight cities or do we like playing exclusively in domes. None of the cities where we play our championship is named New York, Boston, Los Angeles, Chicago or Miami. We do n't play on a campus. We play in professional football arenas.
Under then - current criteria, only nine stadiums, all but one of which are current NFL venues, could be considered as Final Four locations:
Two domed stadiums that have hosted past Final Fours -- the Alamodome (1998, 2004, 2008, 2018) and Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida (1999) -- were considered too small to be eligible to host, despite the Alamodome being a college football stadium and having a permanent seating capacity of 65,000. The basketball setup at the Alamodome prior to 2018 used only half of the stadium and had a capacity of 39,500. This was changed for the 2018 Final Four to place a raised court at the center of the stadium as has been done with other football facilities.
The first instance of a domed stadium being used for a NCAA Tournament Final Four was the Houston Astrodome in 1971, but the Final Four would not return to a dome until 1982, when the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans hosted the event for the first time.
On June 12, 2013, Katz reported that the NCAA had changed its policy. In July 2013, the NCAA had a portal available on its website for venues to make Final Four proposals in the 2017 -- 2020 period, and there were no restrictions on proposals based on venue size. Also, the NCAA decided that future regionals will no longer be held in domes. In Katz ' report, Lewis indicated that the use of domes for regionals was intended as a dry run for future Final Four venues, but this particular policy was no longer necessary because all of the Final Four sites from 2014 to 2016 had already hosted regionals. At least one other report indicated that the new policy would still allow a completely new domed stadium, or an existing dome that has never hosted a Final Four (such as University of Phoenix Stadium), to receive a regional if it is awarded a future Final Four. In November 2014, reflecting the new policy 's effect, the NCAA announced that University of Phoenix Stadium would host the Final Four in 2017.
Prior to 1975, only one team per conference could be in the NCAA tournament. However, after several highly ranked teams in the country were denied entrance into the tournament (e.g., South Carolina, which was 14 - 0 in ACC regular season play during 1970 but lost in the ACC tournament; Southern Cal, which was ranked # 2 in the nation during 1971; and Maryland, which was ranked # 3 in the nation in 1974 but lost the ACC tournament championship game to eventual national champion North Carolina State), the NCAA began to place at - large teams in the tournament, instead of just conference champions. At times during the pre-at - large era, the NIT tournament competed for prestige with the NCAA tournament. However, in the 1950s the NCAA ruled that no team could compete in both tournaments. But when 8th ranked Marquette declined its invitation in 1970 after coach Al McGuire complained about the Warriors ' regional placement and instead went to the NIT (which it won), the NCAA changed the rule to forbid a team the declines an NCAA Tournament bid from participating in any post-season tournament. Since then, the NCAA tournament has clearly been the major one, with conference champions and the majority of the top - ranked teams participating in it.
A third - place game was held from 1946 to 1981. Additionally, when the tournament was first held in 1939 with only two regionals (East and West), the West held a third - place game, but the East did not. The East began holding its own third - place game in 1941, and from then on every regional held a third - place game through the 1975 tournament.
Beginning during 2001, the field was expanded from 64 to 65 teams, adding to the tournament what was informally known as the "play - in game. '' This was in response to the creation of the Mountain West Conference during 1999. Originally, the winner of the Mountain West 's tournament did not receive an automatic bid, and doing so would mean the elimination of one of the at - large bids. As an alternative to eliminating an at - large bid, the NCAA expanded the tournament to 65 teams. The # 64 and # 65 seeds were seeded in a regional bracket as the 16a / 16b seeds, and then played the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Opening Round Game (the "play - in game '') on the Tuesday preceding the first weekend of the tournament. This game was always played at the University of Dayton Arena in Dayton, Ohio.
During 2011, the tournament expanded to 68 teams. Four "play - in '' games are now played, officially known as the "First Four ''. However, the teams playing in the First Four are not automatically seeded # 16; their seeding is determined by the committee on Selection Sunday. Explaining the reasoning for this format, selection committee chairman Dan Guerrero said, "We felt if we were going to expand the field it would create better drama for the tournament if the First Four was much more exciting. They could all be on the 10 line or the 12 line or the 11 line. ''
From 1985 to 2010, the round consisting of 64 teams and 32 games was called the "first round '', while the round consisting of 32 teams and 16 games was called the "second round ''. From 2011 to 2015, the "First Four '' became the first round. The round after the "First Four '', the round of 64 played on Thursday and Friday, was called the "second round ''; the round of 32 was then called the "third round '', consisting of games played on Saturday and Sunday. In 2016, the naming reverted to the round of 64 being the "first round '' once again, and the round of 32 being the "second round ''.
For the 1985 to 2001 tournaments, all teams playing at a first - or second - round site fed into the same regional site. Since 2002, the tournament has used the "pod system '' designed to limit the early - round travel of as many teams as possible. In the pod system, each of the eight first - and second - round sites is assigned two pods, where each group of four teams play each other. A host site 's pods may be from different regions, and thus the winners of each pod would advance into separate regional tournaments.
The possible pods by seeding are:
Since 2004, the semi-final matches during the first day of the Final Four weekend have been determined by a procedure based upon the original seeding of the full field. From 1973 through 2003, the pitting of regional champions in the semi-finals was on a rotational basis. Prior to 1973, one semifinal matched the champions of the eastern regions, and the other matched the champions of the western regions.
On several occasions NCAA tournament teams played their games in their home arena. In 1959, Louisville played at its regular home of Freedom Hall; however, the Cardinals lost to West Virginia in the semifinals. In 1984, Kentucky defeated Illinois, 54 - 51 in the Elite Eight on its home court of Rupp Arena. In 1985, Dayton played its first - round game against Villanova (it lost 51 - 49) on its home floor. In 1986 (beating Brown before losing to Navy) and ' 87 (beating Georgia Southern and Western Kentucky), Syracuse played the first 2 rounds of the NCAA tournament in the Carrier Dome. Also in 1986, LSU played in Baton Rouge on its home floor for the first 2 rounds despite being an 11th seed (beating Purdue and Memphis State). In 1987, Arizona lost to UTEP on its home floor in the first round. In 2015, Dayton played at its regular home of UD Arena, and the Flyers beat Boise State in the First Four.
Since the inception of the modern Final Four in 1952, only once has a team played a Final Four on its actual home court -- Louisville in 1959. But through the 2015 tournament, three other teams have played the Final Four in their home cities, one other team has played in its metropolitan area, and six additional teams have played the Final Four in their home states through the 2015 tournament. Kentucky (1958 in Louisville), UCLA (1968 and 1972 in Los Angeles, 1975 in San Diego), and North Carolina State (1974 in Greensboro) won the national title; Louisville (1959 at its home arena, Freedom Hall); Purdue (1980 in Indianapolis) lost in the Final Four; and California (1960 in suburban San Francisco), Duke (1994 in Charlotte), Michigan State (2009 in Detroit), and Butler (2010 in Indianapolis) lost in the final.
In 1960, Cal had nearly as large an edge as Louisville had the previous year, only having to cross the San Francisco Bay to play in the Final Four at the Cow Palace in Daly City; the Golden Bears lost in the championship game to Ohio State. UCLA had a similar advantage in 1968 and 1972 when it advanced to the Final Four at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, not many miles from the Bruins ' homecourt of Pauley Pavilion (also UCLA 's home arena before the latter venue opened in 1965, and again during the 2011 - 12 season while Pauley was closed for renovations); unlike Louisville and Cal, the Bruins won the national title on both occasions. Butler lost the 2010 title 6 miles (9.7 km) from its Indianapolis campus and was regarded as the host school, as it is most times whenever the NCAA holds a tournament in Indianapolis (in the 2013 tournament, Butler 's former conference, the Horizon League, was considered the host for the Midwest Regional rather than Butler).
Before the Final Four was established, the East and West regionals were held at separate sites, with the winners advancing to the title game. During that era, three New York City teams, all from Manhattan, played in the East Regional at Madison Square Garden -- frequently used as a "big - game '' venue by each team -- and advanced at least to the national semifinals. NYU won the East Regional in 1945 but lost in the title game, also held at the Garden, to Oklahoma A&M. CCNY played in the East Regional in both 1947 and 1950; the Beavers lost in the 1947 East final to eventual champion Holy Cross but won the 1950 East Regional and national titles at the Garden.
In 1974, North Carolina State won the NCAA tournament without leaving its home state of North Carolina. The team was put in the East Region, and played its regional games at its home arena Reynolds Coliseum. NC State played the final four and national championship games at nearby Greensboro Coliseum.
While not its home state, Kansas has played in the championship game in Kansas City, Missouri, only 45 minutes from the campus in Lawrence, Kansas, not just once, but four times. In 1940, 1953, and 1957 the Jayhawks lost the championship game each time at Municipal Auditorium. In 1988, playing at Kansas City 's Kemper Arena, Kansas won the championship, over Big Eight -- rival Oklahoma. Similarly, in 2005, Illinois played in St. Louis, Missouri, where it enjoyed a noticeable homecourt advantage, yet still lost in the championship game to North Carolina.
The NCAA had banned the Bon Secours Wellness Arena, originally known as Bi-Lo Center, and Colonial Life Arena, originally Colonial Center, in South Carolina from hosting tournament games, despite their sizes (16,000 and 18,000 seats, respectively) because of an NAACP protest at the Bi-Lo Center during the 2002 first and second round tournament games over that state 's refusal to completely remove the Confederate Battle Flag from the state capitol grounds, although it had already been relocated from atop the capitol dome to a less prominent place in 2000. Following requests by the NAACP and Black Coaches Association, the Bi-Lo Center, and the newly built Colonial Center, which was built for purposes of hosting the tournament, were banned from hosting any future tournament events. As a result of the removal of the battle flag from the South Carolina State Capitol, the NCAA lifted its ban on South Carolina hosting games in 2015, and it was able to host in 2017 due to House Bill 2 (see next section).
On September 12, 2016, the NCAA stripped the State of North Carolina of hosting rights for seven upcoming college sports tournaments and championships held by the association, including early round games of the 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament scheduled for the Greensboro Coliseum. The NCAA argued that House Bill 2 made it "challenging to guarantee that host communities can help deliver (an inclusive atmosphere) ''. Bon Secours Wellness Arena was able to secure the bid to be the replacement site.
As a tournament ritual, the winning team cuts down the nets at the end of regional championship games as well as the national championship game. Starting with the seniors, and moving down by classes, players each cut a single strand off of each net; the head coach cuts the last strand connecting the net to the hoop, claiming the net itself. An exception to the head coach cutting the last strand came in 2013, when Louisville head coach Rick Pitino gave that honor to Kevin Ware, who had suffered a catastrophic leg injury during the tournament. This tradition is credited to Everett Case, the coach of North Carolina State, who stood on his players ' shoulders to accomplish the feat after the Wolfpack won the Southern Conference tournament in 1947. CBS, since 1987 and yearly to 2015, in the odd - numbered years since 2017, and TBS, since 2016, the even - numbered years, close out the tournament with One Shining Moment, performed by Luther Vandross.
Just as the Olympics awards gold, silver, and bronze medals for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place, respectively, the NCAA awards the National Champions a gold - plated Wooden NCAA National Championship trophy. The loser of the championship game receives a silver - plated National Runner - Up trophy for second place. Since 2006, all four Final Four teams receive a bronze plated NCAA Regional Championship trophy; prior to 2006, only the teams who did not make the title game received bronze plated trophies for third place.
The champions also receive a commemorative gold championship ring, and the other three Final Four teams receive Final Four rings.
The National Association of Basketball Coaches also presents a more elaborate marble / crystal trophy to the winning team. Ostensibly, this award is given for taking the top position in the NABC 's end - of - season poll, but this is invariably the same as the NCAA championship game winner. In 2005, Siemens AG acquired naming rights to the NABC trophy, which is now called the Siemens Trophy. Formerly, the NABC trophy was presented right after the standard NCAA championship trophy, but this caused some confusion. Since 2006, the Siemens / NABC Trophy has been presented separately at a press conference the day after the game.
After the championship trophy is awarded, one player is selected and then awarded the Most Outstanding Player award (which almost always comes from the championship team). It is not intended to be the same as a Most Valuable Player award although it is sometimes informally referred to as such.
Because the National Basketball Association Draft takes place just three months after the NCAA tournament, NBA executives have to decide how players ' performances in a maximum of seven games, from the First Four to the championship game, should affect their draft decisions. A 2012 study for the National Bureau of Economic Research explores how the March tournament affects the way that professional teams behave in the June draft. The study is based on data from 1997 to 2010 that looks at how college tournament standouts performed at the NBA level.
The researchers determined that a player who outperforms his regular season averages or who is on a team that wins more games than its seed would indicate will be drafted higher than he otherwise would have been. At the same time, the study indicated that professional teams do n't take college tournament performance into consideration as much as they should, as success in the tournament correlates with elite professional accomplishment, particularly top - level success, where a player makes the NBA All - Star Team three or more times. "If anything, NBA teams undervalue the signal provided by unexpected performance in the NCAA March Madness tournament as a predictor of future NBA success. ''
Since 2010, the NCAA has had a joint contract with CBS and Turner Sports, a division of Time Warner (which co-owns the CW Television Network with CBS). The coverage of the tournament is split between CBS, TNT, TBS, and truTV.
Broadcasters from CBS, TBS, and TNT 's sports coverage are shared across all four networks, with CBS ' college basketball teams supplemented with Turner 's NBA teams, while studio segments take place at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and Turner 's studios in Atlanta. In the New York - based studio shows, CBS ' Greg Gumbel and Clark Kellogg are joined by Ernie Johnson, Jr., Kenny Smith, and Charles Barkley of TNT 's Inside the NBA while Seth Davis of CBS assists with Matt Winer and various NBA TV personalities. While Turner 's primary NBA voices, Marv Albert and Kevin Harlan, are already employed by CBS in other capacities, they also lend analysts Chris Webber, Grant Hill, and Reggie Miller and secondary play - by - play man Brian Anderson to CBS. In turn, CBS announcers Jim Nantz, Brad Nessler, Spero Dedes, and Andrew Catalon appear on Turner network broadcasts along with analysts Len Elmore, Bill Raftery, Dan Bonner, Mike Gminski, and Doug Gottlieb.
The current contract runs through 2024 and, for the first time in history, provides for the nationwide broadcast each year of all games of the tournament. All First Four games air on truTV. A featured first - or second - round game in each time "window '' is broadcast on CBS, while all other games are shown either on TBS, TNT or truTV. The regional semifinals, better known as the Sweet Sixteen, are split between CBS and TBS. CBS had the exclusive rights to the regional finals, also known as the Elite Eight, through 2014. That exclusivity extended to the entire Final Four as well, but after the 2013 tournament Turner Sports elected to exercise a contractual option for 2014 and 2015 giving TBS broadcast rights to the national semifinal matchups. CBS kept its national championship game rights.
Since 2015, CBS and TBS split coverage of the Elite Eight. Since 2016 CBS and TBS alternate coverage of the Final Four and national championship game, with TBS getting the final two rounds in even - numbered years, and CBS getting the games in odd - numbered years. March Madness On Demand would remain unchanged, although Turner was allowed to develop their own service.
The CBS broadcast provides the NCAA with over $500 million annually, and makes up over 90 % of the NCAA 's annual revenue. The revenues from the multibillion - dollar television contract are divided among the Division I basketball playing schools and conferences as follows:
The Division I Men 's Basketball tournament is the only NCAA championship tournament where the NCAA does not keep the profits.
CBS has been the major partner of the NCAA in televising the tournament since 1982, but there have been many changes in coverage since the tournament was first broadcast in 1969.
From 1969 to 1981, the NCAA tournament aired on NBC, but not all games were televised. The early rounds, in particular, were not always seen on TV.
In 1982, CBS obtained broadcast television rights to the NCAA tournament.
The same year as CBS obtained rights to the Big Dance, ESPN began showing the opening rounds of the tournament. This was the network 's first contract signed with the NCAA for a major sport, and helped to establish ESPN 's following among college basketball fans. ESPN showed six first - round games on Thursday and again on Friday, with CBS then picking up a seventh game at 11: 30 pm ET. Thus, 14 of 32 first - round games were televised. ESPN also re-ran games overnight. At the time, there was only one ESPN network, with no ability to split its signal regionally, so ESPN showed only the most competitive games. During the 1980s, the tournament 's popularity on television soared.
However, ESPN became a victim of its own success, as CBS was awarded the rights to cover all games of the NCAA tournament, starting in 1991. Only with the introduction of the so - called "play - in '' game (between the 64 seed and the 65 seed) in the 2000s, did ESPN get back in the game (and actually, the first time this "play - in '' game was played in 2001, the game was aired on TNN, using CBS graphics and announcers. CBS and TNN were both owned by Viacom at the time).
Through 2010, CBS broadcast the remaining 63 games of the NCAA tournament proper. Most areas saw only eight of 32 first - round games, seven of 16 second - round games, and four of eight regional semifinal games (out of the possible 56 games during these rounds; there would be some exceptions to this rule in the 2000s). Coverage preempted regular programming on the network, except during a 2 - hour window from about 5 ET until 7 ET when the local affiliates could show programming. The CBS format resulted in far fewer hours of first - round coverage than under the old ESPN format but allowed the games to reach a much larger audience than ESPN was able to reach.
During this period of near - exclusivity by CBS, the network provided to its local affiliates three types of feeds from each venue: constant feed, swing feed, and flex feed. Constant feeds remained primarily on a given game, and were used primarily by stations with a clear local interest in a particular game. Despite its name, a constant feed occasionally veered away to other games for brief updates (as is typical in most American sports coverage), but coverage generally remained with the initial game. A swing feed tended to stay on games believed to be of natural interest to the locality, such as teams from local conferences, but may leave that game to go to other games that during their progress become close matches. On a flex feed, coverage bounced around from one venue to another, depending on action at the various games in progress. If one game was a blowout, coverage could switch to a more competitive game. A flex feed was provided when there were no games with a significant natural local interest for the stations carrying them, which allowed the flex game to be the best game in progress. Station feeds were planned in advance and stations had the option of requesting either constant or flex feed for various games.
In 1999, DirecTV began broadcasting all games otherwise not shown on local television with its Mega March Madness premium package. The DirecTV system used the subscriber 's ZIP code to black out games which could be seen on broadcast television. Prior to that, all games were available on C - Band satellite and were picked up by sports bars.
In 2003, CBS struck a deal with Yahoo! to offer live streaming of the first three rounds of games under its Yahoo! Platinum service, for $16.95 a month. In 2004, CBS began selling viewers access to March Madness On Demand, which provided games not otherwise shown on broadcast television; the service was free for AOL subscribers. In 2006, March Madness On Demand was made free, and continued to be so to online users through the 2011 tournament. For 2012, it once again became a pay service, with a single payment of $3.99 providing access to all 67 tournament games. In 2013, the service, now renamed March Madness Live, was again made free, but uses Turner 's rights and infrastructure for TV Everywhere, which requires sign - in though the password of a customer 's cable or satellite provider to watch games, both via PC / Mac and mobile devices. Those that do not have a cable or satellite service or one not participating in Turner 's TV Everywhere are restricted to games carried on the CBS national feed and three hours (originally four) of other games without sign - in, or coverage via Westwood One 's radio coverage. Effective with the 2018 tournament, the national semifinals and final are under TV Everywhere restrictions if they are aired by Turner networks; before then, those particular games were not subject to said restrictions.
In addition, CBS Sports Network (formerly CBS College Sports Network) had broadcast two "late early '' games that would not otherwise be broadcast nationally. These were the second games in the daytime session in the Pacific Time Zone, to avoid starting games before 10 AM. These games are also available via March Madness Live and on CBS affiliates in the market areas of the team playing. In other markets, newscasts, local programming or preempted CBS morning programming are aired. CBSSN is scheduled to continue broadcasting the official pregame and postgame shows and press conferences from the teams involved, along with overnight replays.
The Final Four has been broadcast in HDTV since 1999. From 2000 to 2004, only one first / second round site and one regional site were designated as HDTV sites. In 2005, all regional games were broadcast in HDTV, and four first and second round sites were designated for HDTV coverage. Local stations broadcasting in both digital and analog had the option of airing separate games on their HD and SD channels, to take advantage of the available high definition coverage. Beginning in 2007, all games in the tournament (including all first and second - round games) were available in high definition, and local stations were required to air the same game on both their analog and digital channels. However, due to satellite limitations, first round "constant '' feeds were only available in standard definition. Moreover, some digital television stations, such as WRAL - TV in Raleigh, North Carolina, choose to not participate in HDTV broadcasts of the first and second rounds and the regional semifinals, and used their available bandwidth to split their signal into digital subchannels to show all games going on simultaneously. By 2008, upgrades at the CBS broadcast center allowed all feeds, flex and constant, to be in HD for the tournament.
As of 2011, ESPN International holds international broadcast rights to the tournament, distributing coverage to its co-owned networks and other broadcasters. ESPN produces the world feed for broadcasts of the Final Four and championship game, produced using ESPN College Basketball staff and commentators.
Best outcomes for low seeds since expansion to 64 teams in 1985:
Middle Tennessee (2016) Lehigh (2012) Norfolk State (2012) Hampton (2001) Coppin State (1997) Santa Clara (1993) Richmond (1991)
Florida Gulf Coast (2013)
numerous (19 teams)
numerous (14 teams)
numerous (17 teams)
numerous (15 teams)
In 2018, UMBC became the first No. 16 seed to defeat a No. 1 seed in the men 's tournament, shocking Virginia 74 -- 54. Before this breakthrough, five other 16 seeds lost by 4 or fewer points:
As noted above, despite numerous instances of early - round tournament upsets, only one No. 1 seed has ever lost in the first round to a No. 16 seed. However, while seeding is one way of measuring the impact of an upset, prior to the implementation of seeding, point spread was the better determinant of an upset, and a loss by a highly favored team remains for many the definition of "upset ''.
It has happened only once that all four No. 1 seeds made it to the Final Four:
Three times (twice since the field expanded to 64 teams) the Final Four has been without a No. 1 seed:
Since 1985, there have been 4 instances of three No. 1 seeds reaching the Final Four; 13 instances of two No. 1 seeds making it; and 14 instances of just one No. 1 seed reaching the Final Four.
There have been eight occasions (seven times since the field expanded to 64) that the championship game has been played between two No. 1 seeds:
Since 1985 there have been 18 instances of one No. 1 seed reaching the Championship Game (No. 1 seeds are 13 - 5 against other seeds in the title game) and 8 instances where no No. 1 seed made it to the title game.
The following teams entered the tournament ranked No. 1 in at least one of the AP, UPI, or USA Today polls and won the tournament:
The team 's record here refers to their record before the first game of the NCAA tournament.
The NCAA tournament has undergone dramatic expansion since 1975, and since the tournament was expanded to 48 teams in 1980, no unbeaten teams have failed to qualify. (As, by definition, a team would have to win its conference tournament, and thus secure an automatic bid to the tournament, to be undefeated in a season, the only way a team could finish undefeated and not reach the tournament is if the team is banned from postseason play; as of 2016, no team banned from postseason play has finished undefeated since 1980. Other possibilities for an undefeated team to fail to qualify: the team is independent, or the conference does not yet have an automatic bid.) Before that, there were occasions on which a team achieved perfection in the regular season, yet did not appear in the NCAA tournament.
There have been nine times in which the tournament did not include the reigning champion (the previous year 's winner):
Rick Pitino is the only coach to have officially taken three different teams to the Final Four: Providence (1987), Kentucky (1993, 1996, 1997) and Louisville (2005).
There are 12 coaches who have officially coached two different schools to the Final Four -- Roy Williams, Eddie Sutton, Frank McGuire, Lon Kruger, Hugh Durham, Jack Gardner, Lute Olson, Gene Bartow, Forddy Anderson, Lee Rose, Bob Huggins, and Lou Henson.
Point differentials, or margin of victory, can be viewed either by the championship game, or by a team 's performance over the whole tournament.
30 points, by UNLV in 1990 (103 -- 73, over Duke)
Seven times the championship game has been tied at the end of regulation. On one of those occasions (1957) the game went into double and then triple overtime.
1 point, on six occasions
Teams that played 6 games
Teams that played 5 games
Teams that played 4 games
Teams that played 3 games
Achieved 13 times by 10 different schools
Since the inception of the 64 - team tournament in 1985, each seed - pairing has played 136 games in the Round of 64, with the following results:
This table lists all the cities that have hosted or will host the Final Four, as well as the venues in which the Final Four was or will be played. For additional information about a particular year 's tournament, click on the year to go directly to that year 's NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament or go to the main article.
There are pools or private gambling - related contests as to who can predict the tournament most correctly. The filling out of a tournament bracket has been referred to as a "national pastime. '' Filling out a tournament bracket with predictions is called the practice of "bracketology '' and sports programming during the tournament is rife with commentators comparing the accuracy of their predictions. On The Dan Patrick Show, a wide variety of celebrities from various fields (such as Darius Rucker, Charlie Sheen, Neil Patrick Harris, Ellen DeGeneres, Dave Grohl, and Brooklyn Decker) have posted full brackets with predictions. Former President Barack Obama 's bracket was posted on the White House website.
There are many different tournament prediction scoring systems. Most award points for correctly picking the winning team in a particular match up, with increasingly more points being given for correctly predicting later round winners. Some provide bonus points for correctly predicting upsets, the amount of the bonus varying based on the degree of upset. Some just provide points for wins by correctly picked teams in the brackets.
There are 2 ^ 63 or 9.2 quintillion possibilities for the possible winners in a 64 - team NCAA bracket, making the odds of randomly picking a perfect bracket (i.e. without weighting for seed number) 9.2 quintillion to 1. With the expansion of the tournament field to 68 teams in 2011, there are now 2 ^ 67 or 147.57 quintillion possibilities if one includes the first four opening round games.
There are numerous awards and prizes given by companies for anyone who can make the perfect bracket. One of the largest was done by a partnership between Quicken Loans and Berkshire Hathaway, which was backed by Warren Buffett, with a $1 billion prize to any person (s) who could correctly predict the outcome of the 2014 tournament. No one was able to complete the challenge and win the $1 billion prize.
As indicated below, none of these phrases are exclusively used in regard to the NCAA tournament. Nonetheless, they are associated widely with the tournament, sometimes for legal reasons, sometimes just because it 's become part of the American sports vernacular.
March Madness is a popular on - ending basketball tournaments played in March. March Madness is also a registered trademark currently owned exclusively by the NCAA.
H.V. Porter, an official with the Illinois High School Association (and later a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame), was the first person to use March Madness to describe a basketball tournament. Porter published an essay named March Madness during 1939, and during 1942, he used the phrase in a poem, Basketball Ides of March. Through the years the use of March Madness was increased, especially in Illinois, Indiana, and other parts of the Midwest. During this period the term was used almost exclusively in reference to state high school tournaments. During 1977, Jim Enright published a book about the Illinois tournament entitled March Madness.
Fans began associating the term with the NCAA tournament during the early 1980s. Evidence suggests that CBS sportscaster Brent Musburger, who had worked for many years in Chicago before joining CBS, popularized the term during the annual tournament broadcasts. The NCAA has credited Bob Walsh of the Seattle Organizing Committee for starting the March Madness celebration in 1984.
Only during the 1990s did either the IHSA or the NCAA think about trademarking the term, and by that time a small television production company named Intersport had already trademarked it. IHSA eventually bought the trademark rights from Intersport, and then went to court to establish its primacy. IHSA sued GTE Vantage, an NCAA licensee that used the name March Madness for a computer game based on the college tournament. During 1996, in a historic ruling, Illinois High School Association v. GTE Vantage, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit created the concept of a "dual - use trademark '', granting both the IHSA and NCAA the right to trademark the term for their own purposes.
After the ruling, the NCAA and IHSA joined forces and created the March Madness Athletic Association to coordinate the licensing of the trademark and investigate possible trademark infringement. One such case involved a company that had obtained the internet domain name marchmadness.com and was using it to post information about the NCAA tournament. During 2003, by March Madness Athletic Association v. Netfire, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decided that March Madness was not a generic term, and ordered Netfire to relinquish the domain name to the NCAA.
Later during the 2000s, the IHSA relinquished its ownership share in the trademark, although it retained the right to use the term in association with high school championships. During October 2010, the NCAA reached a settlement with Intersport, paying $17.2 million for the latter company 's license to use the trademark.
This is a popular term for the regional semifinal round of the tournament, consisting of the final 16 teams. As in the case of "March Madness '', this was first used by a high school federation -- in this case, the Kentucky High School Athletic Association (KHSAA), which has used the term for decades to describe its own season - ending tournaments. It officially registered the trademark in 1988. Unlike the situation with "March Madness '', the KHSAA has retained sole ownership of the "Sweet Sixteen '' trademark; it licenses the term to the NCAA for use in collegiate tournaments.
The term Final Four refers to the last four teams remaining in the playoff tournament. These are the champions of the tournament 's four regional brackets, and are the only teams remaining on the tournament 's final weekend. (While the term "Final Four '' was not used during the early decades of the tournament, the term has been applied retroactively to include the last four teams in tournaments from earlier years, even when only two brackets existed.)
Some claim that the phrase Final Four was first used to describe the final games of Indiana 's annual high school basketball tournament. But the NCAA, which has a trademark on the term, says Final Four was originated by a Plain Dealer sportswriter, Ed Chay, in a 1975 article that appeared in the Official Collegiate Basketball Guide. The article stated that Marquette University "was one of the final four '' of the 1974 tournament. The NCAA started capitalizing the term during 1978 and converting it to a trademark several years later.
During recent years, the term Final Four has been used for other sports besides basketball. Tournaments which use Final Four include the Euroleague in basketball, national basketball competitions in several European countries, and the now - defunct European Hockey League. Together with the name Final Four, these tournaments have adopted an NCAA - style format in which the four surviving teams compete in a single - elimination tournament held in one place, typically, during one weekend. The derivative term "Frozen Four '' is used by the NCAA to refer to the final rounds of the Division I men 's and women 's ice hockey tournaments. Until 1999, it was just a popular nickname for the last two rounds of the hockey tournament; officially, it was also known as the Final Four.
Although there is not any official definition of what constitutes a Cinderella team, there does seem to be a consensus that such teams represent small schools, are usually low - seeded in the tournament, and achieves at least one unexpected win in the tournament. A recent example of this is Florida Gulf Coast University, a relatively new school that held its first classes in 1997 and became Division I postseason eligible in 2011. They made their first ever appearance in the 2013 tournament, winning two games to become the first ever # 15 seed to advance to the Sweet Sixteen. The term was popularized as a result of City College of New York 's successful run in the 1950 tournament.
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what are the three objectives of first aid | First aid - wikipedia
First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being available, such as performing CPR while awaiting an ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to a cut. First aid is generally performed by the layperson, with many people trained in providing basic levels of first aid, and others willing to do so from acquired knowledge. Mental health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover mental health.
There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation, or guidance which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain circumstances. This can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such as an Automated External Defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid training within schools. First aid, however, does not necessarily require any particular equipment or prior knowledge, and can involve improvisation with materials available at the time, often by untrained persons.
First aid can be performed on all mammals, although this article relates to the care of human patients.
Skills of what is now known as first aid have been recorded throughout history, especially in relation to warfare, where the care of both traumatic and medical cases is required in particularly large numbers. The Ancient Egyptians (aka people of KMT) are the first known to use bandages including the high genius doctor Imhotep. They not only used them to create mummies but also as part of the treatments for surgical patients. Most ancient Greek doctors, philosophers, etc. studied in ancient Egypt and then returned to Greece. The bandaging of battle wounds is shown on Classical Greek pottery from circa 500 BCE, whilst the parable of the Good Samaritan includes references to binding or dressing wounds. There are numerous references to first aid performed within the Roman army, with a system of first aid supported by surgeons, field ambulances, and hospitals. Roman legions had the specific role of capsarii, who were responsible for first aid such as bandaging, and are the forerunners of the modern combat medic.
Further examples occur through history, still mostly related to battle, with examples such as the Knights Hospitaller in the 11th century CE, providing care to pilgrims and knights in the Holy Land.
During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a major concern amongst the population. In 1767, a society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was started in Amsterdam, and in 1773, physician William Hawes began publicizing the power of artificial respiration as means of resuscitation of those who appeared drowned. This led to the formation, in 1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal Humane Society, who did much to promote resuscitation.
Napoleon 's surgeon, Baron Dominique - Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps (the ambulance volantes), which included medical assistants, tasked to administer first aid in battle.
In 1859 Jean - Henri Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, and his work led to the formation of the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of "aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the field ''. The Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid worldwide.
In 1870, Prussian military surgeon Friedrich von Esmarch introduced formalized first aid to the military, and first coined the term "erste hilfe '' (translating to ' first aid '), including training for soldiers in the Franco - Prussian War on care for wounded comrades using pre-learnt bandaging and splinting skills, and making use of the Esmarch bandage which he designed. The bandage was issued as standard to the Prussian combatants, and also included aide - memoire pictures showing common uses.
In 1872, the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in England changed its focus from hospice care, and set out to start a system of practical medical help, starting with making a grant towards the establishment of the UK 's first ambulance service. This was followed by creating its own wheeled transport litter in 1875 (the St John Ambulance), and in 1877 established the St John Ambulance Association (the forerunner of modern - day St John Ambulance) "to train men and women for the benefit of the sick and wounded ''.
Also in the UK, Surgeon - Major Peter Shepherd had seen the advantages of von Esmarch 's new teaching of first aid, and introduced an equivalent programme for the British Army, and so being the first user of "first aid for the injured '' in English, disseminating information through a series of lectures. Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the newly charitable focus of St John, and established the concept of teaching first aid skills to civilians. The first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich (near Woolwich barracks where Shepherd was based) using a comprehensive first aid curriculum.
First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways.
The key aims of first aid can be summarised in three key points, sometimes known as ' the three P 's ': -
Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously. Particularly the "ABC '' s of first aid, which focus on critical life - saving intervention, must be rendered before treatment of less serious injuries. ABC stands for Airway, Breathing, and Circulation. The same mnemonic is used by all emergency health professionals. Attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life - threatening emergency. Following evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and provide rescue breathing if necessary. Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions (and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients.
Some organizations add a fourth step of "D '' for Deadly bleeding or Defibrillation, while others consider this as part of the Circulation step. Variations on techniques to evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider. Once the ABCs are secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments, as required. Some organizations teach the same order of priority using the "3Bs '': Breathing, Bleeding, and Bones (or "4Bs '': Breathing, Bleeding, Burns, and Bones). While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously. This includes the provision of both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse, and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway.
In order to stay alive, all persons need to have an open airway -- a clear passage where air can move in through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down into the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning.
If the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally then place them in the recovery position, with the patient leant over on their side, which also has the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach contents.
The airway can also become blocked through a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this through a combination of ' back slaps ' and ' abdominal thrusts '.
Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if the patient is breathing. If there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally, such as agonal breathing, the first aider would undertake what is probably the most recognized first aid procedure -- cardiopulmonary resuscitation or CPR, which involves breathing for the patient, and manually massaging the heart to promote blood flow around the body.
The first aider is also likely to be trained in dealing with injuries such as cuts, grazes or bone fracture. They may be able to deal with the situation in its entirety (a small adhesive bandage on a paper cut), or may be required to maintain the condition of something like a broken bone, until the next stage of definitive care (usually an ambulance) arrives.
Basic principles, such as knowing to use an adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences. However, to provide effective, life - saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training. This is especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR); these procedures may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs before an actual emergency, and in many countries, emergency ambulance dispatchers may give basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is on the way.
Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary. First aid training is often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee. This commercial training is most common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many community organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes.
There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which require specific additional training. These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken.
Some people undertake specific training in order to provide first aid at public or private events, during filming, or other places where people gather. They may be designated as a first aider, or use some other title. This role may be undertaken on a voluntary basis, with organisations such as the Red Cross and St John Ambulance, or as paid employment with a medical contractor.
People performing a first aid role, whether in a professional or voluntary capacity, are often expected to have a high level of first aid training and are often uniformed.
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross. According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations. Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution.
The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown below.
Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance. Other symbols may also be used.
ISO First Aid Symbol
St. Andrew 's First Aid Badge
Emblem of the Red Cross
Maltese or Amalfi Cross
Star of life
Civil defence
Also see medical emergency.
Many accidents can happen at home, office, schools, laboratories etc. which require immediate attention before the patient is attended by the doctor.
Though professional first aid kits are readily available, one can make a simple kit easily at home. Still, ready made First Aid kits / boxes / pouches / cases are recommended, as they have well organized compartments. To make a First Aid kit, a strong, durable bag or transparent plastic box should be taken and a white cross in a green square placed on the sides and on the top. This will make for easy identification of the box to any user. The kit should be kept such that it is within reach in case of an emergency.
A First Aid Kit should have the following contents:
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how can i play xbox games on xbox 360 | List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox 360 - wikipedia
This is a list of Xbox games that are compatible with the console 's successor, the Xbox 360. Microsoft ceased adding titles to the list in November 2007, so the list is considered final. As of April 2010, original Xbox games no longer can be played online via the Xbox Live service, as it was ended for the original Xbox console. However, online multiplayer still is possible through third - party LAN Tunneling programs that manipulate System Link, such as XLink Kai. Downloadable content for these titles is not available via Xbox Live. This includes the Xbox Originals downloaded on the Xbox 360 and any Xbox game running on the Xbox 360.
The original list for North America comprised 279 games and was released on November 11, 2005. The Japanese version of the Xbox 360 console was compatible with only 12 games, while the European version had 156 games.
7 games were removed from the list due to bugs: Codename: Kids Next Door -- Operation: V.I.D.E.O.G.A.M.E., Curse: The Eye of Isis, Dance Dance Revolution Ultramix 4, 2002 FIFA World Cup, NBA Live 2003, Rugby 2005, and Star Wars: The Clone Wars. 7 other games were also removed, but were then added back later: Blinx 2: Masters of Time and Space, Catwoman, Grabbed by the Ghoulies, Legends of Wrestling, Mortal Kombat: Deception, Pariah, and Sid Meier 's Pirates!.
He - Man: Defender of Grayskull remains on the list even though the game was never released; it was cancelled by the developer before completion.
The last update for Xbox 360 backwards compatibility in North America was on November 27, 2007, raising the total number of Xbox games compatible with the Xbox 360 to 461, which is approximately 51 % of the original Xbox library in North America. The latest European update was in November, 2007, with a total of 476 compatible games. The latest update for Japan was released on November 28, 2007, with 122 working games.
According to Microsoft, each game requires an emulation profile to run. These profiles are downloaded from Xbox Live, or are downloaded manually from Xbox.com and burned on CD or DVD recordable media. They were also distributed as part of the content on the Official Xbox Magazine monthly discs, which were discontinued in 2012. The profiles are downloaded as a single bundle, thus only needing to be applied once per update if doing so offline, or are automatically downloaded the first time a compatible game is inserted.
An official Xbox 360 hard disk is required to play any of the games on this list. The hard disk is used to store the emulation software, and also to store saved games, downloaded content, and to serve as a data cache for titles which utilize disk caching. Since games for the original Xbox were designed with the expectation that a hard drive always would be available, most titles rely heavily on its presence.
An early version of the emulator for playing Halo: Combat Evolved and Halo 2 offline initially was included with the Xbox 360 hard drive at launch. Xbox 360 hard drives manufactured later included updated emulation profiles which allow a greater range of titles to be played out - of - the - box without updating. Whenever new emulation profiles are released, drives manufactured after that date include the latest update.
The original Xbox controller is not compatible with Xbox 360 due to a different connector and marginally different button layout. Specifically, there are no white and black buttons on the 360 controller; they were replaced by the "bumpers '' found above the left and right triggers. When playing an Xbox game on Xbox 360 (using an Xbox 360 controller), the white button is mapped to the left bumper and the black button to the right.
In the following chart, any Xbox game with a "Yes '' will work in that region, and also in others which have "Yes ''. "Yes '' in the 60 Hz column indicates that the PAL title supports 60 Hz output mode, and thus is compatible with the Xbox 360 VGA cable.
A game with "Yes '' in the widescreen column has built - in support for widescreen, and will fill high - definition displays. If the widescreen column is "No '', pillar boxing is used to preserve aspect ratio on high definition displays (most HDTVs have an option to change or stretch the image to fill the screen). Note that all compatible games will stretch to widescreen, potentially distorting the aspect ratio, if the Xbox 360 is configured for standard definition (480i / 576i) or enhanced definition (480p / 576p). Certain games without the widescreen function can be "cheated '' into being widescreen by changing the screen resolution to 480p in the Xbox 360 display settings menu. Some games still will have small black over-scan lines on the sides of the screen.
Consistently runs slightly slower than normal speed.
Will only run in PAL60 / VGA if console is set to 640x480 and "normal '' screen format ("widescreen '' will not work).
Limited Edition Bonus Content Disc plays at a 16: 3 ratio which seems to be incorrect except for the Forza Motorsport demo. Most of the content in the LE Bonus Disc, including the Forza Motorsport demo, appear blurry in HD displays at 1080p. Forza Motorsport has flickering textures and artifacting in the sky texture and runs at a poor frame rate. The Mong Zhen bonus content installs correctly and is needed as the content is not installed with the emulator update, despite official claims. The Conker: Live and Reloaded and MechaAssault 2 demos (the latter being in the LE Bonus Content Disc) exit to the Xbox 360 Dashboard after "game not supported '' notice. Demos and Limited Edition bonus disc do not work for PAL60 and 50 Hz.
Note for PAL / NL users, Change the locale to ' United Kingdom ' and 50 Hz.
The first title screen appears black except for the "Press Start '' sign.
Geometry Wars shows some graphic artifacts making some "vectors '' to look blurry at any resolution or aspect ratio set in the dashboard. An Original Xbox does not show these artifacts even when the game is set to widescreen.
Sega GT suffers from reduced framerate, and some textures flashing black or transparent for a single frame. PAL version does not support VGA cables due to the 50 Hz start - up menu.
The game constantly changes from 720p at 4: 3 screen ratio (for menus) to 480p at 16: 9 ratio (for races); when an Xbox 360 is set to 720p or higher, it keeps the scaling at 4: 3 all the time, which results in a "crunched '' image. When set at 480p at 16: 9, it keeps widescreen at all times. It seems unable to load existing Sega GT 2002 save files and may also corrupt save files.
There 's also bad slow down / frame rate issues during multiplayer.
When an original Xbox game has been emulator patched in accordance to Microsoft instructions it still might refuse to play on the Xbox 360. The following error message displayed on the Xbox 360 dashboard signifies this failure:
This message is identical to the one displayed when trying to play an unsupported or unpatched game for the first time. At this time no reference to the significance of the X and B variables can be found on the Microsoft Xbox website. This may be related to international region compatibility; a Microsoft disclaimer notes
It should be noted that Microsoft terms the compatibility of Xbox titles on the Xbox 360 consoles as "backward compatibility '' or "reverse compatibility '', although in fact, it is the console that is being made backward / reverse compatible, and the titles are being made forward compatible.
Contrary to popular belief, custom soundtracks are still supported while playing Xbox games, though it requires connecting the 360 hard drive to the PC.
PAL games that do not support PAL - 60 ca n't be played using the VGA HD Cable.
Additionally, many listed Xbox titles still contain emulation errors or glitches. These are often minor, but they may include problems with graphics, sound, loading and saving, or gameplay as well. In some cases, Microsoft updated the emulation profiles for individual titles, and the incidence of these issues were reduced or eliminated.
Occasionally, switching from 720p / 1080i / 1080p mode to 480p will make a previously unplayable game workable (assuming it 's on the BC list). Changing the display setting, usually from widescreen to normal should fix any game on the list.
Currently, however, the only way to transfer saved files from the original Xbox to the 360 is through a special transfer kit which requires the original system 's memory card, or a ' modded ' Xbox, but without modding an Xbox, and this also limits saves that can be moved to those that can be stored on a memory card.
However, some game saves on the original Xbox can not be moved due to either file restrictions or size limitations.
Another limitation applies to downloadable content, as no content can be moved between systems.
After market hard drives can cause compatibility problems that are resolved when using genuine Microsoft hardware.
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what is meant by statutory body in india | Central Board of film Certification - Wikipedia
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) (often referred to as the Censor Board) is a statutory censorship and classification body under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It is tasked with "regulating the public exhibition of films under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1944 ''. Films can be publicly exhibited in India only after they are certified by the Board, including films shown on television. CBFC India is considered to be one of the most powerful film censor boards in the world due to its strict ways of functioning.
Though the first film in India (Raja Harishchandra) was produced in 1913 by Dadasaheb Phalke, the Indian Cinematograph Act was passed and came into effect only in 1920. Censor Boards (as they were called then) were placed under police chiefs in cities of Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata), Lahore (now in Pakistan) and Rangoon (now Yangon in Burma). Regional censors were independent. After Independence autonomy of regional censors was abolished and they were brought under the Bombay Board of Film Censors. With implementation of Cinematograph Act, 1953, the board was unified and reconstituted, as the Central Board of Film Censors. Cinematograph (Certification) Rules were revised in 1983 and since then the Central Board of Film Censors became known as the Central Board of Film Certification.
Films are certified under 4 categories. Initially, there were only two categories of certificates -- "U '' (unrestricted public exhibition) and "A '' (restricted to adult audiences). Two more categories were added in June 1983 -- "U / A '' (unrestricted public exhibition subject to parental guidance for children below the age of twelve) and "S '' (restricted to specialized audiences such as doctors or scientists). In addition to these certifications the board may also refuse to certify.
Films with the U certification are fit for unrestricted public exhibition, and are family friendly. These films can contain universal themes like education, family, drama, romance, sci - fi, action etc. Now, these films can also contain some mild violence, but it should not be prolonged. It may also contain very mild sexual scenes (without any traces of nudity or sexual detail).
Films with the U / A certification can contain moderate adult themes, that are not strong in nature and can be watched by a child under parental guidance. These films can contain some strong violence, moderate sex (without any traces of nudity or sexual detail), frightening scenes and muted abusive and filthy language.
Films with the A certification are available for public exhibition, but with restriction to adults. These films can contain heavily strong violence, strong sex (but full frontal and rear nudity is not allowed usually), strong abusive language (but words which insults or degrades women are not allowed), and even some controversial and adult themes considered unsuitable for young viewers. Such films are often recertified for TV and video viewing, which does n't happen in case of U and U / A certified movies.
Films with S certification should not be viewed by the public. Only people associated with it (Engineers, Doctors, Scientists, etc.), have permission to watch those films.
Additionally, V / U, V / UA, V / A are used for video releases with U, U / A and A carrying the same meaning as above.
In addition to the certifications above there is also the possibility of the board refusing to certify the film at all.
Guidelines for certification:
Since 2004, censorship is rigorously enforced. There have been reported instances where exhibitor 's staff - the booking clerk who sold the ticket, the usher who took minors to the seat, the theatre manager and the partners of the theatre complex - were arrested for non-compliance with certificate rules.
The Board consist of 25 other non-official members and a Chairperson (all of whom are appointed by Central Government). Prasoon Joshi currently presides the board, being appointed as the 28th Chairperson of the Board on 11 August 2017, after the ouster of Pahlaj Nihalani, who was preceded by Leela Samson who had resigned after the CBFC 's rejection of a certificate for the film MSG: Messenger of God was overturned by an appellate tribunal. Earlier, Leela Samson had succeeded Sharmila Tagore, who was the longest continuous running Chairperson in the history. Nihalani was the 27th Chairperson after the Board 's establishment. His appointment was highly controversial given his propensity for censoring films instead of merely certifying them.
The Board functions with its headquarters at Mumbai. It has nine Regional offices each at:
The Regional Offices are assisted in the examination of films by Advisory Panels. The members of the panels are nominated by Central Government by drawing people from different walks of life for a period of two years.
CBFC has been associated with various scandals. Movie producers reportedly bribe the CBFC to get ' U ' certificate to avail 30 % exemption in entertainment tax despite violent scenes and coarse dialogues.
In 2002, the film War and Peace, depicting scenes of nuclear testing and the September 11, 2001 attacks, created by Anand Patwardhan, was asked to make 21 cuts before it was allowed to have the certificate for release. Patwardhan objected, saying "The cuts that they asked for are so ridiculous that they wo n't hold up in court '' and "But if these cuts do make it, it will be the end of freedom of expression in the Indian media. '' The court decreed the cuts unconstitutional and the film was shown uncut. The same year, Indian filmmaker and former chief of the country 's film censor board, Vijay Anand, kicked up a controversy with a proposal to legalize the exhibition of X-rated films in selected cinemas across the country, saying "Porn is shown everywhere in India clandestinely... and the best way to fight this onslaught of blue movies is to show them openly in theatres with legally authorized licences ''. He resigned within a year after taking charge of the censor board after facing widespread criticism of his moves.
In 2003, CBFC banned the film Gulabi Aaina (The Pink Mirror), a film on Indian transsexuals produced and directed by Sridhar Rangayan. The censor board cited that the film was "vulgar and offensive ''. The filmmaker appealed twice again unsuccessfully. The film still remains banned in India, but has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won awards. The critics have applauded it for its "sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalised community ''.
In 2004, the documentary Final Solution, which looks at religious rioting between Hindus and Muslims, was banned. The film follows 2002 clashes in the western state of Gujarat, which left more than 1,000 people dead. The censor board justified the ban, saying it was "highly provocative and may trigger off unrest and communal violence ''. The ban was lifted in October 2004 after a sustained campaign.
In 2006, seven states (Nagaland, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) have banned the release or exhibition of the Hollywood movie The Da Vinci Code (and also the book), although the CBFC cleared the film for adult viewing throughout India. However, the respective high courts lifted the ban and the movie was shown in the two states.
The CBFC demanded five cuts from the 2011 American film The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo because of some scenes containing rape and nudity. The producers and the director David Fincher finally decided not to release the film in India.
In 2013, Kamal Haasan 's Vishwaroopam was banned from the screening for a period of two weeks in Tamil Nadu.
A CEO of CBFC was arrested in August 2014 for accepting bribes for speedy clearance.
In 2015, the CBFC demanded four cuts (three visual and one audio) from the art - house Malayalam feature film Chaayam Poosiya Veedu (The Painted House) directed by brothers Santosh Babusenan and Satish Babusenan because the film contained scenes where the female lead was shown in the nude. The directors refused to make any changes whatsoever to the film and hence the film was denied a certificate.
Chairperson of CBFC Leela Samson resigned alleging political interference after the CBFC 's rejection of a certificate for the film MSG: Messenger of God was overturned by an appellate tribunal. She was later replaced by Pahlaj Nihalani. His appointment caused more than half the board members to resign alleging Pahlaj Nihalani is close to the present ruling party.
CBFC was panned by social media for reducing two kissing scenes in the movie Spectre.
In 2016, the film Udta Punjab, produced by Anurag Kashyap and Ekta Kapoor among others, ran into trouble with the CBFC, resulting in a very public re-examination of the ethics of film censorship in India. The film, which depicted a structural drug problem in the state of Punjab, used a lot of expletives and showed scenes of drug use. The CBFC, on 9 June 2016, released a list of 94 cuts and 13 pointers, including the deletion of names of cities in Punjab. On 13 June, the film was cleared by the Bombay High Court with one cut and disclaimers. The court ruled that, contrary to the claims of the CBFC, the film was not out to "malign '' the state of Punjab, and that it "wants to save people ''. Thereafter, the film was faced with further controversy when a print of it was leaked online on a torrent site. The quality of the copy, along with the fact that there was supposedly a watermark that said "censor '' on top of the screen, raised suspicions that the CBFC itself had leaked the copy to spite the filmmakers. It also contained the only scene that had been cut according to the High Court order. While the CBFC claimed innocence, the lingering suspicions resulted in a tense release, with the filmmakers and countless freedom of expression advocates taking to social media to appeal to the public to watch the film in theatres, as a conscious challenge against excessive censorship on art in India. Kashyap himself asked viewers to wait till the film released before they downloaded it for free, stating that he did n't have a problem with illegal downloads, an unusual thing for a film producer to say. The film eventually released and grossed over $13 million finishing as a commercial success. In August 2017, soon after his removal as CBFC Chief, Nihalani revealed in an interview that he had received instructions from the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting to block the release of the film.
In 2017, the film Lipstick Under My Burkha directed by Alankrita Shrivastava and produced by Prakash Jha, also ran into trouble with the CBFC which refused to certify the film, stating that "The story is lady oriented, their fantasy above life. There are contagious (sic) sexual scenes, abusive words, audio pornography and a bit sensitive touch about one particular section of society. '' Internationally, the film had been screened in over 35 film festivals across the world and notably earned eleven international awards prior to its official release in India, becoming an eligible entry for the Golden Globe Award Ceremony. The filmmakers appealed this decision to the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT), which overruled the censor board 's ruling, thereby granting the film a theatrical release rights. FCAT asked the filmmakers to make some cuts, mostly related to the sex scenes, at their discretion. The film released with an "A '' or adults certificate, equivalent to an NC - 17 rating in the United States, with some voluntary edits. Shrivastava told Agence - France Presse: "Of course I would have loved no cuts, but the FCAT has been very fair and clear. I feel that we will be able to release the film without hampering the narrative or diluting its essence. ''
In August 2017, Pahlaj Nahalani was removed as the Chairperson of the CBFC. In an interview days after his removal, he revealed that the Government of India had, in at least two instances, issued direct instructions to the Board on blocking or delaying the release of particular films.
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what kind of plastic are shrinky-dinks made of | Shrinky Dinks - wikipedia
Shrinky Dinks are a children 's toy and activity kit consisting of large flexible sheets which, when heated in an oven, shrink to small hard plates without altering their color or shape. They reached the height of their popularity in the 1980s. Most sets are pre-printed with outline images of popular children 's characters or other subjects, which are then colored in before baking.
Shrinky Dinks were invented in 1973 by two housewives (Betty Morris and Kate Bloomberg) of Brookfield, Wisconsin, as a Cub Scout project with their sons. The first kits were sold at a local shopping mall and became very popular. Shrinky Dinks were soon licensed to be manufactured by the major toy companies of the time such as Milton Bradley, Colorforms, Western Publishing and Skyline Toys. The shrink plastic is still available from many retailers and can be used for anything from charms to pins.
The base material consists of thin, flexible polystyrene plastic (# 6) sheets. Prior to heating, the plastic sheets can be colored with felt - tip pens, acrylic paint, colored pencils, etc. and cut into shapes. However, oily or waxy substances (such as cheap colored pencils, crayons, or oil paint) are not suitable because they melt or burn in high heat. When heated with the Easy - Bake Oven, a conventional oven, or a heat gun, the plastic shrinks by about five - eighths and becomes thicker and more rigid, while retaining the colored design.
Although Shrinky Dinks are primarily an arts and crafts product marketed for children, many adult crafters and artists find the product to be suitable for jewelry making and other projects. Blank sheets are available in bulk for this purpose, and Shrinky Dinks have, rather unexpectedly, become a serious artistic medium.
In 2008, University of California, Irvine Professor Michelle Khine applied Shrinky Dinks to create tiny structures for the application of microfluidics to topics such as stem cell research.
In 2009, an art therapy supervision class at Emporia State University explored the use of Shrinky Dinks in art therapy. In 2014, Shrinky Dinks were presented as an art therapy media in a workshop at the American Art Therapy Association Conference.
In 2014, a team from Harvard University and MIT used Shrinky Dinks to create self - assembling robots.
In 1992, the California rock band Sugar Ray formed with the name "Shrinky Dinx '', but later changed it upon threat of lawsuit from Milton Bradley.
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who sings the song down in the valley | Down in the Valley (folk song) - wikipedia
"Down in the Valley '', also known as "Birmingham Jail '', is a traditional country - blues American folk song. It has been recorded by many artists, and is included in the Songs of Expanding America recordings in the Burl Ives six - album set Historical America in Song.
The verses mentioning "Birmingham Jail '' refer to the Birmingham City Jail which was known in the mid-1920s. According to one biographer of Lead Belly he performed it for Texas Governor Pat Neff at the Sugarland Penitentiary in 1924. Guitarist Jimmie Tarlton claimed to have written the lyrics in 1925 while he was jailed in Birmingham for moonshining. It was first recorded by Tarlton and his partner Tom Darby on November 10, 1927 in Atlanta, Georgia for Columbia Records.
It is a ballad played in the 3 / 4 time signature. Lyrics vary, as with most folk songs. For example, sometimes the line "Hang your head over, hear the wind blow '' is replaced by "Late in the evening, hear the train blow ''. In 1927, Darby and Tarlton sang "down in the levee '' in place of "down in the valley ''; the version sung by Lead Belly in 1934 substitutes "Shreveport jail '' for "Birmingham jail ''.
The song is the basis of the 1945 Kurt Weill and Arnold Sundgaard opera Down in the Valley.
It was performed on The Alvin Show and The Andy Griffith Show in 1962.
The author / songwriter David M. Pierce used selected lyrics from the song as titles for a series of detective novels written between 1989 and 1996: Down in the Valley, Hear the Wind Blow, Dear, Roses Love Sunshine, Angels in Heaven, Write Me a Letter and As She Rides By. The first four verses are featured in Catherine Marshall 's novel, Christy, before the prologue.
The song is sung in the movie Stir Crazy by the character Grossberger portrayed by Erland Van Lidth
Jim and Anna sing the song in Tille Olsen 's novel _Yonnondio_ as they arrive in the Dakotas. The 3 / 4 time and melancholy of the song contrast with the hope they are feeling as they arrive there.
The song is performed by Ronnie Cox (Ozark Bule) and David Carradine (Woody Guthrie) in the Academy Award winning film (Best Cinematography / Best Music - Score) "Bound For Glory '' (biography of Woody Guthrie) in the scene that takes place in a migrant fruit pickers camp. http://www.halashby.co.uk/page18.html
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when was the last time wales beat england at football | Wales national football team - Wikipedia
The Wales national football team (Welsh: Tîm pêl - droed cenedlaethol Cymru) represents Wales in international football. It is controlled by the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the governing body for football in Wales and the third - oldest national football association in the world.
Although part of the United Kingdom, Wales has always had a representative side that plays in major professional tournaments, though not in the Olympic Games, as the IOC has always recognised United Kingdom representative sides.
During their history, Wales have qualified for two major international tournaments. They reached the quarter - finals of the 1958 FIFA World Cup and reached the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2016. Wales also progressed through UEFA Euro 1976 qualifying to the quarter - final, which was played on a home and away leg basis but they did not feature in the finals tournament.
At all levels including the youth teams the Welsh national team draws players primarily from clubs in the English football league system. The main professional Welsh clubs play in the English leagues, with some full - time and part - time professional clubs playing in the Welsh football league system.
Wales played its first competitive match on 25 March 1876 against Scotland in Glasgow, making it the third oldest international football team in the world. Although the Scots won the first fixture 4 -- 0, a return match was planned in Wales the following year, and so it was that the first international football match on Welsh soil took place at The Racecourse Ground, Wrexham on 5 March 1877. Scotland took the spoils winning 2 -- 0. Wales ' first match against England came in 1879 -- a 2 -- 1 defeat at the Kennington Oval, London and in 1882 Wales faced Ireland for the first time, winning 7 -- 1 in Wrexham.
The associations of the four Home Nations met in Manchester on 6 December 1882 to set down a set of worldwide rules. This meeting saw the establishment of the International Football Association Board (IFAB) to approve changes to the rules, a task the four associations still perform to this day. The 1883 -- 84 season saw the formation of the British Home Championship, a tournament which was played annually between England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, until 1983 -- 84. Wales were champions on 12 occasions, winning outright seven times whilst sharing the title five times.
The FAW became members of FIFA, world football 's governing body, in 1906, but the relationship between FIFA and the British associations was fraught and the British nations withdrew from FIFA in 1928 in a dispute over payments to amateur players. As a result, Wales did not enter the first three World Cups. In 1932 Wales played host to the Republic of Ireland, the first time they played against a side from outside the four home nations. A year later, Wales played a match outside the United Kingdom for the first time when they travelled to Paris to take on France in a match which was drawn 1 -- 1. After World War II Wales, along with the other three home nations, rejoined FIFA in 1946 and took part in the qualifying rounds for the 1950 World Cup, the 1949 -- 50 Home Championships being designated as a qualifying group. The top two teams were to qualify for the finals in Brazil, but Wales finished bottom of the group.
The 1950s were a golden age for Welsh football with stars such as Ivor Allchurch, Cliff Jones, Alf Sherwood, Jack Kelsey, Trevor Ford, Ronnie Burgess, Terry Medwin and John Charles.
Wales made its only World Cup finals tournament appearance in the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden. However, their path to qualification was unusual. Having finished second to Czechoslovakia in qualifying Group 4 the golden generation of Welsh football managed by Jimmy Murphy seemed to have missed out on qualification but the politics of the Middle East subsequently intervened.
In the Asian / African qualifying zone Egypt and Sudan had refused to play against Israel following the Suez crisis, whilst Indonesia had insisted on meeting Israel on neutral ground. As a result, FIFA proclaimed Israel winners of their respective group. However, FIFA did not want a team to qualify for the World Cup finals without actually playing a match and so lots were drawn of all the second placed teams in UEFA. Belgium were drawn out first but they refused to participate and so then Wales was drawn out and awarded a two - legged play - off match against Israel with a place in Sweden for the winners.
Having beaten Israel 2 -- 0 at the Ramat Gan Stadium and 2 -- 0 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, Wales went through to a World Cup Finals tournament for the first and, so far, only time.
The strong Welsh squad made their mark in Sweden, drawing all the matches in their group against Hungary, Mexico and Sweden before defeating Hungary in a play - off match to reach the quarter - finals against Brazil. However, Wales ' chances of victory against Brazil were hampered by an injury to John Charles that ruled him out of the match. Wales lost 1 -- 0 with 17 - year - old Pelé scoring his first international goal. The goal made Pelé the youngest World Cup goalscorer and Brazil went on to win the tournament.
Wales ' remarkable campaign in Sweden was the subject of the best - selling book When Pele Broke Our Hearts: Wales and the 1958 World Cup (by Mario Risoli, St David 's Press) which was published on the 40th anniversary of the World Cup and was also the inspiration for a Bafta Cymru - nominated documentary.
Wales had never qualified for the finals tournament of the European Championships since its inception in 1960. However, in 1976 the team managed by Mike Smith reached the last eight of the competition, having finished top of qualifying group 2 ahead of Hungary, Austria and Luxembourg. Prior to 1980 only four countries qualified for the finals tournament and Wales were drawn to play against the winners of group 3 Yugoslavia on a home and away basis match. Wales lost the first leg 2 -- 0 in Zagreb and were knocked out of the competition having only managed a 1 -- 1 draw in a bad - tempered return leg at Ninian Park, Cardiff which was marred by crowd trouble. This led to Wales initially being banned from the 1980 tournament, subsequently reduced on appeal to a ban on qualifying games being played within 100 miles of Cardiff for four years. Yugoslavia went on to finish 3rd in the 1980 tournament.
The following year Wales defeated England on English soil for the first time in 42 years and secured their only victory to date at Wembley thanks to a Leighton James penalty. Another notable achievement came in the 1980 British Home Championship, as Wales comprehensively defeated England at The Racecourse Ground, Wrexham. Goals from Mickey Thomas, Ian Walsh, Leighton James and an own goal by Phil Thompson saw Wales beat England 4 -- 1 just four days after England had beaten the then - world champions, Argentina.
In the 1982 FIFA World Cup qualifiers the Wales team managed by Mike England came extremely close to qualification, a 3 -- 0 defeat against the USSR in their final game meant they missed out on goal difference, but the real damage had been done by their failure to beat Iceland in their last home game, the match eventually finishing 2 -- 2 after several hold - ups due to floodlight failures.
Mark Hughes marked his debut for Wales by scoring the only goal of the game as England were defeated once again in 1984. The following season, Hughes was again on target, scoring a wonder goal as Wales thrashed Spain 3 -- 0 at The Racecourse during qualification for the 1986 World Cup. However, despite beating Scotland 1 -- 0 at Hampden Park, it was again Iceland that wrecked Welsh hopes by beating Wales 1 -- 0 in Reykjavik and for the second World Cup in a row Wales missed out on goal difference. Wales had to win their last match at home to Scotland to be guaranteed at least a play - off, but were held to a 1 -- 1 draw in a match marred by the death of Scotland manager Jock Stein who collapsed from a heart attack at the end of the game.
Under Terry Yorath Wales attained their highest FIFA ranking until then of 27th in August 1993. Wales came close, once again, to qualifying for a major championship when they came within a whisker of reaching the 1994 World Cup. Needing to win the final game of the group at home to Romania, Paul Bodin missed a penalty when the scores were level 1 -- 1; the miss was immediately followed by Romania taking the lead and going on to win 2 -- 1.
Following the failure to qualify Yorath 's contract as manager of the national side was not renewed by the FAW and John Toshack, then manager of Real Sociedad, was appointed as a part - time manager. However, Toshack resigned after just one game -- a 3 -- 1 defeat to Norway -- citing problems with the FAW as his reason for leaving, although he was sure to have been shocked at being booed off the pitch at Ninian Park by the Welsh fans still reeling from the dismissal of Yorath. Mike Smith took the Wales manager role for the second time at the start of the Euro 96 qualifiers but Wales slipped to embarrassing defeats against Moldova and Georgia before Bobby Gould was appointed in June 1995.
Gould 's time in charge of Wales is seen as a dark period by Welsh football fans. His questionable tactics and public fallings - out with players Nathan Blake, Robbie Savage and Mark Hughes, coupled with embarrassing defeats to club side Leyton Orient and a 7 -- 1 thrashing by the Netherlands in 1996 did not make him a popular figure within Wales. Gould finally resigned following a 4 -- 0 defeat to Italy in 1999, and the FAW turned to two legends of the national team, Neville Southall and Mark Hughes to take temporary charge of the game against Denmark four days later, with Hughes later being appointed on a permanent basis.
Under Mark Hughes, Wales came close to qualifying for a place at UEFA Euro 2004 in Portugal, being narrowly defeated by Russia in the play - offs. The defeat, however, was not without its controversy as Russian midfield player, Yegor Titov, tested positive for the use of a banned substance after the first qualifying leg, a scoreless draw in Moscow. However, the sport 's governing body decided to take no action against the Football Union of Russia other than instructing them not to play Titov again, and the Russian team went on to beat Wales in Cardiff 1 -- 0 to qualify for UEFA Euro 2004.
Following a disappointing start to 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification -- UEFA Group 6, Hughes left his role with the national team to take over as manager of English Premier League outfit Blackburn Rovers. On 12 November 2004, John Toshack was appointed manager for the second time.
In UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying, Wales were drawn in Group D alongside Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Republic of Ireland, Cyprus and San Marino. The team 's performance was disappointing, finishing fifth in the group with expected defeat at home to Germany yet an unexpected draw away, a loss away and a goalless draw at home to the Czech Republic, a loss away and 2 -- 2 draw at home to the Republic of Ireland, a 3 -- 0 home win and uninspiring 2 -- 1 away win against minnows San Marino, a 3 -- 1 home win and 3 -- 1 away defeat against Cyprus, and a spectacularly mixed performance against Slovakia, losing 5 -- 1 at home and winning 5 -- 2 away. However, better performances towards the end of the competition by a team containing, of necessity because of injuries and suspensions of senior players, no fewer than five players who were eligible for selection for the Under - 21 squad was viewed as a hopeful sign of future progress for the team.
In 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification -- UEFA Group 4, Wales made a promising start, winning 1 -- 0 and 2 -- 0 against Azerbaijan and Liechtenstein, respectively. However, they lost their next game against Russia in Moscow, 2 -- 1, after Joe Ledley had briefly drawn them level. The qualifying campaign showed signs of promise when the team managed to prevent Germany from scoring for 74 minutes of their match in Mönchengladbach, but the match eventually finished 1 -- 0 to Germany. Two 2 -- 0 home defeats by Finland and Germany in Spring 2009 effectively put paid to Wales ' hopes of qualification.
Wales were drawn in UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group G with Montenegro, Bulgaria, Switzerland and close rivals England. Wales lost 1 -- 0 away to Montenegro in their opening game and, on 9 September 2010, John Toshack stood down as manager after being disappointed at previous results in 2010 against Croatia and the opening UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier.
The Wales Under - 21 coach Brian Flynn took over from Toshack as caretaker manager with a view to a possible permanent appointment but a 1 -- 0 home defeat to Bulgaria and 4 -- 1 away loss to Switzerland meant that the FAW passed over Flynn.
Gary Speed was appointed as permanent manager on 14 December 2010. Speed 's first game as Wales manager was 8 February 2011 in the inaugural Nations Cup, which the Republic of Ireland won 3 -- 0. Speed 's first competitive match was the Euro 2012 qualifier at home to England 26 March 2011 and Speed appointed twenty - year - old Aaron Ramsey captain, making Ramsey the youngest Wales captain. Wales lost to England 2 -- 0 and in August 2011 Wales attained their lowest FIFA world ranking of 117th. This was followed by a 2 -- 1 home win against Montenegro, a 1 -- 0 away loss to England, a 2 -- 0 home win against Switzerland and a 1 -- 0 away win against Bulgaria. Consequently, in October 2011, Wales had rapidly risen to 45th in the FIFA rankings. A 4 -- 1 home win in a friendly match versus Norway on 12 November 2011 proved to be Speed 's last match in charge of Wales. The match was a culmination of Speed 's efforts which led Wales to receive the unofficial award for biggest mover of 2011 in the FIFA rankings. His tenure as manager ended in tragic circumstances two weeks later when he was found dead at his home on 27 November, having apparently committed suicide.
Due to London 's successful bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, a Great Britain team would qualify as of right of being the host nation. However, the FAW stressed it was strongly against the proposal. Despite this, Welsh players Aaron Ramsey and Gareth Bale expressed their interest in representing the Great Britain Olympic football team. Bale was ultimately omitted due to injury, but Ramsey was joined by four other Welshmen in Stuart Pearce 's 18 - man squad; Swansea City 's Joe Allen and Neil Taylor. Manchester United 's Ryan Giggs and Liverpool 's Craig Bellamy were also included as over-age players, with Giggs being made captain.
Chris Coleman was appointed Wales team manager on 19 January 2012. For 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification, Wales were drawn in Group A with Croatia, Serbia, Belgium, Scotland and Macedonia. They lost their first game 2 -- 0, against Belgium. Their second game, against Serbia, was even worse -- finishing 6 -- 1 -- Wales 's worst defeat since the 7 -- 1 reversal to the Netherlands in 1996. In October 2012, Ashley Williams was appointed captain of Wales by Coleman, replacing Aaron Ramsey. Wales won at home against Scotland 2 -- 1, lost away to Croatia 2 -- 0, and won away against Scotland 2 -- 1 but a 2 -- 1 loss at home to Croatia ended Wales hopes of qualifying.
Wales were placed in Group B for qualifying for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament alongside Andorra, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus and Israel. In July 2015, following four wins and two draws Wales topped the group.
In July 2015, having attained their then highest FIFA ranking of 10th, Wales were placed among the top seeds for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification draw. Wales were drawn in Group D with Austria, Serbia, Republic of Ireland, Moldova and Georgia.
In September 2015, England dropped to 10th in the FIFA rankings making Wales in ninth the highest ranked British team for the first time. In October 2015, Wales attained their highest ever FIFA ranking of 8th. On 10 October 2015, Wales lost 2 -- 0 to Bosnia and Herzegovina but on the same evening Wales ' qualification for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament was confirmed after Cyprus beat Israel.
Wales had qualified for UEFA Euro 2016 in France, their first European Championship tournament, and were drawn into Group B with Slovakia, Russia and England. On their Euro debut, on 11 June against Slovakia at the Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux, Gareth Bale scored direct from a free kick to give Wales a 1 -- 0 lead, and Hal Robson - Kanu scored the winner in a 2 -- 1 victory that put them top of the group. In their second game, against England in Lens, Wales led 1 -- 0 at halftime through another Bale free - kick, but lost 2 -- 1. Against Russia at the Stadium Municipal in Toulouse, Ramsey, Neil Taylor and Bale scored in a 3 -- 0 win that made them win the group.
In their Round of 16 match at the Parc des Princes in Paris, Wales played Northern Ireland and won 1 -- 0 after Bale 's cross was put in as an own goal by Gareth McAuley. In the quarter - final against Belgium, Wales, the last remaining British team, went behind to a long - range effort from Radja Nainggolan, but captain Ashley Williams headed an equaliser before Hal Robson - Kanu and Sam Vokes confirmed a 3 -- 1 victory for Wales. This victory advanced Wales to their first major tournament semi-final and also made them the first British nation to advance to the semi-finals of a major tournament since England did so at Euro 1996 as hosts.
The first half of the semi-final against Portugal in Lyon went goalless, but goals from Cristiano Ronaldo and Nani early in the second half saw Portugal claim a 2 -- 0 win. Wales were welcomed back home on 8 July with an open - top bus parade around Cardiff, starting at Cardiff Castle and going past the Millennium Stadium before finishing at the Cardiff City Stadium.
In September 2016, Wales opened their 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign with a comfortable 4 -- 0 home win against Moldova. However, they followed this with a run of five consecutive draws away to Austria, at home to Georgia, both home and away against Serbia, and away to the Republic of Ireland. That run came to an end with a 1 -- 0 home victory over Austria on 2 September 2017, followed by a 2 -- 0 away victory against Moldova on 5 September and a 1 -- 0 away win over Georgia on 6 October. Wales finished third in their group due to a 1 -- 0 loss to the Republic of Ireland on 9 October and failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Chris Coleman resigned as Wales team manager on 17 November 2017 and was appointed team manager at Sunderland.
After nearly two months of managerial vacancy, former Wales national player, Ryan Giggs was named as their new manager. Giggs, who signed a four - year contract, would be charged with leading Wales ' preparations for the start of the 2018 -- 19 UEFA Nations League in September 2018, and qualification for UEFA Euro 2020.
During the period 2000 -- 2009, Wales played most of their home matches at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. The stadium was built in 1999 on the site of the old National Stadium, known as Cardiff Arms Park, as the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU) had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. Prior to 1989, Wales played their home games at the grounds of Cardiff City, Swansea City and Wrexham, but then came to an agreement with the WRU to use Cardiff Arms Park and, subsequently, the Millennium Stadium.
Wales ' first football match at the Millennium Stadium was against Finland on 29 March 2000. The Finns won the match 2 -- 1, with Jari Litmanen becoming the first player to score a goal at the stadium. Ryan Giggs scored Wales ' goal in the match, becoming the first Welshman to score at the stadium.
With the opening of the Cardiff City Stadium in 2009, the FAW chose to stage most home friendlies there, with other friendly matches played at the Liberty Stadium in Swansea and the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham. Qualifying matches continued to be played at the 74,500 capacity Millennium Stadium until the end of 2009, which was typically only around 20 -- 40 % full amid poor team results. This led to calls from fans and players for international matches to be held at smaller stadiums. For the Euro 2012 qualifying campaign, the FAW decided Wales would play all of their home ties at either the Cardiff City Stadium or the Liberty Stadium, with the exception of the home tie against England, which was played at the Millennium Stadium. The World Cup 2014 qualifying campaign saw four home games at the Cardiff City Stadium and one at the Liberty Stadium. Cardiff City Stadium 's capacity was increased to 33,000 in 2014 and all home matches for Euro 2016 qualifying were scheduled at the stadium and Wales subsequently qualified for the finals tournament in France. All five home qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA) were held at the stadium. Both of the team 's home UEFA Nations League 2018 home games are scheduled to take place at the Cardiff City Stadium, together with all home games in the Euro 2020 qualifying campaign, however a friendly against Spain will take place at the Principality Stadium in October 2018 which will be Wales ' first game at the stadium in just over 7 and a half years.
The following 25 players were called up for the UEFA Nations League matches against Republic of Ireland and Denmark on 6 and 9 September 2018. Caps and goals updated as of 28 May 2018 after the match against Mexico.
The following players have been called up for the Wales squad in the last 12 months.
= Retired = Withdrew = Preliminary
Wales present a Golden Cap to players attaining 50 international caps.
See: List of Wales international footballers.
Win Draw Loss
Live television broadcast rights are held by S4C (Welsh language commentary) and Sky Sports (English language commentary) for qualifiers, and BBC Sport for friendlies.
The primary kit has long been all - red. The crest of the Football Association of Wales features a Welsh Dragon on a white shield surrounded by 11 daffodils on a green background, and, since 1951, the Welsh - language motto Gorau Chwarae Cyd Chwarae ("The best play is team play '').
Prior to 1954 the Welsh team was chosen by a panel of selectors with the team captain fulfilling the role of coach.
CONCACAF and CFU:
Unrecognised:
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the time of day just after the sunsets | Sunset - wikipedia
Sunset or sundown is the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon as a result of Earth 's rotation. The Sun will set exactly due west at the equator on the spring and fall equinoxes, each of which occurs only once a year.
The time of sunset is defined in astronomy as the moment when the trailing edge of the Sun 's disk disappears below the horizon. Near to the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes the ray path of light from the Sun to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the Sun 's disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when a sunset is observed.
Sunset is distinct from twilight, which has three phases, the first being civil twilight, which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon, and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon; the second phase is nautical twilight, between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon; and the third is astronomical twilight, which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon. Dusk is at the very end of astronomical twilight, and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night. Night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky.
Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours.
Sunset creates unique atmospheric conditions such as the often intense orange and red colors of the Sun and the surrounding sky.
The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer 's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet 's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon 's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer 's latitude (connected with the Earth 's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer 's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth 's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).
Likewise, the same phenomenon exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the respective dates reversed, with the earliest sunsets occurring some time before June 21 in winter, and latest sunsets occurring some time after December 21 in summer, again depending on one 's southern latitude. For a few weeks surrounding both solstices, both sunrise and sunset get slightly later each day. Even on the equator, sunrise and sunset shift several minutes back and forth through the year, along with solar noon. These effects are plotted by an analemma.
Neglecting atmospheric refraction and the Sun 's non-zero size, whenever and wherever sunset occurs, it is always in the northwest quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox, and in the southwest quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunsets occur almost exactly due west on the equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunset on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.
As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth 's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun 's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion.
Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persist continuously for 24 hours.
As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees. Because the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam. At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange and red hues we see at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight 's wavelengths (> 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength - dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light). Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air.
Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface. Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen.
Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results.
In some languages, points of the compass bear names etymologically derived from words for sunrise and sunset. The English words "orient '' and "occident '', meaning "east '' and "west '', respectively, are descended from Latin words meaning "sunrise '' and "sunset ''. The word "levant '', related e.g. to French "(se) lever '' meaning "lift '' or "rise '' (and also to English "elevate ''), is also used to describe the east. In Polish, the word for east wschód (vskhud), is derived from the morpheme "ws '' -- meaning "up '', and "chód '' -- signifying "move '' (from the verb chodzić -- meaning "walk, move ''), due to the act of the Sun coming up from behind the horizon. The Polish word for west, zachód (zakhud), is similar but with the word "za '' at the start, meaning "behind '', from the act of the Sun going behind the horizon. In Russian, the word for west, запад (zapad), is derived from the words за -- meaning "behind '', and пад -- signifying "fall '' (from the verb падать -- padat '), due to the act of the Sun falling behind the horizon.
The 16th - century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun.
Sunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance of the planet from the Sun and non-existent or differing atmospheric compositions.
On Mars, the setting Sun appears about two - thirds the size it appears on Earth because of its greater distance from the Sun, but at least some Martian sunsets last significantly longer and appear far redder than is typical on Earth.
The reasons for the colors of the Martian sunset are different to the processes occurring on Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere, lacking oxygen and nitrogen, so the light scattering is not dominated by a Rayleigh Scattering process. Instead the air is full of red dust which is hoisted into the atmosphere from the ground by high speed winds so its sky color is mainly determined by a Mie Scattering process. One study also reported that Martian dust high up in the atmosphere can reflect sunlight up to two hours after the sun has set, casting a diffuse glow across the land.
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who is the guy that makes daredevils suit | Gladiator (Melvin Potter) - wikipedia
Gladiator (Melvin Potter) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Potter was initially depicted as a supervillain and one of the first enemies of the superhero Daredevil. In civilian life, he is a costume - designer at the Spotlight Costume Shop in New York City. He eventually reformed and became one of the staunchest supporters of Daredevil.
Melvin Potter is portrayed by Matt Gerald in the Marvel Netflix series Daredevil as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Gladiator first appeared in Daredevil # 18 (July 1966), and was created by Stan Lee and John Romita Sr.
Melvin Potter was a costume designer who had the deluded belief that he was far better than any superhero. In order to prove his point, he designed a suit of battle armor for himself, complete with deadly wrist blades, and became known as the Gladiator. He battled Daredevil in his first criminal outing, and then met the Masked Marauder, another enemy of Daredevil 's. Gladiator later appeared in Europe, where he fought Daredevil again, and was then invited to join the Maggia. He joined Electro 's Emissaries of Evil to attack Daredevil again. Later, Gladiator aided Whitney Frost in a raid of Stark Enterprises, where he first fought Iron Man.
Gladiator later battled Daredevil again. Some time later, he fought Daredevil aboard an airplane in flight. He later allied with the Death - Stalker, and later still allied with the Beetle. While under control of the Purple Man, he attacked Daredevil. Gladiator had one last battle against Daredevil before deciding to reform. He began undergoing therapy from Betsy Beatty, whom he later married.
Now reformed, the Gladiator later allied with Daredevil and Elektra against the Hand. Donning his Gladiator costume again, Potter met Spider - Man.
Potter was pressured into producing a Daredevil costume for a madman in the employ of the crime lord known as the Kingpin, but Murdock comes to tell him to play along. Potter later donned his Gladiator costume again to discourage a youth from a life of crime.
He was later forced into working for the Kingpin 's elderly predecessor Alexander Bont, who claimed that Potter had a four - year - old daughter that he had never met and that she would die if Potter did not help. Gladiator brought Murdock to Bont, who attempted to kill Murdock and assume his old mantle but instead died of a drug - induced heart attack. The Gladiator was defeated by the new White Tiger, and went back to prison.
Gladiator is accused of murdering two fellow inmates and Matt Murdock 's law firm is defending him. Murdock 's super-senses indicate that he is telling the truth when he claims he is innocent. However, at the end of the issue, taunted by another inmate, Gladiator snaps his handcuffs and brutally assaults the inmate and a corrections officer, only to surrender to another officer and claim once again that he did n't do it. Later, after being broken out of an armored car, Melvin beats a confused Daredevil and moves to the sewers, heading for his Gladiator costume. Gladiator then goes on a rampage in Chinatown killing innocent people and then attacking Matt and Milla in a restaurant. After being knocked out, Matt reawakens in a police car to hear a voice that Gladiator will murder his wife. Matt finds the Gladiator and Milla, rescues Milla, and defeats the Gladiator. Melvin realizes what he has done and attempts suicide, but is saved by Daredevil. Potter is taken back to prison, and is heavily sedated after repeatedly banging his head against the wall. It is revealed that Mr. Fear had secretly administered chemicals to Potter that caused him to go irreversibly insane with rage.
Gladiator has no superhuman abilities. However, he is a superb martial arts fighter and is very physically powerful. He wore a thick metal armor with a helmet and metallic gauntlets, and was armed with an arsenal of edged weapons and whirling, jagged circular sawblades made of titanium steel, one mounted on each gauntlet. Small rotors in the gauntlets cause the blades to rotate at high speeds, and the whirling blades could also be detached to serve as short - range missile weapons.
In civilian life, Potter is an accomplished clothing designer, proficient in drafting, design and sewing.
In the House of M universe, Gladiator appears as an assassin of the Kingpin.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Gladiator has a cameo appearance. He appears as an enemy of Spider - Man and is a crazed madman obsessed with "the emperor. ''
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when do agent booth and bones get together | Temperance "Bones '' Brennan - wikipedia
Temperance "Bones '' Brennan, Ph. D. (born Joy Keenan) is a fictional character portrayed by Emily Deschanel in the American Fox television series Bones. An anthropologist, forensic anthropologist, and kinesiologist, she is described in the series as a leading authority in the field of forensic anthropology. Brennan first appeared on television, along with other series characters, in the "Pilot '' episode of Bones on September 13, 2005. She is the main protagonist of the series along with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth (David Boreanaz).
Brennan is loosely based on author Kathy Reichs. Her name originates from the heroine in Reichs 's crime novel series, also named Temperance Brennan. The main similarity the two share is their occupation as forensic anthropologists. Brennan appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters. She was included in AfterEllen.com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. Her relationship with Seeley Booth was listed in Entertainment Weekly 's "30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They? ' TV Couples ''.
Temperance "Bones '' Brennan is a forensic anthropologist who works in the Medico - Legal lab at the Jeffersonian Institute in Washington, D.C. She received her Ph. D. from Northwestern University, as stated in "The Girl in the Fridge ''. She has three doctorates, as referred to by Dr. Jack Hodgins in the episode "The Parts of the Sum in the Whole '', in anthropology, forensic anthropology and kinesiology; it is implied that most of her work at the lab was related to either long - dead bodies or victims of genocide.
Her occasional contract work for the FBI shifted the focus of her work. She was paired with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth, and helped to solve two difficult cases; since then, they have worked together almost exclusively on modern - day murder cases.
Brennan works with a group of other well - qualified colleagues, including the entomologist Jack Hodgins, her boss and forensic pathologist Camille Saroyan, forensic artist Angela Montenegro, and a host of eager graduate students. Booth refers to her crew of colleagues as "squints '', because they come to crime scenes and squint at evidence. He is also responsible for her nickname, "Bones '', which she initially detested.
In the first - season finale (which aired on May 17, 2006), Brennan stated that she was born in 1976, which would have made her either 29 or 30 (approximately the same age as Deschanel, who was born on October 11, 1976). In the fifth - season episode "The Death of the Queen Bee '' (which aired nearly four years later, on April 15, 2010), it is implied that her then - current age was 33 years (based on Brennan 's identification of a former high school classmate as the victim and statement that the classmate was 33).
First mentioned in season 1, Brennan has a love of dolphins, which she shared with her late mother: in the season one finale, "The Woman in Limbo '', Brennan examines a custom - made belt with a dolphin on the buckle, which had belonged to her mother, and which she mentions having once borrowed without asking first. Brennan 's love of dolphins is highlighted again in season 2 episodes "The Titan on the Tracks '', "The Killer in the Concrete '' and "Stargazer in a Puddle '', when she mentions the constellation Delphinus, (the Dolphin), her and her mother 's favorite. In season 6, "The Doctor in the Photo '', she is shown to wear a dolphin ring.
In "Mummy in the Maze '', Brennan exhibited ophidiophobia when confronted with snakes, but later only shows a moment of fright when confronted with another snake in "The Mastodon in the Room ''. She takes note of this, voicing her observation that she only seems to lose her head around snakes when Booth is also "there to be jumped upon '', and also she mentions that she once had a pet snake during high school. It should also be noted that, in "The Man in the Morgue, '' Brennan handled a snake without any trace of fear, even while Booth is in the room.
In season one, in "A Man on Death Row '', Dr. Brennan expresses her stance on the death penalty; "I believe in the death penalty. There are certain people who should n't be in this world. The people who hacked hundreds of innocent children to death in Rwanda; beheaded them at their desks at school! The people who did that, they should be executed. '' In "The Woman at the Airport '', Dr. Brennan is shown to have a strong dislike for plastic surgeons, believing them to be no more than "glorified butchers with medical degrees '', and this dislike is voiced again in season 4, in "Cinderella in the Cardboard ''. In "The Woman in the Car '', Dr. Brennan reveals that her third doctorate is in kinesiology, a field that would allow her and Angela to unravel how one of the bodies that had been found had been killed.
In season two, she expressed the desire to get a pet pig, whom she would have named "Jasper ''. Brennan 's expertise in kinesiology would again prove its worth in "The Truth in the Lye '' (she could tell that one of the murder suspects was pregnant just from having observed her gait), in "The Girl with the Curl '' (she could tell if one of the young beauty pageant contestants was suffering from scoliosis just by watching them perform on stage), and in "The Woman in the Sand '' (while undercover with Booth, she was able to tell Booth exactly how to beat his opponent from just having watched his moves). In "Judas on a Pole '', she and her brother are identified as having the same blood type, blood type O. In "Glowing Bones in the Old Stone House '', she is shown to be a good cook: Booth 's comment on her mac and cheese is that he 'd "like to be alone with it ''.
In the season 3 episode, "Mummy in the Maze '', it is revealed that Brennan 's favorite superhero is Wonder Woman, and that she always goes as Wonder Woman to the Jeffersonian 's Halloween party. In "The Baby in the Bough '', it is revealed that Brennan is a registered foster parent, at her brother 's request, to take in his stepdaughters in case anything should happen to him and his girlfriend. In the season 3 episode, "Intern in the Incinerator '', Booth reveals that Brennan 's favorite flower is a Daffodil, her second favorite flower is a Daisy, and her favorite planet is Jupiter.
In season 5, in "The Death of the Queen Bee '', when asked if she 'd had a pet rat, Brennan discloses that she, in fact, had a pet mouse, snake and some spiders. During her time at Burtonsville high school, her only friend was the school custodian, Ray Buxley, with whom she would enjoy long, in - depth conversations on life and death, and who would also provide her with dead animals to dissect (Brennan having set out to become a forensic anthropologist,) and who would later be one of her books ' biggest fans (she having named the killer in her first book, Bred in the Bone, after him). According to the Burtonsville high school on - line yearbook entry on Brennan, in her senior year, she was a member of the Chemistry club and Math club, her interests were chemistry and mathematics, and she was a National Merit Scholar and an Academic All Star.
In the season 6 episode, "The Blackout in the Blizzard '', Brennan mentions her pet iguana for the first time. This same episode show that one of the number of scientific publications that Brennan reads is Medicinal Physics Quarterly, with one article on electrostatics and triboluminescence proving useful during the lab 's power outage. Further concerning her pet iguana in "The Truth in the Myth '', as a part of his rehab from alcohol abuse, Vincent Nigel - Murry made apologies for, among other things, having borrowed her iguana one night, wearing him as a hat for a party. She comments that he must have taken good care of her iguana as she has observed nothing wrong with him and further expresses some surprise that Vincent Nigel - Murry was able to get her iguana to stay perched atop his head, to which he replies that he was good with ribbons.
In season 8, "The Tiger in the Tale '', Booth mentions to Sweets that Dr. Brennan once took Peyote with Native Americans.
In season 11, "The Senator in the Street Sweeper '', Dr. Brennan is mentioned to be a member of the Green Party of the United States along with Dr. Hodgins.
Although Brennan seemed to have a relatively normal childhood, her parents disappeared when she was 15 years old. Her older brother Russ, himself still an adolescent, was unable to care for her and she was put in the foster care system. By the time she started college she had been to twelve different schools and has specifically said that she hated the lack of consistency.
There has been contradictory evidence about her time in the system; in one episode, Brennan stated that her grandfather got her out of the foster system, but in a later episode, she indicates that she never knew her grandparents (possibly the two references are to two separate sets of grandparents, paternal and maternal). However, taking into consideration the fact that Brennan 's parents had assumed new identities when she was 3 - years - old, the grandfather who had taken her in from her time in the foster system may not have been her biological grandfather.
Her time in foster care was quite traumatic and abusive; Brennan indicated that she was once locked in the trunk of a car for two days because she broke a plate, and in the episode "The Finger in the Nest '', she reveals to Booth that she walked into her elderly neighbor 's house to find the woman dead. In the same episode, she also mentions to Booth that her parents were very concerned about her afterwards, because she started faking her own death. In Season 2, she mentions that during her time in the foster care system, she kept a list of foster homes she had been kicked out of on the bottom of her shoe.
In the first season she hands Booth the file on her parents ' disappearance and he agrees to look into it as a personal favor. It is later revealed in Season 2 that her parents, who were bank robbers specializing in safety deposit boxes, changed the family 's identity after they stole some damaging FBI documents regarding the murder of an FBI agent and the false imprisonment of civil rights activist Marvin Beckett. Brennan 's birth name was Joy Keenan. Her mother (real name Ruth Keenan, known under the assumed identity of Christine Brennan) had hoped to someday return to her children and family, but made a tape for Brennan to watch on her 16th birthday in case that never happened. Brennan later discovered that Ruth / Christine was murdered in 1993, two years after she and her husband went on the run.
Her father Max Keenan re-entered Brennan 's life when she and her brother were being threatened by an old acquaintance, who turned out to be Booth 's boss, Deputy Director Kirby. Max evades capture after killing Kirby, and takes Russ into hiding to protect him. Later, Max allows Booth to arrest him in order to improve his relationship with his daughter. At trial, Max is acquitted of murdering Director Kirby (due in large part to a defense Booth indirectly came up with, positing an alternate theory of the crime in which Temperance was the killer instead, creating reasonable doubt), and he begins to rebuild his life.
He temporarily works at the Jeffersonian as a guide for children visiting the place and demonstrates his brilliant talent as a former science teacher. However, Brennan is concerned about a convicted felon having access to a lab that investigates crimes. Max also introduces Brennan to her cousin Margaret Whitesell, portrayed by Deschanel 's real - life sister Zooey Deschanel.
Brennan is best friends with her coworker, Angela, saying in the 6th - season premiere she loves Angela "like a sister '' and is going to be an aunt to Hodgins ' and Angela 's newborn child. It is revealed at the end of the season six finale "The Change in the Game '' that Brennan is pregnant and the father is Booth.
In Season 7, episode 2 "The Hot Dog in the Competition '', Brennan and Booth found out they were having a baby girl. Their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named for Brennan 's mother and her best friend), was born in a stable during the episode "The Prisoner in the Pipe ''. In the Season 7 finale, "The Past in the Present '', key evidence in the death of her friend, Ethan Sawyer, is linked to Brennan. Max convinces her to go on the run along with Christine, saying that if she is arrested, even if she is found innocent, she may never see her daughter again.
In Season 8 premiere, it is revealed that while on the run, Brennan was communicating with Angela, via flowers, and eventually used this as a way to communicate with Booth. Despite being on the run, Brennan risks her safety and decides to meet directly with Booth in a hotel room after months of being a single mother. Eventually, they arrest Christopher Pelant, who was the real murderer of Ethan Sawyer, and Brennan is allowed to return to her family. Although Pelant blackmails Booth to prevent him from accepting Brennan 's proposal by threatening to kill five innocent people if Booth accepted, also warning Booth not to give a reason for his refusal, this threat is removed when the team manage to kill Pelant, and Booth and Brennan marry in the Season 9 episode ' The Woman in White '.
In the Season 10 episode, "The Eye in the Sky '', Brennan learns that she is pregnant with her and Booth 's second child.
Throughout the course of the series, Brennan is portrayed as a straightforward, brilliant anthropologist, who lacks social skills. Her social ineptitude is especially apparent when it comes to sarcasm, metaphors which she often interprets literally, and pop culture jokes and is often the source of comedy in the show. An example of this is when she mistakes Colin Farrell for Will Ferrell. In earlier seasons, she was characterized as straightforward and unable to detect social cues -- she states that Booth once told her that she "stinks at non-verbal communication '' -- and was well - known within the FBI for being extremely difficult to work with. She began to acknowledge her lack of sensitivity after Booth bluntly told her outright that she was "bad with people '' in "A Boy in a Tree ''. Her lack of "political savvy '' and social skills was also a reason why she was passed over for Dr. Camille Saroyan as head of the Jeffersonian in Season 2. Other characters have described her as "no fun '' and "a rigid traditionalist ''.
She had a difficult adolescence, and it is implied, often by Sweets, that her withdrawn social tendencies are a defense mechanism. She also sometimes struggles in identifying and explaining her emotions, and takes comfort in the rationality of her anthropological discipline. Although it has been stated that Brennan was based on a person with Asperger syndrome, this has never been confirmed in the plot of the series. The creator of the series has stated that the character was never labeled as having the syndrome in order to increase the appeal of the show on network television. This influence on her character also helps to explain her extreme rationality in early seasons, as well as some of her social difficulties. Brennan is a self - proclaimed atheist and often points out what she believes to be the irrationality of religious and spiritual beliefs. This has led to more than one argument with Booth, who is a devout Roman Catholic; he becomes particularly irate when she compares less common religions, such as voodoo, to Christianity. During the Sleepy Hollow crossover episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales '', Sleepy Hollow protagonist Ichabod Crane notes that Brennan is so sceptical that she would dismiss the demon Moloch -- the primary antagonist in the first two seasons of Sleepy Hollow -- as nothing more than a tall man with a skin condition, although this does leave him reassured that she will not realise the nature of the secret tomb they have uncovered underneath the White House.
Brennan is a bestselling author, who has been on the New York Times Best Seller List for 18 weeks. She is trained in three types of martial arts, has hunting licenses in four states, and has a legally registered gun as well as a diving certificate. She promised to consider becoming a vegetarian after seeing how pigs were slaughtered (which was also the way her mother had been killed). However, in "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken '' (season 5, episode 6) Angela cites health reasons for Brennan 's vegetarian diet. Brennan is also a trained amateur highwire performer, and speaks at least seven other languages, including Spanish, French, Latin, Chinese, Pashto Japanese, Norwegian (although she says only "skull '' and avers that, as a forensic anthropologist, this is a word she knows "in just about every language ''), Farsi, and German. She has also admitted to knowing a bit of Russian. She often says she does not "put much stock in psychology '' and makes a point of noting that Dr. Sweets is not a real scientist as he "bases his life on the vagary of psychology and emotions ''.
Brennan 's personality undergoes significant changes throughout the course of the series. Her thinking becomes less rigid in later seasons, something which is observed by Dr. Gordon Wyatt, who notes that she is now able to distinguish the difference between accuracy and truth. In season 4, Booth takes her along to his interrogations and helps her learn how to set aside her scientific perspective and relate with the victim 's family and suspects on a more interpersonal level. She is also able to put aside her rationality to support her friends in sometimes irrational pursuits, such as Angela 's quest to raise money to save a pig from slaughter, and to comfort Booth, even using science or quoting directly from the Bible to rationalize his religious beliefs. Her sensitivity and empathy towards others are also much improved, seen quite strongly when she comforts his grandfather, and when she attends a funeral so that the victim 's single mother wo n't be alone. She also displays more "typical '' human emotions when in extreme stress. One example of this is her fear of snakes in "The Mummy in the Maze, '' when a girl is in the process of being scared to death in a room, the floor teeming with snakes. This goes against her empirical nature, as, when Booth tells her that the snakes are n't venomous, she states that she is aware, but still refuses to step in the room, causing Booth to carry her on his back.
Brennan begins to feel both dissatisfaction and discomfort with her work toward the end of the fifth season. She also sees some futility in her work, stating that no matter how many killers they catch, there will always be more. To help her gain new perspective, she later decides to head up an anthropological expedition to Indonesia for a year to identify some ancient proto - human remains, after mulling it over during the episode. However, 7 months later, she and everyone else return to D.C. in order to save Cam 's job, and they all decide to stay.
As season 6 progresses, Brennan must confront her feelings for Booth, whom she rejected in the 100th episode from the previous season. Having returned from 7 months of introspection, she has come to terms with her romantic affection towards him, even admitting that she regretted not having given them a chance together, midway through the season. However, Booth returns from Afghanistan with a new love interest, war correspondent Hannah Burley, whom Brennan befriends. When Hannah rejects Booth 's marriage proposal, Brennan must help him through the emotional fallout.
In the second to last episode of season 6 Booth and Brennan had sex, consummating their relationship, and it is revealed in the last few moments of the season finale that as a result, Brennan has become pregnant, with Booth the father. Throughout the episode ("The Change in the Game '') Brennan has been seen asking Angela questions and making comments that make her seem excited and apprehensive; when she sees that Booth is happy with the news, she also seems overjoyed. This reflects her earlier desire to become a mother, circa season 4, as well as her desire that Booth be the father of the baby.
In the Season 8 episode "The Shot in the Dark '', Brennan is shot while working in the lab late at night. While undergoing emergency surgery, she experiences a vision of meeting with her deceased mother, Christine Brennan. Initially dismissing this as a hallucination, Brennan experiences several more visions throughout the episode. During these discussions, it 's revealed that Brennan 's hyper rationalization originates from the very last piece of advice her mother gave to her (before going on the run) which was to use her brain instead of her heart. While that advice enabled Brennan to survive all these years, the vision of her mother explains, it 's now time for Brennan to do more than just survive.
Since entering a relationship with and marrying Booth and then having children, the character has undergone development personally and is shown to be a caring wife and protective mother. She would often put aside her own atheistic views and uses her hyper - rationality to justify Booth 's religious beliefs, as shown in season 8 where she references the Bible in order to persuade Booth to forgive his mother and in the season finale where she agrees to a church wedding, rationalizing that she could appreciate the "beauty '' of the ceremony and its significance to Booth.
Brennan has had a number of relatively short relationships, including an ill - fated date with a man who turned out to be a murderer and the re-kindling of a romance with her former thesis supervisor. She has stated that although she does not always feel the need for a committed emotional relationship, she has engaged in casual relationships to "satisfy biological urges ''. In one episode, she was spending time with two men, one for his intelligence and the other for his sexual skills. In Season 5, episode "The Plain in the Prodigy '', she tells Booth she lost her virginity at the age of 22 and when asked why she waited so long, she said it was because the decision was "important to her ''. FBI psychologist Lance Sweets postulates in a number of episodes that Brennan 's apprehension over having relationships is largely due in part to the abandonment and abuse she experienced as a teenager after her parents disappeared. It is said that she "hides '' herself behind a front of hyper - rationalism and she always keeps people at arms ' length, except for those closest to her (namely FBI partner Seeley Booth and best friend Angela Montenegro). After much character growth, Temperance Brennan is now married to her principal love interest of the series Seeley Booth, and they have a daughter (Season 7) and a son together.
FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth is Brennan 's husband and partner, and the principal liaison between the Jeffersonian and law enforcement agencies. Prior to their marriage, he is also Brennan 's principal love interest throughout the series. Although his working style initially clashed with Brennan 's, they have since become full - fledged partners. Their compatibility has become one of the central points of the show, with many new characters mistaking them for a couple and co-workers, especially Angela, constantly speculating that they were "more than partners ''. Booth and Brennan have repeatedly risked their safety to save each other, including when Booth took a bullet meant for Brennan. After Booth rescues Brennan from the corrupt Agent Kenton, Booth lifts her off the hook she was hung on by putting her tied hands around his neck even though he himself was severely injured. In "Two Bodies in the Lab '', in season 1, and in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle '', in season 5, Brennan and Booth 's mutual love for Foreigner 's Hot Blooded is mentioned; Booth even refers to it as ' their song ' in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle ''. Brennan once commented to Dr. Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) that she "(could n't) think of anything (she) would n't do to help Booth. '' Brennan 's novels are also dedicated to him and the character Special Agent Andy Lister is based on him even though she still denies it.
Initially Brennan was mostly dismissive of Booth due to their opposing worldviews and work styles -- which is a source of friction and banter between them. Although she refused to admit it at first, Brennan enjoyed working with him from the beginning, even after their falling out when Booth got her drunk and "fired '' her, and, in Season 1, she cajoled him into launching an investigation after finding three bone fragments on a golf course so he could work with the Jeffersonian team on the case despite the fact that the FBI technically had no jurisdiction. She often unknowingly offends him on a number of occasions during the first few seasons with her tactlessness, only realizing after being gently admonished by Angela or another member of the team. She comes to admire his ability to connect with people and read behavioral cues when interrogating suspects after coming to terms with her own lack of social skills. After finding out about his abusive childhood and haunted past in the Army, she also begins to respect him as a person. Booth, who is particularly taciturn in revealing emotions or speaking about his past, begins to open up to and confide in her. Since entering a relationship with (and eventually marrying) Booth, she is shown to be extremely supportive of him, even at the expense of her friendship with Angela. Additionally, she put aside her own misgivings several times for Booth 's benefit; for example, she agrees to have Christine christened into the Catholic church and referenced the Bible when trying to talk Booth into forgiving his mother.
Brennan acquired the nickname "Bones '' from Booth. She initially disliked it but comes to regard it with affection. Booth and his son Parker are the only characters in the show she permits to use it and the former rarely addresses her by her first name or "Tempe ''.
In Season 2 Brennan shot and killed a person for the first time while working on a string of murders connected to serial killer Howard Epps. She was forced to pull the trigger after Epps ' accomplice attacked and injured Booth with a pipe. At the end of the episode she confides in Booth of her conflicted feelings and finds comfort in the fact that Booth understood how she felt.
The relationship between Brennan and Booth has often become strained when either partner has a significant other. For example, Booth was quite irritable when Brennan dated Agent Sully, and their relationship was also strained when Booth 's brother Jared was showing an interest in Brennan. Brennan constantly needled Booth while he was dating Tessa.
When Brennan decided that she wanted to have a baby, she asked Booth if he would be the sperm donor. He agrees to Brennan 's request at first, but subsequently struggles with the thought of not being involved in the life of his prospective child. Eventually he tells Brennan he can not let her have his child if he is not allowed to be a father to it. Soon thereafter, it is discovered that he has a (benign) brain tumour. He has to undergo surgery, and though the surgery is successful, a poor reaction to anesthesia left him in a coma for several days. While in his coma, Brennan reads to him from her new novel, and he has an elaborate dream in which Brennan is his wife and that she is pregnant, and that the staff at the Jeffersonian play the characters in the novel. When he awakens, he initially suffers from amnesia, not recognizing Brennan.
Although for the majority of the series Booth and Brennan denied that their relationship was anything more than friendly professionalism, they admitted to Dr. Sweets that they kissed and nearly spent the night together after their very first case together. After this discussion, Booth attempted to convince Brennan to give a relationship a try. However, she declined, telling him that she, unlike him, is not a gambler, and is n't able to take that kind of a chance. They have subsequently attempted to date other people, although the fact that Booth once comments that he regards Brennan as his "standard '' for other women suggests that he, at least, has not completely moved on. Brennan does admit to her best friend Angela Montenegro that as time has gone on, she is unsure if she wants to keep doing consulting work for the FBI, citing that she is tired of murderers and victims, and is constantly worried that something will happen to Booth and she will be unable to save him. In the climax of Season Five, Brennan and Booth part ways for a year -- he goes to Afghanistan while she leaves for the Maluku Islands in Indonesia -- but they promise to meet, one year from that day, at the Lincoln Memorial.
In the beginning of season six (7 months later), they reunite in the stated place. Booth came back from Afghanistan, along with everyone else from various places, to help save Cam 's job. They all decided to stay. Booth has a serious new girlfriend, Hannah, and despite the hints of her colleagues at Brennan 's unconscious jealousy of their relationship, she vehemently denies feeling uncomfortable with the new situation. Through subsequent episodes her jealousy and resentfulness began becoming more apparent as Hannah and Booth started becoming more serious. In the episode "The Doctor in the Photo '', Brennan realizes she is in love with Booth and confronts him, but she is let down when Booth says that he loves Hannah and she is not a "consolation prize '', prompting Brennan to conclude that she has missed her chance, later reflecting that she should move on. In episode 10 of the sixth season "The Body in the Bag '', Booth tells his girlfriend about the incident, stating that it (his love for Temperance) was all in the past and whatever he felt, he does not feel it anymore, except for Hannah. However it was clear in the following episode that he still has feelings for Brennan.
Despite her apparent resolve to move on, Brennan later showed sorrow when her father noted that he always thought she and Booth would end up together. During a subsequent case involving a polygamist who would spend the night with his first wife on the night he was scheduled to sleep alone, Booth commented that, while you can love several people, there is only ever one person you love the most, prompting Brennan to ask what happens when you push that person away, something Booth answered saying that it never truly leaves, adding further weight to the implication that he still has feelings for Brennan. Following Hannah 's departure, the two have begun to reconnect, to the point that, during a case that saw the two trapped in an elevator during a blackout for several hours, Booth and Brennan admitted that they are each interested in a relationship, but require more time to sort out their own feelings before they make such a commitment.
In episode 22 of season 6, "The Hole in the Heart '', which saw the death of Vincent Nigel - Murray (Brennan 's favorite intern) at the hands of renegade sniper Jacob Broadsky, Booth has Brennan stay at his apartment for her safety. Later that night, Brennan, still overcome with shock and grief over Vincent 's death, goes into Booth 's bedroom and they talk about the events of that day, and then allows Booth to hold her in bed. It is implied in the following day that they had sex. In the last scene of the season 6 finale, "The Change in the Game '', after the birth of Angela and Hodgins ' son, Brennan tells Booth that she is pregnant and that he is the father.
At the start of Season 7, a very pregnant Brennan and Booth are a couple but are going back and forth between apartments. Booth suggests that they should have their own place, whereas Brennan wants Booth to move into her apartment. It causes a minor rift between them, but is resolved when Booth admits why he wants to move into a new house and Brennan having some time to think over it says it 's a good idea because she 'd need him practically, emotionally and sexually. In episode 6, "The Crack in the Code, '' they decide to buy a two - story house in the suburbs -- which they jokingly called "The Mighty Hut '' -- that Booth found at a police auction and renovate it, (according to a mailed check sent to Brennan in "The Heiress in the Hill '', in season 9, the "Mighty Hut '' 's address is "1297 Janus Street, Washington DC, 20002 ''). In episode 7, "The Prisoner in the Pipe '', Brennan goes into labor inside a prison just as she discovers who killed in an inmate there and Booth rushes her out with the intention to take her to the nearest hospital, but they both know she wo n't make it in time. This leads them to driving to an inn close to the prison. At first, they are rejected and are told to leave, but after some desperate pleading from an agonized Brennan, the two of them are led to a stall where she gives birth to their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named after Temperance 's mother, Christine Brennan, and Temperance 's best friend Angela Montenegro). Some time after the delivery, Temperance and Seeley both go back to their home where they celebrate with their friends from the Jeffersonian, who brought dinners that would last a few nights as well as a few baby supplies. In "The Past in the Present '', Brennan becomes the prime suspect in the murder of her schizophrenic friend, Ethan Sawyer, after supposedly threatening to kill Christine. Max advises Brennan to get off the grid and go into hiding, but she and Booth do not follow up at this suggestion. However, at the end of the episode, after Christine is christened in a Catholic church, it is revealed Brennan decided to take her father 's advice and flee with her daughter until her name is cleared. Just before Brennan flees town with Christine, she tells Booth she loves him and not just because of their daughter. After she is cleared of Sawyer 's murder, Brennan, Booth and Christine resume their family life.
At the end of Season 8, Brennan finally decides to marry Booth. However, their plans are ruined when a vengeful Christopher Pelant blackmails Booth, threatening to kill five random people if Booth marries Brennan. Booth calls off the wedding, but does not explain the real reason to Brennan. Brennan is devastated but pretends to be fine with this. In the season 9 premiere, Brennan fears that since Booth turned down her proposal, she fears that the love from their life is fading. After talking with bartender Aldo Clemens, a former priest and Army chaplain Booth confessed to, she realizes that it was uncharacteristic for Booth to suddenly cancel the wedding as he believed in marriage and that he likely had a legitimate reason to do so. Despite her colleagues ' anger at Booth, she decides to stay with him, telling him that she understands that he has his reasons and has faith that he will resolve the issue. In the episode 4, "The Sense in the Sacrifice '', after Booth singlehandedly tracks Pelant down through an abandoned building and kills him with a single gunshot, he reveals to her that Pelant had blackmailed him. Pelant had threatened to kill five innocent people if Booth continued with the wedding or went to the police or FBI. At the end of the episode he proposes and she happily accepts; unknown to them, Caroline, Angela and Hodgins witnessed it via the security cameras. In "The Woman in White '', Booth and Brennan marry at a small garden ceremony outside the Jeffersonian.
Their infant son Hank Jr. (named after Booth 's grandfather) was born off - screen sometime after season 10 and before the beginning of season 11.
Brennan had a brief relationship with FBI Agent Tim Sullivan (Eddie McClintock), also known as Sully, whom she met while on a case when Booth was in therapy due to his grief - induced rage over his self - perceived role in the death of serial killer Howard Epps. Sully asked Dr. Brennan out on a date after their case was completed, and they began a relationship. Their relationship ended, however, when Sully decided to sail a boat down to the Caribbean, and Brennan declined to leave the Jeffersonian to go with him despite Angela trying to persuade her to follow him; psychiatrist Doctor Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) speculated that this was due to Brennan being unable to live a life without purpose. Despite Dr. Wyatt 's original perception as to why she stayed, there exist strong indications, especially through Angela 's observations of the situation, that the real reason she stayed was because of Booth. Sully returns in Season 12.
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where does paul blart mall cop take place | Paul Blart: Mall Cop - wikipedia
Paul Blart: Mall Cop is a 2009 American action comedy film directed by Steve Carr and co-written by Kevin James, who stars as the title character, Paul Blart. Filming began in February 2008 with most of the shooting taking place at the Burlington Mall in Burlington, Massachusetts. The film opened in the United States on January 16, 2009, distributed by Columbia Pictures. Against a budget of $26 million, it grossed $31.8 million in its opening weekend and finished with a gross of more than $146 million in North America and a worldwide total exceeded $183 million. Paul Blart: Mall Cop was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and UMD on May 19, 2009. A sequel, Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2, was released on April 17, 2015.
Paul Blart lives in West Orange, New Jersey with his teenage daughter, Maya, and elderly mother, Margaret. Aspiring to join the New Jersey State Police, he trains at the police academy, but his hypoglycemic medical condition causes him to collapse, therefore failing the exam. To shape things up for his career, Blart works as a security guard at the West Orange Pavilion Mall.
Blart patrols the mall on a Segway to assure that things are safe and clean. He goes to the surveillance room and trains Veck Simms, who is new but uninterested on the job. Meanwhile, Blart eventually becomes acquainted with Amy Anderson, the vendor of a new kiosk. He meets her one evening at a party at Joe 's American Bar and Grill with other mall employees. Things initially go well, but Blart is sidetracked when he decides to participate in a nacho - eating contest with Leon. The hot and spicy salsa is more than Blart can handle, and he begins chugging down several alcoholic beverages causing him to become excessively drunk and incoherent. He ruins the party and makes a wild exit by falling through a window.
Two days later, on the night of Black Friday, an organized gang of thugs disguised as Santa 's Village employees begin what appears to be a bank heist inside the mall. They take Amy and other customers in the bank hostage. Simms is revealed as the gang 's leader -- his mall security job was a ploy to gather intelligence. They are keeping the hostages as insurance for the gang 's escape. The crew forces shoppers to exit the mall and strategically places motion sensors around each entrance to detect any attempt to enter or exit the building.
Blart takes a break in the arcade and plays "Detroit Rock City '' via Rock Band. He eventually walks back out in the mall, and discovers the entire mall is evacuated and under a state of emergency. Upon realizing this, he calls the police, and slips out of the mall to speak with Commander Sergeant Howard. Blart realizes Amy is still inside after spotting her car in the parking lot, and decides to return to the mall to look for her. A state SWAT team soon arrives with Commander James Kent at the helm. Kent, a former classmate and bully from Blart 's childhood, takes control of the police units and orders Blart to let them handle the situation. After spotting Amy as one of the hostages, Blart refuses and attempts a rescue. Vastly outnumbered and physically outclassed, Blart takes a stand against Simms ' crew using improvised measures to take them down one by one. He discovers credit card codes written in invisible ink on the burglars ' arms and realizes that their real plans go beyond robbing the bank.
Maya, unaware of what has happened, shows up at the mall on her way to bring Blart some food, but Simms ' remaining henchmen seize her, and add her to the hostage group. Blart manages to arrest all of Simms ' accomplices and attempts to evacuate the hostages by pulling them up through an air vent. The plan fails when Leon can not fit. Simms enters the room, capturing Blart and forcing him to give up the credit card codes he recorded on his cell phone. Simms escapes, taking Anderson and Maya with him. As police swarm the mall to apprehend the criminals and rescue the hostages, Blart borrows a display minivan and joins Kent in pursuing Simms to the airport, where he is attempting to escape to the Cayman Islands.
After a brief scuffle, Blart overpowers Simms and puts him in handcuffs. Moments later, however, Kent pulls his gun on Blart, revealing that he was in cahoots with Simms. Kent demands the phone containing the codes from Blart, who refuses, and destroys the phone. Before Kent can retaliate by shooting Blart, Chief Brooks of the mall security team arrives in time, and shoots Kent in the arm. Kent and Simms are arrested, and Anderson and Maya are returned safely. For his bravery and assistance, Howard offers Blart a job with the New Jersey State Police. Blart honorably declines, opting to remain in mall security. Blart and Anderson are eventually married in the mall, where they exchange vows on a set of black and white Segways.
Production began in late February 2008 in Boston. Principal photography took place at the Burlington Mall in Burlington, Massachusetts after being denied a permit from Willowbrook Mall in Wayne, New Jersey. From late February until mid-April, the mall and its stores were decorated with Christmas decorations, and there was a large prop ball - pit in the main foyer of the mall near the Sears branch, and a Santa 's Village at the opposite end near the Macy 's branch where the mall usually puts its own Santa 's Village. Interior filming took place mostly at night. Some of the aerial stunts, such as Blart being attacked in the scenic elevator, were performed at the South Shore Plaza in Braintree, MA, as the Burlington Mall 's construction did not allow for some of these stunts.
On the film - critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 33 % based on 112 reviews, with an average rating of 4.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Paul Blart: Mall Cop has some laughs, but its plot is flimsy and lacking in any sustained comic momentum. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 39 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Though many critics panned the film, one notable exception was Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times, who gave it three stars out of four, praising the film 's "wholesome '' comedy.
The film ranked # 1 at the domestic box office with $9,791,368 from 3,144 theaters for an opening day average of $3,105. During the film 's entire three - day opening weekend, the film remained at the top spot, grossing a total of $31,832,636, with a per screen average of $10,125, outgrossing its $26 million budget. It grossed $39,234,238 over the entire four - day MLK weekend, for a four - day average of $12,479. The film was the second best opening of all - time for the MLK weekend, behind 2008 's Cloverfield. The film stayed at number one in its second weekend, grossing another $21,623,182, dropping just 32 %, and boosting the ten day income to $64,923,380. In its third weekend it dropped to second place with $13,872,751, a 36 % decline from the last weekend, for an average of $4,327 from 3,206 theaters, bringing the seventeen day gross to $83,247,655. In its fourth weekend, it dropped to fifth place with $10,884,825, a drop of 22 % from the last weekend, for an average of $3,435 from 3,169 theaters, and bringing the 24 - day tally to $96,886,687. In its fifth weekend (President 's Day weekend), it dropped to sixth place, making another $10,983,319 over the three - day span, actually increasing 1 %, for an average of $3,704 from 2,965 theaters, and bringing the 31 - day total to $109,787,819, having broken the $100 million mark on Friday February 13. Over the four - day President 's Day weekend, it made $13,574,027 for an average of $4,578, and bringing the 32 - day cume to $112,388,524. The film closed on Monday, May 25, 2009, with a final domestic gross of $146,336,178, with the three - day opening weekend making up 21.75 % of the total gross (26.81 % for the four - day opening weekend). The film has also so far made $36,625,591 internationally, bringing the total worldwide gross to $183,293,131, against a modest $26 million budget.
Paul Blart: Mall Cop was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and UMD on May 19, 2009. The DVD sold 1,817,747 copies, making US $ 29,411,146 for the week of May 24, 2009, having only been out for six days, and it ranked # 1 for DVD sales that week as well. For the week of May 31, 2009, it again made # 1 on the US DVD Charts as it sold an additional 553,681 copies and making US $9,921,964 for a total of 2,834,826 units sold with earnings of US $46,676,902 as of November 1, 2009. As of November 1, 2009, when combined with box office results and total DVD sales, the film has grossed a total of US $227,126,523.
On January 29, 2009, it was reported that Sony was interested in making a sequel to the film. On January 7, 2014, the studio announced they are moving forward with the sequel with shooting scheduled to begin in April 2014. It was also reported that Andy Fickman was in talks to direct the sequel, and that Kevin James would be returning to star in the film and co-write the script with Nick Bakay. On April 17, 2015, the sequel was released.
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who was the french leader the diplomats were trying to meet with | XYZ Affair - wikipedia
The XYZ Affair was a political and diplomatic episode in 1797 and 1798, early in the administration of John Adams, involving a confrontation between the United States and Republican France that led to an undeclared war called the Quasi-War. The name derives from the substitution of the letters X, Y and Z for the names of French diplomats Hottinguer (X), Bellamy (Y), and Hauteval (Z) in documents released by the Adams administration.
An American diplomatic commission was sent to France in July 1797 to negotiate problems that were threatening to break out into war. The diplomats, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry, were approached through informal channels by agents of the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand, who demanded bribes and a loan before formal negotiations could begin. Although such demands were not uncommon in mainland European diplomacy of the time, the Americans were offended by them, and eventually left France without ever engaging in formal negotiations. Gerry, seeking to avoid all - out war, remained for several months after the other two commissioners left. His exchanges with Talleyrand laid groundwork for the eventual end to diplomatic and military hostilities.
The failure of the commission caused a political firestorm in the United States when the commission 's dispatches were published. It led to the undeclared Quasi-war (1798 to 1800). Federalists who controlled the government took advantage of the national anger to build up the nation 's military. They also attacked the Jeffersonian Republicans for their pro-French stance, and Elbridge Gerry (a nonpartisan at the time) for what they saw as his role in the commission 's failure.
In the wake of the 1789 French Revolution, relations between the new French Republic and the American administration of President George Washington became strained. In 1792, France and the rest of Europe went to war, a conflict in which Washington declared American neutrality. However, both France and Great Britain, the major naval powers in the war, seized ships of neutral powers (including those of the United States) that traded with their enemies. With the Jay Treaty, ratified in 1795, the United States reached an agreement on the matter with Britain that angered members of the Directory that governed France. The French Navy consequently stepped up its efforts to interdict American trade with Britain. By the time John Adams assumed the presidency in early 1797, the matter was reaching crisis proportions. In March 1797, not long after assuming office, President Adams learned that Charles Cotesworth Pinckney had been refused as U.S. minister because of the escalating crisis, and that American merchant ships had been seized in the Caribbean. Popular opinion in the United States on relations with France was divided along largely political lines: Federalists took a hard line, favoring a defensive buildup but not necessarily advocating war, while Republicans expressed solidarity with the Republican ideals of the French revolutionaries and did not want to be seen as cooperating with the Federalist Adams administration. Jefferson looked at the Federalists as monarchists who were linked to Britain and therefore hostile to American values.
In late May 1797 Adams ' cabinet met to discuss French relations and to choose a special commission to France. Adams initially proposed that John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry join Pinckney on the commission, but his cabinet objected to the choice of Gerry because he was not a strong Federalist. Francis Dana was chosen instead of Gerry, but he declined to serve, and Adams, who considered Gerry one of the "two most impartial men in America '' (he himself being the other), submitted his name to the United States Senate in Dana 's stead without consulting his cabinet. Adams, in introducing the matter to Congress, made a somewhat belligerent speech in which he called for a vigorous defense of the nation 's neutrality and expansion of the United States Navy, but stopped short of calling for war against France. Congress approved this choice of commissioners, and Adams instructed them to negotiate similar terms to those that had been granted to Britain in the Jay Treaty. The commissioners were also instructed to refuse loans, but to be flexible in the arrangement of payment terms for financial matters. Marshall left for Europe in mid-July to join Pinckney, with Gerry following a few weeks later. The political divisions in the commission 's makeup were reflected in their attitudes toward the negotiations: Marshall and Pinckney, both Federalists, distrusted the French, while Gerry (who was then opposed to political parties) was willing to be flexible and unhurried in dealing with them.
The French Republic, established in 1792 at the height of the French Revolution, was by 1797 governed by a bicameral legislative assembly, with a five - member Directory acting as the national executive. The Directory was undergoing both internal power struggles and struggles with the Council of Five Hundred, the lower chamber of the legislature. Ministerial changes took place in the first half of 1797, including the selection in July of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand as foreign minister. Talleyrand, who had recently spent a few years in the United States, was openly concerned about the establishment of closer ties between the U.S. and Britain. The Directory, generally not well - disposed to American interests, became notably more hostile to them in September 1797, when an internal coup propelled several anti-Americans into power. These leaders, and Talleyrand, viewed President Adams as hostile to their interests, but did not think that there was significant danger of war. In part based on advice imparted to French diplomats by Thomas Jefferson, Talleyrand decided to adopt a measured, slow pace to the negotiations.
The American commission arrived in Paris in early October, and immediately requested a meeting with Talleyrand. After an initial brief meeting (in which Talleyrand only provisionally accepted the commissioners ' credentials), a longer meeting was held a week later. Talleyrand sought from the commissioners an explanation for the speech Adams had made in May, which had angered Directory members; his motivation was to determine how favorably the commissioners were disposed to the negotiations. If they responded in an unfavorable manner, the Directory would refuse to accept their credentials. The commissioners first learned of Talleyrand 's expected demand on October 14 through an indirect channel. They decided that no explanation would be given for Adams ' speech.
What followed were a series of meetings that took place outside formal diplomatic channels. On October 17, Nicholas Hubbard, an Englishman working for a Dutch bank used by the Americans (and who came to be identified as "W '' in the published papers), notified Pinckney that Baron Jean - Conrad Hottinguer, whom Hubbard described only as a man of honor, wished to meet with him. Pinckney agreed, and the two men met the next evening. Hottinguer (who was later identified as "X '') relayed a series of French demands, which included a large loan to the French government and the payment of a £ 50,000 bribe to Talleyrand. Pinckney relayed these demands to the other commissioners, and Hottinguer repeated them to the entire commission, which curtly refused the demands, even though it was widely known that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes to deal with Talleyrand. Hottinguer then introduced the commission to Pierre Bellamy ("Y ''), whom he represented as being a member of Talleyrand 's inner circle. Bellamy expounded in detail on Talleyrand 's demands, including the expectation that "you must pay a great deal of money. '' He even proposed a series of purchases (at inflated prices) of currency as a means by which such money could be clandestinely exchanged. The commissioners offered to send one of their number back to the United States for instructions, if the French would suspend their seizures of American shipping; the French negotiators refused.
Not long after this standoff, Talleyrand sent Lucien Hauteval ("Z '') to meet with Elbridge Gerry. The two men knew each other, having met in Boston in 1792. Hauteval assured Gerry of Talleyrand 's sincerity in seeking peace, and encouraged him to keep the informal negotiations open. He reiterated the demands for a loan and bribe.
A week later (notably after the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio, which ended the five - year War of the First Coalition between France and most of the other European powers), Hottinguer and Bellamy again met with the commission, and repeated their original demands, accompanied by threats of potential war, since France was at least momentarily at peace in Europe. Pinckney 's response was famous: "No, no, not a sixpence! '' The commissioners decided on November 1 to refuse further negotiations by informal channels. Publication of dispatches describing this series of meetings would form the basis for the later political debates in the United States.
The commissioners soon discovered that only unofficial channels were open to them. Over the next several months, Talleyrand sent a series of informal negotiators to meet with and influence the commissioners. Some of the informal avenues were closed down (Gerry, for instance, informed Hauteval that they could no longer meet, since Hauteval had no formal authority), and Talleyrand finally appeared in November 1797 at a dinner, primarily to castigate the Americans for their unwillingness to accede to the demand for a bribe.
In late November Talleyrand began maneuvering to separate Gerry from the other commissioners. He extended a "social '' dinner invitation to Gerry, which the latter, seeking to maintain communications, planned to attend. The matter heightened distrust of Gerry by Marshall and Pinckney, who sought guarantees that Gerry would limit any representations and agreements he might consider. Despite seeking to refuse informal negotiations, all of the commissioners ended up having private meetings with some of Talleyrand 's negotiators.
The commissioners eventually divided over the issue of whether to continue informal negotiations, with the Federalists Marshall and Pinckney opposed, and Gerry in favor. This division was eventually clear to Talleyrand, who told Gerry in January 1798 that he would no longer deal with Pinckney. In February Talleyrand gained approval from the Directory for a new bargaining position, and he maneuvered to exclude Marshall from the negotiations as well. The change in strategy alarmed a number of American residents of Paris, who reported the growing possibility of war. Around this time Gerry, at Talleyrand 's insistence, began keeping secret from the other commissioners the substance of their meetings.
All three commissioners met with Talleyrand informally in March, but it was clear that the parties were at an impasse. This appeared to be the case despite Talleyrand 's agreement to drop the demand for a loan. Both sides prepared statements to be sent across the Atlantic stating their positions, and Marshall and Pinckney, frozen out of talks that Talleyrand would only conduct with Gerry, left France in April. Their departure was delayed due to a series of negotiations over the return of their passports; in order to obtain diplomatic advantage, Talleyrand sought to force Marshall and Pinckney to formally request their return (which would allow him to later claim that they broke off negotiations). Talleyrand eventually gave in, formally requesting their departure. Gerry, although he sought to maintain unity with his co-commissioners, was told by Talleyrand that if he left France the Directory would declare war. Gerry remained behind, protesting the "impropriety of permitting a foreign government to (choose) the person who should negotiate. '' He however remained optimistic that war was unrealistic, writing to William Vans Murray, the American minister to The Netherlands, that "nothing but madness '' would cause the French to declare war.
Gerry resolutely refused to engage in further substantive negotiations with Talleyrand, agreeing only to stay until someone with more authority could replace him, and wrote to President Adams requesting assistance in securing his departure from Paris. Talleyrand eventually sent representatives to The Hague to reopen negotiations with William Vans Murray, and Gerry finally returned home in October 1798.
While the American diplomats were in Europe, President Adams considered his options in the event of the commission 's failure. His cabinet urged that the nation 's military be strengthened, including the raising of a 20,000 man army and the acquisition or construction of ships of the line for the navy. He had no substantive word from the commissioners until March 1798, when the first dispatches revealing the French demands and negotiating tactics arrived. The commission 's apparent failure was duly reported to Congress, although Adams kept secret the mistreatment (lack of recognition and demand for a bribe) of the diplomats, seeking to minimize a warlike reaction. His cabinet was divided on how to react: the general tenor was one of hostility toward France, with Attorney General Charles Lee and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering arguing for a declaration of war. Democratic - Republican leaders in Congress, believing Adams had exaggerated the French position because he sought war, united with hawkish Federalists to demand the release of the commissioners ' dispatches. On March 20, Adams turned them over, with the names of some of the French actors redacted and replaced by the letters W, X, Y, and Z. The use of these disguising letters led the business to immediately become known as the "XYZ Affair. ''
The release of the dispatches produced exactly the response Adams feared. Federalists called for war, and Democratic - Republicans were left without an effective argument against them, having miscalculated the reason for Adams ' secrecy. Congress authorized the acquisition of twelve frigates, and made other appropriations to increase military readiness. Despite calls for a formal war declaration, Adams steadfastly refused to ask Congress for one. On July 7, 1798, Congress annulled the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, and two days later authorized attacks on French warships.
Federalists used the dispatches to question the loyalty of pro-French Democratic - Republicans; this attitude contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, restricting the movements and actions of foreigners, and limiting speech critical of the government. Federalists were otherwise divided on the question of war, and the Democratic - Republicans painted hawkish Federalists as warmongers seeking to undermine the republic by military means.
Elbridge Gerry was placed in a difficult position upon his return to the United States. Federalists, spurred by John Marshall 's accounts of their disagreements, criticized him for abetting the breakdown of the negotiations. These bitterly harsh and partisan comments turned Gerry against the Federalists, and he eventually ended up joining with the Democratic - Republicans in 1800.
When news reached France of the publication of the dispatches and the ensuing hostile reaction, the response was one of fury. Talleyrand was called to the Directory to account for his role in the affair. He denied all association with the informal negotiators, and enlisted the assistance of Gerry in exposing the agents whose names had been redacted, a charade Gerry agreed to participate in. In exchange Talleyrand confirmed privately to Gerry that the agents were in fact in his employ, and that he was, contrary to statements made to the Directory, interested in pursuing reconciliation. President Adams later wrote that Talleyrand 's confession to Gerry was significant in his decision to continue efforts to maintain peace. Gerry, in his private report on the affair to Adams in 1799, claimed credit for maintaining the peace, and for influencing significant changes in French policy that lessened the hostilities and eventually brought a peace treaty.
The warlike attitude of the United States and the start of the Quasi-War (a naval war between the two countries that was fought primarily in the Caribbean) convinced Talleyrand that he had miscalculated in his dealings with the commissioners. In response to the diplomatic overtures he made to William Vans Murray in The Hague, President Adams sent negotiators to France in 1799 who eventually negotiated an end to hostilities with the Treaty of Mortefontaine (whose negotiations were managed in part by Marshall, then Secretary of State) in September 1800. This agreement was made with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, who had overthrown the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, and it was ratified by the United States Senate in December 1801.
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bridget jones diary who does she end up with | Bridget Jones 's Diary (film) - wikipedia
Bridget Jones 's Diary is a 2001 romantic comedy film directed by Sharon Maguire and written by Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding. It is based on Fielding 's novel of the same name, which is a reinterpretation of Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice. The adaptation stars Renée Zellweger as Bridget, Hugh Grant as the caddish Daniel Cleaver, and Colin Firth as Bridget 's "true love '', Mark Darcy. Production began in August 2000 and ended in November 2000, and took place largely on location in London and the Home Counties. The film premiered on 4 April 2001 in the United Kingdom and was released to theatres on 13 April 2001 simultaneously in the United Kingdom and in the United States.
Bridget Jones 's Diary received positive reviews and was a commercial success, grossing over $280 million worldwide. Zellweger was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the film. A sequel, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, was released in 2004, and another sequel, Bridget Jones 's Baby, was released in 2016.
Bridget Jones (Renée Zellweger) is 32 years old, single, very accident - prone, and worried about her weight. She works in publicity at a book publishing company in London where her main focus is fantasising about her boss, Daniel Cleaver (Hugh Grant). At a New Year party hosted by her parents, she re-encounters Mark Darcy (Colin Firth), the barrister son of her parents ' friends. They had known each other as children. After their initial encounter, Mark thinks that Bridget is a fool and vulgar and Bridget thinks that he is arrogant and rude, and is disgusted by his novelty Christmas jumper. After overhearing Mark grumble to his mother about her attempts to set him up with "a verbally incontinent spinster who smokes like a chimney, drinks like a fish and dresses like her mother '', she decides to turn her life around. She starts her own diary, which covers all her attempts to stop smoking, lose weight and find her Mr. Right.
Bridget and Daniel begin to flirt heavily at work, first over email, ahead of an important book launch, at which Bridget bumps into Mark and his glamorous but haughty colleague Natasha (Embeth Davidtz). Bridget leaves with Daniel and they have dinner, despite the fact that he is a notorious womaniser with a questionable personality, of which Bridget is aware. Bridget learns from Daniel that he and Mark have a history and, as a result, hate each other. Daniel informs Bridget of their falling - out, telling her that Mark broke their friendship by sleeping with Daniel 's fiancée.
Bridget is invited to a family party, and she takes Daniel along as her "plus one ''. They spend the day before the party at a country house hotel, where Mark and Natasha are also staying. Daniel, having to spend the day working, is not able to attend and sends Bridget to the party alone. However, his dubious character becomes clearer to Bridget when she returns home from the party to find Daniel with another woman, a colleague of his, Lara (Lisa Barbuscia), and Bridget cuts ties with him soon after. Bridget begins to search for a new job and after landing a job in television, quits her role at the publishing house without giving notice. Daniel makes a desperate attempt to convince Bridget to stay, only for her to retort that she would "rather have a job wiping Saddam Hussein 's arse. ''
Bridget has a long - standing invitation to a friend 's dinner party, where she is the only single person and distraught to see Mark and Natasha seated at the table. During the party, Mark privately confesses to Bridget that, despite her faults, he likes her "just as you are. '' He later helps Bridget to achieve an exclusive TV interview in a landmark legal case.
Bridget begins to develop feelings for Mark, and he comes to her rescue at her birthday dinner party at her flat in Borough, which she is disastrously attempting to cater for herself. Daniel drunkenly visits, temporarily claiming Bridget 's attention. Mark leaves the party, but returns to face Daniel. Mark punches Daniel and the two fight. They end up in a nearby restaurant and finally smash through the window, landing on the street. Mark wins the battle and knocks Daniel out. Bridget chides Mark for being mean and he leaves, but after an insensitive appeal by Daniel, she also rejects him emphatically.
In the meantime, Bridget 's mother, Pamela (Gemma Jones) temporarily leaves Bridget 's father, Colin (Jim Broadbent) and begins an affair with a perma - tanned shopping channel presenter named Julian. After the affair is over and she has reconciled with Colin, she returns to the Jones family home and unintentionally reveals a truth: that Mark and Daniel 's falling - out resulted from Daniel (who was Mark 's best friend at Cambridge University) seducing Mark 's wife, not the other way around, as Daniel had led Bridget to believe.
At the Darcys ' ruby wedding anniversary party the same day, Bridget confesses her feelings for Mark, only to find out that he and Natasha are both leaving to accept jobs in New York. Bridget interrupts the toast to their pending engagement with a stuttering but moving speech about England losing one of its finest men. Her words clearly have an effect on Mark, but he still flies to New York, though with obvious misgivings. Bridget 's friends rally to repair her broken heart with a surprise trip to Paris, and just as they are about to leave, Mark appears at Bridget 's flat.
When they are about to kiss for the first time, Bridget goes to her bedroom to change into sexier underwear. While Bridget is changing, Mark peeks at her diary, in which she has written many insults about him. Bridget returns to find that he has left. Realising that he had read her diary and that she might potentially lose him again, Bridget runs outside after him in the snow with a thin sweater and tiger skin - print underwear. Unable to find him, she is disheartened and is about to return home when Mark appears having bought a new diary for Bridget in order "to make a fresh start. '' They kiss in the snow - covered streets. Bridget then notes that "nice boys do n't kiss like that, '' to which Mark, contrary to his uptight nature, retorts "Oh yes they fucking do. ''
Also, Salman Rushdie and Jeffrey Archer have cameos in the film, which pokes fun at Archer 's hack writer reputation. Honor Blackman also has a cameo as a party guest. Christopher Kouros also made an appearance as the singing Greek chef in the restaurant fight scene.
Andrew Davies, screenwriter of the 1995 television adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 Bridget Jones films, in which Crispin Bonham - Carter (Mr. Bingley) and Lucy Robinson (Mrs. Hurst) appeared in minor roles. The self - referential in - joke between the projects convinced Colin Firth to accept the role of Mark Darcy, as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his Pride and Prejudice character.
Working Title Films acquired the film rights of the novel in 1997 before it became a best - seller.
Actresses who were considered for the role of Bridget Jones were Helena Bonham Carter, Cate Blanchett, Emily Watson, Rachel Weisz and Cameron Diaz. Toni Collette declined the role because she was on Broadway starring in The Wild Party at the time. Kate Winslet was also considered, but the producers decided she was too young. Zellweger 's participation to the film was announced in late May 2000 which concluded a two - year search. Producer Eric Fellner explained that she "brings enormous character and conviction to the part ''. Maguire said of Zellweger, "I saw in Renee a gift few people have, that she was able to straddle comedy and emotion. '' Zellweger worked on her accent with Barbara Berkery, who had helped Gwyneth Paltrow for Shakespeare in Love. She also gained 20 pounds for the part. To prepare for the role, Zellweger worked at the producers ' request at London book publishers Picador as a trainee in the publicity department. Before the film was released, a considerable amount of controversy surrounded the casting of the American Zellweger as what some saw as a quintessentially British heroine. However, her performance, including her south - eastern English accent, is widely considered to be of a high standard. In July 2000, the leading male roles were given to Colin Firth and Hugh Grant. The director of the film, Sharon Maguire, is one of Fielding 's friends, on whom the film 's character "Shazza '' or "Shazzer '' (English shorthand for Sharon) was reportedly based. In the film, Shazza is played by Sally Phillips.
Principal photography began on 1 August 2000 and concluded on 5 November 2000. The crew spent six weeks shooting in and around London. Locations used included Shad Thames where Bridget and Daniel have their first date, the Royal Courts of Justice, St Pancras railway station and Tower Bridge. Scenes were filmed at Stoke Park in Buckinghamshire where Bridget and Daniel ventured to for their mini-break. Wrotham Park in Hertfordshire served as the Darcys ' home. Stansted Airport doubled as JFK Airport in New York, while Syon House in Brentford featured as the venue for the anniversary party. The crew filmed for four days at Snowshill in Gloucestershire which featured as the home of Bridget Jones 's family. After six weeks of shooting on location, the crew moved to Shepperton Studios in Surrey.
The film holds an 80 % approval rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 6.9 / 10, based on 158 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Though there was controversy over the choice of casting, Zellweger 's Bridget Jones is a sympathetic, likable, funny character, giving this romantic comedy a lot of charm. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, calculated an average score of 66, based on 33 reviews, considered to be "generally favorable reviews ''. Critic Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 out of 4 possible stars.
The film is recognised by American Film Institute in these lists:
Renée Zellweger was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress, the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, the MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with Colin Firth), the Satellite Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, the Teen Choice Award for Choice Chemistry (shared with Hugh Grant), the Teen Choice Award for Choice Liplock (shared with Grant), and the Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress. Firth won the European Film Awards Audience Award for Best Actor and the European Film Award -- Jameson People 's Choice Award -- Best Actor and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and the Satellite Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
Grant won the Evening Standard British Film Awards ' Peter Sellers Award for Comedy and was nominated for the Empire Award for Best British Actor, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, and the European Film Award -- Jameson People 's Choice Award -- Best Actor.
Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
The film was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best British Film, the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, and the Satellite Award for Best Film -- Musical or Comedy.
The VHS was released in 2001 containing over 35 minutes of bonus material which includes: Deleted Scenes, Exclusive Interviews, Bridget 's Guide to "Getting It Right ''. There was also a VHS of "The Making of Bridget Jones ''. In 2001, the film was released on DVD containing brand new bonus material and in 2011 a Blu - ray version of the film was released. A Collective Edition of the film was released in 2004 with new bonus material including; The Bridget Phenomenon, The Young And The Mateless, Portrait Of The Makeup Artist, Domestic and International TV Spots, Bridget Jones: The Edge Of Reason Theatrical Trailer, Bridget Jones 's Diary Reviews and A Guide to Bridget Britishism.
Fielding has stated in many interviews that her novel was based upon both Jane Austen 's work Pride and Prejudice and its popular 1995 BBC adaptation. This was also reflected in the decision to cast Colin Firth as Darcy, since he played the ' real ' Mr. Darcy in the BBC adaptation of Pride and Prejudice. This is not the film 's only connection to that serial -- the screenplay was co-written by Andrew Davies, who had written the adaptation of Austen 's novel for the BBC.
The film version is currently being adapted into a musical, set to hit London 's West End, although no date has been set. British musician Lily Allen has written the score and lyrics, and Stephen Daldry, best known for his Tony award - winning work on the West End and Broadway productions of Billy Elliot, will be directing, joined by his co-worker Peter Darling, who will serve as choreographer.
An official cast for the production has not yet been announced, but workshops for the show have already begun with television actress and current star of Legally Blonde, Sheridan Smith, in the title role.
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where was the first ffa national convention held | National FFA Organization - wikipedia
National FFA Organization is an American 501 (c) (3) youth organization, specifically a career and technical student organization, based on middle and high school classes that promote and support agricultural education. It was founded in 1925 at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, by agriculture teachers, Henry C. Groseclose, Walter Newman, Edmund Magill and Harry Sanders as Future Farmers of Virginia. In 1928, it became a nationwide organization known as Future Farmers of America. In 1988 the name was changed to the National FFA Organization, now commonly referred to as FFA, to recognize that the organization is for those with diverse interests in the food, fiber and natural resource industries, encompassing science, business and technology in addition to production agriculture. Today FFA is among the largest youth organization in the United States, with 649,355 members in 7,859 chapters throughout all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. FFA is the largest of the career and technical student organizations in U.S. schools.
The organization holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.
The National FFA Organization is a youth leadership organization that makes a positive difference in the lives of young people by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal growth and career success through agriculture education. The FFA Motto is Learning to do, Doing to learn, Earning to live, Living to serve.
FFA functions within the three - circle model of agricultural education as a student leadership organization that complements a student 's classroom / laboratory instruction and supervised agricultural experience program. FFA members can compete in Career Development Events (CDE) that cover job skills in everything from communications to mechanics. Some events allow students to compete as individuals, while others allow them to compete in teams. These competitions can happen at a local or district level, state level, and on the national level.
Students are supervised by agricultural education teachers in cooperation with parents, employers and other adults who assist individuals in the development and achievement of educational and career goals.
Official colors of the FFA are National Blue and Corn Gold.
FFA is represented at several different levels across the nation; FFA administration may change from state to state. The basic levels are the national level, serving all of the United States of America, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the state level, serving an individual state association; and the chapter level, serving a school or set of schools in an area. By definition, there can be three types of chapters at the secondary level, they are middle for middle school, junior for ninth grade and senior which can be either tenth through twelfth or ninth through twelfth depending on the school. Other levels include districts, subdistricts, sections, regions, areas, and federations.
FFA was created to serve high school students, and has moved into middle schools where membership may begin as early as age 12, allowing members to become active earlier and stay active for longer. Each chapter is chartered as part of the state association and national organization. Collegiate chapters exist as well.
Most states hold FFA conventions at least once annually, where members gather to compete, be recognized for awards, attend leadership workshops, debate organizational issues in a delegate process, and more. Nationally, the National FFA Convention & Expo is held once a year in the fall. It was held in Kansas City, Missouri, from 1928 to 1998. The convention moved to Louisville, Kentucky, in 1999 before moving again in 2006 to Indianapolis, Indiana. Louisville again hosted the national convention from 2013 to 2015. FFA announced in July 2015 that the national convention would be hosted in Indianapolis each year from 2016 to 2024.
As the FFA is a member - led organization intended to serve youth around the nation, it elects officers from its own diverse membership to certain levels of FFA. With these basic constitutional officers a basis of parliamentary procedure is completed during meetings and banquets; each officer during these procedures will stand and recite their office level and what it is stationed by, and why the particular position is stationed as so. Typical officer roles are:
Each officer is an agricultural student and holds responsibilities needed to serve, and are elected each year by members at the respective levels.
At the national level, the organization has student - held positions of president, secretary, and vice president for each of the four administrative regions (Eastern, Southern, Central, and Western).
The most recognizable symbol of the organization is the blue corduroy FFA jacket that is worn by current FFA members. The back of the jacket features a large FFA emblem just underneath the name of each FFA member 's state. The name of the local FFA chapter, district, region or area is embroidered below the emblem. The front of the FFA jacket features a smaller FFA emblem on the left chest and the FFA member 's name and sometimes, if applicable, office and year on the right chest. FFA members are required to wear the FFA jacket as part of official dress while participating in all official organization activities.
The FFA jacket was created to be worn by the Fredericktown Band of the Fredericktown FFA Chapter by Dr. Gus Lintner. It was adopted in 1933.
The color of the jacket 's corduroy has ranged from shades of blue to shades of purple through the years. In 2004, the National FFA Organization worked with a supplier in North Carolina to set a new standard for the blue corduroy by using samples from archived FFA jackets. The jacket 's color standardization was accompanied by a restoration of the embroidered FFA emblems and fit corrections led by Clemson University 's Apparel Research Center. The improved FFA jacket, produced in both Van Wert, Ohio and South Vietnam, was first made available in August 2005. Currently, all lettering, embroidery and finishing of FFA jackets is completed by Universal Lettering Company in Van Wert, Ohio.
FFA members are required to wear official FFA dress while participating in official organization activities. The National FFA Organization recently updated its bylaws, stating that members may choose to identify however they choose in regards to official dress, in order to include transgender as well as gender non-conforming individuals within the organization. For females, official dress consists of a black skirt (black slacks may be appropriate for traveling and outdoor activities), a white collared blouse, an official FFA blue scarf, black dress shoes with a closed heel and toe, black nylon hosiery, and an official FFA jacket zipped to the top. Male official dress includes black dress pants, a white dress shirt, an official FFA tie, black dress shoes with a closed heel and toe, black socks and an official FFA jacket zipped to the top.
FFA members earn metal pins that signify achievement within the organization. These pins can be placed on the front of the FFA jacket, however, official guidelines state that no more than three pins may be worn at one time. The pins are to be placed beneath the FFA member 's name on the right chest and can recognize the highest office, highest award, and highest organizational degree. Two exceptions exist within pin placement guidelines. When an FFA member earns a State FFA Degree or American FFA Degree, the award keys should be worn above the name on right chest or attached to the FFA jacket with a standard key chain, and no other pins should accompany these.
As an organization, the FFA has many traditions and trademarks identifying it as an agricultural education organization:
The FFA Motto: Learning to Do, Doing to Learn, Earning to Live, Living to Serve.
The FFA Mission: The National FFA Organization is dedicated to making a positive difference in the lives of students by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal growth, and career success through agricultural education.
The Official FFA Colors: National Blue and Corn Gold (worn on the Official FFA jackets).
The FFA Emblem: Cross section of the ear of corn: represents unity. Where ever you live in the United States, corn is grown everywhere. Rising Sun: signifies progress. It represents that tomorrow will always bring a new day. Plow: signifies labor and tillage of the soil. It also shows the historic foundation of our country 's strength. Eagle: symbolizes freedom and our ability to explore the new agriculture world. Owl: represents knowledge. Long recognized for wisdom and knowledge. Agriculture Education and FFA: symbolizes the combination of learning and leadership.
The FFA Creed: The creed was written by Erwin Milton "E.M. '' Tiffany of Lyndon, Kansas and adopted at the 3rd National FFA Convention. It was revised at the 38th and 63rd National FFA Conventions by the assembled delegate body. It is recited by new members to the organization to reflect their growing belief in agriculture and agricultural education. The FFA Creed also must be memorized and recited to earn the Greenhand Degree.
I believe in the future of agriculture, with a faith born not of words but of deeds -- achievements won by the present and past generations of agriculturists; in the promise of better days through better ways, even as the better things we now enjoy have come to us from the struggles of former years. I believe that to live and work on a good farm or to be engaged in other agricultural pursuits, is pleasant as well as challenging; for I know the joys and discomforts of agricultural life and hold an inborn fondness for those associations which, even in hours of discouragement I can not deny. I believe in leadership from ourselves and respect from others. I believe in my own ability to work efficiently and think clearly, with such knowledge and skill as I can secure, and in the ability of progressive agriculturists to serve our own and the public interest in producing and marketing the product of our toil. I believe in less dependence on begging and more power in bargaining; in the life abundant and enough honest wealth to help make it so - for others as well as myself; in less need for charity and more of it when needed; in being happy myself and playing square with those whose happiness depends upon me. I believe that American agriculture can and will hold true to the best traditions of our national life and that I can exert an influence in my home and community which will stand solid for my part in that inspiring task.
FFA Career Development Event (CDEs) are contests that members compete in to test their skills learned through agricultural education instruction. They vary at the different levels of FFA, and some are contested only at certain levels and certain states, districts, areas or federations.
At the national level, there are 24 Career Development Events:
Wildlife Management
Examples of CDEs that can be available at the state level are:
To be an active member in the National FFA Organization, a member must have an Supervised Agricultural Experience (SAE) project. The projects involve hands - on application of concepts and principles learned in the agricultural education classroom, with guidelines for the SAE projects governed by the state FFA delegation. SAE programs are grouped into four different areas:
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who is the person who first labeled apollonian and dionysian responses as such | Apollonian and Dionysian - wikipedia
The Apollonian and Dionysian is a philosophical and literary concept, or dichotomy, based on certain features of ancient Greek mythology. Many Western philosophical and literary figures have invoked this dichotomy in critical and creative works.
In Greek mythology, Apollo and Dionysus are both sons of Zeus. Apollo is the god of rational thinking and order, appealing to prudence and purity. On the other hand, Dionysus is the god of the irrationality and chaos, appealing to emotions and instincts.
The Greeks did not consider the two gods to be opposites or rivals, although often the two deities were entwined by nature.
Although the use of the concepts of the Apollonian and Dionysian is linked to Nietzsche 's The Birth of Tragedy, the terms were used before him in German culture. The poet Hölderlin spoke of them, while Winckelmann talked of Bacchus, the god of wine. Rudolf Steiner as well treated in depth of the Apollonian and Dionysian (called "Apollinisches und Dionysisches '' in German) and placed them in the general history and spiritual evolution of mankind.
Nietzsche 's aesthetic usage of the concepts, which was later developed philosophically, first appeared in his book The Birth of Tragedy, which was published in 1872. His major premise here was that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian "Kunsttriebe '' ("artistic impulses '') form dramatic arts, or tragedies. He goes on to argue that this fusion has not been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians. Nietzsche is adamant that the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles represent the apex of artistic creation, the true realization of tragedy; it is with Euripides that tragedy begins its downfall ("Untergang ''). Nietzsche objects to Euripides 's use of Socratic rationalism (the dialectic) in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian.
To further the split, Nietzsche diagnoses the Socratic Dialectic as being diseased in the manner that it deals with looking at life. The scholarly dialectic is directly opposed to the concept of the Dionysian because it only seeks to negate life; it uses reason to always deflect, but never to create. Socrates rejects the intrinsic value of the senses and life for "higher '' ideals. Nietzsche claims in The Gay Science that when Socrates drinks the hemlock, he sees the hemlock as the cure for life, proclaiming that he has been sick a long time. (Section 340.) In contrast, the Dionysian existence constantly seeks to affirm life. Whether in pain or pleasure, suffering or joy, the intoxicating revelry that Dionysus has for life itself overcomes the Socratic sickness and perpetuates the growth and flourishing of visceral life force -- a great Dionysian ' Yes ', to a Socratic ' No '.
The interplay between the Apollonian and Dionysian is apparent, Nietzsche claimed in The Birth of Tragedy, from their use in Greek tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make order of his unjust fate, though he dies unfulfilled in the end. For the audience of such a drama, Nietzsche claimed, this tragedy allows to sense an underlying essence, what he called the "Primordial Unity '', which revives our Dionysian nature -- which is almost indescribably pleasurable. However, he later dropped this concept saying it was "... burdened with all the errors of youth '' (Attempt at Self - Criticism, § 2), the overarching theme was a sort of metaphysical solace or connection with the heart of creation.
Different from Kant 's idea of the sublime, the Dionysian is all - inclusive rather than alienating to the viewer as a sublimating experience. The sublime needs critical distance, while the Dionysian demands a closeness of experience. According to Nietzsche, the critical distance, which separates man from his closest emotions, originates in Apollonian ideals, which in turn separate him from his essential connection with self. The Dionysian embraces the chaotic nature of such experience as all - important; not just on its own, but as it is intimately connected with the Apollonian. The Dionysian magnifies man, but only so far as he realizes that he is one and the same with all ordered human experience. The godlike unity of the Dionysian experience is of utmost importance in viewing the Dionysian as it is related to the Apollonian, because it emphasizes the harmony that can be found within one 's chaotic experience.
Nietzsche 's idea has been interpreted as an expression of fragmented consciousness or existential instability by a variety of modern and post-modern writers, especially Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. According to Peter Sloterdijk, the Dionysian and the Apollonian form a dialectic; they are contrasting, but Nietzsche does not mean one to be valued more than the other. Truth being primordial pain, our existential being is determined by the Dionysian / Apollonian dialectic.
Extending the use of the Apollonian and Dionysian onto an argument on interaction between the mind and physical environment, Abraham Akkerman has pointed to masculine and feminine features of city form.
Anthropologist Ruth Benedict used the terms to characterize cultures that value restraint and modesty (Apollonian) and ostentatiousness and excess (Dionysian). An example of an Apollonian culture in Benedict 's analysis was the Zuñi people as opposed to the Dionysian Kwakiutl people. The theme was developed by Benedict in her main work Patterns of Culture.
Albert Szent - Györgyi, who realized that "a discovery must be, by definition, at variance with existing knowledge '', divided scientists into two categories: the Apollonians and the Dionysians. He called scientific dissenters, who explored "the fringes of knowledge '', Dionysians. He wrote, "In science the Apollonian tends to develop established lines to perfection, while the Dionysian rather relies on intuition and is more likely to open new, unexpected alleys for research... The future of mankind depends on the progress of science, and the progress of science depends on the support it can find. Support mostly takes the form of grants, and the present methods of distributing grants unduly favor the Apollonian. ''
American humanities scholar Camille Paglia writes about the Apollonian and Dionysian in her 1990 bestseller Sexual Personae. The broad outline of her concept is borrowed from Nietzsche, an admitted influence, although Paglia 's ideas diverge significantly.
The Apollonian and Dionysian concepts comprise a dichotomy that serves as the basis of Paglia 's theory of art and culture. For Paglia, the Apollonian is light and structured while the Dionysian is dark and chthonic (she prefers Chthonic to Dionysian throughout the book, arguing that the latter concept has become all but synonymous with hedonism and is inadequate for her purposes, declaring that "the Dionysian is no picnic. ''). The Chthonic is associated with females, wild / chaotic nature, and unconstrained sex / procreation. In contrast, the Apollonian is associated with males, clarity, celibacy and / or homosexuality, rationality / reason, and solidity, along with the goal of oriented progress: "Everything great in western civilization comes from struggle against our origins. ''
She argues that there is a biological basis to the Apollonian / Dionysian dichotomy, writing: "The quarrel between Apollo and Dionysus is the quarrel between the higher cortex and the older limbic and reptilian brains. '' Moreover, Paglia attributes all the progress of human civilization to masculinity revolting against the Chthonic forces of nature, and turning instead to the Apollonian trait of ordered creation. The Dionysian is a force of chaos and destruction, which is the overpowering and alluring chaotic state of wild nature. Rejection of -- or combat with -- Chthonianism by socially constructed Apollonian virtues accounts for the historical dominance of men (including asexual and homosexual men; and childless and / or lesbian - leaning women) in science, literature, arts, technology and politics. As an example, Paglia states: "The male orientation of classical Athens was inseparable from its genius. Athens became great not despite but because of its misogyny. ''
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who wrote the assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold | The Destruction of Sennacherib - wikipedia
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.
Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen: Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown, That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed; And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever grew still! And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride; And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, And cold as the spray of the rock - beating surf. And there lay the rider distorted and pale, With the dew on his brow, and the rust on his mail: And the tents were all silent, the banners alone, The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown. And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal; And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord.
-- George (Noel) Gordon Byron
"The Destruction of Sennacherib '' is a poem by Lord Byron first published in 1815 in his Hebrew Melodies. It is based on an event from the campaign by Assyrian king Sennacherib to capture Jerusalem, as described in the Bible (2 Kings 18 -- 19). The poem is based on the biblical account of the historical Assyrian besieging of Jerusalem in 701 BC. The rhythm of the poem has a feel of the beat of a galloping horse 's hooves (an anapestic tetrameter) as the Assyrian rides into battle.
For clarification, YHWH here relates to God.
The poem relates to the Biblical account of Sennacherib 's attempted siege of Jerusalem. According to the story as related in 2 Kings, the Assyrian army came "against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them. '' When the Assyrians were besieging Jerusalem, Hezekiah prayed to YHWH in the Temple, and Isaiah sent the reply from YHWH to Hezekiah to the effect "I will defend this city, to save it, for mine own sake, and for my servant David 's sake '' (2 Kings 19: 34), and during the following night the Angel of YHWH (מַלְאַךְ יְהוָה) "smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand '' (i.e. 185,000), so by morning most of the Assyrian army was found to have died, mysteriously, in their sleep (2 Kings 19: 35), and Sennacherib went back to Nineveh. The Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem is historical (dated 701 BC), but the Assyrian annals report that the result was the payment of tribute by Jerusalem, with Hezekiah remaining in office as a vassal ruler.
The poem was popular in Victorian England and, when the first Australian cricket team to tour England defeated a strong MCC team, including WG Grace, at Lord 's on 27 May 1878, the satirical magazine Punch celebrated by publishing a parody of the poem including a wry commentary on Grace 's contribution:
The Australians came down like a wolf on the fold,
The Marylebone cracks for a trifle were bowled; Our Grace before dinner was very soon done,
Mark Twain has references to this poem throughout his works, from his early newspaper sketches to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, and it is mentioned often in biographies of him, making it clear that it was important to him.
Ogden Nash 's "Very Like a Whale '', a humorous complaint about poetical metaphors, uses this poem for its inspiration:
... Now then, this particular Assyrian, the one whose cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold, Just what does the poet mean when he says he came down like a wolf on the fold? In heaven and earth more than is dreamed of in our philosophy there are great many things. But I do n't imagine that among them there is a wolf with purple and gold cohorts or purple and gold anythings. No, no, Lord Byron, before I 'll believe that this Assyrian was actually like a wolf I must have some kind of proof; Did he run on all fours and did he have a hairy tail and a big red mouth and big white teeth and did he say Woof Woof?...
In the FX animated series Archer (TV series), the character Pam has the third stanza of the poem tattooed on her back alongside a score of her previous kills.
Terry Pratchett, in his Discworld novels, makes several references to the poem 's well - known opening two lines: "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold / And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ''; much of the humour springing from a misunderstanding of ' cohorts ' to mean part of a suit of armour. Characters in the novels occasionally buy Armour Polish advertised "For Gleaming Cohorts ''.
In Paul Marlowe 's Knights of the Sea, the werewolf character, Paisley, comes down for breakfast famished, thinking: "The young Paisley came down like the wolf on the fold / And the pastries were gleaming in purple and gold. ''
In one of the Molesworth books, by Geoffrey Willans, there is a cartoon illustrated by Ronald Searle, in which a master remonstrates with a pupil "' The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold ', Mogley - Howard One. ''
In episode two of the second season of TV show Magic City antagonist Ben Diamond recites the third verse of the poem "For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast... '' as an expression of his own anguish and anger.
The first sentence of Tom Clancy 's novel The Sum of All Fears begins with "Like a wolf on the fold '' proceeded by a description of events that happened in the 1973 Yom Kippur war.
In season two, episode eight of TV show Slasher (TV series), the character Wren recites the first and third stanzas while being arrested.
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which of the following was not a consequence of the 7 years war | Great Britain in the Seven Years ' war - wikipedia
Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years ' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. Britain emerged from the war as the world 's leading colonial power, having gained a number of new territories at the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and established itself as the world 's pre-eminent naval power.
The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754 -- 55; and in the loss of Menorca in 1756. The same year Britain 's major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France; and Britain was hastily forced to conclude a new alliance with Frederick the Great 's Prussia. For the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. After a period of political instability, the rise of a government headed by the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt the elder provided Britain with firmer leadership, enabling it to consolidate and achieve its war aims.
In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis, "year of miracles '', with success over the French on the continent (Germany), in North America (capturing the capital of New France), and in India. In 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, and repulsed a Spanish invasion of Portugal. By this time the Pitt - Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted.
Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland, both of which effectively fell under British military command throughout the war. It also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company.
The last major conflict in Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession, had ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle, following a bloody war which had left large parts of Central Europe devastated. The peace terms were unpopular with many, however, as they largely retained the status quo -- which led the people of states such as France, Britain and Austria to believe they had not made sufficient gains for their efforts in the war. By the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia.
The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the sudden death of his brother Henry Pelham, and led a government made up largely of Whigs. Newcastle had thirty years ' experience as a Secretary of State and was a leading figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a comfortable majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt, leader of the Patriot Party. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the "Old System '' and the alliance with Austria prevailed and devoted much of his efforts to the continuance of this.
One of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous and powerful -- and were agitating to expand westwards into the American interior. The territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having economic potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of that territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies, pinning them against the coast. A number of colonial delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute.
The Ohio Country located between Britain 's Thirteen Colonies and France 's New France saw France and Britain clash. In 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. In 1754 the Province of Virginia sent the Virginia Regiment led by George Washington to the area to assist in the construction of a British fort at present - day Pittsburgh, but the larger French force had driven away a smaller British advance party and built Fort Duquesne. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754. In the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Jumonville was left dead leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity. Despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war.
The government in Britain, realising that the existing forces of America were insufficient, drew up a plan to dispatch two battalions of Irish regular troops under General Edward Braddock and intended to massively increase the number of Provincial American forces. A number of expeditions were planned to give the British the upper hand in North America including a plan for New England troops to defeat Fort Beauséjour and Fortress Louisbourg in Acadia, and others to act against Fort Niagara and Fort Saint - Frédéric from Albany, New York. The largest operation was a plan for Braddock to dislodge the French from the Ohio Country.
In May 1755 Braddock 's column blundered into an enemy force composed of French and Native Americans at the Battle of the Monongahela near Fort Duquesne. After several hours ' fighting the British were defeated and forced to retreat, Braddock died a few days later of his wounds. The remainder of his force returned to Philadelphia and took up quarters, intending no further action that year. The French remained in control of the Ohio Country.
In the maritime theatre, the British were successful in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour and in their campaign to remove the French military threat from Acadia. After the battle the British began the Great Expulsion called the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) by the British, with the intent of preventing Acadian support of the French supply lines to Louisbourg. The British forcibly relocated 12,000 French - speakers. Two additional expeditions from Albany each failed to reach their objectives, although one, William Johnson 's expedition, did establish Fort William Henry and held off a French attempt on Fort Edward in the Battle of Lake George.
When news of the Braddock disaster reached Britain it caused a massive public outcry over the government 's poor military preparation. The government appointed William Shirley as the new commander - in - chief in North America, and planned an equally ambitious series of operations for the following year.
Britain and France continued to clash, each with increasingly large forces. Even though the inhabitants of the British colonies hugely outnumbered those of New France, they were unable to exert this advantage partly due to a successful campaign by the French to recruit Native American allies who raided the unprotected frontier of the Thirteen Colonies. The British raised regiments of local militia and shipped in more regular forces from Britain and Ireland.
Despite these increased forces Britain continued to fare badly in the battle for control of the Ohio Country and the nearby Great Lakes, and none of their campaigns was successful in 1756. After losing the Battle of Fort Oswego, not only that fort, but others in the Mohawk River valley were abandoned. This was followed in 1757 by the fall of Fort William Henry and the Indian atrocities that followed. News of this disaster sent a fresh wave of panic around the British colonies, and the entire militia of New England was mobilised overnight.
In the maritime theatre, a raid was organized on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia and several on the Chignecto. A British attempt to take Louisbourg in 1757 failed due to bad weather and poor planning. The following year, in part because of having expelled many Acadians, the Siege of Louisbourg (1758) succeeded, clearing the way for an advance on Quebec. Immediately after the fall of Louisbourg the expulsion of the Acadians continued with the removal of Acadians in the St. John River Campaign, the Petitcodiac River Campaign, the Ile Saint - Jean Campaign, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758).
By this point the war in North America had reached a stalemate, with France broadly holding the territorial advantage. It held possession of the disputed Ohio territory but lacked the strength to launch an attack on the more populous British coastal colonies.
One of the most significant geopolitical actions of the time was the slow movement towards Imperial unity in North America started by the Albany Congress, although a Plan of Union proposed by Benjamin Franklin was rejected by delegates.
Britain had been allied to Austria since 1731, and the co-operation between the two states had peaked during the War of the Austrian Succession when Maria Theresa had been able to retain her throne with British assistance. Since then the relationship had weakened -- as Austria was dissatisfied with the terms negotiated by Britain for them at the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle. Prussia had captured Silesia from Austria during the war and Austria wanted British help to recover it. Sensing that it would not be forthcoming, the Austrians approached their historical enemy France and made a defensive treaty with her -- thereby dissolving the twenty - five year Anglo - Austrian Alliance.
Alarmed by the sudden switch in the European balance of power the British made a similar agreement with Prussia at the Westminster Convention. By doing this Newcastle hoped to rebalance the two sides in central Europe -- and thereby make a war potentially mutually destructive to all. This he hoped would stop either Austria or Prussia making an attack on the other and would prevent an all - out war in Europe. This would allow Britain and France to continue their colonial skirmishes without formal war being declared in Europe. Frederick the Great had a number of supporters in London, including William Pitt who welcomed the rapprochement between Britain and Prussia. The Dutch Republic, a long - standing ally of Britain, declared its neutrality in the wake of the Westminster Convention and had no active participation in the coming conflict.
As war in Europe appeared increasingly inevitable, the Newcastle government sought to take the initiative -- and make sure that the strategic island of Menorca (historically called "Minorca '' by the British) was secured before it fell into French hands. A relief expedition was dispatched under Admiral John Byng to save it. However, once he arrived in the Mediterranean Byng found a sizable French fleet and a 15,000 - strong army besieging the fortress. After fighting an indecisive battle he withdrew to Gibraltar, and Menorca subsequently fell. Formal war was finally declared in May 1756, almost exactly two years after the two countries had first clashed in Ohio.
Byng was recalled to Britain and court - martialled. There was violent public outrage about the loss of Menorca, mostly directed against Newcastle. He tried to deflect the blame by emphasising the alleged cowardice of Byng. After being tried by his peers, the admiral was eventually executed by firing squad for "not doing his utmost ''. By that time Newcastle and his government had fallen. It was replaced by a weaker administration headed by the Duke of Devonshire and dominated by William Pitt.
The major war in continental Europe that the British had hoped to avoid exploded in August 1756 when Frederick the Great attacked and overran the Austrian ally Saxony. Having occupied it he then launched a similarly bold invasion of Bohemia. In both cases the Prussians caught their Austrian enemies by surprise, and had used this advantage to full effect, capturing major objectives before Austrian troops had been fully mobilised. Having besieged Prague, an Austrian counter-attack and a defeat at the Battle of Kolín forced the Prussians back.
Britain found itself bound by the Westminster Convention and entered the war on the Prussian side. Newcastle was deeply reluctant to do this, but he saw that a Prussian collapse would be disastrous to British and Hanoverian interests. The Anglo - Prussian Alliance was established, which saw large amounts of subsidy given to Prussia. Some supporters of George II were strong advocates of support for Prussia, as they saw it would be impossible to defend his realm of Hanover if they were to be defeated. Despite his initial dislike of Frederick, the King later moved towards this viewpoint.
Within a short time Prussia was being attacked on four fronts, by Austria from the south, France from the west, Russia from the east, and Sweden from the north. Frederick fought defensive actions trying to blunt the invaders, losing thousands of men and precious resources in the process. He began to send more urgent appeals to London for material help on the continent.
When the war with France had commenced, Britain had initially brought Hessian and Hanoverian troops to defend Britain from a feared invasion scare. When the threat of this receded, the German soldiers were sent to defend Hanover along with a small contingent of British troops under Duke of Cumberland, the King 's second son. The arrival of British troops on the continent was considered a rarity, as the country preferred to make war by using its naval forces. As with the Prussians, Cumberland 's army was initially overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the French attacks. Following the disastrous Battle of Hastenbeck Cumberland was forced to sign the Convention of Klosterzeven by which Hanover would withdraw from the war -- and large chunks of its territory would be occupied by the French for the duration of the conflict.
Prussia was extremely alarmed by this development and lobbied hard for it to be reversed. In London too, there was shock at such a capitulation and Pitt recalled Cumberland to London where he was publicly rebuked by his father, the King, and forced to relinquish his commission. The terms of Klosterzeven were revoked, Hanover re-entered the war -- and a new commander was selected to command the Allied Anglo - German forces. Ferdinand of Brunswick was a brother - in - law of Frederick the Great, and had developed a reputation as a competent officer. He set about trying to rally the German troops under his command, by emphasising the extent of the atrocities committed by the French troops who had occupied Hanover, and launched a counter-offensive in late 1757 driving the French back across the Rhine.
Despite several British attempts to persuade them, the Dutch Republic refused to join their former allies in the war and remained neutral. Pitt at one point even feared that the Dutch would enter the war against Britain, in response to repeated violations of Dutch neutrality by the Royal Navy. Similarly the British were wary of Denmark joining the war against them, but Copenhagen followed a policy of strict neutrality.
In London the Pitt - dominated administration had fallen after just six months because of a lack of support in parliament. A period of political stalemate followed, with no real direction to the British war effort. It became apparent that the only way a serious war administration could be put together was by an alliance of leading figures. In 1757 a partnership was formed between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt -- despite their years of enmity. Newcastle became the head of the administration as Prime Minister, with control of public finances, while Pitt became Secretary of State and de facto war minister with control of much of British military strategy. Other leading figures such as Henry Fox and the Duke of Bedford were also given positions in the administration.
The new government 's strategic thinking was sharply divided. Pitt had been a long - term advocate of Britain playing as small a role on the European continent while concentrating their resources and naval power to strike against vulnerable French colonies. Newcastle remained an old - school continentalist -- who believed that the war would be decided in Europe, and was convinced that a strong British presence there was essential. He was supported in this view by George II.
A compromise was eventually established in which Britain would keep troops on the European continent under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, while Pitt was given authority to launch several colonial expeditions. He sent forces to attack French settlements in West Africa and the West Indies, operations which were tactically successful and brought financial benefits. In Britain a popular surge of patriotism and support for the government resulted. Pitt formed a triumvirate to direct operations with George Anson in command of the navy and John Ligonier in charge of the army. A Militia Act was passed to create a sizable force to defend Britain which would free up regular troops for operations overseas.
The British had received several requests from their German allies to try to relieve the pressure on them by launching diversionary operations against the French. Pitt had long been an advocate of amphibious strikes or "descents '' against the French coastline in which a small British force would land, capture a settlement, destroy its fortifications and munitions supplies and then withdraw. This would compel the French to withdraw troops from the Northern front to guard the coast.
After an urgent request from Brunswick, Pitt was able to put his plan into action, and in September 1757 a British raid was launched against Rochefort in western France. For various reasons it was not a success, but Pitt was determined to press ahead with similar raids. Another British expedition was organised under Lord Sackville. A landing in Saint - Malo was partially successful, but was cut short by the sudden appearance of French troops -- and the force withdrew to Britain. Pitt organised a third major descent, under the command of Thomas Bligh. His raid on Cherbourg in August 1758 proved to be the most successful of the descents, as he burnt ships and munitions and destroyed the fortifications of the town. However, an attempt in September to do the same at St Malo ended with the Battle of Saint Cast and the British withdrawing with heavy casualties. This proved to be the last of the major landings attempted on the French coast -- though the British later took control of the Belle Île off the coast of Brittany which was used as a base for marshalling troops and supplies. The raids were not financially successful and were described by Henry Fox as being "like breaking windows with guineas ''. From then on the British concentrated their efforts in Europe on Germany.
Britain and France both had significant colonial possessions in India and had been battling for supremacy for a number of years. The British were represented by the British East India Company (EIC) who were permitted to raise troops. The collapse of the long - standing Mughal Empire brought the clash between the two states to a head, as each tried to gain sufficient power and territory to dominate the other. The 1754 Treaty of Pondicherry which ended the Second Carnatic War had brought a temporary truce to India, but it was soon under threat. A number of smaller Indian Princely states aligned with either Britain or France. One of the most assertive of these Princes was the pro-French Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud - Daulah, who resented the British presence in Calcutta. In 1756 he had succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan who had been a staunch British ally. By contrast he regarded the British East India Company as an encroaching threat.
On 20 June 1756 the Nawab 's troops stormed Fort William capturing the city. A number of the British civilians and prisoners of war were locked in the small guard room in what became known as the Black Hole of Calcutta. After the death of many of them, the atrocity became a popular rallying call for revenge. A force from Madras under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Clive arrived and liberated the city, driving out the Nawab 's troops. The Third Carnatic War that followed saw Britain ranged against the Nawab and France. Clive consolidated his position in Calcutta, and made contact with one of the Nawab 's chief advisors Mir Jafar attempting to persuade him and other leading Bengalis to overthrow the Nawab. After the British ambushed a column of the Nawab 's troops which was approaching Calcutta on 2 February 1757, the two sides agreed the Treaty of Alinagar which brought a temporary truce to Bengal.
Despite the agreement at Alinagar, neither side was content with the status quo. The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. Siraj ud - Daulah was fearful of being forced to accept British suzerainty. His position was weakened by his unpopularity with his own subjects, and the threat of other military enemies to the west. He began to take steps to drive the British out of Bengal entirely.
On 23 June 1757 the Nawab led a force of 50,000 into the field. Ranged against them was a much smaller Anglo - Indian force under the command of Robert Clive. The Nawab was weakened by the betrayal of Mir Jafar who had concluded a secret pact with the British before the battle -- and refused to move his troops to support the Nawab. Faced with the superior firepower and discipline of the British troops -- the Nawab 's army was routed. After the battle Siraj ud - Daulah was overthrown and executed by his own officers, and Mir Jafar succeeded him as Nawab. He then concluded a peace treaty with the British.
Mir Jafar himself subsequently clashed with the British for much the same reasons as Siraj ud - Daulah had. He conspired with the Dutch East India Company to try to oust the British from Bengal and in 1759 invited them to send troops to aid him. The defeat of the Dutch at the Battle of Chinsurah resulted in Britain moving to have Jafar replaced with his son - in - law, who was considered more favourable to the EIC. One of the most important long - term effects of the battle was that the British received the diwan -- the right to collect taxes in Bengal which was granted in 1765.
The French presence in India was led by the French East India Company operating out of its base at Pondicherry. Its forces were under the command of Joseph François Dupleix and Lally, a Jacobite. The veteran Dupleix had been in India a long time, and had established a key rapport with France 's Indian allies. Lally was more newly arrived, and was seeking a swift victory over the British -- and was less concerned about diplomatic sensibilities.
Following the Battle of Chandalore when Clive attacked a French trading post the French were driven completely out of Bengal. In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during the Second Carnatic War.
Apart from a few isolated victories, the war had not gone well for Britain since 1754. In all theatres except India and North America (where Pitt 's strategy had led to important gains in 1758) they were on the retreat. British agents received information about a planned French invasion which would knock Britain out of the war completely. While France starved their colonial forces of troops and supplies to concentrate them on the goal of total strategic supremacy in Europe, the British government agreed to continue their policy of shipping their own troops to fight for total victory in the colonies -- leaving Britain to be guarded by the large militia that had existed since 1757.
Following Clive 's victory at Plassey and the subjugation of Bengal, Britain had not directed large resources to the Indian theatre. The French meanwhile had despatched a large force from Europe to seize the initiative on the subcontinent. The clear goal of this force was to capture Madras, which had previously fallen to the French in 1746.
In December 1758 a French force of 8,000 under the Comte de Lally descended on Madras, bottling up the 4,000 British defenders in Fort St George. After a hard - fought three - month siege the French were finally forced to abandon their attempt to take the city by the arrival of a British naval force carrying 600 reinforcements on 16 February 1759. Lally withdrew his troops, but it was not the end of French ambitions in southern India.
One of Pitt 's favoured strategies was a British expedition to attack the French West Indies, where their richest sugar - producing colonies were situated. A British naval force of 9,000 sailed from Portsmouth in November 1758 under the command of Peregrine Hopson. Using Barbados as a staging point, they attacked first at Martinique.
After failing to make enough headway, and losing troops rapidly to disease, they were forced to abandon the attempt and move to the secondary target of the British expedition, Guadeloupe. Facing a race against time before the hurricane season hit in July, a landing was forced and the town of Basse - Terre was shelled. They looked in severe danger when a large French fleet unexpectedly arrived under Bompart, but on 1 May the island 's defenders finally surrendered and Bompart was unable to prevent the loss of Guadeloupe.
Orders arrived from London concerning an assault on Saint Lucia but the commanders decided that such an attempt was unwise given the circumstances. Instead they moved to protect Antigua for any possible attack by Bompart, before the bulk of the force sailed for home in late July.
Since early 1758 the British had contributed an increasingly large number of troops to serve in Germany. Pitt had reversed his previous hostility to British intervention on the continent, as he realised that the theatre could be used to tie down numerous French troops and resources which might otherwise be sent to fight in the colonies. Brunswick 's army had enjoyed enormous success since winter 1757, crossing the Rhine several times, winning the Battle of Krefeld and capturing Bremen without a shot being fired. In recognition of his services Parliament voted him £ 2,000 a year for life. By April 1759 Brunswick had an army of around 72,000 facing two French armies with a combined strength of 100,000. The French had occupied Frankfurt and were using it as their base for operations, which Brunswick now attempted to assault. On 13 April Brunswick lost the Battle of Bergen to a superior French force and was forced to retreat.
The French pursued Brunswick slowly, capturing the strategic town of Minden which could potentially be used to stage an invasion of Hanover. Brunswick was pressured into action by this threat; the French command was also eager to end the campaign with a swift victory to free up troops which would allow them to take part in the proposed invasion of Britain. On the night of 31 July, both commanders simultaneously decided to attack the other outside Minden. The French forces reacted hesitantly when faced with Germans in front of them as dawn broke, allowing the Allies to seize the initiative and counter-attack. However, one column of British troops advanced too quickly and soon found itself attacked on all sides by a mixture of cavalry, artillery and infantry which vastly outnumbered them. The British managed to hold them off, sustaining casualties of a third. When they were reinforced with other troops, the Allies broke through the French lines and forced them to retreat. The British cavalry under Sackville were ordered to advance, but he refused -- apparently in indignation at his treatment by Brunswick, though this was at the time popularly attributed to cowardice on his part. In the confusion, the French were allowed to escape the battlefield and avoid total disaster.
Despite widespread praise for the conduct of the British troops, their commander Sackville received condemnation for his alleged cowardice and was forced to return home in disgrace. He was replaced by Marquess of Granby. The victory proved crucial, as Frederick had lost to the Russians at Kunersdorf. Had Brunswick been defeated at Minden, Hanover would almost certainly have been invaded and the total defeat of Prussia would have been imminent. In the wake of the victory, the Allies advanced pushing the French backwards and relieving the pressure on the Prussians.
The central plank of France 's war against Britain in 1759 was a plan to invade Britain, authored by the French chief minister Duc de Choiseul. It was subject to several changes, but the core was that more than 50,000 French troops would cross the English Channel from Le Havre in flat - bottomed boats and land at Portsmouth on the British coast. Aided by a Jacobite rebellion -- they would then advance on London and force a peace agreement on the British, extracting various concessions and knocking them out of the war. The British became aware through their agents of the scheme and drew up a plan to mobilise their forces in case of the invasion. In an effort to set back the invasion, a British raid was launched against Le Havre which destroyed numerous flat - boats and supplies. In spite of this, the plans continued to progress and by autumn the French were poised to launch their invasion.
Following naval defeats at the Battle of Quiberon Bay and Battle of Lagos, and with news of the Allied victory at Minden, the French began to have second thoughts about their plan, and in late autumn cancelled it. The French did not have the clear sea they hoped for the crossing, nor could they now spare the number of troops on the continent. A number of flaws in the plan had also become apparent, including the fact that claims of the number of Jacobite supporters were now considered wildly optimistic.
The campaign was considered a last throw of the dice for the Jacobites to have any realistic hope of reclaiming the British throne. After the campaign the French soon abandoned the Stuarts entirely, withdrawing their support, and forcing them to take up a new home in Rome. Many of the Highland communities that had strongly supported the Jacobites in 1715 and 1745 now had regiments serving in the British army, where they played a key role in Britain 's success that year.
By 1759 the Royal Navy had expanded to 71,000 personnel and 275 ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance. During the war the British had instituted a new system of blockade, by which they penned in the main French fleets at anchor in Brest and Toulon. The British were able to keep an almost constant force poised outside French harbours. The French inability to counter this had led to a collapse in morale among French seamen and the wider population.
The French government had devised a plan that would allow them to launch their invasion. It required a junction of the two French fleets in the English Channel, where they would be able to cover a major invasion. However, in August 1759 the French Mediterranean Fleet under Admiral La Clue left harbour and was destroyed at the Battle of Lagos near Portugal. This left only the Channel Fleet at Brest under Conflans. When he tried to break free of the British blockade in November, he was run down and attacked by the British under Admiral Hawke at the Battle of Quiberon Bay. This victory left the British in almost total command of the seas, compounded by the effective use of naval forces in the West Indies, Canada and India. A small French force under Thurot did manage to land on the Irish coast, and menace Belfast before being forced to withdraw and being destroyed by a Royal Navy squadron in the Irish Sea.
The year was rounded out by the news of Wolfe 's victory at Quebec. However while 1759 was acclaimed as Britain 's ' Annus Mirabilis ', for the Prussians the year had been as disastrous as it had been successful for the British. Prussia 's armies had suffered a string of defeats and lost large numbers of casualties. At times Prussia veered close to total collapse and was now heavily dependent on continued British financial assistance.
Following the failure of the British to take Louisbourg in 1757, a second attempt was planned in 1758 and command given to General Jeffery Amherst. Although Louisbourg did not control entry to the Saint Lawrence River, it could not simply be bypassed, and the British decided it must be taken before they could proceed further. After a 44 - day siege, the city finally capitulated. One of the figures who benefited most from the campaign was a young British brigadier, James Wolfe, who so impressed Pitt that he was promoted and given command of future expeditions in Canada. Despite their victory at Louisbourg, the British decided to wait for the spring before heading further up the St Lawrence. In the meantime the river was extensively charted by a naval officer, James Cook, later to become famous as an explorer. Despatches carrying news of the victory sparked euphoria in Britain, and were celebrated by numerous bonfires.
The key to British strategy in North America involved taking Quebec City -- the capital and largest city of New France. This was to be achieved by the deployment of a massive force up the Saint Lawrence River. Simultaneously an Anglo - American force would march from New York to capture Fort Carillon and possibly Fort Niagara as well. While many, particularly Pitt and the American inhabitants, hoped that Canada could be annexed, others saw it as a bargaining chip to offset potential British losses in Europe. By the time the French realised the scale of the British intentions in Canada, it was too late to send assistance to Quebec. The French government hoped that Louis - Joseph de Montcalm, New France 's military commander, would be able to resist for the next year, after which they would send troops to his aid.
Wolfe arrived outside Quebec on 28 June. For much of the rest of the summer, he probed the defences of the city, trying to find a way through. Montcalm constantly frustrated him, shifting his own troops about in response. The cat - and - mouse game between the two generals reached a climax towards the end of the summer. If Wolfe could not capture the city he would likely be forced to withdraw in the face of the hostile Canadian winter. An attempt to land on the Montmorency was beaten back at the Battle of Beauport, and almost proved disastrous. Wolfe now searched for another place to land and make his attack. On 12 September the British learned of a convenient landing spot, and Wolfe moved his army there at night. The following day the Battle of the Plains of Abraham took place. It proved to be a decisive British victory, though one in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The British then took over the city.
The British were further cheered by the news that Amherst had taken Fort Carillon (after which it was renamed Fort Ticonderoga, as it is known today) and a second expedition had captured Fort Niagara. The French and their native allies were now under increasing pressure, compounded by guerrilla activities spearheaded by Britain 's Mohawk allies and Rogers ' Rangers. Despite the celebrated victory at Quebec, the campaign was not over -- the French still had significant forces at large in North America swelled by refugees from the surrounding countryside. The following spring the French regrouped and launched an attempt to retake Quebec. The Battle of Sainte - Foy took place on 28 April 1760 and proved even bloodier than the previous battle. Though the French prevailed, the British were able to retreat into Quebec and hold it against a siege that lasted for a fortnight.
The arrival of British ships and reinforcements ended the French offensive and forced them to retreat in the direction of Montreal. The British pursued, capturing parts of the city on 1 September 1760 after encountering only light resistance. The last French army under Lévis was finally forced to surrender on 6 September 1760 when a second British army under Amherst arrived from the south following the Battle of the Thousand Islands, and an attempt at French reinforcement was stopped in the naval Battle of Restigouche.
The British had responded to the French challenge in North America by striking at the heart of New France. Though it had been a long and costly series of campaigns, it proved to be one of the most successful of Pitt 's policies. While a modest French presence remained in Illinois and Louisiana the fighting served to end any significant French military threats in North America for good.
Following the British victory at Madras, their forces took the offensive. A force under Francis Forde captured the port of Masulipatam. Although he still had significant forces in India, the French commander Lally had expected greater support from his own navy, but he was constantly frustrated by the cautious Aché. Fresh British reinforcements arrived, tilting the balance in their favour. The failure of the French navy to secure command of the Indian Ocean opened their own territory to capture.
Pondicherry 's capture proved to be a decisive moment in the long - term battle for control in India. After this point, French India was confined to a handful of trading posts stretched along the coast, while the East India Company moved into the interior, extending its conquests to create the wide - reaching territories of British India, and by subsidiary alliances setting up the even wider British Indian Empire. By the end of 1761, the French were fearful that the British forces in India were preparing to strike at the island of Mauritius, and made no effort to reverse their losses in India.
1760 marked a major milestone in British strategy, caused by the death of George II. His grandson George III was much less committed to a British role in Germany which he saw as unnecessary. He also disliked Newcastle and Pitt, describing them as "knave '' and a "snake in the grass '', and elevated his former tutor Earl of Bute into a senior role in the cabinet. The dovish Bute soon clashed with Pitt over various aspects of British policy. Bute did give his assent to Pitt 's plan for a British expedition to capture the island of Belle Île in 1761.
After his victory at Minden the Duke of Brunswick continued to lead the Anglo - German army which received increasing resources and reinforcements from Britain. Brunswick was now facing several large French armies under the overall command of Victor - François, 2nd duc de Broglie which tried to envelop the west German frontier. The French still hoped to offset their losses to the British in other parts of the globe by capturing Hanover -- - which could be used as a bargaining chip in any peace negotiations. The French continued to invest large numbers of troops -- which were badly needed elsewhere. In 1761 Brunswick won another major victory over Broglie at the Battle of Villinghausen.
The French made a final attempt to invade Hanover in 1762 which was defeated at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal. Brunswick then went on the attack, driving the French southwards and capturing Cassel before the war was halted by an armistice.
Bute began to champion the idea that Britain should disentangle itself from the German war, and suggested to Frederick the Great that he might make peace with Austria by giving them back Silesia. Frederick rejected the proposal, although Prussian fortunes were at a low ebb by 1761 following defeats on several fronts. Debates began in London about cancelling all British subsidies to Frederick entirely.
By early 1762 -- despite the success of Brunswick 's army in Western Europe -- Russian troops were poised to capture Berlin and a partition of Prussia was actively planned. Frederick was spared by the sudden death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who was succeeded by the pro-Prussian Peter III. He was an ardent admirer of Frederick and immediately switched Russia from an enemy of Prussia to an ally -- withdrawing the threat from Berlin and sending his troops against the Austrians. This dramatically shifted the balance of power in Europe -- suddenly handing Frederick the initiative. He recaptured southern Silesia and forced Austria to the negotiating table.
Through careful diplomacy and the influence of a pro-British Spanish prime minister Ricardo Wall, Spain had remained neutral through most of the war. However, with the accession of Charles III to the throne Spanish foreign policy began to change. Charles was alarmed by the British conquest of the French Empire in North America, and feared his own empire would be Pitt 's next target. He concluded the Bourbon Family Compact with France, offering them practical support.
With evidence of growing Franco - Spanish co-operation, Pitt suggested it was only a matter of time before Spain entered the war. The prospect of war with Spain shattered the cabinet unity which had existed up to that point. Pitt strongly advocated a pre-emptive strike which would allow them to capture the annual plate fleet, denying Spain of its vital resources of wealth which were shipped in. The rest of the cabinet refused, and Pitt resigned. In spite of this war with Spain swiftly became unavoidable, and on 4 January 1762 Britain duly declared war on Spain. Almost immediately, British ships under Admiral Charles Saunders moved to blockade Cadiz one of the most important Spanish naval bases.
The most pressing issue in the war with Spain was a threatened invasion of Portugal. Portugal, although a historic British ally, had remained neutral through most of the conflict. By early 1762 they were drawn into the war with the First Cevallos expedition and became a likely target of Spain. Portugal 's long border with Spain was considered vulnerable and easy to overrun, rather than the more complex efforts a siege of the British fortress of Gibraltar would require. Spanish forces began massing on the Portuguese border, ready to strike. Britain moved swiftly to support their Portuguese allies, shipping in supplies and officers to help co-ordinate the defence.
The original Spanish plan was to take Almeida and then to advance towards the Alentejo and Lisbon, but they switched their target to Porto as it would strike more directly at British commerce. Under the direction of the Marquis of Sarria Spanish troops crossed from Galicia into northern Portugal capturing several towns. However, the thrust against Porto stalled in difficult terrain and due to the flooding of the River Esla. British troops began arriving that summer with 6,000 coming from Belle Île under Lord Loudoun and a further 2,000 from Ireland. Spain invested and captured the border fortress of Almeida. A British - Portuguese counter-attack led by John Burgoyne captured the Spanish town Valencia de Alcántara. French forces began to arrive to support the Spaniards, but like their allies they began to suffer high levels of attrition through disease and desertion. In November with problems with their lines of supply and communication the Bourbon allies withdrew and sued for peace. Despite the large numbers of forces involved, there had been no major battles.
In June 1762 British forces from the West Indies landed on the island of Cuba and laid siege to Havana. Although they arrived at the height of the fever season, and previous expeditions against tropical Spanish fortresses failed due, in no small part, to tropical disease, the British government was optimistic of victory -- if the troops could catch the Spanish off - guard before they had time to respond. The British commander Albermale ordered a tunnel to be dug by his sappers so a mine could be planted under the walls of the city 's fortress. British troops began to fall from disease at an alarming rate, but they were boosted by the arrival of 4,000 reinforcements from America. On 30 July Albermale ordered the mine to be detonated, and his troops stormed the fortress.
With Havana now in their hands, the British lay poised to strike at other targets in the Spanish Main should the war continue for another year. However, they had suffered 1,800 deaths and more than 4,000 casualties during the siege -- almost entirely from disease -- and for the moment set about consolidating their hold on the countryside around Havana. During the year of British occupation, commerce in Havana boomed, as the port was opened up to trade with the British Empire rather than the restricted monopoly with Cadiz that had existed before.
Almost as soon as war had been declared with Spain, orders had been despatched for a British force at Madras to proceed to the Philippines and invade Manila. A combined force of 10,700 men under William Draper set off from India in late July, arriving in Manila Bay in September 1762. They had to move swiftly before the monsoon season hit. On 6 October the British stormed the city, capturing it. A large amount of plunder was taken from the city after the Battle of Manila.
Spanish forces regrouped under Simon Anda, who had escaped from Manila during the siege. Rebellions fomented by the British were sabotaged by Spanish agents and crushed by Spanish forces. The British were prevented from extending their authority beyond Manila and the nearby port of Cavite. All agreements made between the British commander and Archbishop Rojo were dismissed as illegal. Eventually the British forces started to suffer troop desertions and dissensions within the command.
Because news of the city 's capture did n't reach Europe until after the Treaty of Paris, no provision was made regarding its status. During the siege, the Spanish lieutenant governor had agreed to a four million payment in silver dollars to the British known as the Manila Ransom in exchange for sparing the city but the full amount was never paid when word of what had happened in the Philippines reached Europe. The Spanish government demanded compensation for crimes committed against the residents of Manila during the occupation and the controversy over the ransom demanded by the British and the compensation demanded by the Spanish lasted many years. The twenty month occupation of Manila ended in 1764.
One of the earliest schemes Pitt had for colonial expeditions was in West Africa where France had several lucrative but strategically unimportant bases. He was fighting against a great deal of scepticism in the British government, which saw Europe as the main venue of warfare and all other theatres as costly distractions. As an initial test of his strategy Pitt gained support for a British expedition proposed by a New York merchant Thomas Cumming to take the French trading station at Fort Louis on the Senegal River which they did with relative ease, carrying back a large amount of plunder to Britain. Subsequent expeditions also took out French posts at Gorée and on the River Gambia.
Despite taking Guadeloupe in 1759, the British attempt to occupy Martinique that year had ended in failure. In 1761 a fresh scheme to attack the French West Indies was drawn up and Martinque was successfully taken by a British force in February 1762. This was followed up by the capture of the islands of Saint Lucia, Grenada and Saint Vincent. In each case many of the local planters and merchants welcomed the invasion, as it ended Britain 's naval blockade and restored their access to international trade.
In a final attempt to try to gain some advantage against the British, the French managed to slip an expedition through the British blockade and head towards Newfoundland, considered valuable because of its large fishery. The small British garrison was swiftly overwhelmed and the French believed they could use Newfoundland as a bargaining counter to extract the return of several of their own territories. General Amherst responded by despatching a force of men from New York under his younger brother William Amherst to recapture the island. They managed to defeat a French force at the Battle of Signal Hill on 15 September 1762, forcing the total capitulation of the French expedition three days later.
By 1763 the British government had an extreme shortage of money, though not as severe as that facing the French government. The collapse of the alliance with the Prussians ended that costly involvement, and by late 1762 the war around the world was winding towards a close. In Britain the new Bute ministry had taken full control of government, following the departure of Newcastle in March 1762 after a power struggle. The government agreed to an armistice and began fresh negotiations with the French in Paris directed by the Duke of Bedford.
In Britain the negotiations that proceeded to the peace agreement proved hugely controversial. Strong opposition, led principally by Newcastle and Pitt, was raised against the terms which were perceived to be exceedingly lenient towards France and Spain. A mob went so far as to attack a carriage carrying George III in protest at the alleged betrayal. Nonetheless Bute felt the war needed to be brought to an end, and the terms on offer were reasonable.
Britain held a dominant position at the negotiations, as they had during the last seven years seized Canada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Dominica, Pondicherry, Senegal, and Belle Île from the French and Havana and Manila from the Spanish. Only one British territory, Menorca, was in enemy hands. Despite suffering a year of defeats, Spain was prepared to fight on -- something which their French allies were opposed to. Bute proposed a suggestion that France cede her remaining North American territory of Louisiana to Spain to compensate Madrid for its losses during the war. This formula was acceptable to the Spanish government, and allowed Britain and France to negotiate with more legroom.
Having severed their connection with the Prussians the previous year, the British negotiated a separate peace to the Prussians -- dealing with their two principal adversaries France and Spain. Britain received formal control of New France, while handing back Martinique and Guadeloupe. The British were handed all of mainland North America east of the Mississippi River.
In the wake of Britain 's territorial expansion Sir George Macartney observed that Britain now controlled "a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets ''.
Despite France 's losses, Choiseul was satisfied not to have been forced to hand over more territory in the Caribbean and was delighted that he had been able to maintain a French presence in Newfoundland guaranteeing continued access to the valuable fishery there. A separate peace agreement between Austria and Prussia was concluded at the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February returning Central Europe to the status quo ante bellum.
The number of casualties suffered by British forces were comparatively light, compared to the more than a million fatalities that occurred worldwide.
France and Spain both considered the treaty that ended the war as being closer to a temporary armistice rather than a genuine final settlement, and William Pitt described it as an "armed truce ''. Britain had customarily massively reduced the size of its armed forces during peace time, but during the 1760s a large military establishment was maintained -- intended as a deterrent against France and Spain. The Bourbon powers both sent agents to examine Britain 's defenses believing that a successful invasion of Britain was an essential part of any war of revenge.
The British victory in the war sowed some of the seeds of Britain 's later conflict in the American War of Independence. American colonists had been delighted by the huge swathes of North America that had now been brought under formal British control, but many were angered by the Proclamation of 1763, which was an attempt to protect Native American territory -- and prevent European settlement. Similarly the issue of quartering the British regular troops became a thorny issue, with colonists objecting to their billeting in private homes. Events such as these contributed to a drift apart between the British government and many of its subjects in the Thirteen Colonies.
The war had also brought to an end the "Old System '' of alliances in Europe, In the years after the war, under the direction of Lord Sandwich, the British did try to re-establish this system but European states such as Austria and the Dutch Republic now saw Britain as a potentially greater threat than France and did not join them, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American War of Independence turned into a global war between 1778 -- 83, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.
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when does black panther die in the comics | Black Panther (Comics) - Wikipedia
Black Panther is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer - editor Stan Lee and writer - artist Jack Kirby, first appearing in Fantastic Four # 52 (cover - dated July 1966) in the Silver Age of Comic Books. Black Panther 's real name is T'Challa, king and protector of the fictional African nation of Wakanda. Along with possessing enhanced abilities achieved through ancient Wakandan rituals of drinking the essence of the heart - shaped herb, T'Challa also relies on his proficiency in science, rigorous physical training, hand - to - hand combat skills, and access to wealth and advanced Wakandan technology to combat his enemies.
Black Panther is the first superhero of African descent in mainstream American comics, having debuted years before early African American superheroes such as Marvel Comics ' the Falcon (1969), Luke Cage (1972) and Blade (1973), or DC Comics ' John Stewart in the role of Green Lantern (1971). In one comic book storyline, the Black Panther mantle is handled by Kasper Cole, a multiracial New York City police officer. Beginning as an impersonator, Cole would later take on the moniker of White Tiger and become an ally to T'Challa. The role of Black Panther and leadership of Wakanda is also given to T'Challa's sister Shuri for a short time.
Black Panther has made numerous appearances in various television shows, animated films and video games. The character is portrayed in live action by Chadwick Boseman in the 2016 film Captain America: Civil War, and the 2018 films Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War, set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
In 2011, Black Panther was ranked 51st overall on IGN 's "Top 100 Comic Books Heroes '' list.
The Black Panther 's name predates the October 1966 founding of the Black Panther Party, though not the black panther logo of the party 's predecessor, the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO), nor the segregated World War II Black Panthers Tank Battalion. Stan Lee, co-creator of the comic, denied that the comic was named after any of the political uses of the term "black panther '', including the LCFO, citing "a strange coincidence ''. He is the first black superhero in American mainstream comic books; very few black heroes were created before him, and none with actual superpowers. These included the characters in the single - issue, low - distribution All - Negro Comics # 1 (1947); Waku, Prince of the Bantu, who starred in his own feature in the omnibus title Jungle Tales, from Marvel 's 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics; and the Dell Comics Western character Lobo, the first black person to star in his own comic book. Previous non-caricatured black supporting characters in comics include U.S. Army infantry private Gabriel Jones of Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos.
In a guest appearance in Fantastic Four # 119 (Feb. 1972), the Black Panther briefly tried using the name Black Leopard to avoid connotations with the Party, but the new name did not last. The character 's name was changed back to Black Panther in Avengers # 105, with T'Challa explaining that renaming himself made as much sense as altering the Scarlet Witch 's name, and he is not a stereotype.
Co-creator Stan Lee recounted that the name was inspired by a pulp adventure hero who has a black panther as a helper. Jack Kirby 's original concept art for Black Panther used the concept name Coal Tiger.
Following his debut in Fantastic Four # 52 -- 53 (July -- Aug. 1966) and subsequent guest appearance in Fantastic Four Annual # 5 (1967) and with Captain America in Tales of Suspense # 97 -- 100 (Jan. -- April 1968), the Black Panther journeyed from the fictional African nation of Wakanda to New York City to join the titular American superhero team in The Avengers # 52 (May 1968), appearing in that comic for the next few years. During his time with the Avengers, he made solo guest - appearances in three issues of Daredevil, and fought Doctor Doom in Astonishing Tales # 6 -- 7 (June & Aug. 1971), in that supervillain 's short - lived starring feature.
He received his first starring feature with Jungle Action # 5 (July 1973), a reprint of the Panther - centric story in The Avengers # 62 (March 1969). A new series began running the following issue, written by Don McGregor, with art by pencilers Rich Buckler, Gil Kane, and Billy Graham, and which gave inkers Klaus Janson and Bob McLeod some of their first professional exposure. The critically acclaimed series ran in Jungle Action # 6 -- 24 (Sept. 1973 -- Nov. 1976).
One now - common format McGregor pioneered was that of the self - contained, multi-issue story arc. The first, "Panther 's Rage '', ran through the first 13 issues. Critic Jason Sacks has called the arc "Marvel 's first graphic novel '':
(T) here were real character arcs in Spider - Man and the Fantastic Four (comics) over time. But... "Panther 's Rage '' is the first comic that was created from start to finish as a complete novel. Running in two years ' issues of Jungle Action (# s 6 through 18), "Panther 's Rage '' is a 200 - page novel that journeys to the heart of the African nation of Wakanda, a nation ravaged by a revolution against its king, T'Challa, the Black Panther.
The second and final arc, "Panther vs. the Klan '', ran as mostly 17 - page stories in Jungle Action # 19 -- 24 (Jan. -- Nov. 1976), except for issue # 23, a reprint of Daredevil # 69 (Oct. 1970), in which the Black Panther guest - starred. The subject matter of the Ku Klux Klan was considered controversial in the Marvel offices at the time, creating difficulties for the creative team.
African - American writer - editor Dwayne McDuffie said of the Jungle Action "Black Panther '' feature:
This overlooked and underrated classic is arguably the most tightly written multi-part superhero epic ever. If you can get your hands on it... sit down and read the whole thing. It 's damn - near flawless, every issue, every scene, a functional, necessary part of the whole. Okay, now go back and read any individual issue. You 'll find seamlessly integrated words and pictures; clearly introduced characters and situations; a concise (sometimes even transparent) recap; beautifully developed character relationships; at least one cool new villain; a stunning action set piece to test our hero 's skills and resolve; and a story that is always moving forward towards a definite and satisfying conclusion. That 's what we should all be delivering, every single month. Don (McGregor) and company did it in only 17 story pages per issue.
Though popular with college students, the overall sales of Jungle Action were low, and Marvel relaunched the Black Panther in a self - titled series, bringing in the character 's co-creator Jack Kirby -- newly returned to Marvel after having decamped to rival DC Comics for a time -- as writer, penciler, and editor. However, Kirby wanted to work on new characters and was unhappy at being assigned a series starring a character he had already worked with extensively. He left the series after only 12 issues and was replaced by Ed Hannigan (writer), Jerry Bingham (penciler), and Roger Stern (editor). Black Panther ran 15 issues (Jan. 1977 -- May 1979). Due to the series 's cancellation, the contents of what would have been Black Panther # 16 -- 18 were published in Marvel Premiere # 51 -- 53.
A four - issue miniseries, Black Panther vol. 2, (July -- Oct. 1988) was written by Peter B. Gillis and penciled by Denys Cowan. McGregor revisited his Panther saga with Gene Colan in "Panther 's Quest '', published as 25 eight - page installments within the bi-weekly anthology series Marvel Comics Presents (issues # 13 -- 37, Feb. -- Dec. 1989). He later teamed with artist Dwayne Turner in the square - bound miniseries Black Panther: Panther 's Prey (Sept. 1990 -- March 1991). McGregor conceived a fifth arc in his Black Panther saga, titled "Panther 's Vows '', but it failed to get off the ground.
Writer Christopher Priest 's and penciller Mark Texeira 's 1998 series The Black Panther vol. 3 used Erik Killmonger, Venomm, and other characters introduced in "Panther 's Rage '', together with new characters such as State Department attorney Everett Ross; the Black Panther 's adopted brother, Hunter; and the Panther 's protégé, Queen Divine Justice. The Priest - Texeira series was under the Marvel Knights imprint in its first year. Priest said the creation of character Ross contributed heavily to his decision to write the series. "I realized I could use Ross to bridge the gap between the African culture that the Black Panther mythos is steeped in and the predominantly white readership that Marvel sells to, '' adding that in his opinion, the Black Panther had been misused in the years after his creation.
The last 13 issues (# 50 -- 62) saw the main character replaced by a multiracial New York City police officer named Kasper Cole, with T'Challa relegated to a supporting character. This Black Panther, who became the White Tiger, was placed in the series The Crew, running concurrently with the final few Black Panther issues. The Crew was canceled with issue # 7.
In 2005, Marvel began publishing Black Panther vol. 4, which ran 41 issues (April 2005 -- Nov. 2008). It was initially written by filmmaker Reginald Hudlin (through issue # 38) and penciled by John Romita, Jr. (through # 6). Hudlin said he wanted to add "street cred '' to the title, although he noted that the book was not necessarily or primarily geared toward an African - American readership. As influences for his characterization of the character, Hudlin has cited comic character Batman, film director Spike Lee, and music artist Sean Combs. Other influences include historical figures such as 14th - century Mali Empire sultan Mansa Musa and 20th - century Jamaican activist Marcus Garvey, as well as Biblical figures such as Ham and Canaan.
Black Panther vol. 5 launched in February 2009, with Hudlin, again scripting, introducing a successor Black Panther, T'Challa's sister Shuri. Hudlin co-wrote issue # 7 with Jonathan Maberry, who then became the new writer, joined by artist Will Conrad. The Panther was also a featured player, with members of the Fantastic Four and the X-Men, in the Doctor Doom - based, six - issue miniseries Doomwar (April -- Sept. 2010).
T'Challa then accepted an invitation from Matt Murdock, the superhero Daredevil, to become the new protector of New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood. He became the lead character in Daredevil beginning with issue # 513 (Feb. 2011), when that series was retitled Black Panther: The Man Without Fear. Under writer David Liss and artist Francesco Francavilla, he took on the identity of Mr. Okonkwo, an immigrant from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and becomes the owner of a small diner in order to be close to the people.
A new Black Panther series written by Ta - Nehisi Coates and drawn by Brian Stelfreeze was launched in 2016 and continues to be published with Coates as the head writer.
In 2017, the afrofuturist writer Nnedi Okorafor wrote the series Black Panther: Long Live the King.
The Black Panther is the ceremonial title given to the chief of the Panther Tribe of the advanced African nation of Wakanda. In addition to ruling the country, he is also chief of its various tribes (collectively referred to as the Wakandas). The Panther habit is a symbol of office (head of state) and is used even during diplomatic missions. The Panther is a hereditary title, but one must still earn it.
In the distant past, a meteorite made of the (fictional) vibration - absorbing mineral vibranium crashed in Wakanda, and was unearthed. Reasoning that outsiders would exploit Wakanda for this valuable resource, the ruler, King T'Chaka, like his father and other Panthers before him, concealed his country from the outside world. T'Chaka's first wife N'Yami died while in labor with T'Challa, and his second wife Ramonda was taken prisoner by Anton Pretorius during a visit to her homeland of South Africa, so for most of his childhood T'Challa was raised by his father alone. T'Chaka was murdered by the adventurer Ulysses Klaw in an attempt to seize the vibranium mound. With his people still in danger, a young T'Challa used Klaw 's sound weapon on Klaw and his men, shattering Klaw 's right hand and forcing him to flee.
T'Challa was next in line to be the king of Wakanda and Black Panther, but until he was ready to become the leader of the nation, his uncle S'yan (T'Chaka's younger brother) successfully passed the trials to become the Black Panther. While on his Wakandan walkabout rite of passage, T'Challa met and fell in love with apparent orphaned teen Ororo Munroe, who would grow up to become the X-Men member Storm. The two broke off their relationship due to his desire to avenge his father 's death and to become the type of man who could suitably lead Wakanda, but they would see each other over the years when they could.
T'Challa earned the title and attributes of the Black Panther by defeating the various champions of the Wakandan tribes. One of his first acts was to disband and exile the Hatut Zeraze -- the Wakandan secret police -- and its leader, his adopted brother Hunter the White Wolf. He sold off small portions of vibranium to scientific institutions around the world, amassing a fortune which he used to arm himself with advanced technology. Later, to keep peace, he picked dora milaje ("adored ones '') from rival tribes to serve as his personal guard and ceremonial wives - in - training. He then studied abroad for a time before returning to his kingship.
In his first published appearance, the now - adult T'Challa invites the American superhero team the Fantastic Four to Wakanda, then attacks and attempts to neutralize them individually in order to test himself to see if he is ready to battle Klaw, who had replaced his shattered right hand with a sonic weapon. For their part, the Four manage to rally and stymie T'Challa in a team counter-attack, enabling the impressed King to stand down and explain himself to the team 's satisfaction. After the ruler makes proper amends to the Four, they befriend and help T'Challa, and he in turn aids them against the supervillain the Psycho - Man. T'Challa later joins the Avengers, beginning a long association with that superhero team. He first battles the Man - Ape while with the group, and then meets the American singer Monica Lynne, with whom he becomes romantically involved. He helps the Avengers defeat the second Sons of the Serpent, and then reveals his true identity on American television. He encounters Daredevil, and reveals to him that he had deduced Daredevil 's true identity.
After receiving numerous urgent official letters requesting him to return to his increasingly troubled homeland, the Panther eventually leaves his active Avengers membership to return to a Wakanda on the brink of civil war, bringing Lynne with him. After defeating would - be usurper Erik Killmonger and his minions, the Panther ventures to the American South to battle the Ku Klux Klan. He later gains possession of the mystical time - shifting artifacts known as King Solomon 's Frogs. These produce an alternate version of T'Challa from a future 10 years hence, a merry, telepathic Panther with a terminal brain aneurysm, whom T'Challa places in cryogenic stasis.
Later, while searching for and finding his stepmother Ramonda, the Panther contends with South African authorities during Apartheid. T'Challa eventually proposes and becomes engaged to Monica Lynne, though the couple never marry.
Years later, the Panther accepts a Washington, D.C. envoy, Everett K. Ross, and faces multiple threats to Wakanda 's sovereignty. Ross assists him in many of these threats. In gratitude, the Panther often risks much for Ross in return. The first threat he and Ross encounter is "Xcon '', an alliance of rogue intelligence agents backing a coup led by the Reverend Achebe. Afterward, Killmonger resurfaces with a plot to destroy Wakanda 's economy. This forces T'Challa to nationalize foreign companies. Killmonger then defeats him in ritual combat, thus inheriting the role of Black Panther, but falls into a coma upon eating the heart - shaped herb -- poisonous to anyone outside the royal bloodline, which had a hereditary immunity to its toxic effects. T'Challa preserves his rival 's life rather than allowing him to die.
Later, T'Challa finds he has a brain aneurysm like his alternate future self, and succumbs to instability and hallucinations. After his mental state almost causes tribal warfare, the Panther hands power to his council and hides in New York City. There he mentors police officer Kasper Cole (who had adopted an abandoned Panther costume), an experience that gives T'Challa the strength to face his illness, reclaim his position, and return to active membership in the Avengers, whom he helps secure special United Nations status.
T'Challa recounts the story of his ascension as the Black Panther in the fourth volume of his eponymous comic book series. He defeated his uncle during the Black Panther celebration, and during his walkabout when he met and fell in love with a street urchin named Ororo in Cairo, Egypt. Unbeknownst to him the US government is planning a coup in order to get access to the vibranium. They allow Klaw to recruit a team of villains in order to support his totalitarian neighbor, Niganda. Klaw recruits Rhino, Black Knight, Batroc the Leaper, and Radioactive Man to lead the invasion. The US government then deploys an army of Deathloks to "support '' T'Challa and justify an invasion, but T'Challa kills Klaw and Storm wipes out the Deathlok army in a hurricane.
T'Challa then helps his old flame Ororo Munroe reunite with her surviving family members in Africa and the U.S. He shortly afterward proposes, and the two are married in a large Wakandan ceremony attended by many superheroes. One of the couple 's first tasks is to embark on a diplomatic tour, in which they visit the Inhumans, Doctor Doom, the President of the United States, and Namor, with only the last one ending well. After the death of Bill Foster, the Black Panther and Storm side with Captain America 's anti-registration forces. During the end battle between both sides, the Wakandan embassy in Manhattan is heavily damaged, though no Wakandans are hurt. After the confrontation, the Panther and Storm briefly fill in for vacationing Fantastic Four members Reed and Sue Richards before returning to Wakanda.
Upon returning to Wakanda alone, leaving Storm in New York to aid the X-Men, Black Panther faces Erik Killmonger, defeating him with assistance from Monica Rambeau (a.k.a. Pulsar). Afterward, Wakanda fends off the alien shapeshifters the Skrulls, who had infiltrated as part of their "Secret Invasion '' plan to conquer Earth. Prince Namor attempts to recruit T'Challa for the Cabal, a secret council of supervillains. Attacked by the forces of fellow Cabal member Doctor Doom, T'Challa is left comatose. His sister Shuri is trained as the next Panther, with the mantle passing onto her officially after T'Challa awakens from his coma and attempts to recover from his injuries.
In the aftermath, T'Challa loses all of his enhanced attributes given to him by being the panther totem. As a result, he works with his sorcerer, Zawavari, to accumulate a replacement. He has since made a pact with another unknown Panther deity, returning his attributes to an even higher level as well as placing incantations on his body, making himself highly resistant to most magic and mystic assaults. This has all been done in preparation for the imminent battle with Doctor Doom, which culminated in T'Challa rendering all of the processed vibranium inert to give his people a chance to rebuild without their dependence on the element.
After the events of "Shadowland '', Matt Murdock (the superhero Daredevil) asks T'Challa to replace him as guardian of Hell 's Kitchen, which gives T'Challa a chance to discover himself. With the help of Foggy Nelson, T'Challa assumes the identity of Mr. Okonkwo, an immigrant from the Congo and manager of a diner called Devil 's Kitchen, so that he can blend in and learn about the denizens as an ordinary man. He gets on well with two of the Kitchen 's staff: Sofija, a migrant from Serbia who was formerly involved in violent Serbian nationalism, and the busboy, Brian. He also gets to know some of the neighbors from his apartment block: Mr. Nantakarn and his son Alec, as well as Iris, a social worker assigned to handle cases of child abuse.
T'Challa finds himself up against an ambitious new crime lord, Vlad Dinu, who styles himself "The Impaler ''. He also seeks an understanding with the police through Detective Alex Kurtz. During an attempt by Vlad to terminate the Panther, Brian from the Devil 's Kitchen is seriously injured by an energy blast from Vlad, and is reported dead. The conflict between Vlad and the Panther becomes more personal, especially after Vlad discovers the Panther over his wife Angela dead from a gunshot wound.
T'Challa learns that Iris was the serial shooter who killed abusers of children -- Gabe was abused secretly by Angela. Brian was kidnapped by his doctor, Dr. Holman, at the behest of Nicolae who wanted to use someone who received a dose of Vlad 's power. After being subjected to torturous experiments, Brian lost the ability to think for himself but was rescued by Gabe who also stole the serum produced from the experiment meant to endow the recipient with Vlad 's powers. The Panther obtains evidence of Vlad Dinu 's crimes as well as clues to Iris as the serial shooter, and turns the evidence over to Kurtz. Vlad kills his own son Nicolae before being subdued by the Panther. Gabe is arrested for attempting to take Iris ' life. Before being taken away, Gabe reveals to the Panther Brian 's fate. Though aware of the Panther 's identity as Mr. Okonkwo, both Iris and Sofija promise to keep silent.
Shortly after Daredevil returns to Hell 's Kitchen, T'Challa returns to Wakanda, serving as a second to his sister, Shuri. In preparation for an upcoming attack on Wakanda as part of the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, the Panther God returns T'Challa's abilities. Empowered by the Phoenix, Namor destroys Wakanda with a massive tidal wave. Returning to help, Storm is stunned when the Panther informs her that their marriage has been annulled.
After witnessing an alternate Earth over Wakanda being destroyed by the Black Swan, T'Challa reforms the Illuminati -- with Beast replacing the now - deceased Charles Xavier -- to confront the threat of the Incursions, parallel universes colliding with each other to the destruction of both. Although able to avert one Incursion with the Infinity Gauntlet, the subsequent destruction of the Infinity Gems forces the group to decide to resort to more questionable measures to protect Earth from future Incursions, wiping Captain America 's mind so that he will not remember these events, allowing them to do "what needs to be done ''. Although equipped with planet - destroying weapons to protect Earth, the Illuminati mostly become disgusted with the wholesale slaughter, until Namor breaks off from the group to form a new Cabal of villains to do what the heroes will not. Despite Namor 's Cabal achieving legitimacy as Earth 's protectors, Namor grew weary of the wholesale slaughter they carried out in the name of preserving their universe. Although he collaborated with the Illuminati in a plan to destroy the Cabal by trapping them on the next Earth to be destroyed, Black Panther and Black Bolt left him behind to die with the Cabal, disgusted at his earlier actions, although Namor and the Cabal escape to the Ultimate universe when the other Earth has a simultaneous Incursion.
When the final Incursion occurs during the Secret Wars storyline, resulting in all realities collapsing into one Earth, Black Panther is one of the few heroes to survive the Incursion in a specially - designed "life pod '' -- other survivors including Mister Fantastic, Star - Lord, Spider - Man, the new Thor, Captain Marvel and a Phoenix - enhanced Cyclops -- although they are only released into the new world after an eight - year stasis. Retrieved by Doctor Strange, they learn that Strange has assumed a role of "sheriff '' to Doctor Doom, who has appointed himself the god of the new "Battleworld '' created from the multiple realities. Although Doom effortlessly kills Cyclops, Strange protects the other heroes by dispersing them across Battleworld, with T'Challa and Namor eventually discovering a new version of the Infinity Gauntlet that Strange collected, ensuring that the Gems he found would work in the location where Doom built his main fortress. Recruiting the residents of the deadlands as an army, T'Challa marches on Doom at the same time as multiple other areas rebel against him through the encouragement of the heroes, but admits when Doom confronts him that he was only intended as a distraction while Reed targets Doom 's power source. As Reed takes Doom 's power and sets out to rebuild the multiverse, T'Challa uses the Time Gem to take himself back to Wakanda before the Incursions, proclaiming to his people that they will lead the way to the stars and explore new ideas.
As part of the All - New, All - Different Marvel, Black Panther is a member of the Ultimates.
During the Civil War II storyline, Black Panther represents Wakanda on the Alpha Flight Space Program 's Board of Governors. He sides with Captain Marvel on needing help from an Inhuman who can predict the possible future named Ulysses Kain. Black Panther and Shuri take part in the fight against the Leviathon Tide.
During Hydra 's reign over the world led by Arnim Zola, Baron Zemo and Steve Rogers, Panther is captured for opposing this regime, and brought into a containing room. Once Panther and Zemo are alone, Winter Soldier rescues Panther. Panther entrusts the unconscious Zemo to Winter Soldier, while trailing Rogers and Zola into the secret lab. Panther finds out that Zola infused a brainwashed Captain America with a Cosmic Cube using a stolen Stark tech modified by Zola himself, and warns his allies to retreat from a Cosmic Cube - powered Steve Rogers, but is too late. Even though one of the heroes knows they can not defeat a Cosmic Cube - powered Supreme Hydra Rogers, Winter Soldier, Captain America (Sam Wilson) and Ant - Man (Scott Lang) trick Rogers by surrendering the last fragment of the cube to him. Winter Soldier and Ant - Man steal the cube from Rogers before he uses its full potential, and bring back Kobik and the real Steve Rogers. After the defeat of Supreme Hydra Steve Rogers, Black Panther establishes his quest to go across the universe with his people, and found an Intergalactic Empire of Wakanda on Planet Bast, located in the Benhazin Star System.
The title "Black Panther '' is a rank of office, chieftain of the Wakandan Panther Clan. As chieftain, the Panther is entitled to eat a special heart - shaped herb which, in addition to his mystical, shamanistic connection with the Wakandan Panther God Bast, grants him superhumanly acute senses, enhanced strength, speed, agility, stamina, durability, healing, and reflexes.
He has since lost this connection and forged a new one with another unknown Panther deity, granting him augmented physical attributes as well as a resistance to magic. His senses are so powerful that he can pick up a prey 's scent and memorize tens of thousands of individual ones. Following his war with Doom, T'Challa loses his enhanced abilities only to once again establish a connection with the Panther God. In addition to the resurgence of his now superhuman abilities, he is anointed "King of the Dead '', granting him the power and knowledge of all the past Black Panthers as well as the ability to control the Undead. After Battleworld and the resurgence of the Multiverse T'challa eventually showcased new powers in regards to his King of the Dead status, for not only could he reanimate the dead but summon departed spirits into the physical world with tangible form as well. Using these spiritual energies also enables him to conjure a mythical mystical spear of glowing blue energy to his hand.
T'Challa worked with his sorcerer, Zawavari, to endow T'Challa with immunity to mystical attacks and detection in order to defeat Dr. Doom. When T'Challa's alchemical upgrade was tested by means of Wakanda 's most powerful acolytes attacking T'Challa in unison, each mystical attack was absorbed and only served to strengthen T'Challa. During these preparations, T'Challa invented a potent mystical - scientific hybrid art called "shadow physics '' and was able to use it to craft shadow weapons and to track vibranium on a quantum level.
As king of Wakanda, the Panther has access to a vast collection of magical artifacts, advanced Wakandan technological and military hardware, and the support of his nation 's wide array of scientists, warriors, and mystics. The Wakandan military has been described as one of the most powerful on Earth. His attire is the sacred vibranium costume of the Wakandan Panther Cult.
He is a skilled hunter, tracker, strategist, politician, inventor, and scientist. He has a PhD in physics from Oxford University. He is proficient in physics and advanced technology, and is also an inventor. T'Challa has been granted the strength and knowledge of every past Black Panther.
T'Challa is rigorously trained in acrobatics and hand - to - hand combat. He is skilled in various forms of unarmed combat, with a unique hybrid fighting style that incorporates acrobatics and aspects of animal mimicry.
The chieftain of the Wakandan Panther Clan is one of the wealthiest people in the world, although financial estimates are difficult given Wakanda 's isolation from the world 's economy and the uncertain value of Wakanda 's vast vibranium reserves and extremely advanced technologies.
In Black Panther volume 3, writer Christopher Priest expanded the Panther 's day - to - day arsenal to include equipment such as an "energy dagger '', a vibranium - weave suit, and a portable supercomputer, the "Kimoyo card ''. In Black Panther volume 4, writer Reginald Hudlin introduced such specialized equipment as "thrice - blessed armor '' and "light armor '' for specific tasks, and for a short while outfitted him with the Ebony Blade of the Black Knight.
The mantle of the Black Panther is passed down from generation to generation among the rulers of Wakanda although it must still be deserved through a severe selection involving the best warriors of the nation.
Bashenga appeared for the first time in Black Panther Vol. 1 # 7 (January 1978) by Jack Kirby (scripts and drawings). Wise warrior at the head of the Panther Tribe, according to legends, during the tumult where the vibranium meteorite fell on the soil of the village, then composed of various warring clans, he gathered all the aforementioned under his guide to defeating the inhabitants transformed by the impact into fierce "demonic spirits '', a company which has unified the nation by founding Wakanda and becoming its first ruler and the first to obtain the title of "Black Panther '' as it tells of his "spiritual connection '' with the Goddess Pantera Bast that led to the foundation of the Cult of the Panther.
Chanda appeared for the first time in Fantastic Four Unlimited Vol. 1 # 1 (March 1993) by Roy Thomas (scripts) and Herb Trimpe (drawings). Black Panther and ruler of Wakanda during the Second World War, Chanda is the husband of Nanali and father of T'Chaka and S'Yan; distinguished by an excessively good and compassionate nature, he welcomed the Nazi colonel Fritz Klaue after he crashed into his reign due to a plane crash. Over time, the two make a kind of friendship and Klaue develops a strong obsession with the culture of Wakanda coming to try to convince them to make their religion deist rather than spiritist, which causes a strong friction between him and Chanda culminating in the death of Nanali by the Nazi and in its subsequent expulsion from the country.
In several subsequent stories, T'Chaka's father (and husband of Nanali) is called Azzuri the Wise and is presented in a completely different way from Chanda, leaving the doubt if it is only a sort of nickname or another character.
T'Chaka appeared for the first time in Fantastic Four Vol. 1 # 53 (August 1966) by Stan Lee (script) and Jack Kirby (art). The eldest son of King Azzuri and Queen Nanali, T'Chaka inherits the throne and the title of the Black Panther on his father 's death by being helped in his monarch duties by his younger brother and trusted adviser S'Yan. After having married a woman named N'Yami, believing she can not have children, she adopts a child with her, Hunter, however, she later becomes pregnant and dies giving birth to her first child, T'Challa; from the relationship with a woman of another tribe T'Chaka then has a second son, Jakarra, and finally remarries with Ramonda, a woman who grows her children as her own and from whom she has her only daughter, Shuri, but which subsequently disappears into nothingness, leading him to believe that he has abandoned it. To protect the kingdom, T'Chaka instituted a policy of strong isolationism, but in the course of his life he often collaborated with agents of the US government. He is killed by Ulysses Klaw after having surprised him to illegally extract vibranium in his kingdom.
In Black Panther Vol. 3 # 15 (February 2000), Erik Killmonger challenges and beats T'Challa in a duel for the throne, overthrowing him as king of Wakanda and taking on the role as the Black Panther. He becomes comatose after attempting to ingest the Heart - shaped Herb to acquire the Black Panther 's powers, as he is not of royal blood. Killmonger 's time as king is short - lived however, as he is killed by Monica Rambeau during T'Challa's attack to reclaim Wakanda.
S'Yan The Fast, appeared for the first time in Black Panther Vol. 4 # 2 (May, 2005) by Reginald Hudlin (scripts) and John Romita Jr. (drawings). The second son of King Azzuri and Queen Nanali, S'Yan is T'Chaka's younger and trusted advisor, after whose death, although he has no desire to reign, he agrees to ascend the throne until his nephew became an adult. Ironically, S'Yan, who has never wanted to be king, becomes one of the most beloved monarchs in the history of Wakanda but, nevertheless, when T'Challa returns home and obtains the title of Black Panther, he leaves with joy, returning to play the role of royal adviser. He died during the war with Latveria to defend Ramonda from the soldiers of Doctor Doom.
When T'Challa ends up in a coma because of Doctor Doom, Shuri becomes his substitute as Black Panther and queen of Wakanda which, after the rise of her half - brother to "king of the dead '', creates for the first time in history two avatars of the Panther Goddess.
Black Panther was ranked the 79th greatest comic book character by Wizard magazine. IGN ranked the character the 51st greatest comic book hero, stating that Black Panther could be considered Marvel 's equivalent to Batman; he was also ranked tenth in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers ''. In 2013, ComicsAlliance ranked the Black Panther as # 33 on their list of the "50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics ''.
Journalist Joe Gross praised Christopher Priest for his characterization of the Black Panther, stating, that the writer "turned an underused icon into the locus of a complicated high adventure by taking the Black Panther to his logical conclusion. T'Challa (the title character) is the enigmatic ruler of a technologically advanced, slightly xenophobic African nation, so he acts like it ''. Gross applauded the title 's "endless wit, sharp characterization, narrative sophistication and explosive splash panels ''.
Comics reviewer and journalist Mike Sangiacomo, however, criticized the narrative structure. "Christopher Priest 's fractured writing is getting on my nerves. Like the Spider - Man comics, I want to like Black Panther, but Priest 's deliberately jumbled approach to writing is simply silly. I know it 's a style, but does he have to do it every issue? ''
Reporter Bill Radford cited similar concerns when the title had just launched. "I appreciate the notion of seeing the Black Panther through the eyes of an Everyman, but the Panther is almost relegated to secondary status in his own book. And Ross ' narration jumps around in time so much that I feel like his boss, who, in trying to get Ross to tell her what has happened, complains: ' This is like watching "Pulp Fiction '' in rewind. My head is exploding. ' ''
Publishers Weekly gave a negative review to the first arc, "Who Is the Black Panther? '', a modern retelling of the character 's origin, saying, "Hudlin 's take is caught between a rock and a hard place. His over-the - top narrative is not likely to appeal to fans of the most recent version of the character, but it 's too mired in obscure Marvel continuity to attract the more general reader. The plot manages to be convoluted without ever becoming absorbing ''.
Journalist Shawn Jeffords, citing the lack of appearances of the title character in the first issue, called the new series a "fairly unimpressive launch ''. Jeffords also said general - audience unfamiliarity was a hindrance. "He 's never been a marquee character and to make him one will be tough ''.
T'Challa is Coal Tiger, Sersi kills the Avengers and Coal Tiger is the only survivor.
In the Age of Ultron story, Black Panther contacts the Fantastic Four and informs them that Ultron has invaded Earth with an army of Ultron Sentinels. Black Panther was later seen with Red Hulk and Taskmaster in Chicago spying on some Ultron Sentinels. When Taskmaster takes out a Sentinel that was sneaking up on him, alerting the other Sentinels, Red Hulk holds off the Sentinels while Black Panther and Taskmaster flee. During the mayhem, Black Panther falls several stories and breaks his neck, killing him instantly.
Bronze Tiger is the ruler of Wakanda and is named B'Nchalla; an amalgamation of the Bronze Tiger (DC) and the Black Panther (Marvel).
In Avengers Forever, Captain America and Goliath visit an alternate future timeline where Martian invaders have ravaged the Earth. An aged Black Panther leads this reality 's version of the Avengers, who consist of Jocasta, Living Lightning, Killraven, Crimson Dynamo and Thundra.
In an alternate reality where the Civil War between Iron Man and Captain America never ended, Black Panther was killed alongside Maria Hill after activating Prison 42 's self - destruct mechanism. He is succeeded by his son, Azari, who takes on the Black Panther name. It is later revealed that the Black Panther who destroyed Prison 42 was actually Queen Veranke of the shape - shifting alien Skrull race, who had stolen T'Challa's identity in order to manipulate and prolong the Civil War to suit her own needs.
T'Challa is Chieftain Justice, a Captain Britain Corps member, in Excalibur # 44 (1991).
In the alternate universe of Earth X, T'Challa has been affected by the mutative event that drives the plot. Like most of humanity, he is mutated; in this case to become a humanoid black panther. He is entrusted with the Cosmic Cube by Captain America, who knows that T'Challa would be the only one to resist using it and to never give it back if asked. In fact, Captain America does ask for it back and T'Challa is forced to refuse.
An alternate version of Black Panther, called simply "Panther '', is drafted onto the interdimensional superhero team the Exiles. The Panther is the son of T'Challa and Storm and named T'Chaka, after his grandfather. Originating from Earth - 1119, he was ambushed by Klaw while examining some ruins. Caught in Klaw 's blast, the Panther was plucked out of time and placed on the team. Unlike the stoic 616 - Black Panther, The Panther is a wisecracking flirt. After his assumed death on Earth - 1119, his sister took up the mantle of Black Panther.
The Black Panther appears in issues # 1 and # 6 -- 7 of Marvel Comics / Fox Kids comic book series based on the TV show The Avengers: United They Stand.
T'Challa appears in Marvel Mangaverse Volume 2 as a man with a pet panther. When summoning the spirits, T'Challa and his panther combine to become the Black Panther. He also became The Falcon. This Black Panther was romantically attracted to Tigra. T'Challa's sister, T'Chana, reveals herself to be this universe 's Doctor Doom.
In the Marvel 2099 continuity, a greatly weakened Wakanda is soon to be governed by its princess, Okusana. Fearing that she is not ready, she requests Doom 's help in resurrecting Thandaza, her grandfather and a former Black Panther. Doom (who claims to have agreed to the proposal out of respect for T'Challa) and the Wakandan scientists revive Thandaza in a cyberbetic body made from vibranium, but the plan goes awry when Mkhalali, the current Panther Guard, opens fire on Thandaza, believing his resurrection to be an abomination. The attack throws off the calibrations and leaves Thandaza in a maddened state and constant pain, causing him to go on a bloody rampage. Doom is ultimately forced to kill Thandaza, who thanks him for ending his suffering.
Black Panther was featured in the Marvel Knights 2099 one shots, which were not tied to the main 2099 continuity. A new Black Panther, K'Shamba, rose to fight and thwart the mounting invasions by the successor of Doom. While the victory over the new Doom appeared triumphant, the new Wakandan king was ultimately revealed to be a puppet of Doom.
Black Panther is, for the most part, one of the few uninfected superheroes in the alternate - universe series Marvel Zombies, where he is kept as a food supply for the Zombie Giant - Man, who keeps the Panther imprisoned and cuts off various limbs so that he can maintain his intelligence via a ready access to fresh meat without infecting Panther with the zombie "virus ''. Despite having lost half of his right arm and his left foot, the Panther escapes -- with the severed head of zombified superheroine the Wasp in tow -- and joins forces with the mutant group the Acolytes. While with the Acolytes, T'Challa briefly talks with his Earth - 616 counterpart, where he expresses surprise at his marriage to Storm but offers him all the information he can provide about the zombie plague. Decades later, T'Challa has married one of the Acolytes, Lisa Hendricks, and they have a son, with Forge having provided T'Challa with artificial limbs to compensate for his injuries. Facing retirement, the Panther is stabbed and critically wounded by an agent of an Acolyte splinter group, and the Wasp -- now a willing ally after having lost her zombie hunger -- zombifies the Panther in order to grant him continued existence. With the Wasp 's help, he survives to the post-hunger stage himself and continues to lead his people, despite his status. Further internal betrayal lead the Black Panther and many of his allies to be tossed through the dimensions. He ends up involved with another Earth that is threatened by the zombie virus. His attempts to save this new planet fail and he is destroyed, leaving only one hand displayed as a trophy by his enemies.
In the MC2 universe, Black Panther has a son named T'Chaka II, who joined the A-Next as the Coal Tiger.
In the Mutant X reality, Black Panther had the appearance of a humanoid black panther. He is among the second wave of heroes who died fighting the Beyonder.
In the alternate - reality Ultimate Marvel imprint, the Black Panther is T'Challa Udaku, a young man who is experimented on in the Weapon X program before being liberated by Nick Fury.
T'Challa, the younger son of King T'Chaka of Wakanda, is severely injured during the "Trial of the Panther '' from which the protector of the nation is selected. His older brother M'Baku finds T'Challa bloodied, mute, and near death but derisively calls him a fool for attempting the trial. Later, M'Baku adds that he, not T'Challa, should have taken the trial. Angry that his father has decided to share Wakanda 's technology in exchange for America 's help in saving T'Challa's life, M'Baku leaves the kingdom.
To save T'Challa, T'Chaka turns him over to the Weapon X program. Over a year later, a healthy T'Challa, in his full Black Panther garb, has enhanced speed, strength, night vision, and healing ability. Additionally, he can summon short, cat - like Adamantium claws from his knuckles by balling his hands into fists. T'Chaka becomes outraged upon learning that S.H.I.E.L.D. (who had shut down Weapon X and freed T'Challa) now considers his son an asset of the U.S. and S.H.I.E.L.D. He subsequently sends M'Baku a letter, claiming that M'Baku, not T'Challa, is the titular "favorite son '', and he implores M'Baku to return.
Fury has Captain America train and mentor the Panther, who reveals his damaged throat. Captain America, sympathizing for the Panther 's plight, encourages Fury to place the Panther in the superhero team the Ultimates. This turns out to be a ruse in which Captain America impersonates the Panther, allowing T'Challa to escape and return home to Wakanda.
Captain America later impersonates Black Panther during an Ultimates confrontation with the Juggernaut.
After Ultimatum, Black Panther joins the New Ultimates.
Chadwick Boseman portrays T'Challa within the Marvel Cinematic Universe, first appearing in Captain America: Civil War (2016). In the film, he is shown displaying enhanced speed, agility, strength, and durability, which he gains from ingesting the heart - shaped herb, as in the comics. His suit has retractable claws and is made of a vibranium weave, which can deflect heavy machine gun fire. As of the 2018 film Black Panther, he wears a new variant of the suit that can absorb kinetic energy (represented as purple highlights) and release it as a purple shockwave after enough has been amassed. It can also fold into a silver necklace.
In 2016, Disney XD launched on its YouTube channel the motion comic "Black Panther in... The Visitor ''.
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where does blue is the warmest color take place | Blue is the Warmest Colour - wikipedia
Blue Is the Warmest Colour (French: La Vie d'Adèle -- Chapitres 1 & 2; French pronunciation: (la vi da'dɛːl)), is a 2013 French coming - of - age erotic romantic drama film co-written, co-produced, and directed by Abdellatif Kechiche, and starring Léa Seydoux and Adèle Exarchopoulos. The film revolves around Adèle (Exarchopoulos), a French teenager who discovers desire and freedom when a blue - haired aspiring painter (Seydoux) enters her life. The film charts their relationship from Adele 's high school years to her early adult life and career as a school teacher. The premise of Blue Is the Warmest Colour is based on the 2010 French graphic novel of the same name by Julie Maroh, which was published in North America in 2013.
Production began in March 2012 and lasted six months. Approximately 800 hours of footage was shot, including extensive B - roll footage, with Kechiche ultimately trimming the final cut of the film down to 179 minutes. The film generated controversy upon its premiere at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and before its release. Much of the controversy was centered on claims of poor working conditions on set by the crew and the lead actresses, and also the film 's raw depiction of sexuality.
At the 2013 Cannes Film Festival the film unanimously won the Palme d'Or from the official jury and the FIPRESCI Prize. It is the first film to have the Palme d'Or awarded to both the director and the lead actresses, with Seydoux and Exarchopoulos joining Jane Campion (The Piano) as the only women to have won the award. The film had its North American premiere at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival. The film received critical acclaim and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. Many critics declared it one of the best films of 2013.
Adèle is an introverted 15 - year - old high - school student. While crossing the street one day, she passes by a woman with short blue hair and is instantly attracted. She later dates and has sex with a boy from school named Thomas, but she is ultimately dissatisfied and breaks off their relationship. After having vivid fantasies about the woman she saw on the street and having one of her female friends kiss her, she becomes troubled about her sexual identity.
Her best friend, the openly gay Valentin, seems to understand her confusion and takes her to a gay dance bar. After some time, Adèle leaves and walks into a lesbian bar, where she experiences assertive advances from some of the women. The blue haired woman is also there and intervenes, claiming Adèle is her cousin to those pursuing Adèle. The woman is Emma, a graduating art student. They become friends and begin to spend more time with each other. Adèle 's friends suspect her of being a lesbian and ostracise her at school. Despite the backlash, she becomes close to Emma. Their bond increases and before long, the two share a kiss at a picnic. They later have sex and begin a passionate relationship. Emma 's artsy family is very welcoming to the couple, but Adèle tells her conservative, working - class parents that Emma is just a tutor for philosophy class.
In the years that follow, the two women move in and live with each other. Adèle finishes school and joins the teaching staff at a local elementary school, while Emma tries to move forward with her painting career, frequently throwing house parties to socialise with her circle. At one of these, Adèle meets some of them: Lise, a pregnant woman and colleague, Joachim, "the biggest gallery owner in Lille '', and Samir, an aspiring actor who feels out of place amongst the intellectuals, with whom she strikes up a friendship. Emma belittles Adèle 's teaching career, encouraging her to find fulfilment in writing, while Adèle insists that she is happy the way she is. It gradually becomes increasingly apparent how little they have in common, and emotional complexities manifest in the relationship. Out of loneliness and confusion Adèle sleeps with Antoine, a male colleague.
Emma becomes aware of the fling and furiously confronts Adèle and, refusing her tearful apologies, breaks up with her and throws her out. Time passes and although Adèle finds satisfaction in her job as a kindergarten teacher, she still can not overcome her heartbreak. The two eventually meet again in a restaurant. Adèle is still deeply in love with Emma and despite the powerful connection that is clearly still there between them, Emma is now in a committed partnership with Lise, who now has a young daughter. Adèle is devastated, but holds it in. Emma admits that she does not feel sexually fulfilled but has accepted it as a part of her new phase in life. She reassures Adèle that their relationship was special, and she will always have infinite tenderness for her. The two part on amicable terms.
Later Adèle goes to Emma 's new art exhibition. Hanging on one wall is a nude painting that Emma once did of her during the sensual bloom of their life together. Though Emma acknowledges her, her attention is primarily on the gallery 's other guests and Lise. Adèle congratulates Emma on the success of her art and leaves quietly after a brief conversation with Samir. He chases after her but heads in the wrong direction, while Adèle walks away into the distance.
Lesbian sexuality is one of the strongest themes of the film, as the narrative deals mainly with Adele 's exploration of her identity in this context. However, the film 's treatment of lesbian sexuality has been questioned by academics, due to its being directed from a straight, male perspective. In Sight & Sound, film scholar Sophie Mayer suggests that in Blue is the Warmest Colour, "Like homophobia, the lesbian here melts away. As with many male fantasies of lesbianism, the film centres on the erotic success and affective failures of relations between women ''. The issue of perspective has also been addressed in a Film Comment review by Kristin M. Jones who points out that "Emma 's supposedly sophisticated friends make eager remarks about art and female sexuality that seem to mirror the director 's problematic approach toward the representation of women ''.
One recurring thematic element addressed by critics and audiences is the division of social class and the exploration of freedom and love between the two central characters, Adèle and Emma. The reference to social class is juxtaposed between the two dinner table scenes in the film, with Adèle 's conservative, working - class family engaging in discussion over comparatively banal subjects to Emma 's more open - minded, middle - class family, who focus their discussion primarily on more existential matters: art, career, life and passion. Perhaps one of the most significant differences between Adèle 's and Emma 's families is that Emma 's is aware of their lesbian relationship, while Adèle 's conservative parents are under the impression the women are just friends. Some critics have noted that the difference of social class is an ongoing theme in Kechiche 's filmography: "As in Kechiche 's earlier work, social class, and the divisions it creates, are a vital thread; he even changed the first name of the story 's passionate protagonist from Clémentine to that of his actress, partly because it means "justice '' in Arabic. His fascination and familiarity with the world of pedagogy, as shown here in Adèle 's touching reverence for teaching, is another notable characteristic ", was noted by a Film Comment critic.
Kechiche explores how food can evoke varying levels of symbolism, for instance through the sexually suggestive food metaphors of Adèle 's liking of the fat on ham and her learning to eat oysters from Emma. Additionally, he looks at how food can be seen as an indicator of social class.
Director and screenwriter Abdellatif Kechiche developed the premise for Blue Is the Warmest Colour while directing his second feature film, Games of Love and Chance (2003). He met teachers "who felt very strongly about reading, painting, writing '' and it inspired him to develop a script which charts the personal life and career of a female French teacher. However, the concept was only finalised a few years later when Kechiche chanced upon Julie Maroh 's graphic novel, and he saw how he could link his screenplay about a school teacher with Maroh 's love story between two young women. Although Maroh 's story takes precedence in the adaptation, Adèle 's character, named "Clémentine '' in the book, differs from the original as explored by Charles Taylor in The Yale Review "The novel includes scenes of the girls being discovered in bed and thrown out of the house and speeches like ' ' What 's horrible is that people kill each other for oil and commit genocide, not that they give their love to someone. ' ' In the film, Adèle 's parents are seemingly oblivious to her love affair with Emma and politely greet her under the impression that she is Adèle 's philosophy tutor. Further themes are explored in Maroh 's novel, such as addiction to prescription pills. Regarding his intention portraying young people, Kechiche claimed: "I almost wish I was born now, because young people seem to be much more beautiful and brighter than my generation. I want to pay them tribute. ''
In late 2011, a casting call was held in Paris to find the ideal actress for the role of Adèle. Casting director Sophie Blanvillain first spotted Adèle Exarchopoulos and then arranged for her to meet Abdellatif Kechiche. Exarchopoulos described how her auditions with Kechiche over the course of two months consisted of improvisation of scenarios, discussions, and also of them both sitting in a café, without talking, while he quietly observed her. It was later, a day before the New Year, that Kechiche decided to offer Exarchopoulos the leading role in the film; as he said in an interview, "I chose Adèle the minute I saw her. I had taken her for lunch at a brasserie. She ordered lemon tart and when I saw the way she ate it I thought, ' It 's her! ' ''
On the other hand, Léa Seydoux was cast for the role of Emma, ten months before principal photography began in March 2012. Kechiche felt that Seydoux "shared her character 's beauty, voice, intelligence and freedom '' and that she has "something of an Arabic soul ''. He added on saying, "What was decisive during our meeting was her take on society: She 's very much tuned in to the world around her. She possesses a real social awareness, she has a real engagement with the world, very similar to my own. I was able to realise to how great an extent, as I spent a whole year with her between the time she was chosen for the role and the end of shooting. '' Speaking to IndieWire on the preparation for her role, Seydoux said "During those ten months (before shooting) I was already meeting with him (Kechiche) and being directed. We would spend hours talking about women and life; I also took painting and sculpting lessons, and read a lot about art and philosophy. ''
Initially planned to be shot in two and a half months, the film took five, from March to August 2012 for a budget of € 4 million. Seven hundred and fifty hours of dailies were shot. Shooting took place in Lille as well as Roubaix and Liévin.
In terms of cinematography, the shot reverse shot scenes in the film were simultaneously shot with two different cameras. For Kechiche this technique not only facilitates editing but also adds beauty to the scene which feels more truthful. Another characteristic aspect of Blue 's cinematography is the predominance of close - ups.
Upon its premiere at the 2013 Cannes Festival, a report from the French Audiovisual and Cinematographic Union (Syndicat des professionnels de l'industrie de l'audiovisuel et du cinéma) criticised the working conditions from which the crew suffered. According to the report, members of the crew said the production occurred in a "heavy '' atmosphere with behaviour close to "moral harassment, '' which led some members of the crew and workers to quit. Further criticism targeted disrupted working patterns and salaries. Technicians accused director Abdellatif Kechiche of harassment, unpaid overtime, and violations of labour laws.
In September 2013, the two main actresses, Léa Seydoux and Adèle Exarchopoulos, also complained about Kechiche 's behaviour during the shooting. They described the experience as "horrible, '' and said they would not work with him again. Exarchopoloulos later said about the rift: "No, it was real, but it was not as big as it looks. For me, a shoot is a human adventure, and in every adventure you have some conflict. '' In an interview in January 2014, Seydoux clarified: "I 'm still very happy with this film. It was hard to film it and maybe people think I was complaining and being spoilt, but that 's not it. I just said it was hard. The truth is it was extremely hard but that 's OK. I do n't mind that it was hard. I like to be tested. Life is much harder. He 's a very honest director and I love his cinema. I really like him as a director. The way he treats us? So what! ''
In an interview in September 2013, director Abdellatif Kechiche stated that the film should not be released. Speaking to French magazine Télérama, Kechiche said "I think this film should not go out; it was too sullied '', referring to the negative press about his on - set behaviour.
The film portrays Adele and Emma 's relationship with an overarching sense of realism. The camerawork, along with many of Kechiche 's directorial decisions allow a true - to - life feel for the film, which in turn has led to audiences reading the film with meaning that they can derive from their own personal experiences. In The Yale Review, Charles Taylor puts this into words: "Instead of fencing its young lovers within a petting zoo... Kechiche removes the barriers that separate us from them. He brings the camera so close to the faces of his actresses that he seems to be trying to make their flesh more familiar to us than his own. ''
Blue Is the Warmest Colour is also filled with visual symbolism. The colour blue is used extensively throughout the film -- from the lighting in the gay club Adèle visits, to the dress she wears in the last scene and most notably, in Emma 's hair and eyes. For Adèle, blue represents emotional intensity, curiosity, love, and sadness. Adèle also references Pablo Picasso a number of times, who famously went through a melancholy Blue Period. As Emma grows out of her relationship with Adèle and their passion wanes, she removes the blue from her hair and adopts a more natural, conservative hairstyle.
Reviewer Spencer Wolff noted the political stance adopted by Adèle, which changes as her life experiences change and reflect her alternating views: "Blue is the Warmest Colour is no different; at least, at first. Framed by black and Arab faces, Adèle marches in a protest to demand better funding for education. The music, "On lâche rien '' ("We will never give up! ''), by the Algerian - born Kaddour Haddadi, is the official song of the French Communist Party. Yet, soon after she begins her relationship with Emma, we see Adèle marching again, hip - to - hip with her new lover, at a gay pride parade. ''
Blue Is the Warmest Colour had its world premiere at the 66th Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2013. It received a standing ovation and ranked highest in critics ' polls at the festival. In August 2013, the film had its North American premiere at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival and was also screened in the Special Presentation section of the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on 5 September 2013.
The film was screened at more than 131 territories and was commercially released on 9 October 2013 in France with a "12 '' rating. In the United States, the film was rated NC - 17 by the Motion Picture Association of America for "explicit sexual content ''. It had a limited release at four theatres in New York City and Los Angeles on 25 October 2013, and expanded gradually in subsequent weeks. The film was released on 15 November 2013 in the United Kingdom and in Australia and New Zealand on 13 February 2014.
La Vie d'Adèle -- Chapitres 1 & 2 was released on Blu - ray Disc and DVD in France by Wild Side on 26 February 2014, and in North America, as Blue is the Warmest Color through The Criterion Collection on 25 February 2014. As Blue Is the Warmest Colour, the film was also released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in Canada on 25 February 2014 by Mongrel Media, in the United Kingdom on 17 March 2014 by Artificial Eye and on 18 June 2014 in Australia by Transmission Films.
In Brazil, Blu - ray manufacturing companies Sonopress and Sony DADC are refusing to produce the film because of its content. The distributor is struggling to reverse this situation.
Blue Is the Warmest Colour grossed a worldwide total of $19,492,879. During its opening in France, the film debuted with a weekend total of $2.3 million on 285 screens for a $8,200 per - screen average. It took the fourth spot in its first weekend, which was seen as a "notably good showing because of its nearly three - hour length ''.
The film had a limited release in the U.S, and it grossed an estimated $101,116 in its first weekend, with an average of $25,279 for four theatres in New York City and Los Angeles. The film grossed $2,199,787 at US theatrically. The film went on enjoying bigger success in US home entertainment market (it generated more than $3,500,000 in US Blu - ray / DVD sales alone).
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 90 % based on 175 reviews and an average score of 8.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus is: "Raw, honest, powerfully acted, and deliciously intense, Blue Is the Warmest Colour offers some of modern cinema 's most elegantly composed, emotionally absorbing drama. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from mainstream critics, the film has a score of 88 averaged from 41 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
More than 40 critics named the film as one of the ten best of 2013. In 2016, the film was named as the 45th best film of the 21st century, from a poll of 177 film critics from around the world.
In France Les Cahiers du cinéma placed the film third in their 2013 Top Ten chart.
In The Daily Telegraph, Robbie Collin awarded the film a maximum of five stars and tipped it to win the Palme d'Or. He wrote: "Kechiche 's film is three hours long, and the only problem with that running time is that I could have happily watched it for another seven. It is an extraordinary, prolonged popping - candy explosion of pleasure, sadness, anger, lust and hope, and contained within it -- although only just -- are the two best performances of the festival, from Adèle Exarchopolous and Léa Seydoux. '' Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw added that "it is genuinely passionate film - making '' and changed his star rating for the film to five out of five stars after previously having awarded it only four. Stephen Garrett of The New York Observer said that the film was "nothing less than a triumph '' and "is a major work of sexual awakening ''.
Andrew Chan of the Film Critics Circle of Australia writes, "Not unlike Wong Kar - wai 's most matured effort in cinema, Happy Together, director Abdellatif Kechiche knows love and relationship well and the details he goes about everything is almost breathtaking to endure. There is a scene in the restaurant where two meet again, after years of separation, the tears that dwell on their eyes shows precisely how much they love each other, yet there is no way they will be together again. Blue Is the Warmest Colour is likely to be 2013 's most powerful film and easily one of the best. ''
Movie Room Reviews praised the film giving it 4 ⁄ stars saying "This is not a movie that deals with the intolerance of homosexuality or what it 's like to be a lesbian. It 's about wanting to explore that piece of yourself you know is there while still dealing with the awkwardness of youth. ''
At Cannes, the film shocked some critics with its long and graphic sex scenes (although fake genitalia were used), leading them to state that the film may require some editing before it is screened in cinemas. Several critics placed the film as the front - runner to win the Palme d'Or. The judging panel, which included Steven Spielberg, Ang Lee, and Nicole Kidman, made an unprecedented move to award the Palme d'Or to the film 's two main actresses along with the director. Jury president Steven Spielberg explained:
The film is a great love story that made all of us feel privileged to be a fly on the wall, to see this story of deep love and deep heartbreak evolve from the beginning. The director did not put any constraints on the narrative and we were absolutely spellbound by the amazing performances of the two actresses, and especially the way the director observed his characters and just let the characters breathe.
Justin Chang, writing for Variety, said that the film contains "the most explosively graphic lesbian sex scenes in recent memory ''. Jordan Mintzer of The Hollywood Reporter said that despite being three hours long, the film "is held together by phenomenal turns from Léa Seydoux and newcomer Adèle Exarchopoulos, in what is clearly a breakout performance ''.
Writing in The Australian, David Stratton said, "If the film were just a series of sex scenes it would, of course, be problematic, but it 's much, much more than that. Through the eyes of Adèle we experience the breathless excitement of first love and first physical contact, but then, inevitably, all the other experiences that make life the way it is... All of these are beautifully documented ''.
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times described the film as "wildly undisciplined '' and overlong, and wrote that it "feels far more about Mr. Kechiche 's desires than anything else ''.
Conversely, Richard Brody, writing in The New Yorker about "Sex Scenes That Are Too Good '', stated: "The problem with Kechiche 's scenes is that they 're too good -- too unusual, too challenging, too original -- to be assimilated... to the familiar moviegoing experience. Their duration alone is exceptional, as is their emphasis on the physical struggle, the passionate and uninhibited athleticism of sex, the profound marking of the characters ' souls by their sexual relationship. ''
The film received considerable LGBT and feminist critical comment for the dominance of the male gaze and lack of female gaze, with some reviewers calling it a "patriarchal gaze. '' Author Julie Maroh was among the harshest critics on this point, saying, "It appears to me this was what was missing on the set: lesbians. ''
Although Maroh praised Kechiche 's originality, describing his adaptation as "coherent, justified and fluid... a masterstroke '', she also felt that he failed to capture the lesbian heart of her story, and disapproved of the sex scenes. In a blog post, she called the scenes, "a brutal and surgical display, exuberant and cold, of so - called lesbian sex, which turned into porn, and made me feel very ill at ease '', saying that in the movie theatre, "the heteronormative laughed because they do n't understand it and find the scene ridiculous. The gay and queer people laughed because it 's not convincing, and found it ridiculous. And among the only people we did n't hear giggling were the potential guys too busy feasting their eyes on an incarnation of their fantasies on screen ''. She added that "as a feminist and lesbian spectator, I can not endorse the direction Kechiche took on these matters. But I 'm also looking forward to hearing what other women will think about it. This is simply my personal stance. ''
The film won the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. The actresses were also given the Palme as a special prize. Kechiche dedicated the award to "the youth of France '' and the Tunisian Revolution, where "they have the aspiration to be free, to express themselves and love in full freedom ''. At Cannes it also won the FIPRESCI Prize. In addition, this was also the first film adapted from either a graphic novel or a comic to win the Palme d'Or. In December 2013, it received the Louis Delluc Prize for best French film. The film was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film award at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. At the 39th César Awards, the film received eight nominations with Exarchopoulos winning the César Award for Most Promising Actress.
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who is the black knight in king arthur | Black Knight (Arthurian legend) - Wikipedia
The Black Knight appears in various forms in Arthurian legend.
In Sir Perceval of Galles (written in the early 14th century), the Black Knight jealously tied his wife to a tree after hearing she had exchanged rings with Perceval. Perceval defeated the black knight and explained that it was an innocent exchange.
A supernatural Black Knight is summoned by Sir Calogrenant (Cynon ap Clydno in Welsh mythology) in the tale of Yvain, the Knight of the Lion. The Black Knight bests Calogrenant, but the Black Knight is later killed by Ywain (Owain mab Urien) when he attempts to complete the quest that Calogrenant failed.
A black knight is the son of Tom a'Lincoln and Anglitora (the daughter of Prester John) in Richard Johnson 's Arthurian romance, Tom a'Lincoln. Through Tom, he is a grandson of King Arthur 's, though his proper name is never given. He killed his mother after hearing from his father 's ghost that she had murdered him. He later joined the Faerie Knight, his half - brother, in adventures.
A black knight is also mentioned La Morte D'Arthur: The Tale of Sir Gareth (book 4) as having been killed by Gareth when he was traveling to rescue Lyonesse.
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when was the last time essendon won a grand final | Essendon Football club - Wikipedia
The Essendon Football Club is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport 's premier competition. Formed in 1871 as a junior club and playing as a senior club since 1878, Essendon is one of the oldest clubs in the AFL. It is historically associated with Essendon, a suburb in the north - west of Melbourne, Victoria. Since 2013, the club has been headquartered at the True Value Solar Centre, Melbourne Airport, and plays its home games at either Docklands Stadium or the Melbourne Cricket Ground; throughout most of its history the club 's home ground and headquarters was Windy Hill, Essendon. Dyson Heppell is the current team captain.
A founding member club of both the Victorian Football Association, in 1877, and the Victorian Football League (since renamed the AFL), in 1896, Essendon is one of Australia 's best - known football clubs. The club claims to have at least one million supporters Australia wide. Essendon has won 16 VFL / AFL premierships which, along with Carlton, is the most of any club in the competition.
The club was founded by members of the Royal Agricultural Society, the Melbourne Hunt Club and the Victorian Woolbrokers. The Essendon Football Club is thought to have formed in 1872 at a meeting it the home of a well - known brewery family, the McCrackens, whose Ascot Vale property hosted a team of local junior players.
Robert McCracken, the owner of several city hotels, was the founder and first president of the Essendon club and his son, Alex, its first secretary. Alex would later become president of the newly formed VFL. Alex 's cousin, Collier, who had already played with Melbourne, was the team 's first captain.
The club played its first recorded match against the Carlton second twenty on 7 June 1873, with Essendon winning by one goal. Essendon played 13 matches in its first season, winning seven, with four draws and losing two. The club was one of the inaugural junior members of the Victorian Football Association (VFA) in 1877, and began competing as a senior club from the 1878 season. During its early years in the Association, Essendon played its home matches at Flemington Hill, but moved to the East Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1881.
In 1878, Essendon played in the first match on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full - sized field at Flemington Hill. In 1879 Essendon played Melbourne in one of the earliest night matches recorded when the ball was painted white. In 1883 the team played four matches in Adelaide.
In 1891 Essendon won their first VFA premiership, which they repeated in 1892, 1893 and 1894. One of the club 's greatest players, Albert Thurgood played for the club during this period. Essendon was undefeated in the 1893 season.
At the end of the 1896 season Essendon along with seven other clubs formed the Victorian Football League. Essendon 's first VFL game was in 1897 was against Geelong at Corio Oval in Geelong. Essendon won its first VFL premiership by winning the 1897 VFL finals series. Essendon again won the premiership in 1901, defeating Collingwood in the Grand Final. The club won successive premierships in 1911 and 1912 over Collingwood and South Melbourne respectively.
Having already re-located from its ground at Kent Street, Ascot Vale ("McCracken 's Paddock '') to Flemington Hill, the club was again forced to move in 1881; and, because the City of Essendon mayor of the day considered the Essendon Cricket Ground "to be suitable only for the gentleman 's game of cricket '', Essendon moved to East Melbourne.
The club became known by the nickname "the Same Old Essendon '', from the title and hook of the principal song performed by a band of supporters which regularly occupied a section of the grandstand at the club 's games. The nickname first appeared in print in the local North Melbourne Advertiser in 1889, and ended up gaining wide use, often as the diminutive "Same Olds ''.
This move away from Essendon, at a time when fans would walk to their local ground, did n't go down too well with many Essendon people; and, as a consequence, a new team and club was formed in 1900, unconnected with the first (although it played in the same colours), that was based at the Essendon Cricket Ground, and playing in the Victorian Football Association. It was known firstly as Essendon Town and, after 1905, as Essendon (although it was often called Essendon A, with the A standing for association).
After the 1921 season, the East Melbourne Cricket Ground was closed and demolished to expand the Flinders Street Railyard. Having played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground from 1882 to 1921, and having won four VFA premierships (1891 -- 1894) and four VFL premierships (1897, 1901, 1911 and 1912) whilst there, Essendon was looking for a new home, and was offered grounds at the current Royal Melbourne Showgrounds, at Victoria Park, at Arden St, North Melbourne, and the Essendon Cricket Ground. The Essendon City Council offered the (VFL) team the Essendon Cricket Ground, announcing that it would be prepared to spend over ₤ 12,000 on improvements, including a new grandstand, scoreboard and re-fencing of the oval.
The club 's first preference was to move to North Melbourne -- a move which the North Melbourne Football Club (then in the VFA) saw as a grand opportunity to get into the VFL. Most of Essendon 's members and players were from the North Melbourne area, and sportswriters believed that Essendon would have been taken over by or rebranded as North Melbourne within only a few years of the move. However, the VFA, desperate for its own strategic reasons not to lose its use of the North Melbourne Cricket Ground, successfully appealed to the State Government to block Essendon 's move to North Melbourne. With its preferred option off the table, the club returned to Essendon, and the Essendon VFA club disbanded, with most of its players moving to North Melbourne.
The old "Same Olds '' nickname fell into disuse, and by 1922 the other nicknames "Sash Wearers '' and "Essendonians '' that had been variously used from time to time were also abandoned. The team became universally known as "the Dons '' (from EssenDON); it was not until much later, during the War years of the early 1940s, that they became known as "The Bombers '' -- due to Windy Hill 's proximity to the Essendon Aerodrome.
In the 1922 season, playing in Essendon for the first time in decades, Essendon reached the final four for the first time since 1912, finishing in third place. In the 1923 season the club topped the ladder with 13 wins from 16 games. After a 17 - point second semi final loss to South Melbourne defeated Fitzroy (who had beaten South Melbourne) in the challenge final: Essendon 8.15 (63) to Fitzroy 6.10 (46). Amongst Essendon 's best players were half forward flanker George "Tich '' Shorten, centre half forward Justin McCarthy, centre half back Tom Fitzmaurice, rover Frank Maher and wingman Jack Garden.
This was one of Essendon 's most famous sides, dubbed the "Mosquito Fleet '', due to the number of small, very fast players in the side. Six players were 5'6 '' (167 cm) or smaller.
The 1924 season proved to be arguably the strangest year in Essendon 's entire history. For the first time since 1897 there was no ultimate match -- either "Challenge Final '' or "Grand Final '' -- to determine the premiers; instead, the top four clubs after the home and away season played a round - robin to determine the premiers. Essendon, having previously defeated both Fitzroy (by 40 points) and South Melbourne (by 33 points), clinched the premiership by means of a 20 - point loss to Richmond. With the Tigers having already lost a match to Fitzroy by a substantial margin, the Dons were declared premiers by virtue of their superior percentage, meaning that Essendon again managed to win successive premierships. But the poor crowds for the finals meant this was never attempted again, resulting in Essendon having the unique record of winning the only two premierships without a grand final.
Prominent contributors to Essendon 's 1924 Premiership success included back pocket Clyde Donaldson, follower Norm Beckton, half back flanker Roy Laing, follower Charlie May and rover Charlie Hardy.
The 1924 season was not without controversy, with rumours of numerous players accepting bribes. Regardless of the accuracy of these allegations, the club 's image was tarnished, and the side experienced its lowest period during the decade that followed, with poor results on the field and decreased support off it.
There was worse to follow, with various Essendon players publicly blaming each other for the poor performance against Richmond, and then, with dissension still rife in the ranks, the side plummeted to an humiliating 28 - point loss to VFA premiers Footscray in a special charity match played a week later in front of 46,100 people, in aid of Dame Nellie Melba 's Limbless Soldiers ' Appeal Fund, purportedly (but not officially) for the championship of Victoria.
While it is always difficult to assess the damage caused by events such as these, the club 's fortunes dipped alarmingly, and persistently. Indeed, after finishing third in the 1926 season, it was to be 14 years before Essendon would even contest a finals series.
The 1933 season, was probably the start of the Essendon revival, seeing the debut of the player regarded as one of Essendon 's greatest players Dick Reynolds. His impact was immediate. He won his first Brownlow Medal aged 19. His record of three Brownlow victories (1934, 1937, 1938), equalled Haydn Bunton, Sr (1931, 1932, 1935), and later equalled by Bob Skilton (1959, 1963, 1968), and Ian Stewart (1965, 1966, 1971).
Reynolds went on to arguably even greater achievements as a coach, a position to which he was first appointed, jointly with Harry Hunter, in 1939 (this was while Reynolds was still a player). A year later he took the reins on a solo basis and was rewarded with immediate success (at least in terms of expectations at the time which, after so long in the wilderness, were somewhat modest). He was regarded as having a sound tactical knowledge of the game and being an inspirational leader, as he led the side into the finals in 1940 for the first time since 1926, when the side finished 3rd. Melbourne, which defeated Essendon by just 5 points in the preliminary final, later went on to trounce Richmond by 39 points in the grand final.
1941 brought Essendon 's first grand final appearance since 1923, but the side again lowered its colours to Melbourne. A year later war broke out and the competition was considerably weakened, with Geelong being forced to pull out of the competition due to travel restrictions as a result of petrol rationing. Attendances at games also declined dramatically, whilst some clubs had to move from their normal grounds due to them being used for military purposes. Many players were lost to football due to their military service. Nevertheless, Essendon went on to win the 1942 Premiership with Western Australian Wally Buttsworth in irrepressible form at centre half back. Finally, the long - awaited premiership was Essendon 's after comprehensively outclassing Richmond in the grand final, 19.18 (132) to 11.13 (79). The match was played at Carlton in front of 49,000 spectators.
In any case, there could be no such reservations about Essendon 's next premiership, which came just four years later. Prior to that Essendon lost a hard fought grand final to Richmond in 1943 by 5 points, finished 3rd in 1944, and dropped to 8th in 1945.
After WWII, Esssendon enjoyed great success. In the five years immediately after the war, Essendon won 3 premierships (1946, 1949, 1950) and were runners up twice (1947, 1948). In 1946, Essendon were clearly the VFL 's supreme force, topping the ladder after the roster games and surviving a drawn second semi final against Collingwood to win through to the grand final a week later with a 10.16 (76) to 8.9 (57). Then, in the grand final against Melbourne, Essendon set a grand final record score of 22.18 (150) to Melbourne 13.9 (87), with 7 goal centre half forward Gordon Lane. Rover Bill Hutchinson, and defenders Wally Buttsworth, Cec Ruddell and Harold Lambert among the best players.
The 1947 Grand Final has to go down in the ledger as ' one of the ones that got away ', Essendon losing to Carlton by a single point despite managing 30 scoring shots to 21. As if to prove that lightning does occasionally strike twice, the second of the ' ones that got away ' came just a year later, the Dons finishing with a lamentable 7.27, to tie with Melbourne (who managed 10.9) in the 1948 grand final. A week later Essendon waved the premiership good - bye, as Melbourne raced to a 13.11 (89) to 7.8 (50) triumph. The club 's Annual Report made an assessment that was at once restrained and, as was soon to emerge, tacitly and uncannily prophetic:
It is very apparent that no team is complete without a spearhead and your committee has high hopes of rectifying that fault this coming season.
The 1949 season heralded the arrival on the VFL scene of John Coleman, arguably the greatest player in Essendon 's history, and, in the view of some, the finest player the game has known. In his first ever appearance for the Dons, against Hawthorn in Round 1 1949, he booted 12 of his side 's 18 goals to create an opening round record which was to endure for forty five years. More importantly, however, he went on to maintain the same high level of performance throughout the season, kicking precisely 100 goals for the year to become the first player to top the ton since Richmond 's Jack Titus in 1940.
The Coleman factor was just what Essendon needed to enable them to take that vital final step to premiership glory, but even so it was not until the business end of the season that this became clear. Essendon struggled to make the finals in 4th place, but once there they suddenly ignited to put in one of the most consistently devastating September performances in VFL history.
Collingwood succumbed first as the Dons powered their way to an 82 - point first semi final victory, and a fortnight later it was the turn of the North Melbourne Football Club as Essendon won the preliminary final a good deal more comfortably than the ultimate margin of 17 points suggested. In the grand final, Essendon were pitted against Carlton and in a match that was a total travesty as a contest they overwhelmed the Blues to the tune of 73 points, 18.17 (125) to 6.16 (52). Best for the Dons included pacy aboriginal half back flanker Norm McDonald, ruckman Bob McLure, and rovers Bill Hutchinson and Ron McEwin. John Coleman also did well, registering 6 majors.
A year later Essendon were if anything even more dominant, defeating the North Melbourne Football Club in both the second semi final and the grand final to secure consecutive VFL premierships for the third time. Best afield in the grand final in what was officially his swansong as a player was captain - coach Dick Reynolds, who received sterling support from the likes of Norm McDonald, ruckman / back pocket Wally May, back pocket Les Gardiner, and big Bob McLure.
With ' King Richard ' still holding court as coach in 1951, albeit now in a non-playing capacity, Essendon seemed on course for a third consecutive flag but a controversial four - week suspension dished out to John Coleman on the eve of the finals effectively put paid to their chances. Coleman was reported for retaliation after twice being struck by his Carlton opponent, Harry Caspar, and without him the Dons were rated a 4 goals poorer team. Nevertheless, they still managed to battle their way to a 6th successive grand final with wins over Footscray by 8 points in the first semi final and Collingwood by 2 points in the preliminary final.
The Dons sustained numerous injuries in the preliminary final and the selectors sprang a surprise on grand final day by naming the officially retired Dick Reynolds as 20th man. ' King Richard ' was powerless to prevent the inevitable, although leading at half time, the Geelong kicked five goals to two points in the third quarter to set up victory by 11 points.
Essendon slumped to 8th in 1952 but John Coleman was in irrepressible form managing 103 goals for the year. Hugh Buggy noted in The Argus: "It was the wettest season for twenty two years and Coleman showed that since the war he was without peer in the art of goal kicking. ''
Two seasons later Coleman 's career was ended after he dislocated a knee during the Round 8 clash with the North Melbourne Football Club at Essendon. Aged just twenty five, he had kicked 537 goals in only 98 VFL games in what was generally a fairly low scoring period for the game. His meteoric rise and fall were clearly the stuff of legend, and few if any players, either before or since, have had such an immense impact over so brief a period.
According to Alf Brown, football writer for The Herald:
(Coleman) had all football 's gifts. He was courageous, a long, straight kick, he had a shrewd football brain and, above all, he was a spectacular, thrilling mark.
Somewhat more colourful, R.S. Whittington suggested,
"Had he been a trapeze artist in a strolling circus, Coleman could have dispensed with the trapeze. ''
Without Coleman, Essendon 's fortunes plummeted, and there were to be no further premierships in the 1950s. The nearest miss came in 1957 when the Bombers (as they were popularly known by this time) earned premiership favouritism after a superb 16 point second semi final defeat of Melbourne, only to lose by over 10 goals against the same side a fortnight later.
1959 saw another grand final loss to Melbourne, this time by 37 points, but the fact that the average age of the Essendon side was only 22 was seen as providing considerable cause for optimism. However, it was to take another three years, and a change of coach, before the team 's obvious potential was translated into tangible success.
John Coleman started his coaching career at Essendon in 1961, thus ending the Dick Reynolds era at the club. In the same year Essendon finished the season mid table and supporters were not expecting too much for the following season. However, the club blitzed the opposition in this year, losing only two matches and finishing top of the table. Both losses were to the previous year 's grand finalists. The finals posed no problems for the resurgent Dons, easily accounting for Carlton in the season 's climax, winning the 1962 Premiership. This was a remarkable result for Coleman who in his second season of coaching pulled off the ultimate prize in Australian football. As so often is the case after a flag, the following two years were below standard. A further premiership in 1965 (won from 4th position on the ladder), was also unexpected due to periods of poor form during the season. The Bombers were a different club when the finals came around, but some of the credit for the improvement was given to the influence of Brian Sampson and Ted Fordham during the finals. Coleman 's time as coach turned out to be much like his playing career: highly successful but cut short when he had to stand down due to health problems in 1967. Only six years later, on the eve of the 1973 season, he would be dead of a heart - attack at just 44 years of age.
Following Coleman 's retirement, the club experienced tough times on and off the field. Finals appearances were rare for the side, which was often in contention for the wooden spoon. Essendon did manage to make the 1968 VFL Grand Final, but lost to Carlton by just three points and would not make it back to the big stage for a decade - and - a-half.
During the period from 1968 until 1980, five different coaches were tried, with none lasting longer than four years. Off the field the club went through troubled times as well. In 1970 five players went on strike before the season even began, demanding higher payments. Essendon did make the finals in 1972 and 1973 under the autocratic direction of Des Tuddenham (Collingwood) but they were beaten badly in successive elimination finals by St. Kilda and would not taste finals action again until the very end of the decade. The 70s Essendon sides were involved in many rough and tough encounters under Tuddenham, who himself came to logger heads with Ron Barassi at a quarter time huddle where both coaches exchanged heated words. Essendon had tough, but talented players with the likes of "Rotten Ronnie '' Ron Andrews and experienced players such as Barry Davis, Ken Fletcher, Geoff Blethyn, Neville Fields and West Australian import Graham Moss. In May 1974, a controversial half time all - in - brawl with Richmond at Windy Hill and a 1975 encounter with Carlton were testimony of the era. Following the Carlton match, the ' Herald ' described Windy Hill as "Boot Hill '', because of the extent of the fights and the high number of reported players (eight in all -- four from Carlton and four from Essendon). The peak of these incidents would occur in 1980 with new recruit Phil Carman making headlines for head - butting an umpire. The tribunal suspended him for sixteen weeks, and although most people thought this was a fair (or even lenient) sentence, he took his case to the supreme court, gathering even more unwanted publicity for the club. Despite this, the club had recruited many talented young players in the late 70s who would emerge as club greats. Three of those young players were Simon Madden, Tim Watson and Paul Van Der Haar. Terry Daniher and his brother Neale would come via a trade with South Melbourne, and Roger Merrett joined soon afterwards to form the nucleus of what would become the formidable Essendon sides of the 1980s. This raw but talented group of youngsters took Essendon to an elimination final in 1979 under Barry Davis but were again thrashed in an Elimination Final, this time at the hands of Fitzroy. Davis resigned at the end of the 1980 season after missing out on a finals appearance.
One of the few highlights for Essendon supporters during this time was when Graham Moss won the 1976 Brownlow Medal; he was the only Bomber to do so in a 40 - year span from 1953 -- 1993. Even that was bittersweet as he quit VFL football to move back to his native Western Australia, where Moss finished out his career as a player and coach at Claremont Football Club. In many ways, Moss ' career reflects Essendon 's mixed fortunes during the decade.
Former Richmond player Kevin Sheedy started as head coach in 1981.
Essendon reached the Grand Final in 1983, the first time since 1968. Hawthorn won by a then record 83 points.
In 1984, Essendon won the pre-season competition and completed the regular season on top of the ladder. The club played, and beat, Hawthorn in the 1984 VFL Grand Final to win their 13th premiership -- their first since 1965. The teams met again in the 1985 Grand Final, which Essendon also won. At the start of 1986, Essendon were considered unbackable for three successive flags, but a succession of injuries to key players Paul Van der Haar (only fifteen games from 1986 to 1988), Tim Watson, Darren Williams, Roger Merrett and Simon Madden led the club to win only eight of its last eighteen games in 1986 and only nine games (plus a draw with Geelong) in 1987. In July 1987, the Bombers suffered a humiliation at the hands of Sydney, who fell two points short of scoring the then highest score in VFL history.
In 1988, Essendon made a rebound to sixth place with twelve wins, including a 140 - point thrashing of Brisbane where they had a record sixteen individual goalkickers. In 1989, they rebounded further to second on the ladder with only five losses and thrashed Geelong in the Qualifying Final. However, after a fiery encounter with Hawthorn ended in a convincing defeat, the Bombers were no match for Geelong next week.
In 1990, Essendon were pace - setters almost from the start, but a disruption from the Qualifying Final draw between Collingwood and West Coast was a blow from which they never recovered. The Magpies comprehensively thrashed them in both the second semi final and the grand final.
Following the 1991 season, Essendon moved its home games from its traditional home ground at Windy Hill to the larger and newly renovated MCG. This move generated large increases in game attendance, membership and revenue for the club. The club 's training and administrative base remained at Windy Hill until 2013.
Following the retirement of Tim Watson and Simon Madden in the early 1990s, the team was built on new players such as Gavin Wanganeen, Joe Misiti, Mark Mercuri, Michael Long, Dustin Fletcher (son of Ken) and James Hird, who was taken at # 79 in the 1992 draft. This side became known as the "Baby Bombers '', as the core of the side was made up of young players early in their careers.
The team won the 1993 Grand Final against Carlton and that same year, Gavin Wanganeen won the Brownlow Medal, the first awarded to an Essendon player since 1976. Three years later, James Hird was jointly awarded the medal with Michael Voss of Brisbane.
In 2000, Essendon won 20 consecutive matches before they lost to the Western Bulldogs in round 21. The team went on to win their 16th premiership, defeating Melbourne, thereby completing the most dominant single season in AFL / VFL history. The defeat to the Bulldogs was the only defeat for Essendon throughout the entire calendar year (Essendon also won the 2000 pre-season competition).
Essendon was less successful after 2001. Lucrative contracts to a number of premiership players had caused serious pressure on the club 's salary cap, forcing the club to trade several key players. Blake Caracella, Chris Heffernan, Justin Blumfield, Gary Moorcroft and Damien Hardwick had all departed by the end of 2002; in 2004 Mark Mercuri, Sean Wellman and Joe Misiti retired. The club remained competitive, however they could progress no further than the second week of the finals each year for the years of 2002, 2003, and 2004. Sheedy signed a new three - year contract at the end of 2004.
In 2005, Essendon missed the finals for the first time since 1997; and in 2006, the club suffered its worst season under Sheedy, and its worst for more than 70 years, finishing second - last with only three wins (one of which was against defending premiers Sydney, in which Matthew Lloyd kicked eight goals) and one draw from twenty - two games. Matthew Lloyd replaced James Hird as captain at the start of the season, but after suffering a season - ending hamstring injury early in the season, David Hille was appointed captain for the remainder of the season. The club improved its on - field position in 2007, but again missed the finals.
Sheedy 's contract was not renewed after 2007, ending his 27 - year tenure as Essendon coach. Matthew Knights replaced Sheedy as coach, and coached the club for three seasons, reaching the finals once -- an eighth - place finish in 2009 at the expense of reigning premiers Hawthorn. On 29 August 2010, shortly after the end of the 2010 home - and - away season, Knights was dismissed as coach.
On 28 September 2010, former captain James Hird was named as Essendon 's new coach from 2011 on a four - year deal. Former Geelong dual premiership winning coach and Essendon triple - premiership winning player Mark Thompson later joined Hird on the coaching panel. In his first season, Essendon finished eighth. The club started strongly in 2012, sitting fourth with a 10 - 3 record at the halfway mark of the season; but the club won only one more match for the season, finishing eleventh to miss the finals.
In 2013 the club moved its training and administrative base to the True Value Solar Centre, a new facility in the suburb of Melbourne Airport which it had developed in conjunction with the Australian Paralympic Committee. Essendon holds a 37 - year lease at the facility, and maintains a lease at Windy Hill to use the venue for home matches for its reserves team in the Victorian Football League, and for a social club and merchandise store on the site.
During 2013, the club was investigated by the AFL and the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) over its 2012 player supplements and sports science program, most specifically over allegations into illegal use of peptide supplements. An internal review found it to have "established a supplements program that was experimental, inappropriate and inadequately vetted and controlled '', and on 27 August 2013 the club was found guilty of bringing the game into disrepute for this reason. Among its penalties, the club was fined A $2 million, stripped of early draft picks in the following two drafts, and forfeited its place in the 2013 finals series (having originally finished seventh on the ladder); Hird was suspended from coaching for twelve months. Several office - bearers also resigned their posts during the controversy, including chairman David Evans and CEO Ian Robson.
In the midst of the supplements saga, assistant coach Mark Thompson took over as coach for the 2014 season during Hird 's suspension. He led the club back to the finals for a seventh - place finish but in a tense first elimination final against archrivals North Melbourne, the Bombers would lead by as much as 27 points at half time before a resurgent Kangaroos side came back and won the game by 12 points. After the 2014 season Mark Thompson left the club to make way for Hird 's return to the senior coaching role.
In June 2014, thirty - four players were issued show - cause notices alleging the use of banned peptide Thymosin beta - 4 during the program. The players faced the AFL Anti-Doping Tribunal over the 2014 / 15 offseason, and on 31 March 2015 the tribunal returned a not guilty verdict, determining that it was "not comfortably satisfied '' that the players had been administered the peptide.
Hird returned as senior coach for the 2015 season, and after a strong start, the club 's form severely declined after the announcement that WADA would appeal the decision of the AFL Anti-Doping Tribunal. The effect of the appeal on the team 's morale was devastating and they would go on to win only six games for the year. Under extreme pressure, Hird resigned on 18 August 2015 following a disastrous 112 - point loss to Adelaide. Former West Coast Eagles premiership coach John Worsfold was appointed as the new senior coach on a three - year contract.
On January 12, 2016, the Court of Arbitration for Sport overruled the AFL anti-doping tribunal 's decision, deeming that 34 past and present players of the Essendon Football Club, took the banned substance Thymosin Beta - 4. As a result, all 34 players, 12 of which were still at the club, were given two year suspensions. However all suspensions were effectively less due to players having previously taken part in provisional suspensions undertaken during the 2014 / 2015 off season. As a result, Essendon contested the 2016 season with twelve of its regular senior players under suspension. In order for the club to remain competitive, the AFL granted Essendon the ability to upgrade all five of their rookie listed players and to sign an additional ten players to cover the loss of the suspended players for the season.
Due to this unprecedented situation, many in the football community predicted the club would go through the 2016 AFL season without a win, however, they were able to win three matches: against Melbourne, Gold Coast and Carlton in rounds two, 21 and 23 respectively. The absence of its most experienced players also allowed the development of its young players, with Zach Merrett and Orazio Fantasia having breakout years, while Darcy Parish and Anthony McDonald - Tipungwuti, impressing in their debut seasons. Merrett acted as captain in the side 's round 21 win over the Suns. The club eventually finished on the bottom of the ladder and thus claimed its first wooden spoon since 1933.
A new beginning (2017 - onward)
Essendon made their final financial settlement related to the supplements saga in September 2017, just before finals started. They also improved vastly on their 2016 performance, finishing 7th in the home and away season and becoming the first team since West Coast in 2011 to go from wooden spooner to a finals appearance, but ultimately losing their only final to Sydney.
The 2017 season was also capped off by the retirement of much loved club legend and ex-captain Jobe Watson, midfielder Brent Stanton, and ex-Geelong star James Kelly, who later took up a development coach role at the club. 126 game midfielder Heath Hocking was delisted.
Essendon 's first recorded jumpers were navy blue (The Footballers, edited by Thomas Power, 1875) although the club wore ' red and black caps and hose '. In 1877 The Footballers records the addition of ' a red sash over left shoulder '. This is the first time a red sash as part of the club jumper and by 1878 there are newspaper reports referring to Essendon players as ' the men in the sash '.
Given that blue and navy blue were the most popular colours at the time it is thought that Essendon adopted a red sash in 1877 to distinguish its players from others in similar coloured jumpers.
In 2007, the AFL Commission laid down the requirement that all clubs must produce an alternative jumper for use in matches where jumpers are considered to clash. From 2007 -- 2011, the Essendon clash guernsey was the same design as its home guernsey, but with a substantially wider sash such that the guernsey was predominantly red rather than predominantly black. This was changed after 2011 when the AFL deemed that the wider sash did not provide a sufficient contrast.
From 2012 to 2016, Essendon 's clash guernsey was predominantly grey, with a red sash fimbriated in black; the grey field contained, in small print, the names of all Essendon premiership players.
Before the 2016 season, Essendon 's changed their clash guernsey to a predominately red one, featuring a red sash in black. Similar to the grey jumper, the names of Essendon premiership players were also printed outside the sash.
Following Adam Ramanauskas ' personal battle with cancer, a "Clash for Cancer '' match against Melbourne was launched in 2006. This was a joint venture between Essendon and the Cancer Council of Victoria to raise funds for the organisation. Despite a formal request to the AFL being denied, players wore yellow armbands for the match which resulted in the club being fined $20,000. In 2007, the AFL agreed to allow yellow armbands to be incorporated into the left sleeve of the jumper. The ' Clash for Cancer ' match against Melbourne has become an annual event, repeated in subsequent seasons, though in 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2016, Hawthorn (twice), the Sydney Swans and Brisbane Lions were the opponents in those respective seasons instead of Melbourne. In 2009, the jumpers were auctioned along with yellow boots worn by some players during the match.
The club 's theme song, "See the Bombers Fly Up '', was written c. 1959 by Kevin Andrews and is based on the tune of Johnnie Hamp 's 1929 song "(Keep Your) Sunny Side Up '' at an increased tempo. At the time, "(Keep Your) Sunny Side Up '' was the theme song for the popular Melbourne - based TV show Sunnyside Up. The official version of the song was recorded in 1972 by the Fable Singers and is still used today.
The song, as with all other AFL clubs, is played prior to every match and at the conclusion of matches when the team is victorious.
Songwriter Mike Brady, of "Up There Cazaly '' fame, penned an updated version of the song in 1999 complete with a new verse arrangement, but it was not well received. However, this version is occasionally played at club functions.
The club 's mascot is named "Skeeta Reynolds ''. Named after Dick Reynolds, he is a mosquito and was created in honour of the team 's back - to - back premiership sides in the 1920s known as the "Mosquito Fleet ''. He was first named through a competition run in the Bomber magazine with "Skeeta '' being the winning entry. This was later changed by the AFL to "Skeeta Reynolds ''. He appears as a red mosquito in an Essendon jumper and wears a red and black scarf.
Notable supporters include:
Essendon has a four - way rivalry with Carlton, Richmond, and Collingwood being the four biggest and most supported clubs in Victoria. Matches between the clubs are often close regardless of form and ladder positions. If out of the race themselves, all four have the desire to deny the others a finals spot or a premiership. Essendon also has a fierce rivalry with Hawthorn stemming from the 1980s.
Lindsay Tanner has served as chairman of the board since late 2015.
Essendon 's board members are Paul Brasher, Paul Cousins, Chris Heffernan, Daryl Jackson, Catherine Lio, Paul Little, Simon Madden, Andrew Muir and Lindsay Tanner.
On 25 August 2008, Samsung was announced as major sponsor of the Essendon Football Club in a three - year deal touted as the biggest individual annual club sponsorship in AFL history. The deal included Samsung having naming rights on the front and back of the club jumper and signage. Although the amount was only confirmed by the club as a very significant lift from where 3 were, it was estimated to be worth around $7 million in total.
The club 's apparel is currently produced by ISC. The club 's apparel has also been made by Reebok (1996 - 1999), Fila (2000 - 2002), Puma (2003 - 2008), and Adidas (2009 - 2016).
See Essendon Football Club honours See W.S. Crichton Medal
To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club, as well as 100 years of the VFL / AFL, Essendon announced its "Team of the Century '' in 1997.
1991 -- 96, 181cm 83kg, 127 games, 64 goals
1910 -- 15 / 1918 - 24, 185cm 90kg, 154 games, 92 goals
1918 - 20 / 1922 - 24, 192cm 96kg, 85 games, 30 goals
1961 - 72, 185cm 87kg, 218 games, 65 goals
1939 - 49, 185cm 91kg, 188 games, 2 goals
1940 - 41 / 1946 - 51, 175cm 76kg, 99 games, 2 goals
1954 - 60, 175cm 72kg, 124 games, 9 goals
1951 - 67, 175cm cm 78kg, 263 games, 180 goals
1989 - 2001, 178cm 80kg, 190 games, 143 goals
1992 - 2007, 188cm 89kg, 253 games, 343 goals
1958 - 68, 187cm 80kg, 198 games, 157 goals
1978 - 92, 188cm 89kg, 294 games, 447 goals
1942 - 57, 174cm 70kg, 290 games, 496 goals
1949 - 54, 185cm 80kg, 98 games, 537 goals
1899 - 1902 / 1906, 183cm 76kg, 46 games, 89 goals
1974 - 92, 198cm, 99kg, 378 games, 575 goals
1977 - 91 / 1993 - 94, 185cm 96kg, 307 games, 335 goals
1933 - 51, 179cm 82kg, 320 games, 442 goals
1983 - 96, 177cm 87kg, 202 games, 50 goals
1928 - 37, 171cm 72kg, 152 games, 415 goals
1921 - 28, 170cm 70kg, 137 games, 124 goals
1899 - 1913, 175cm 76kg, 187 games, 13 goals
1981 - 2007, Coached 634 Won 386 Lost 242 Drawn 6
In 2002, a club panel chose and ranked the 25 greatest players to have played for Essendon.
Head coach
Assistant coaches
Updated: 12 October 2017 Source (s): Playing list, Coaching staff
The Essendon reserves team first competed in the Victorian Football League 's reserves competition when the competition was established in 1919. The team enjoyed success in the form of eight premierships between 1919 and 1999, including the last Victorian State Football League year in 1999. From 2000 until 2002, the club 's reserves team competed in the new Victorian Football League competition.
At the end of 2002, the club dissolved its reserves team and established a reserves affiliation with the Bendigo Football Club in the VFL. The affiliation ran for ten years from 2003 until 2012, allowing reserves players from the Essendon list to play with Bendigo.
The club re-established its reserves team in 2013, seeking greater developmental autonomy. The reserves team has since competed in the VFL. The team plays its home games at Windy Hill. The team is made up of AFL senior listed players and VFL contracted players.
Essendon refused to play the Grand Final in Geelong, so the premiership was awarded to Geelong.
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first clinical gene therapy was done for the treatment of | Gene therapy - wikipedia
In the medicine field, gene therapy (also called human gene transfer) is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid into a patient 's cells as a drug to treat disease. The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980 by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990.
Between 1989 and February 2016, over 2,300 clinical trials had been conducted, more than half of them in phase I.
Not all medical procedures that introduce alterations to a patient 's genetic makeup can be considered gene therapy. Bone marrow transplantation and organ transplants in general have been found to introduce foreign DNA into patients. Gene therapy is defined by the precision of the procedure and the intention of direct therapeutic effect.
Gene therapy was conceptualized in 1972, by authors who urged caution before commencing human gene therapy studies.
The first attempt, an unsuccessful one, at gene therapy (as well as the first case of medical transfer of foreign genes into humans not counting organ transplantation) was performed by Martin Cline on 10 July 1980. Cline claimed that one of the genes in his patients was active six months later, though he never published this data or had it verified and even if he is correct, it 's unlikely it produced any significant beneficial effects treating beta - thalassemia.
After extensive research on animals throughout the 1980s and a 1989 bacterial gene tagging trial on humans, the first gene therapy widely accepted as a success was demonstrated in a trial that started on 14 September 1990, when Ashi DeSilva was treated for ADA - SCID.
The first somatic treatment that produced a permanent genetic change was performed in 1993.
Gene therapy is a way to fix a genetic problem at its source. The polymers are either translated into proteins, interfere with target gene expression, or possibly correct genetic mutations.
The most common form uses DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a mutated gene. The polymer molecule is packaged within a "vector '', which carries the molecule inside cells.
Early clinical failures led to dismissals of gene therapy. Clinical successes since 2006 regained researchers ' attention, although as of 2014, it was still largely an experimental technique. These include treatment of retinal diseases Leber 's congenital amaurosis and choroideremia, X-linked SCID, ADA - SCID, adrenoleukodystrophy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), multiple myeloma, haemophilia, and Parkinson 's disease. Between 2013 and April 2014, US companies invested over $600 million in the field.
The first commercial gene therapy, Gendicine, was approved in China in 2003 for the treatment of certain cancers. In 2011 Neovasculgen was registered in Russia as the first - in - class gene - therapy drug for treatment of peripheral artery disease, including critical limb ischemia. In 2012 Glybera, a treatment for a rare inherited disorder, became the first treatment to be approved for clinical use in either Europe or the United States after its endorsement by the European Commission.
Following early advances in genetic engineering of bacteria, cells, and small animals, scientists started considering how to apply it to medicine. Two main approaches were considered -- replacing or disrupting defective genes. Scientists focused on diseases caused by single - gene defects, such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, muscular dystrophy, thalassemia, and sickle cell anemia. Glybera treats one such disease, caused by a defect in lipoprotein lipase.
DNA must be administered, reach the damaged cells, enter the cell and either express or disrupt a protein. Multiple delivery techniques have been explored. The initial approach incorporated DNA into an engineered virus to deliver the DNA into a chromosome. Naked DNA approaches have also been explored, especially in the context of vaccine development.
Generally, efforts focused on administering a gene that causes a needed protein to be expressed. More recently, increased understanding of nuclease function has led to more direct DNA editing, using techniques such as zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR. The vector incorporates genes into chromosomes. The expressed nucleases then knock out and replace genes in the chromosome. As of 2014 these approaches involve removing cells from patients, editing a chromosome and returning the transformed cells to patients.
Gene editing is a potential approach to alter the human genome to treat genetic diseases, viral diseases, and cancer. As of 2016 these approaches were still years from being medicine.
Gene therapy may be classified into two types:
In somatic cell gene therapy (SCGT), the therapeutic genes are transferred into any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte, or undifferentiated stem cell. Any such modifications affect the individual patient only, and are not inherited by offspring. Somatic gene therapy represents mainstream basic and clinical research, in which therapeutic DNA (either integrated in the genome or as an external episome or plasmid) is used to treat disease.
Over 600 clinical trials utilizing SCGT are underway in the US. Most focus on severe genetic disorders, including immunodeficiencies, haemophilia, thalassaemia, and cystic fibrosis. Such single gene disorders are good candidates for somatic cell therapy. The complete correction of a genetic disorder or the replacement of multiple genes is not yet possible. Only a few of the trials are in the advanced stages.
In germline gene therapy (GGT), germ cells (sperm or egg cells) are modified by the introduction of functional genes into their genomes. Modifying a germ cell causes all the organism 's cells to contain the modified gene. The change is therefore heritable and passed on to later generations. Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Switzerland, and the Netherlands prohibit GGT for application in human beings, for technical and ethical reasons, including insufficient knowledge about possible risks to future generations and higher risks versus SCGT. The US has no federal controls specifically addressing human genetic modification (beyond FDA regulations for therapies in general).
The delivery of DNA into cells can be accomplished by multiple methods. The two major classes are recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral vectors) and naked DNA or DNA complexes (non-viral methods).
In order to replicate, viruses introduce their genetic material into the host cell, tricking the host 's cellular machinery into using it as blueprints for viral proteins. Retroviruses go a stage further by having their genetic material copied into the genome of the host cell. Scientists exploit this by substituting a virus 's genetic material with therapeutic DNA. (The term ' DNA ' may be an oversimplification, as some viruses contain RNA, and gene therapy could take this form as well.) A number of viruses have been used for human gene therapy, including retroviruses, adenoviruses, herpes simplex, vaccinia, and adeno - associated virus. Like the genetic material (DNA or RNA) in viruses, therapeutic DNA can be designed to simply serve as a temporary blueprint that is degraded naturally or (at least theoretically) to enter the host 's genome, becoming a permanent part of the host 's DNA in infected cells.
Non-viral methods present certain advantages over viral methods, such as large scale production and low host immunogenicity. However, non-viral methods initially produced lower levels of transfection and gene expression, and thus lower therapeutic efficacy. Later technology remedied this deficiency.
Methods for non-viral gene therapy include the injection of naked DNA, electroporation, the gene gun, sonoporation, magnetofection, the use of oligonucleotides, lipoplexes, dendrimers, and inorganic nanoparticles.
Some of the unsolved problems include:
Three patients ' deaths have been reported in gene therapy trials, putting the field under close scrutiny. The first was that of Jesse Gelsinger, who died in 1999 because of immune rejection response. One X-SCID patient died of leukemia in 2003. In 2007, a rheumatoid arthritis patient died from an infection; the subsequent investigation concluded that the death was not related to gene therapy.
In 1972 Friedmann and Roblin authored a paper in Science titled "Gene therapy for human genetic disease? '' Rogers (1970) was cited for proposing that exogenous good DNA be used to replace the defective DNA in those who suffer from genetic defects.
In 1984 a retrovirus vector system was designed that could efficiently insert foreign genes into mammalian chromosomes.
The first approved gene therapy clinical research in the US took place on 14 September 1990, at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), under the direction of William French Anderson. Four - year - old Ashanti DeSilva received treatment for a genetic defect that left her with ADA - SCID, a severe immune system deficiency. The defective gene of the patient 's blood cells was replaced by the functional variant. Ashanti 's immune system was partially restored by the therapy. Production of the missing enzyme was temporarily stimulated, but the new cells with functional genes were not generated. She led a normal life only with the regular injections performed every two months. The effects were successful, but temporary.
Cancer gene therapy was introduced in 1992 / 93 (Trojan et al. 1993). The treatment of glioblastoma multiforme, the malignant brain tumor whose outcome is always fatal, was done using a vector expressing antisense IGF - I RNA (clinical trial approved by NIH protocolno. 1602 November 24, 1993, and by the FDA in 1994). This therapy also represents the beginning of cancer immunogene therapy, a treatment which proves to be effective due to the anti-tumor mechanism of IGF - I antisense, which is related to strong immune and apoptotic phenomena.
In 1992 Claudio Bordignon, working at the Vita - Salute San Raffaele University, performed the first gene therapy procedure using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors to deliver genes intended to correct hereditary diseases. In 2002 this work led to the publication of the first successful gene therapy treatment for adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA - SCID). The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID (severe combined immune deficiency or "bubble boy '' disease) from 2000 and 2002, was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial 's Paris center developed a leukemia - like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the US, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.
In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with SCID following prenatal genetic screening. Blood was removed from his mother 's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, to acquire stem cells. The allele that codes for adenosine deaminase (ADA) was obtained and inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which the viruses inserted the gene into the stem cell chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew 's blood. Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly. For four years T cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed.
Jesse Gelsinger 's death in 1999 impeded gene therapy research in the US. As a result, the FDA suspended several clinical trials pending the reevaluation of ethical and procedural practices.
The modified cancer gene therapy strategy of antisense IGF - I RNA (NIH n _̊ 1602) using antisense / triple helix anti-IGF - I approach was registered in 2002 by Wiley gene therapy clinical trial - n _̊ 635 and 636. The approach has shown promising results in the treatment of six different malignant tumors: glioblastoma, cancers of liver, colon, prostate, uterus, and ovary (Collaborative NATO Science Programme on Gene Therapy USA, France, Poland n _̊ LST 980517 conducted by J. Trojan) (Trojan et al., 2012). This anti-gene antisense / triple helix therapy has proven to be efficient, due to the mechanism stopping simultaneously IGF - I expression on translation and transcription levels, strengthening anti-tumor immune and apoptotic phenomena.
Sickle - cell disease can be treated in mice. The mice -- which have essentially the same defect that causes human cases -- used a viral vector to induce production of fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which normally ceases to be produced shortly after birth. In humans, the use of hydroxyurea to stimulate the production of HbF temporarily alleviates sickle cell symptoms. The researchers demonstrated this treatment to be a more permanent means to increase therapeutic HbF production.
A new gene therapy approach repaired errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. This technique has the potential to treat thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis and some cancers.
Researchers created liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane.
In 2003 a research team inserted genes into the brain for the first time. They used liposomes coated in a polymer called polyethylene glycol, which unlike viral vectors, are small enough to cross the blood -- brain barrier.
Short pieces of double - stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence. If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced.
Gendicine is a cancer gene therapy that delivers the tumor suppressor gene p53 using an engineered adenovirus. In 2003, it was approved in China for the treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
In March researchers announced the successful use of gene therapy to treat two adult patients for X-linked chronic granulomatous disease, a disease which affects myeloid cells and damages the immune system. The study is the first to show that gene therapy can treat the myeloid system.
In May a team reported a way to prevent the immune system from rejecting a newly delivered gene. Similar to organ transplantation, gene therapy has been plagued by this problem. The immune system normally recognizes the new gene as foreign and rejects the cells carrying it. The research utilized a newly uncovered network of genes regulated by molecules known as microRNAs. This natural function selectively obscured their therapeutic gene in immune system cells and protected it from discovery. Mice infected with the gene containing an immune - cell microRNA target sequence did not reject the gene.
In August scientists successfully treated metastatic melanoma in two patients using killer T cells genetically retargeted to attack the cancer cells.
In November researchers reported on the use of VRX496, a gene - based immunotherapy for the treatment of HIV that uses a lentiviral vector to deliver an antisense gene against the HIV envelope. In a phase I clinical trial, five subjects with chronic HIV infection who had failed to respond to at least two antiretroviral regimens were treated. A single intravenous infusion of autologous CD4 T cells genetically modified with VRX496 was well tolerated. All patients had stable or decreased viral load; four of the five patients had stable or increased CD4 T cell counts. All five patients had stable or increased immune response to HIV antigens and other pathogens. This was the first evaluation of a lentiviral vector administered in a US human clinical trial.
In May researchers announced the first gene therapy trial for inherited retinal disease. The first operation was carried out on a 23 - year - old British male, Robert Johnson, in early 2007.
Leber 's congenital amaurosis is an inherited blinding disease caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene. The results of a small clinical trial in children were published in April. Delivery of recombinant adeno - associated virus (AAV) carrying RPE65 yielded positive results. In May two more groups reported positive results in independent clinical trials using gene therapy to treat the condition. In all three clinical trials, patients recovered functional vision without apparent side - effects.
In September researchers were able to give trichromatic vision to squirrel monkeys. In November 2009, researchers halted a fatal genetic disorder called adrenoleukodystrophy in two children using a lentivirus vector to deliver a functioning version of ABCD1, the gene that is mutated in the disorder.
An April paper reported that gene therapy addressed achromatopsia (color blindness) in dogs by targeting cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision were restored for at least 33 months in two young specimens. The therapy was less efficient for older dogs.
In September it was announced that an 18 - year - old male patient in France with beta - thalassemia major had been successfully treated. Beta - thalassemia major is an inherited blood disease in which beta haemoglobin is missing and patients are dependent on regular lifelong blood transfusions. The technique used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human ß - globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient in June 2007. The patient 's haemoglobin levels were stable at 9 to 10 g / dL. About a third of the hemoglobin contained the form introduced by the viral vector and blood transfusions were not needed. Further clinical trials were planned. Bone marrow transplants are the only cure for thalassemia, but 75 % of patients do not find a matching donor.
Cancer immunogene therapy using modified antigene, antisense / triple helix approach was introduced in South America in 2010 / 11 in La Sabana University, Bogota (Ethical Committee 14 December 2010, no P - 004 - 10). Considering the ethical aspect of gene diagnostic and gene therapy targeting IGF - I, the IGF - I expressing tumors i.e. lung and epidermis cancers were treated (Trojan et al. 2016).
In 2007 and 2008, a man (Timothy Ray Brown) was cured of HIV by repeated hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (see also allogeneic stem cell transplantation, allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, allotransplantation) with double - delta - 32 mutation which disables the CCR5 receptor. This cure was accepted by the medical community in 2011. It required complete ablation of existing bone marrow, which is very debilitating.
In August two of three subjects of a pilot study were confirmed to have been cured from chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The therapy used genetically modified T cells to attack cells that expressed the CD19 protein to fight the disease. In 2013, the researchers announced that 26 of 59 patients had achieved complete remission and the original patient had remained tumor - free.
Human HGF plasmid DNA therapy of cardiomyocytes is being examined as a potential treatment for coronary artery disease as well as treatment for the damage that occurs to the heart after myocardial infarction.
In 2011 Neovasculgen was registered in Russia as the first - in - class gene - therapy drug for treatment of peripheral artery disease, including critical limb ischemia; it delivers the gene encoding for VEGF. Neovasculogen is a plasmid encoding the CMV promoter and the 165 amino acid form of VEGF.
The FDA approved Phase 1 clinical trials on thalassemia major patients in the US for 10 participants in July. The study was expected to continue until 2015.
In July 2012, the European Medicines Agency recommended approval of a gene therapy treatment for the first time in either Europe or the United States. The treatment used Alipogene tiparvovec (Glybera) to compensate for lipoprotein lipase deficiency, which can cause severe pancreatitis. The recommendation was endorsed by the European Commission in November 2012 and commercial rollout began in late 2014. Alipogene tiparvovec was expected to cost around $1.6 million per treatment in 2012, revised to $1 million in 2015, making it the most expensive medicine in the world at the time. As of 2016, only one person had been treated with drug.
In December 2012, it was reported that 10 of 13 patients with multiple myeloma were in remission "or very close to it '' three months after being injected with a treatment involving genetically engineered T cells to target proteins NY - ESO - 1 and LAGE - 1, which exist only on cancerous myeloma cells.
In March researchers reported that three of five adult subjects who had acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) had been in remission for five months to two years after being treated with genetically modified T cells which attacked cells with CD19 genes on their surface, i.e. all B - cells, cancerous or not. The researchers believed that the patients ' immune systems would make normal T - cells and B - cells after a couple of months. They were also given bone marrow. One patient relapsed and died and one died of a blood clot unrelated to the disease.
Following encouraging Phase 1 trials, in April, researchers announced they were starting Phase 2 clinical trials (called CUPID2 and SERCA - LVAD) on 250 patients at several hospitals to combat heart disease. The therapy was designed to increase the levels of SERCA 2, a protein in heart muscles, improving muscle function. The FDA granted this a Breakthrough Therapy Designation to accelerate the trial and approval process. In 2016 it was reported that no improvement was found from the CUPID 2 trial.
In July researchers reported promising results for six children with two severe hereditary diseases had been treated with a partially deactivated lentivirus to replace a faulty gene and after 7 -- 32 months. Three of the children had metachromatic leukodystrophy, which causes children to lose cognitive and motor skills. The other children had Wiskott - Aldrich syndrome, which leaves them to open to infection, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Follow up trials with gene therapy on another six children with Wiskott - Aldrich syndrome were also reported as promising.
In October researchers reported that two children born with adenosine deaminase severe combined immunodeficiency disease (ADA - SCID) had been treated with genetically engineered stem cells 18 months previously and that their immune systems were showing signs of full recovery. Another three children were making progress. In 2014 a further 18 children with ADA - SCID were cured by gene therapy. ADA - SCID children have no functioning immune system and are sometimes known as "bubble children. ''
Also in October researchers reported that they had treated six hemophilia sufferers in early 2011 using an adeno - associated virus. Over two years later all six were producing clotting factor.
In January researchers reported that six choroideremia patients had been treated with adeno - associated virus with a copy of REP1. Over a six - month to two - year period all had improved their sight. By 2016, 32 patients had been treated with positive results and researchers were hopeful the treatment would be long - lasting. Choroideremia is an inherited genetic eye disease with no approved treatment, leading to loss of sight.
In March researchers reported that 12 HIV patients had been treated since 2009 in a trial with a genetically engineered virus with a rare mutation (CCR5 deficiency) known to protect against HIV with promising results.
Clinical trials of gene therapy for sickle cell disease were started in 2014. There is a need for high quality randomised controlled trials assessing the risks and benefits involved with gene therapy for people with sickle cell disease.
In February LentiGlobin BB305, a gene therapy treatment undergoing clinical trials for treatment of beta thalassemia gained FDA "breakthrough '' status after several patients were able to forgo the frequent blood transfusions usually required to treat the disease.
In March researchers delivered a recombinant gene encoding a broadly neutralizing antibody into monkeys infected with simian HIV; the monkeys ' cells produced the antibody, which cleared them of HIV. The technique is named immunoprophylaxis by gene transfer (IGT). Animal tests for antibodies to ebola, malaria, influenza, and hepatitis were underway.
In March, scientists, including an inventor of CRISPR, Jennifer Doudna, urged a worldwide moratorium on germline gene therapy, writing "scientists should avoid even attempting, in lax jurisdictions, germline genome modification for clinical application in humans '' until the full implications "are discussed among scientific and governmental organizations ''.
In October, researchers announced that they had treated a baby girl, Layla Richards, with an experimental treatment using donor T - cells genetically engineered using TALEN to attack cancer cells. One year after the treatment she was still free of her cancer (a highly aggressive form of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)). Children with highly aggressive ALL normally have a very poor prognosis and Layla 's disease had been regarded as terminal before the treatment.
In December, scientists of major world academies called for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits, including those related to CRISPR - Cas9 technologies but that basic research including embryo gene editing should continue.
In April the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency endorsed a gene therapy treatment called Strimvelis and the European Commission approved it in June. This treats children born with adenosine deaminase deficiency and who have no functioning immune system. This was the second gene therapy treatment to be approved in Europe.
In October, Chinese scientists reported they had started a trial to genetically modify T - cells from 10 adult patients with lung cancer and reinject the modified T - cells back into their bodies to attack the cancer cells. The T - cells had the PD - 1 protein (which stops or slows the immune response) removed using CRISPR - Cas9.
A 2016 Cochrane systematic review looking at data from four trials on topical cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene therapy does not support its clinical use as a mist inhaled into the lungs to treat cystic fibrosis patients with lung infections. One of the four trials did find weak evidence that liposome - based CFTR gene transfer therapy may lead to a small respiratory improvement for people with CF. This weak evidence is not enough to make a clinical recommendation for routine CFTR gene therapy.
In February Kite Pharma announced results from a clinical trial of CAR - T cells in around a hundred people with advanced Non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
In March, French scientists reported on clinical research of gene therapy to treat sickle - cell disease.
In August, the FDA approved tisagenlecleucel for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Tisagenlecleucel is an adoptive cell transfer therapy for B - cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia; T cells from a person with cancer are removed, genetically engineered to make a specific T - cell receptor (a chimeric T cell receptor, or "CAR - T '') that reacts to the cancer, and are administered back to the person. The T cells are engineered to target a protein called CD19 that is common on B cells. This is the first form of gene therapy to be approved in the United States. In October, a similar therapy called axicabtagene ciloleucel was approved for non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
In December the results of using an adeno - associated virus with blood clotting factor VIII to treat nine haemophilia A patients were published. Six of the seven patients on the high dose regime increased the level of the blood clotting VIII to normal levels. The low and medium dose regimes had no effect on the patient 's blood clotting levels.
In December, the FDA approved Luxturna, the first in vivo gene therapy, for the treatment of blindness due to Leber 's congenital amaurosis. The price of this treatment was 850,000 US dollars for both eyes.
Speculated uses for gene therapy include:
Athletes might adopt gene therapy technologies to improve their performance. Gene doping is not known to occur, but multiple gene therapies may have such effects. Kayser et al. argue that gene doping could level the playing field if all athletes receive equal access. Critics claim that any therapeutic intervention for non-therapeutic / enhancement purposes compromises the ethical foundations of medicine and sports.
Genetic engineering could be used to cure diseases, but also to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence. Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every fetus has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases. For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise, education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.
Possible regulatory schemes include a complete ban, provision to everyone, or professional self - regulation. The American Medical Association 's Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs stated that "genetic interventions to enhance traits should be considered permissible only in severely restricted situations: (1) clear and meaningful benefits to the fetus or child; (2) no trade - off with other characteristics or traits; and (3) equal access to the genetic technology, irrespective of income or other socioeconomic characteristics. ''
As early in the history of biotechnology as 1990, there have been scientists opposed to attempts to modify the human germline using these new tools, and such concerns have continued as technology progressed. With the advent of new techniques like CRISPR, in March 2015 a group of scientists urged a worldwide moratorium on clinical use of gene editing technologies to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited. In April 2015, researchers sparked controversy when they reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR. A committee of the American National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Medicine gave qualified support to human genome editing in 2017 once answers have been found to safety and efficiency problems "but only for serious conditions under stringent oversight. ''
Regulations covering genetic modification are part of general guidelines about human - involved biomedical research. There are no international treaties which are legally binding in this area, but there are recommendations for national laws from various bodies.
The Helsinki Declaration (Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects) was amended by the World Medical Association 's General Assembly in 2008. This document provides principles physicians and researchers must consider when involving humans as research subjects. The Statement on Gene Therapy Research initiated by the Human Genome Organization (HUGO) in 2001 provides a legal baseline for all countries. HUGO 's document emphasizes human freedom and adherence to human rights, and offers recommendations for somatic gene therapy, including the importance of recognizing public concerns about such research.
No federal legislation lays out protocols or restrictions about human genetic engineering. This subject is governed by overlapping regulations from local and federal agencies, including the Department of Health and Human Services, the FDA and NIH 's Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee. Researchers seeking federal funds for an investigational new drug application, (commonly the case for somatic human genetic engineering,) must obey international and federal guidelines for the protection of human subjects.
NIH serves as the main gene therapy regulator for federally funded research. Privately funded research is advised to follow these regulations. NIH provides funding for research that develops or enhances genetic engineering techniques and to evaluate the ethics and quality in current research. The NIH maintains a mandatory registry of human genetic engineering research protocols that includes all federally funded projects.
An NIH advisory committee published a set of guidelines on gene manipulation. The guidelines discuss lab safety as well as human test subjects and various experimental types that involve genetic changes. Several sections specifically pertain to human genetic engineering, including Section III - C - 1. This section describes required review processes and other aspects when seeking approval to begin clinical research involving genetic transfer into a human patient. The protocol for a gene therapy clinical trial must be approved by the NIH 's Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee prior to any clinical trial beginning; this is different from any other kind of clinical trial.
As with other kinds of drugs, the FDA regulates the quality and safety of gene therapy products and supervises how these products are used clinically. Therapeutic alteration of the human genome falls under the same regulatory requirements as any other medical treatment. Research involving human subjects, such as clinical trials, must be reviewed and approved by the FDA and an Institutional Review Board.
Gene therapy is the basis for the plotline of the film I Am Legend and the TV show Will Gene Therapy Change the Human Race?. In 1994, gene therapy was a plot element in The Erlenmeyer Flask, The X-Files ' first - season finale. It is also used in Stargate as a means of allowing humans to use Ancient technology.
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where does light independent reaction take place in photosynthesis | Light - independent reactions - wikipedia
The light - independent reactions, or dark reactions, of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid - filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light - dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light - independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde - 3 - P.
The Calvin cycle, Calvin -- Benson -- Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon - 14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short - lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction '' is misleading), and also by products of the light - dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
Hexose (six - carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C 6H 12 O 6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six - carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three - carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates, '' namely, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P).
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO molecule is incorporated into one of two three - carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light - dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO 2 molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O 2 instead of CO 2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3 - PGA and 2 - phosphoglycolate, a 2 - carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine + CO 2. Serine can be converted back to 3 - phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3 - PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO 2, this process leads to loss of CO 2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates -- corn, for example.
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products. '' They are regenerated and later used again in the Light - dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light - dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin / ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin / ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde - 3 - P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - P phosphatase, fructose - 1, 6 - bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose - 1, 7 - bisphosphatase, and ribulose - 5 - phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
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who stole a baby in shameless season 1 | Shameless (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the award - winning British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on January 9, 2011, at Sunday 10: 00 p.m. EST on the Showtime television network. Executive producers are John Wells, Paul Abbott and Andrew Stearn, with producer Michael Hissrich. The season concluded after 12 episodes on March 27, 2011. The shows season premiere was watched by 982,000 viewers, making it the network 's biggest turnout for a series premiere since Dead Like Me in 2003. The episode airing January 30, "Casey Casden '', received 1.45 million total viewers, making Shameless the best performing first - year drama on Showtime. The season finale scored 1.16 million viewers.
The series depicts the dysfunctional family of Francis (Frank) Gallagher, a single father of six children. While he spends his days drunk, his kids learn to take care of themselves. The first season mainly focuses on the ups and downs of Fiona Gallagher 's new relationship with Steve Lishman. Their relationship begins when Fiona has her purse snatched at a nightclub and Steve attempts to retrieve it from a mugger. The season also follows Kev and Veronica, the Gallagher 's neighbours, as they are forced to become foster parents due to fertility problems. The Gallagher patriarch, Frank meets Sheila Jackson, the mother of Lip 's girlfriend Karen and the two become a couple. Lip also discovers that his closest brother, Ian is gay and having an affair with a married man. But this could soon change when Ian starts an affair of his own, with a local bad boy. The absent mother of the Gallagher clan, Monica returns with her lesbian lover Roberta and the couple want to take Liam to live with them.
HBO began developing an American version of Shameless after striking a deal with John Wells in January 2009. By October 2009 the development had moved to Showtime. John Wells Productions filmed a pilot episode for the cable network in December 2009. William H. Macy stars in the lead role as Frank Gallagher. Also joining the cast were former Dragonball Evolution co-stars Emmy Rossum as Fiona and Justin Chatwin as Steve. Paul Abbott, whose semi-autobiographical telescript became the pilot episode for the original UK version, is credited as an executive producer on the U.S. version. In April 2010, Showtime green - lit the series with a twelve - episode order. In late August Joan Cusack was cast as Sheila, a romantic interest for Frank, replacing Allison Janney, who portrayed the role in the pilot. A preview of the pilot aired on December 12, 2010, after the Season 5 finale of Dexter. The first season officially began airing on Showtime on Sunday, January 9, 2011.
Production began in mid-September 2010. It is filmed in the North Lawndale community area of Chicago and Burbank, California, at Warner Bros. Studios.
December 27, 2011 (2011 - 12 - 27)
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where is st jude's children's hospital located in florida | St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital - wikipedia
St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital, founded in 1962, is a pediatric treatment and research facility focused on children 's catastrophic diseases. The hospital costs about $2.4 million a day to run, and there is no cost to the patient to be treated. It is located in Memphis, Tennessee, and is a nonprofit medical corporation designated as a 501 (c) (3) tax - exempt organization by the Internal Revenue Service.
St. Jude was founded by entertainer Danny Thomas in 1962, with help from Lemuel Diggs and close friend, Miami, Florida, automobile dealer Anthony Abraham, on the premise that "no child should die in the dawn of life ''. This idea resulted from a promise that Thomas, a Maronite Catholic, had made to a saint years before the hospital was founded. Thomas was a comedian who was struggling to get a break in his career and living paycheck to paycheck. When his first child was about to be born, he attended Mass in Detroit and put his last $7.00 in the offering bin. He prayed to St. Jude Thaddeus for a means to provide for his family, and about a week later, he obtained a gig that paid 10 times what he had put in the offering bin. After that time, Thomas believed in the power of prayer. He promised St. Jude Thaddeus that if he made him successful, he would one day build him a shrine. Years later, Thomas became an extremely successful comedian and built St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital as a shrine to St. Jude Thaddeus to honor his promise.
In 1957, Thomas founded the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities (ALSAC), which helped him realize his dream. ALSAC is also the fundraising organization of St. Jude. Since St. Jude opened its doors in 1962, ALSAC has had the responsibility of raising the necessary funds to keep the hospital open. Memphis was chosen at the suggestion of Roman Catholic Cardinal Samuel Stritch, a Tennessee native who had been a spiritual advisor to Thomas since he presided at Thomas 's confirmation in Thomas 's boyhood home of Toledo, Ohio.
Although it was named after Thomas 's patron saint, St. Jude is not a Catholic hospital and is not affiliated with any religious organization.
In late 2007, the Chili 's Care Center opened on the St. Jude campus. Chili 's restaurant chain has pledged to provide $50 million to fund the construction of the center. The seven - story Chili 's Care Center will house 340,000 square feet (32,000 m) and will add 24 labs and 16 beds to the campus. It will house the department of radiological services, The Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium, two floors of outpatient clinics, one floor of inpatient clinics and rooms, two floors of laboratory space, an office floor and an unfinished level for future expansion.
In June 2008, Sterling Jewelers and St. Jude officially opened the new Kay Kafe (named after one of Sterling 's jewelery chains), featuring a spacious lounge area, a significantly larger dining area and a variety of new dining options. More than ever, the cafeteria is the focal point of the campus where families and staff can escape and relax away from the treatment areas. The grand opening ceremony featured Marlo Thomas, national outreach director for St. Jude; Tony Thomas, member of the ALSAC / St. Jude Boards of Directors and Governors; Terry Burman, chairman of Sterling; Mark Light, CEO and president of Sterling; John P. Moses, CEO of ALSAC, the fundraising organization for St. Jude; Dr. William E. Evans, CEO of St. Jude; Joyce Aboussie, chair of the ALSAC Board of Directors, and Robert Breit, chair of the St. Jude Board of Governors.
In 2014, the Marlo Thomas Center for Global Education and Collaboration was opened as part of the hospital.
Discoveries at St. Jude have completely changed how doctors treat children with cancer and other catastrophic illnesses. Since St. Jude was established, the survival rate for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most common type of childhood cancer, has increased from 4 percent in 1962 to 94 percent today. During this time, the overall survival rate for childhood cancers has risen from 20 percent to 80 percent. St. Jude has treated children from across the United States and from more than 70 countries. Doctors across the world consult with St. Jude on their toughest cases. Also, St. Jude has an International Outreach Program to improve the survival rates of children with catastrophic illnesses worldwide through the transfer of knowledge, technology and organizational skills.
Donald Pinkel was the first director of St. Jude and served from 1962 until 1973. His successor, Alvin Mauer, was director from 1973 to 1983. Joseph Simone was the hospital 's third director from 1983 to 1992. Arthur W. Nienhuis was CEO and director of St. Jude from 1993 until 2004. William E. Evans, the hospital 's fifth director, served from 2004 to 2014. He was succeeded by current CEO and director James R. Downing on July 15, 2014.
As of 2018, St. Jude 's scientific director was James I. Morgan, Ph. D.
St. Jude 's board of directors is chaired by Camille F. Sarrouf Jr. and includes Joyce Aboussie, Ruth Gaviria and Tony Thomas (producer).
St. Jude and over 46 of its staff members have been the recipients of numerous exemplary awards and achievements. For example, in 2010 St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital was named the number one children 's cancer hospital in the U.S by U.S. News & World Report. It has also been named one of the top 10 companies to work for in academia by The Scientist for 7 successive years. Most notably, Peter C. Doherty, Ph. D., of St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital was co-recipient of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work related to how the immune system kills virus - infected cells.
St. Jude is associated with several affiliated hospitals around the nation to further its efforts beyond its own physical walls. The hospital uses its Domestic Affiliates Program to form this partnership with the other pediatric programs. This program is a network of hematology clinics, hospitals, and universities that are united under the mission of St. Jude.
These sites are used as a means of referring eligible patients to St. Jude as well as a location to administer some care. Through the Domestic Affiliates Program staff at St. Jude work together and collaborate with those at the other institutions. Affiliated sites are expected to comply with standards set by St. Jude and are audited to ensure proper and quality care.
Currently the Domestic Affiliate Clinic sites include:
St. Jude also works closely with Le Bonheur Children 's Medical Center, also located in downtown Memphis. St. Jude patients needing certain procedures, such as brain surgery, may undergo procedures at LeBonheur Hospital. Both St. Jude and Le Bonheur are teaching hospitals affiliated with the University of Tennessee Health Science Center. University of Tennessee physicians training in pediatrics, surgery, radiology, and other specialties undergo service rotations at St. Jude Hospital.
The Children 's Cancer Center of Lebanon was established in Beirut on April 12, 2002. The center is an affiliate of St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital and works in association with the American University of Beirut Medical Center (AUBMC).
A commitment has been made to establish a US $412 million research facility in Memphis, Tennessee, one purpose of which will be to serve as a collaborative hub.
Funding for St. Jude comes from many sources, including government grants and insurance recoveries, but the principal source of funding (64 % average over the past seven years) is from the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities (ALSAC) - a semi-independent entity that raises funds using the name of St. Jude. Of a dollar donated to the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities, about $0.52 makes its way through to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital (averaged over seven years).
All medically eligible patients who are accepted for treatment at St. Jude are treated without regard to the family 's ability to pay. St. Jude is one of a few pediatric research organizations in the United States where families never pay for treatments that are not covered by insurance, and families without insurance are never asked to pay. In addition to providing medical services to eligible patients, St. Jude also assists families with transportation, lodging, and meals. Three separate specially - designed patient housing facilities -- Tri Delta Place for short - term (up to one week), Ronald McDonald House for medium - term (one week to 3 months), and Target House for long - term (3 months or more) -- provide housing for patients and up to three family members, with no cost to the patient. These policies, along with research expenses and other costs, cause the hospital to incur more than $2.4 million in operating costs each day.
From 2000 to 2005, 83.7 % of every dollar received by St. Jude went to the current or future needs of St. Jude. In 2002 to 2004, 47 % of program expenses went to patient care and 41 % to research. As of 2012, 81 cents of every dollar donated to St. Jude goes directly to its research and treatment.
To cover operating costs, ALSAC conducts many fund - raising events and activities. The FedEx St. Jude Classic, a PGA Tour event, is one of the most visible fund - raising events for the hospital. Other fund - raising programs include the St. Jude Math - A-Thon, Up ' til Dawn, direct mailings, radiothons and television marketing.
St. Jude also has a merchandise catalog called the Hope Catalog. The catalog contains everything from shirts to office items, and from patient art to "Give Thanks '' wristbands.
In November 2004, St. Jude launched its inaugural Thanks and Giving campaign which encourages consumers to help raise funds at participating retailers by adding a donation at checkout or by purchasing specialty items to benefit St. Jude. The campaign is supported by network television spots, advertisements in major publications, interactive marketing on Yahoo! and a movie trailer that runs on 20,000 screens nationwide, runs from Thanksgiving until the New Year. The campaign was created by St. Jude National Outreach Director Marlo Thomas and her siblings Terre Thomas and Tony Thomas, children of hospital founder Danny Thomas. Customers nationwide are asked to help raise funds at participating retailers by adding a donation at check out or by purchasing specialty items to benefit St. Jude.
Corporations such as Target, Best Buy, Domino 's Pizza, the Williams - Sonoma family of brands, CVS / pharmacy, Kmart, Kay Jewelers, New York & Company, 7 - Eleven, Inc., American Airlines, American Kiosk Management, AutoZone, Brooks Brothers, Busch Gardens, Catherines, Diane von Fürstenberg, Dollar General, DXL Group, Easy Spirit, General Nutrition Centers, Gymboree, HSN, J.P. Morgan Chase, Marshall 's, Alor, The Melting Pot, Memphis Grizzlies (NBA), Nine West, Rochester, Sag Harbor, Saks Fifth Avenue, SeaWorld, St. Louis Rams (NFL), West Elm, Westfield Shoppingtowns, and Yahoo! give customers a host of opportunities to support St. Jude. The ultimate goal is to increase awareness with the hope that people will come to identify Thanksgiving with St. Jude, said Joyce Aboussie, vice chairwoman of the nonprofit 's board. The official kick - off event for the Thanks and Giving campaign is the Give Thanks Walk. This event is a noncompetitive 5K that is now held in 75 cities across the country. Those participating in the race are encouraged to form teams, invite family and friends, and raise money for St. Jude. These walks have raised over $11 million to date.
One of the hospital 's most recent and successful fund - raising efforts has been the Dream Home Giveaway. "About St. Jude Dream Home Giveaway ''. St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital. Retrieved January 29, 2008. The giveaway allows contest entrants to reserve tickets for $100 each to qualify to win homes valued between $300,000 and $600,000. The Dream Home Giveaway, one of the largest national fund - raising programs, is conducted in cities across the United States.
Many high schools around the country are creating student - led and student - run organizations called Team Up for St. Jude. These programs consist of high school students putting on events that raise funds and awareness for St. Jude while showing their school spirit. One of the main events is a letter writing campaign in which the students are sent pre-written letters that include stories of a patient and ask for donations. The high school students often have a "letter writing party '' to address and send the letters to their family and friends asking them to support St. Jude. Hoover High School (Hoover, AL) has a program that has brought in many fundraising ideas including "Team Up Week '' which consists of prize wheels, inflatables, karaoke, cake walk, etc. to raise funds and awareness for the hospital. Though this program is done on a much a smaller scale than the college program Up ' til Dawn, it has the potential to grow and increase awareness.
At various college campuses, some student organizations, fraternities and sororities raise funds in a program called Up ' til Dawn Phi Mu Delta National Fraternity is partnered with St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital. The fraternity 's second core belief, "I Believe in Service... service to the college; service to every group organized for the common good; service to the individual. I believe in service defined in the terms of voluntary sacrifice for the welfare of those with whom I come in contact. '' has helped shape many young men of admirable quality and exceptional character towards a dedication to St. Jude and other equally important causes. Tau Kappa Epsilon (TKE) Fraternity partnered with St. Jude in the 1970s and 1980s to help raise money to fight childhood cancer. The fraternity renewed its link to St. Jude as its philanthropy of emphasis in 2008. Saint Jude Founder Danny Thomas was a TKE in the Gamma - Nu chapter at the University of Toledo. "Tau Kappa Epsilon ''. stjude.org. Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05.
St. Jude is an International Philanthropic Project of Epsilon Sigma Alpha International, a co-ed service sorority. As of April 2013, ESA has raised more than $160 million in cash and pledges for St. Jude.
In 1999, the Delta Delta Delta collegiate sorority formed a philanthropic partnership with St. Jude. Tri Delta supports St. Jude nationally and supports cancer charities at a local level. At the hospital in Memphis, the sorority donated the Teen Room for teenage patients to relax and spend time with each other. In July 2010, Tri Delta completed its "10 by 10 '' goal, raising over $10 million in less than four years, six years short of the original goal. Those funds were used to sponsor the Tri Delta Patient Care Floor in the Chili 's Care Center. Upon completion of the "10 by 10 '' campaign, the sorority announced a new fundraising goal of $15 million in 5 years to name the Specialty Clinic located in the Patient Care Center. Three and a half years later, Delta Delta Delta had raised $15 million and completed its goal ahead of schedule. In July 2014, the on - campus residence center was renamed Tri Delta Place as a result of Tri Delta 's pledge of $60 Million in 10 years.
In July 2005, Kappa Alpha Psi (ΚΑΨ) fraternity announced St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital as its national philanthropic partner. Since that time, members across the country have joined in the fight against pediatric cancer, sickle cell disease, and other catastrophic illnesses. Kappa Alpha Psi has answered the call to service by raising more than $400,000 -- representing the largest contribution that Kappa Alpha Psi has donated to any charity. Members of Kappa Alpha Psi have committed to raise $500,000 in support of the hospital 's sickle cell program. St. Jude has one of the largest pediatric sickle cell research and treatment programs in the world. St. Jude is the first known hospital in the world to cure sickle cell disease through bone marrow transplantation. Today, bone marrow transplantation still offers the only cure for sickle cell disease. Members of Kappa Alpha Psi reach out to churches in their local communities to host a Sunday of Hope each January in support of St. Jude. January was selected because this is the month of Kappa 's founding. During the Sunday of Hope, churches will take up a special offering in honor of the patients and families of St. Jude. At the 2008 ALSAC / St. Jude Board and Awards Dinner, Kappa Alpha Psi received the Volunteer Group of the Year Award for their efforts in the inaugural year of the Sunday of Hope program which secured more than 130 churches to participate and raised more than $280,000.
Lambda Theta Alpha sorority serves thousands of hours each year to a variety of philanthropic causes and needs. In the effort to create a more united and bigger impact nationally, Lambda Theta Alpha selected a national philanthropy. In January 2010, LTA became an official collegiate partner to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital, becoming the first individual Latino Greek organization to commit fully to the hospital 's efforts. With this partnership, LTA provides our resources of community service and activism and more importantly, another direct link to the Hispanic community for St. Jude. LTA has pledged to raise awareness about childhood cancer and St. Jude in the Latin community, as well as fundraise for the hospital through a variety of events and programs.
Past events have included: sporting tournaments, charity galas, informational meetings, and much more.
Another successful event is the Country Cares for St. Jude Kids radio - thon. During these events, country radio stations around the country allow those touched by St. Jude to share stories with listeners, highlighting patient stories, and having exciting promotions. Listeners are encouraged to call in and become a Partner In Hope by making either a one - time or monthly donation to the hospital. The 200 stations involved have helped raise over $400 million since 1989. Country artists have also supported St. Jude through concerts, hospital visits, call - ins, and other forms of support.
Eagles for St. Jude is a program created during Stanford Financial Group 's inaugural sponsorship year of the Stanford St. Jude Championship out of the desire to provide a season - long fundraising component to the Memphis PGA tournament.
In 1995, St. Jude received an anonymous letter postmarked in Dallas, Texas, containing a $1 million winning McDonald 's Monopoly game piece. McDonald 's officials came to the hospital, accompanied by a representative from the accounting firm Arthur Andersen, and verified it as a winner. Although game rules prohibited the transfer of prizes, McDonald 's waived the rule and has made the annual $50,000 annuity payments, even after learning that the piece was sent by an individual involved in an embezzlement scheme intended to defraud McDonald 's.
St. Jude Children 's Research celebrity visitors are individuals that are in the entertainment industry who visit the children in the hospital. Over the years, many celebrities such as musicians, political figures, actors and others have become involved with this foundation. Hollywood actors visit the hospital to meet some of the kids and try to get involved. Other celebrities have filmed commercials to encourage individuals to donate to St. Jude. Some of the most recognized celebrities that have visited St. Jude to see the effort going on daily in order to combat catastrophic illnesses are:
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who won the great american food truck race 2017 | The Great food truck Race - wikipedia
The Great Food Truck Race is a reality television and cooking series that originally aired on August 15, 2010, on Food Network, with Tyler Florence as the host. Billed as a cross between Cannonball Run and Top Chef, this late summer show features several competing teams of three who drive across the United States in their food trucks and make stops every week to sell food in different cities.
Every season, between six and eight food truck teams compete in a race where they must cook, sell, and adapt to different challenges in the hopes of winning $50,000 (and in some cases, their very own food truck). Starting off on the west coast and driving east, every week the food truck that makes the least profit is eliminated and sent home, while the rest of the food trucks continue on to the next city. They 're usually given "seed money '' at the beginning of each episode that goes towards grocery shopping. The teams are assigned different challenges every week for a chance to earn more money (usually in the form of selling the most of a special dish or making a version of a local delicacy for Tyler and a guest judge). They 're also thrown obstacles that hinder their ability to make normal sales (for example, switching their menu to vegan food or being unable to restock supplies for the day).
In the first two seasons of the Great Food Truck Race, the competitors were seasoned, professional food truck operators who were competing for a cash prize (first season was $50,000 and second season was $100,000). In the following seasons (save for season six), food trucks were provided to novices (from home cooks to former restaurateurs) who have dreamt of owning and operating their very own food truck. In seasons three, four, and five, the winning team got the money and got to keep the food truck they were provided with by the show. In season six and onward, the show reverted to awarding the winning teams only the $50,000.
Bob Tuschman, general manager of the Food Network, had gotten several pitches for a food truck themed competition show before settling on the show that would become The Great Food Truck Race. He believed it to be ideal because it combined the Survivor - style reality show competition with the rising trend of food trucks. Tyler Florence was immediately on board and as the show grew and got renewed, so did the food truck scene. Florence believed the food truck trend grew in large part because of the economic slump around the early 2000s, and his show "helped invent an entirely new genre of restaurants ''.
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when was the first video game console invented | Video game console - wikipedia
A video game console is an electronic, digital or computer device that outputs a video signal or visual image to display a video game that one or more people can play.
The term "video game console '' is primarily used to distinguish a console machine primarily designed for consumers to use for playing video games, in contrast to arcade machines or home computers. An arcade machine consists of a video game computer, display, game controller (joystick, buttons, etc.) and speakers housed in large chassis. A home computer is a personal computer designed for home use for a variety of purposes, such as bookkeeping, accessing the Internet and playing video games.
There are various types of video game consoles, including home video game consoles, handheld game consoles, microconsoles and dedicated consoles. Although Ralph Baer had built working game consoles by 1966, it was nearly a decade before the Pong game made them commonplace in regular people 's living rooms. Through evolution over the 1990s and 2000s, game consoles have expanded to offer additional functions such as CD players, DVD players, Blu - ray disc players, web browsers, set - top boxes and more.
The first video games appeared in the 1960s. They were played on massive computers connected to vector displays, not analog televisions. Ralph H. Baer conceived the idea of a home video game in 1951. In the late 1960s, while working for Sanders Associates, Baer created a series of video game console designs. One of these designs, which gained the nickname of the 1966 "Brown Box '', featured changeable game modes and was demonstrated to several TV manufacturers, ultimately leading to an agreement between Sanders Associates and Magnavox. In 1972, Magnavox released the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home video game console which could be connected to a TV set. Ralph Baer 's initial design had called for a huge row of switches that would allow players to turn on and off certain components of the console (the Odyssey lacked a CPU) to create slightly different games like tennis, volleyball, hockey, and chase. Magnavox replaced the switch design with separate cartridges for each game. Although Baer had sketched up ideas for cartridges that could include new components for new games, the carts released by Magnavox all served the same function as the switches and allowed players to choose from the Odyssey 's built - in games.
The Odyssey initially sold about 100,000 units, making it moderately successful, and it was not until Atari 's arcade game Pong popularized video games that the public began to take more notice of the emerging industry. By autumn 1975, Magnavox, bowing to the popularity of Pong, cancelled the Odyssey and released a scaled - down version that played only Pong and hockey, the Odyssey 100. A second, "higher end '' console, the Odyssey 200, was released with the 100 and added on - screen scoring, up to four players, and a third game -- Smash. Almost simultaneously released with Atari 's own home Pong console through Sears, these consoles jump - started the consumer market. All three of the new consoles used simpler designs than the original Odyssey did with no board game pieces or extra cartridges. In the years that followed, the market saw many companies rushing similar consoles to market. After General Instrument released their inexpensive microchips, each containing a complete console on a single chip, many small developers began releasing consoles that looked different externally, but internally were playing exactly the same games. Most of the consoles from this era were dedicated consoles playing only the games that came with the console. These video game consoles were often just called video games, because there was little reason to distinguish the two yet. While a few companies like Atari, Magnavox, and newcomer Coleco pushed the envelope, the market became flooded with simple, similar video games.
Fairchild released the Fairchild Video Entertainment System (VES) in 1976. While there had been previous game consoles that used cartridges, either the cartridges had no information and served the same function as flipping switches (the Odyssey) or the console itself was empty (Coleco Telstar) and the cartridge contained all of the game components. The VES, however, contained a programmable microprocessor so its cartridges only needed a single ROM chip to store microprocessor instructions. RCA and Atari soon released their own cartridge - based consoles, the RCA Studio II and the Atari 2600 (originally branded as the Atari Video Computer System), respectively.
The first handheld game console with interchangeable cartridges was the Microvision designed by Smith Engineering, and distributed and sold by Milton - Bradley in 1979. Crippled by a small, fragile LCD display and a very narrow selection of games, it was discontinued two years later. The Epoch Game Pocket Computer was released in Japan in 1984. The Game Pocket Computer featured an LCD screen with 75 X 64 resolution, and could produce graphics at about the same level as early Atari 2600 games. The system sold very poorly, and as a result only five games were made for it. Nintendo 's Game & Watch series of dedicated game systems proved more successful. It helped to establish handheld gaming as popular and lasted until 1991. Many Games & Watch games were later re-released on Nintendo 's subsequent handheld systems.
The VES continued to be sold at a profit after 1977, and both Bally (with their Home Library Computer in 1977) and Magnavox (with the Odyssey2 in 1978) brought their own programmable cartridge - based consoles to the market. However, it was not until Atari released a conversion of the golden age arcade hit Space Invaders in 1980 for the Atari 2600 that the home console industry took off. Many consumers bought an Atari console so they could play Space Invaders at home. The unprecedented success of Space Invaders started the trend of console manufacturers trying to get exclusive rights to arcade titles, and the trend of advertisements for game consoles claiming to bring the arcade experience home. Throughout the early 1980s, other companies released video game consoles of their own. Many of the video game systems (e.g. ColecoVision) were technically superior to the Atari 2600, and marketed as improvements over the Atari 2600. However, Atari dominated the console market in the early 1980s.
In 1983, the video game business suffered a much more severe crash. A flood of low - quality video games by smaller companies (especially for the 2600), industry leader Atari hyping games such as E.T and a 2600 version of Pac - Man that were poorly received, and a growing number of home computer users caused consumers and retailers to lose faith in video game consoles. Most video game companies filed for bankruptcy, or moved into other industries, abandoning their game consoles. A group of employees from Mattel Electronics formed the INTV Corporation and bought the rights for the Intellivision. INTV alone continued to manufacture the Intellivision in small quantities and release new Intellivision games until 1991. All other North American game consoles were discontinued by 1984. Revenues generated by the video game industry fell by 97 % during the crash.
In 1983, Nintendo released the Family Computer (or Famicom) in Japan. The Famicom supported high - resolution sprites, larger color palettes, and tiled backgrounds. This allowed Famicom games to be longer and have more detailed graphics. Nintendo began attempts to bring their Famicom to the U.S. after the video game market had crashed. In the U.S., video games were seen as a fad that had already passed. To distinguish its product from older game consoles, Nintendo released their Famicom as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) which used a front - loading cartridge port similar to a VCR, included a plastic "robot '' (R.O.B.), and was initially advertised as a toy. The NES was the highest selling console in the history of North America and revitalized the video game market. Mario of Super Mario Bros. became a global icon starting with his NES games. Nintendo took a somewhat unusual stance with third - party developers for its console. Nintendo contractually restricted third - party developers to three NES titles per year and forbade them from developing for other video game consoles. The practice ensured Nintendo 's market dominance and prevented the flood of trash titles that had helped kill the Atari, but was ruled illegal late in the console 's life cycle.
Sega 's Master System was intended to compete with the NES, but never gained any significant market share in the US or Japan and was barely profitable. It fared notably better in PAL territories. In Europe and South America, the Master System competed with the NES and saw new game releases even after Sega 's next - generation Mega Drive was released. In Brazil where strict importation laws and rampant piracy kept out competitors, the Master System outsold the NES by a massive margin and remained popular into the 1990s. Jack Tramiel, after buying Atari, downsizing its staff, and settling its legal disputes, attempted to bring Atari back into the home console market. Atari released a smaller, sleeker, cheaper version of their popular Atari 2600. They also released the Atari 7800, a console technologically comparable with the NES and backwards compatible with the 2600. Finally Atari repackaged its 8 - bit XE home computer as the XEGS game console. The new consoles helped Atari claw its way out of debt, but failed to gain much market share from Nintendo. Atari 's lack of funds meant that its consoles saw fewer releases, lower production values (both the manuals and the game labels were frequently black and white), and limited distribution. Additionally two popular 8 - bit computers, the Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC, were repackaged as the Commodore 64 Games System and Amstrad GX4000 respectively, for entry into the console market.
In the later part of the third generation, Nintendo also introduced the Game Boy, which almost single - handedly solidified and then proceeded to dominate the previously scattered handheld market for 15 years. While the Game Boy product line was incrementally updated every few years, until the Game Boy Micro and Nintendo DS, and partially the Game Boy Color, all Game Boy products were backwards compatible with the original released in 1989. Since the Game Boy 's release, Nintendo had dominated the handheld market.
NEC brought the first fourth - generation console to market with their PC Engine (or TurboGrafx16) when Hudson Soft approached them with an advanced graphics chip. Hudson had previously approached Nintendo, only to be rebuffed by a company still raking in the profits of the NES. The TurboGrafx used the unusual HuCard format to store games. The small size of these proprietary cards allowed NEC to re-release the console as a handheld game console. The PC Engine enjoyed brisk sales in Japan, but its North American counterpart, the TurboGrafx, lagged behind the competition. The console never saw an official release in Europe, but clones and North American imports were available in some markets starting in 1990. NEC advertised their console as "16 - bit '' to highlight its advances over the NES. This started the trend of all subsequent fourth generations consoles being advertised as 16 bit. Many people still refer to this generation as the 16 - bit generation, and often refer to the third generation as "8 - bit ''.
Sega scaled down and adapted their Sega System 16 (used to power arcade hits like Altered Beast and Shinobi) into the Mega Drive (sold as the Genesis in North America) and released it with a near arcade - perfect port of Altered Beast. Sega 's console met lukewarm sales in Japan, but skyrocketed to first place in PAL markets, and made major inroads in North America. Propelled by its effective "Genesis does what Nintendo n't '' marketing campaign, Sega capitalized on the Genesis 's technological superiority over the NES, faithful ports of popular arcade games, and competitive pricing. The arcade gaming company SNK developed the high end Neo Geo MVS arcade system which used interchangeable cartridges similar to home consoles. Building on the success of the MVS, SNK repackaged the NeoGeo as the Neo Geo AES home console. Though technologically superior to the other fourth - generation consoles, the AES and its games were prohibitively expensive, which kept sales low and prevented it from expanding outside its niche market and into serious competition with Nintendo and Sega. The AES did, however, amass a dedicated cult following, allowing it to see new releases into the 2000s. Fourth generation graphics chips allowed these consoles to reproduce the art styles that were becoming popular in arcades and on home computers. These games often featured lavish background scenery, huge characters, broader color pallettes, and increased emphasis on dithering and texture. Games written specifically for the NES, like Megaman, Shatterhand, and Super Mario Bros. 3 were able to work cleverly within its limitations. Ports of the increasingly detailed arcade and home computer games came up with various solutions. For example, when Capcom released Strider in the arcade they created an entirely separate Strider game for the NES that only incorporated themes and characters from the arcade.
In 1990, Nintendo finally brought their Super Famicom to market and brought it to the United States as the Super NES (SNES) a year later. Its release marginalized the TurboGrafx and the Neo Geo, but came late enough for Sega to sell several million consoles in North America and gain a strong foothold. The same year the SNES was released Sega released Sonic the Hedgehog, which spiked Genesis sales, similar to Space Invaders on the Atari. Also, by 1992 the first fully licensed NFL Football game was released: NFL Sports Talk Football ' 93, which was available only on the Genesis. This impact on Genesis sales, and the overall interest of realistic sports games, would start the trend of licensed sports games being viewed as necessary for the success of a console in the US. While Nintendo enjoyed dominance in Japan, and Sega in Europe, the competition between the two was particularly fierce and close in North America. Ultimately, the SNES outsold the Genesis, but only after Sega discontinued the Genesis to focus on the next generation of consoles.
One trait that remains peculiar to the fourth generation is the huge number of exclusive games. Both Sega and Nintendo were very successful and their consoles developed massive libraries of games. Both consoles had to be programmed in assembly to get the most out of them. A game optimized for the Genesis could take advantage of its faster CPU and sound chip. A game optimized for the SNES could take advantage of its graphics and its flexible, clean sound chip. Some game series, like Castlevania, saw separate system exclusive releases rather than an attempt to port one game to disparate platforms. When compact disc (CD) technology became available midway through the fourth generation, each company attempted to integrate it into their existing consoles in different ways. NEC and Sega released CD add - ons to their consoles in the form of the TurboGrafx - CD and Sega CD, but both were only moderately successful. NEC also released the TurboDuo which combined the TurboGrafx - 16 and its TurboGrafx - CD add - on (along with the RAM and BIOS upgrade from the Super System Card) into one unit. SNK released a third version of the NeoGeo, the Neo Geo CD, allowing the company to release its games on a cheaper medium than the AES 's expensive cartridges, but it reached the market after Nintendo and Sega had already sold tens of millions of consoles each. Nintendo partnered with Sony to work on a CD add - on for the SNES, but the deal fell apart when they realized how much control Sony wanted. Sony would use their work with Nintendo as the basis for their PlayStation game console. While CDs became an increasingly visible part of the market, CD - reading technology was still expensive in the 1990s, limiting NEC 's and Sega 's add - ons ' sales.
The first handheld game console released in the fourth generation was the Game Boy, on April 21, 1989. It went on to dominate handheld sales by an extremely large margin, despite featuring a low - contrast, unlit monochrome screen while all three of its leading competitors had color. Three major franchises made their debut on the Game Boy: Tetris, the Game Boy 's killer application; Pokémon; and Kirby. With some design (Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light) and hardware (Game Boy Color) changes, it continued in production in some form until 2008, enjoying a better than 18 - year run. The Atari Lynx included hardware - accelerated color graphics, a backlight, and the ability to link up to sixteen units together in an early example of network play when its competitors could only link 2 or 4 consoles (or none at all), but its comparatively short battery life (approximately 4.5 hours on a set of alkaline cells, versus 35 hours for the Game Boy), high price, and weak games library made it one of the worst - selling handheld game systems of all time, with less than 500,000 units sold.
The third major handheld of the fourth generation was the Game Gear. It featured graphics capabilities roughly comparable to the Master System (better colours, but lower resolution), a ready made games library by using the "Master - Gear '' adaptor to play cartridges from the older console, and the opportunity to be converted into a portable TV using a cheap tuner adaptor, but it also suffered some of the same shortcomings as the Lynx. While it sold more than twenty times as many units as the Lynx, its bulky design - slightly larger than even the original Game Boy; relatively poor battery life - only a little better than the Lynx; and later arrival in the marketplace - competing for sales amongst the remaining buyers who did n't already have a Game Boy - hampered its overall popularity despite being more closely competitive to the Nintendo in terms of price and breadth of software library. Sega eventually retired the Game Gear in 1997, a year before Nintendo released the first examples of the Game Boy Color, to focus on the Nomad and non-portable console products. Other handheld consoles released during the fourth generation included the TurboExpress, a handheld version of the TurboGrafx - 16 released by NEC in 1990, and the Game Boy Pocket, an improved model of the Game Boy released about two years before the debut of the Game Boy Color. While the TurboExpress was another early pioneer of color handheld gaming technology and had the added benefit of using the same game cartridges or ' HuCards ' as the TurboGrafx16, it had even worse battery life than the Lynx and Game Gear - about three hours on six contemporary AA batteries - selling only 1.5 million units.
During this time home computers gained greater prominence as a way of playing video games. The gaming console industry nonetheless continued to thrive alongside home computers, due to the advantages of much lower prices, easier portability, circuitry specifically dedicated towards gaming, the ability to be played on a television set (which PCs of the time could not do in most cases), and intensive first party software support from manufacturers who were essentially banking their entire future on their consoles.
The first fifth - generation consoles were the 3DO and the Atari Jaguar. Although both consoles were more powerful than the fourth generation systems, neither would become serious threats to Sega or Nintendo. The 3DO initially generated a great deal of hype in part because of a licensing scheme where 3DO licensed the manufacturing of its console out to third parties, similar to VCR or DVD players. However, unlike its competitors who could sell their consoles at a loss, all 3DO manufacturers had to sell for profit. The cheapest 3DO was more expensive than the SNES and Genesis combined. The Jaguar had three processors and no C libraries to help developers cope with it. Atari was ineffective at courting third parties and many of their first party games were poorly received. Many of the Jaguar 's games used mainly the slowest (but most familiar) of the console 's processors, resulting in titles that could easily have been released on the SNES or Genesis.
To compete with emerging next gen consoles, Nintendo released Donkey Kong Country which could display a wide range of tones (something common in fifth - generation games) by limiting the number of hues onscreen, and Star Fox which used an extra chip inside of the cartridge to display polygon graphics. Sega followed suit, releasing Vectorman and Virtua Racing (the latter of which used the Sega Virtua Processor). Sega also released the 32X, an add - on for the Genesis, while their Sega Saturn was still in development. Despite public statements from Sega claiming that they would continue to support the Genesis / 32X throughout the next generation, Sega Enterprises forced Sega of America to abandon the 32X. The 32X 's brief and confusing existence damaged public perception of the coming Saturn and Sega as a whole.
While the fourth generation had seen NEC 's TurboGrafx - CD and Sega 's Sega CD add - ons, it was not until the fifth generation that CD - based consoles and games began to seriously compete with cartridges. CD - ROMs were significantly cheaper to manufacture and distribute than cartridges were, and gave developers room to add cinematic cut - scenes, pre-recorded soundtracks, and voice acting that made more serious storytelling possible. NEC had been developing a successor to the TurboGrafx - 16 as early as 1990, and presented a prototype, dubbed the "Iron Man, '' to developers in 1992, but shelved the project as the CD - ROM2 System managed to extend the console 's market viability in Japan into the mid-90s. When sales started to dry up, NEC rushed its old project to the market. The PC - FX, a CD - based, 32 - bit console, had highly advanced, detailed 2D graphics capabilities, and better full - motion video than any other system on the market. It was, however, incapable of handling 3D graphics, forfeiting its chances at seriously competing with Sony and Sega. The console was limited to a niche market of dating sims and visual novels in Japan, and never saw release in Western markets.
After the abortive 32X, Sega entered the fifth generation with the Saturn. Sega released several highly regarded titles for the Saturn, but a series of bad decisions alienated many developers and retailers. While the Saturn was technologically advanced, it was also complex, difficult, and unintuitive to write games for. In particular, programming 3D graphics that could compete with those on Nintendo and Sony 's consoles proved exceptionally difficult for third - party developers. Because the Saturn used quadrilaterals, rather than standard triangles, as its basic polygon, cross platform games had to be completely rewritten to see a Saturn port. The Saturn was also a victim of internal politics at Sega. While the Saturn sold comparably well in Japan, Sega 's branches in North America and Europe refused to license localizations of many popular Japanese titles, holding they were ill - suited to Western markets. First - party hits like Sakura Taisen never saw Western releases, while several third - party titles released on both PlayStation and Saturn in Japan, like Grandia and Castlevania: Symphony of the Night, were released in North America and Europe as PlayStation exclusives.
Born from a failed attempt to create a console with Nintendo, Sony 's PlayStation would not only dominate its generation, but become the first console to sell over 100 million units by expanding the video game market. Sony actively courted third parties and provided them with convenient c libraries to write their games. Sony had built the console from the start as a 3D, disc - based system, and emphasized its 3D graphics that would come to be viewed as the future of gaming. The PlayStation 's CD technology won over several developers who had been releasing titles for Nintendo and Sega 's fourth generation consoles, such as Konami, Namco, Capcom, and Square. CDs were far cheaper to manufacture and distribute than cartridges were, meaning developers could release larger batches of games at higher profit margins; Nintendo 's console, on the other hand, used cartridges, unwittingly keeping third - party developers away. The PlayStation 's internal architecture was simpler and more intuitive to program for, giving the console an edge over Sega 's Saturn.
Nintendo was the last to release a fifth generation console with their Nintendo 64, and when they finally released their console in North America, it came with only two launch titles. Partly to curb piracy and partly as a result of Nintendo 's failed disc projects with Sony and Philips, Nintendo used cartridges for their console. The higher cost of cartridges drove many third party developers to the PlayStation. The Nintendo 64 could handle 3D polygons better than any console released before it, but its games often lacked the cut - scenes, soundtracks, and voice - overs that became standard on PlayStation discs. Nintendo released several highly acclaimed titles, such as Super Mario 64 and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, and the Nintendo 64 was able to sell tens of millions of units on the strength of first - party titles alone, but its constant struggles against Sony would make the Nintendo 64 the last home console to use cartridges as a medium for game distribution.
Sega Nomad Released in 1995
Game Boy Pocket Released in 1996
Game.com Released in September 1997
Game Boy Light Released in April 1998
Game Boy Color Released in November 1998
Neo Geo Pocket Released in 1998
The sixth generation witnessed a shift towards using DVDs for video game media. This brought games that were both longer and more visually appealing. Adding furthermore features with online console gaming and implementing both flash and hard drive storage for game data.
During the sixth generation era, the handheld game console market expanded with the introduction of new devices from many different manufacturers. Nintendo maintained its dominant share of the handheld market with the release in 2001 of the Game Boy Advance, which featured many upgrades and new features over the Game Boy. Two redesigns of this system followed, the Game Boy Advance SP in 2003 and the Game Boy Micro in 2005. Also introduced were the Neo Geo Pocket Color in 1998 and Bandai 's WonderSwan Color, launched in Japan in 1999. South Korean company Game Park introduced its GP32 handheld in 2001, and with it came the dawn of open source handheld consoles. The Game Boy Advance line of handhelds has sold 81.51 million units worldwide as of September 30, 2010.
A major new addition to the market was the trend for corporations to include a large number of "non-gaming '' features into their handheld consoles, including cell phones, MP3 players, portable movie players, and PDA - like features. The handheld that started this trend was Nokia 's N - Gage, which was released in 2003 and doubled primarily as a mobile phone. It went through a redesign in 2004 and was renamed the N - Gage QD. A second handheld, the Zodiac from Tapwave, was released in 2004; based on the Palm OS, it offered specialized gaming - oriented video and sound capabilities, but it had an unwieldy development kit due to the underlying Palm OS foundation. With more and more PDAs arriving during the previous generation, the difference between consumer electronics and traditional computing began to blur and cheap console technology grew as a result. It was said of PDAs that they were "the computers of handheld gaming '' because of their multi-purpose capabilities and the increasingly powerful computer hardware that resided within them. This capability existed to move gaming beyond the last generation 's 16 - bit limitations; however, PDAs were still geared towards the typical businessman, and lacked new, affordable software franchises to compete with dedicated handheld gaming consoles.
Video game consoles had become an important part of the global IT infrastructure. It is estimated that video game consoles represented 25 % of the world 's general - purpose computational power in the year 2007.
The features introduced in this generation include the support of new disc formats: Blu - ray Disc, utilized by the PlayStation 3, and HD DVD supported by the Xbox 360 via an optional $200 external accessory addition, that was later discontinued as the format war closed. Another new technology is the use of motion as input, and IR tracking (as implemented on the Wii). Also, all seventh generation consoles support wireless controllers. This generation also introduced the Nintendo DS, and the Nintendo DSi, which brought touch screens into the mainstream for and added cameras to portable gaming.
For handheld game consoles, the seventh generation began with the release of the Nintendo DS on November 21, 2004. This handheld was based on a design fundamentally different from the Game Boy and other handheld video game systems. The Nintendo DS offered new modes of input over previous generations such as a touch screen, the ability to connect wirelessly using IEEE 802.11 b, as well as a microphone to speak to in - game NPCs. On December 12, 2004, Sony released its first handheld, PlayStation Portable (PSP). The PlayStation Portable was marketed at launch to an above 25 - year - old or "core gamer '' market, while the Nintendo DS proved to be popular with both core gamers and new customers. Nokia revived its N - Gage platform in the form of a service for selected S60 devices. This new service launched on April 3, 2008. Other less - popular handheld systems released during this generation include the Gizmondo (launched on March 19, 2005 and discontinued in February 2006) and the GP2X (launched on November 10, 2005 and discontinued in August 2008). The GP2X Wiz, Pandora, and Gizmondo 2 were scheduled for release in 2009. Another aspect of the seventh generation was the beginning of direct competition between dedicated handheld gaming devices, and increasingly powerful PDA / cell phone devices such as the iPhone and iPod Touch, and the latter being aggressively marketed for gaming purposes. Simple games such as Tetris and Solitaire had existed for PDA devices since their introduction, but by 2009 PDAs and phones had grown sufficiently powerful to where complex graphical games could be implemented, with the advantage of distribution over wireless broadband.
Aside from the usual hardware enhancements, consoles of the eighth generation focus on further integration with other media and increased connectivity. The Wii U introduced a controller / tablet hybrid whose features include the possibility of augmented reality in gaming. The PlayStation 4 is Sony 's eighth generation console, featuring a "share '' button to stream video game content between devices, released on November 15, 2013. Microsoft released their next generation console, the Xbox One, on November 22, 2013. On March 3, 2017, following poor sales of the Wii U, Nintendo released the Nintendo Switch, a ' hybrid ' console consisting of a tablet with controller attachments that can be used as a mobile device or connected to a television via a dock.
Game systems in the eighth generation also faced increasing competition from mobile device platforms such as Apple 's iOS and Google 's Android operating systems. Smartphone ownership was estimated to reach roughly a quarter of the world 's population by the end of 2014. The proliferation of low - cost games for these devices, such as Angry Birds with over 2 billion downloads worldwide, presents a new challenge to classic video game systems. Microconsoles, cheaper stand - alone devices designed to play games from previously established platforms, also increased options for consumers. Many of these projects were spurred on by the use of new crowdfunding techniques through sites such as Kickstarter. Notable competitors include the GamePop, OUYA, GameStick Android - based systems, the PlayStation TV, the NVIDIA SHIELD and Steam Machines. Despite the increased competition, the sales for major console manufacturers featured strong starts. The PlayStation 4 sold 1 million consoles within 24 hours in 2 countries, whilst the Xbox One sold 1 million consoles within 24 hours in 13 countries. As of December 6, 2016, over 50 million PlayStation 4 consoles have been sold worldwide, and 10 million Xbox One units have shipped to retailers (by the end of 2014), both outpacing sales of their seventh generation systems. In May, Nintendo announced that it had sold only 2.8 million Wii U consoles, falling far short of their forecasts.
Game cartridges consist of a printed circuit board housed inside of a plastic casing, with a connector allowing the device to interface with the console. The circuit board can contain a wide variety of components. All cartridge games contain at the minimum, read only memory with the software written on it. Many cartridges also carry components that increase the original console 's power, such as extra RAM or a coprocessor. Components can also be added to extend the original hardware 's functionality (such as gyroscopes, rumble packs, tilt - sensors, light sensors, etc.); this is more common on handheld consoles where the user does not interact with the game through a separate video game controller. Cartridges were the first external media to be used with home consoles and remained the most common until continued improvements in capacity in 1995 (the Nintendo 64, released in 1996, was the last mainstream game console to use cartridges). Nevertheless, the relatively high manufacturing costs and limited data capacity compared to optical media at the time saw them completely replaced by the latter for home consoles by the early 21st century, although they are still in use in some handheld video game consoles and in the Nintendo Switch. Due to the aforementioned capabilities of cartridges such as more memory and coprocessors, those factors make it harder to reverse engineer consoles to be used on emulators.
Several consoles such as the Master System and the TurboGrafx - 16 have used different types of smart cards as an external medium. These cards function similar to simple cartridges. Information is stored on a chip that is housed in plastic. Cards are more compact and simpler than cartridges, though. This makes them cheaper to produce and smaller, but limits what can be done with them. Cards can not hold extra components, and common cartridge techniques like bank switching (a technique used to create very large games) were impossible to miniaturize into a card in the late 1980s. Compact Discs reduced much of the need for cards. Optical Discs can hold more information than cards, and are cheaper to produce. The Nintendo GameCube and the PlayStation 2 use memory cards for storage, but the PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, and Nintendo Switch are currently the only modern systems to use cards for game distribution. Nintendo has long used cartridges with their Game Boy line of hand held consoles because of their durability, small size, stability (not shaking and vibrating the handheld when it is in use), and low battery consumption. Nintendo switched to cards starting with the DS, because advances in memory technology made putting extra memory on the cartridge unnecessary. The PlayStation Vita uses Sony 's own proprietary flash - memory Vita cards as one method of game distribution.
Home computers have long used magnetic storage devices. Both tape drives and floppy disk drives were common on early microcomputers. Their popularity is in large part because a tape drive or disk drive can write to any material it can read. However, magnetic media is volatile and can be more easily damaged than game cartridges or optical discs. Among the first consoles to use magnetic media were the Bally Astrocade and APF - M1000, both of which could use cassette tapes through expansions. In Bally 's case, this allowed the console to see new game development even after Bally dropped support for it. While magnetic media remained limited in use as a primary form of distribution, three popular subsequent consoles also had expansions available to allow them to use this format. The Starpath Supercharger can load Atari 2600 games from audio cassettes; Starpath used it to cheaply distribute their own games from 1982 to 1984 and today it is used by many programmers to test, distribute, and play homebrew software. The Disk System, a floppy disk - reading add - on to the Famicom (as the NES was known in Japan), was released by Nintendo in 1986 for the Japanese market. Nintendo sold the disks cheaply and sold vending machines where customers could have new games written to their disks up to 500 times. In 1999, Nintendo released another Japan - only floppy disk add - on, the Nintendo 64DD, for the Nintendo 64.
In the mid-1990s, various manufacturers shifted to optical media, specifically CD - ROM, for games. Although they were slower at loading game data than the cartridges available at that time, they were significantly cheaper to manufacture and had a larger capacity than the existing cartridge technology. NEC released the first CD - based gaming system, the TurboGrafx - CD (an add - on for the TurboGrafx - 16), in December 4, 1988 in Japan and August 1, 1990 in the United States. Sega followed suit with the Sega CD (an add - on for the Sega Genesis) in Japan on December 12, 1991; Commodore stepped into the ring shortly after with the Amiga - CD32, the first 32 - bit game console, on September 17, 1993. During the later half of the 1990s, optical media began to supplant cartridges due to their greater storage capacity and cheaper manufacturing costs, with the CD - based PlayStation significantly outpacing the cartridge - based Nintendo 64 in terms of sales. By the early 21st century, all of the major home consoles used optical media, usually DVD - ROM or similar discs, which are widely replacing CD - ROM for data storage. The PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One systems use even higher - capacity Blu - ray optical discs for games and movies, while the Xbox 360 formerly used HD DVDs in the form of an external USB player add - on for video playback before it was discontinued. However, Microsoft still supports those who bought the accessory. Nintendo 's GameCube, Wii, and Wii U, meanwhile, use proprietary disc formats based on then - current industry standard discs -- the GameCube 's discs are based on miniDVDs, the Wii 's on DVDs, and the Wii U 's are believed to be based on Blu - rays. These discs offer somewhat smaller storage capacities compared to the formats they are based on, though the difference is significantly smaller compared to the gap between the N64 's cartridges and CDs.
All seventh and eighth generation consoles offer some kind of Internet games distribution service, allowing users to download games for a fee onto some form of non-volatile storage, typically a hard disk or flash memory. Recently, the console manufacturers have been taking advantage of internet distribution with games, video streaming services like Netflix, Hulu Plus and film trailers being available.
Each new generation of console hardware made use of the rapid development of processing technology. Newer machines could output a greater range of colors, more sprites, and introduced graphical technologies such as scaling, and vector graphics. One way console makers marketed these advances to consumers was through the measurement of "bits ''. The TurboGrafx - 16, Genesis, and Super NES were among the first consoles to advertise the fact that they contained 16 - bit processors. This fourth generation of console hardware was often referred to as the 16 - bit era, and the previous generation as the 8 - bit. The bit - value of a console referred to the word length of a console 's processor (although the value was sometimes misused, for example the TurboGrafx 16 had only an 8 - bit CPU, and the Genesis / Mega Drive had the 16 / 32 - bit Motorola 68000, but both had a 16 - bit dedicated graphics processor). As the graphical performance of console hardware is dependent on many factors, using bits was a crude way to gauge a console 's overall ability. For example, the NES, Commodore 64, Apple II, and Atari 2600 all used a very similar 8 - bit CPU. The difference in their processing power is due to other causes. For example, the Commodore 64 contains 64 kilobytes of RAM and the Atari 2600 has much less at 128 bytes of RAM. The jump from 8 - bit machines to 16 - bit machines to 32 - bit machines made a noticeable difference in performance, so consoles from certain generations are frequently referred to as 8 - bit or 16 - bit consoles. However, the "bits '' in a console are no longer a major factor in their performance. The Nintendo 64, for example has been outpaced by several 32 - bit machines.
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who was the wealthy class during the renaissance | Bourgeoisie - wikipedia
The bourgeoisie (Eng.: / bʊərʒwɑːˈziː /; French pronunciation: (buʁʒwazi)) is a polysemous French term that can mean:
The "Bourgeoisie '', in its original sense, is intimately linked to the existence of cities recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g. municipal charter, town privileges, German town law) so there was no bourgeoisie "outside the walls of the city '' beyond which the people were "peasants '' submitted to the stately courts and manorialism (except for the traveling "Fair bourgeoisie '' living outside urban territories, who retained their city rights and domicile).
In Marxist philosophy the bourgeoisie is the social class that came to own the means of production during modern industrialization and whose societal concerns are the value of property and the preservation of capital, to ensure the perpetuation of their economic supremacy in society. Joseph Schumpeter saw the creation of new bourgeoisie as the driving force behind the capitalist engine, particularly entrepreneurs who took risks to bring innovation to industries and the economy through the process of creative destruction.
The Modern French word bourgeois derived from the Old French burgeis (walled city), which derived from bourg (market town), from the Old Frankish burg (town); in other European languages, the etymologic derivations are the Middle English burgeis, the Middle Dutch burgher, the German Bürger, the Modern English burgess, and the Polish burżuazja, which occasionally is synonymous with the intelligentsia. But in its literal sense, bourgeoisie in old French (burgeis, borjois) means "town dweller. ''
In English, "bourgeoisie '' (a French citizen - class) identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, and to upholding the extreme political and economic interests of the capitalist ruling class. In the 18th century, before the French Revolution (1789 -- 99), in the French feudal order, the masculine and feminine terms bourgeois and bourgeoise identified the rich men and women who were members of the urban and rural Third Estate -- the common people of the French realm, who violently deposed the absolute monarchy of the Bourbon King Louis XVI (r. 1774 -- 91), his clergy, and his aristocrats. Hence, since the 19th century, the term "bourgeoisie '' usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society.
Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market - towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted "the bourgeoisie '', they were the socio - economic class between the peasants and the landlords, between the workers and the owners of the means of production. As the economic managers of the (raw) materials, the goods, and the services, and thus the capital (money) produced by the feudal economy, the term "bourgeoisie '' evolved to also denote the middle class -- the businessmen and businesswomen who accumulated, administered, and controlled the capital that made possible the development of the bourgs into cities.
Contemporarily, the terms "bourgeoisie '' and "bourgeois '' (noun) identify the ruling class in capitalist societies, as a social stratum; while "bourgeois '' (adjective / noun modifier) describes the Weltanschauung (worldview) of men and women whose way of thinking is socially and culturally determined by their economic materialism and philistinism, a social identity famously mocked in Molière 's comedy Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670), which satirises buying the trappings of a noble - birth identity as the means of climbing the social ladder. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in genres such as the drame bourgeois (bourgeois drama) and "bourgeois tragedy ''.
The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and Western Europe developed into cities dedicated to commerce. This urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self - organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent - seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.
In the event, by the end of the Middle Ages (ca. AD 1500), under régimes of the early national monarchies of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie acted in self - interest, and politically supported the king or queen against legal and financial disorder caused by the greed of the feudal lords. In the late - 16th and early 17th centuries, the bourgeoisies of England and the Netherlands had become the financial -- thus political -- forces that deposed the feudal order; economic power had vanquished military power in the realm of politics.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the bourgeoisie were the politically progressive social class who supported the principles of constitutional government and of natural right, against the Law of Privilege and the claims of rule by divine right that the nobles and prelates had autonomously exercised during the feudal order.
The English Civil War (1642 -- 51), the American War of Independence (1775 -- 83), and French Revolution (1789 -- 99) were partly motivated by the desire by the bourgeoisie to rid themselves of the feudal and royal encroachments on their personal liberty, commercial prospects, and the ownership of property. In the 19th century, the bourgeoisie propounded liberalism, and gained political rights, religious rights, and civil liberties for themselves and the lower social classes; thus the bourgeoisie was a progressive philosophic and political force in Western societies.
After the Industrial Revolution (1750 -- 1850), by the mid-19th century the great expansion of the bourgeoisie social class caused its stratification -- by business activity and by economic function -- into the haute bourgeoisie (bankers and industrialists) and the petite bourgeoisie (tradesmen and white - collar workers). Moreover, by the end of the 19th century, the capitalists (the original bourgeoisie) had ascended to the upper class, while the developments of technology and technical occupations allowed the rise of working - class men and women to the lower strata of the bourgeoisie; yet the social progress was incidental.
According to Karl Marx, the bourgeois during Middle Ages usually was a self - employed businessman -- such as a merchant, banker, or entrepreneur -- whose economic role in society was being the financial intermediary to the feudal landlord and the peasant who worked the fief, the land of the lord. Yet, by the 18th century, the time of the Industrial Revolution (1750 -- 1850) and of industrial capitalism, the bourgeoisie had become the economic ruling class who owned the means of production (capital and land), and who controlled the means of coercion (armed forces and legal system, police forces and prison system).
In such a society, the bourgeoisie 's ownership of the means of production allowed them to employ and exploit the wage - earning working class (urban and rural), people whose only economic means is labour; and the bourgeois control of the means of coercion suppressed the sociopolitical challenges by the lower classes, and so preserved the economic status quo; workers remained workers, and employers remained employers.
In the 19th century, Marx distinguished two types of bourgeois capitalist: (i) the functional capitalists, who are business administrators of the means of production; and (ii) rentier capitalists whose livelihoods derive either from the rent of property or from the interest - income produced by finance capital, or both. In the course of economic relations, the working class and the bourgeoisie continually engage in class struggle, where the capitalists exploit the workers, while the workers resist their economic exploitation, which occurs because the worker owns no means of production, and, to earn a living, he or she seeks employment from the bourgeois capitalist; the worker produces goods and services that are property of the employer, who sells them for a price.
Besides describing the social class who owns the means of production, the Marxist use of the term "bourgeois '' also describes the consumerist style of life derived from the ownership of capital and real property. Marx acknowledged the bourgeois industriousness that created wealth, but criticised the moral hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie when they ignored the alleged origins of their wealth: the exploitation of the proletariat, the urban and rural workers. Further sense denotations of "bourgeois '' describe ideological concepts such as "bourgeois freedom '', which is thought to be opposed to substantive forms of freedom; "bourgeois independence ''; "bourgeois personal individuality ''; the "bourgeois family ''; et cetera, all derived from owning capital and property. (See: The Communist Manifesto, 1848.)
In English, the term bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French - speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers: petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, and haute bourgeoisie.
The petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, a family may rise another level. The petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class. This class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves.
The moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations. Some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper - middle classes.
The grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these families tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades. The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region 's history. These families are respected and revered. They belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry. In the French - speaking countries, they are sometimes referred la petite haute bourgeoisie.
The haute bourgeoisie is a social rank in the bourgeoisie that can only be acquired through time. In France, it is composed of bourgeois families that have existed since the French Revolution. They hold only honourable professions and have experienced many illustrious marriages in their family 's history. They have rich cultural and historical heritages, and their financial means are more than secure.
These families exude an aura of nobility, which prevents them from certain marriages or occupations. They only differ from nobility in that due to circumstances, the lack of opportunity, and / or political regime, they have not been ennobled. These people nevertheless live a lavish lifestyle, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time. In France, the families of the haute bourgeoisie are also referred to as les 200 familles, a term coined in the first half of the 20th century. Michel Pinçon and Monique Pinçon - Charlot studied the lifestyle of the French bourgeoisie, and how they boldly guard their world from the nouveau riche, or newly rich.
In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio - economic group is possible. Nevertheless, the bourgeoisie is differentiated from la classe moyenne, or the middle class, which consists mostly of white - collar employees, by holding a profession referred to as a profession libérale, which la classe moyenne, in its definition does not hold. Yet, in English the definition of a white - collar job encompasses the profession libérale.
Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of internationalist class struggle, but supported the "class struggle between nations '', and sought to resolve internal class struggle in the nation while it identified Germany as a proletarian nation fighting against plutocratic nations.
The Nazi Party had many working - class supporters and members, and a strong appeal to the middle class. The financial collapse of the white collar middle - class of the 1920s figures much in their strong support of Nazism. In the poor country that was the Weimar Republic of the early 1930s, the Nazi Party realised their socialist policies with food and shelter for the unemployed and the homeless -- who were later recruited into the Brownshirt Sturmabteilung (SA -- Storm Detachments).
Hitler was impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler 's time in the city used a rabble - rousing style of oratory that appealed to the wider masses. When asked whether he supported the "bourgeois right - wing '', Adolf Hitler claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class, and he also indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved "pure '' elements from both "camps '', stating: "From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism ''.
Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state - directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.
Hitler told a party leader in 1934, "The economic system of our day is the creation of the Jews. '' Hitler said to Benito Mussolini that capitalism had "run its course ''. Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie "know nothing except their profit. ' Fatherland ' is only a word for them. '' Hitler was personally disgusted with the ruling bourgeois elites of Germany during the period of the Weimar Republic, who he referred to as "cowardly shits ''.
Because of their ascribed cultural excellence as a social class, the Italian fascist régime (1922 -- 45) of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini regarded the bourgeoisie as an obstacle to Modernism in aid to transforming Italian society. Nonetheless, despite such intellectual and social hostility, the Fascist State ideologically exploited the Italian bourgeoisie and their materialistic, middle - class spirit, for the more efficient cultural manipulation of the upper (aristocratic) and the lower (working) classes of Italy.
In 1938, Prime Minister Mussolini gave a speech wherein he established a clear ideological distinction between capitalism (the social function of the bourgeoisie) and the bourgeoisie (as a social class), whom he dehumanised by reducing them into high - level abstractions: a moral category and a state of mind. Culturally and philosophically, Mussolini isolated the bourgeoisie from Italian society by portraying them as social parasites upon the fascist Italian state and "The People ''; as a social class who drained the human potential of Italian society, in general, and of the working class, in particular; as exploiters who victimised the Italian nation with an approach to life characterised by hedonism and materialism. Nevertheless, despite the slogan The Fascist Man Disdains the '' Comfortable '' Life, which epitomised the anti-bourgeois principle, in its final years of power, for mutual benefit and profit, the Mussolini fascist régime transcended ideology to merge the political and financial interests of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini with the political and financial interests of the bourgeoisie, the Catholic social circles who constituted the ruling class of Italy.
Philosophically, as a materialist creature, the bourgeois man was stereotyped as irreligious; thus, to establish an existential distinction between the supernatural faith of the Roman Catholic Church and the materialist faith of temporal religion; in The Autarchy of Culture: Intellectuals and Fascism in the 1930s, the priest Giuseppe Marino said that:
Christianity is essentially anti-bourgeois... A Christian, a true Christian, and thus a Catholic, is the opposite of a bourgeois.
Culturally, the bourgeois man is unmanly, effeminate, and infantile; describing his philistinism in Bonifica antiborghese (1939), Roberto Paravese said that the:
Middle class, middle man, incapable of great virtue or great vice: and there would be nothing wrong with that, if only he would be willing to remain as such; but, when his child - like or feminine tendency to camouflage pushes him to dream of grandeur, honours, and thus riches, which he can not achieve honestly with his own "second - rate '' powers, then the average man compensates with cunning, schemes, and mischief; he kicks out ethics, and becomes a bourgeois.
The bourgeois is the average man who does not accept to remain such, and who, lacking the strength sufficient for the conquest of essential values -- those of the spirit -- opts for material ones, for appearances.
The economic security, financial freedom, and social mobility of the bourgeoisie threatened the philosophic integrity of Italian fascism, the ideological monolith that was the régime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Any assumption of legitimate political power (government and rule) by the bourgeoisie represented a fascist loss of totalitarian state power for social control through political unity -- one people, one nation, and one leader. Sociologically, to the fascist man, to become a bourgeois was a character flaw inherent to the masculine mystique; therefore, the ideology of Italian fascism scornfully defined the bourgeois man as "spiritually castrated ''.
Karl Marx said that the culture of a society is dominated by the mores of the ruling - class, wherein their superimposed value system is abided by each social class (the upper, the middle, the lower) regardless of the socio - economic results it yields to them. In that sense, contemporary societies are bourgeois to the degree that they practice the mores of the small - business "shop culture '' of early modern France; which the writer Émile Zola (1840 -- 1902) naturalistically presented, analysed, and ridiculed in the twenty - two - novel series (1871 -- 1893) about Les Rougon - Macquart family; the thematic thrust is the necessity for social progress, by subordinating the economic sphere to the social sphere of life.
The critical analyses of the bourgeois mentality by the German intellectual Walter Benjamin (1892 -- 1940) indicated that the shop culture of the petite bourgeoisie established the sitting room as the centre of personal and family life; as such, the English bourgeois culture is, he alleges, a sitting - room culture of prestige through conspicuous consumption. The material culture of the bourgeoisie concentrated on mass - produced luxury goods of high quality; between generations, the only variance was the materials with which the goods were manufactured.
In the early part of the 19th century, the bourgeois house contained a home that first was stocked and decorated with hand - painted porcelain, machine - printed cotton fabrics, machine - printed wallpaper, and Sheffield steel (crucible and stainless). The utility of these things was inherent to their practical functions. By the latter part of the 19th century, the bourgeois house contained a home that had been remodelled by conspicuous consumption. Here, Benjamin argues, the goods were bought to display wealth (discretionary income), rather than for their practical utility. The bourgeoisie had transposed the wares of the shop window to the sitting room, where the clutter of display signalled bourgeois success. (See: Culture and Anarchy, 1869.)
Two spatial constructs manifest the bourgeois mentality: (i) the shop - window display, and (ii) the sitting room. In English, the term "sitting - room culture '' is synonymous for "bourgeois mentality '', a "philistine '' cultural perspective from the Victorian Era (1837 -- 1901), especially characterised by the repression of emotion and of sexual desire; and by the construction of a regulated social - space where "propriety '' is the key personality trait desired in men and women.
Nonetheless, from such a psychologically constricted worldview, regarding the rearing of children, contemporary sociologists claim to have identified "progressive '' middle - class values, such as respect for non-conformity, self - direction, autonomy, gender equality and the encouragement of innovation; as in the Victorian Era, the transposition to the US of the bourgeois system of social values has been identified as a requisite for employment success in the professions.
Bourgeois values are dependent on rationalism, which began with the economic sphere and moves into every sphere of life which is formulated by Max Weber. The beginning of rationalism is commonly called the Age of Reason. Much like the Marxist critics of that period, Weber was concerned with the growing ability of large corporations and nations to increase their power and reach throughout the world.
Beyond the intellectual realms of political economy, history, and political science that discuss, describe, and analyse the bourgeoisie as a social class, the colloquial usage of the sociological terms bourgeois and bourgeoise describe the social stereotypes of the old money and of the nouveau riche, who is a politically timid conformist satisfied with a wealthy, consumerist style of life characterised by conspicuous consumption and the continual striving for prestige. This being the case, the cultures of the world describe the philistinism of the middle - class personality, produced by the excessively rich life of the bourgeoisie, is examined and analysed in comedic and dramatic plays, novels, and films. (See: Authenticity.)
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would - be Gentleman, 1670) by Molière (Jean - Baptiste Poquelin), is a comedy - ballet that satirises Monsieur Jourdain, the prototypical nouveau riche man who buys his way up the social - class scale, to realise his aspirations of becoming a gentleman, to which end he studies dancing, fencing, and philosophy, the trappings and accomplishments of a gentleman, to be able to pose as a man of noble birth, someone who, in 17th - century France, was a man to the manor born; Jourdain 's self - transformation also requires managing the private life of his daughter, so that her marriage can also assist his social ascent.
Buddenbrooks (1901), by Thomas Mann (1875 -- 1955), chronicles the moral, intellectual, and physical decay of a rich family through its declines, material and spiritual, in the course of four generations, beginning with the patriarch Johann Buddenbrook Sr. and his son, Johann Buddenbrook Jr., who are typically successful German businessmen; each is a reasonable man of solid character.
Yet, in the children of Buddenbrook Jr., the materially comfortable style of life provided by the dedication to solid, middle - class values elicits decadence: The fickle daughter, Toni, lacks and does not seek a purpose in life; son Christian is honestly decadent, and lives the life of a ne'er - do - well; and the businessman son, Thomas, who assumes command of the Buddenbrook family fortune, occasionally falters from middle - class solidity by being interested in art and philosophy, the impractical life of the mind, which, to the bourgeoisie, is the epitome of social, moral, and material decadence.
Babbitt (1922), by Sinclair Lewis (1885 -- 1951), satirizes the American bourgeois George Follansbee Babbitt, a middle - aged realtor, booster, and joiner in the Midwestern city of Zenith, who -- despite being unimaginative, self - important, and hopelessly conformist and middle - class -- is aware that there must be more to life than money and the consumption of the best things that money can buy. Nevertheless, he fears being excluded from the mainstream of society more than he does living for himself, by being true to himself -- his heart - felt flirtations with independence (dabbling in liberal politics and a love affair with a pretty widow) come to naught because he is existentially afraid.
Yet, George F. Babbitt sublimates his desire for self - respect, and encourages his son to rebel against the conformity that results from bourgeois prosperity, by recommending that he be true to himself:
Do n't be scared of the family. No, nor all of Zenith. Nor of yourself, the way I 've been.
The comedy films by the Spanish film director Luis Buñuel (1900 -- 83) examine the mental and moral effects of the bourgeois mentality, its culture, and the stylish way of life it provides for its practitioners.
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who used the camera obscura as a tracing tool | Camera obscura - wikipedia
Camera obscura (plural camera obscura or camera obscuras; from Latin, meaning "dark room '': camera "(vaulted) chamber or room, '' and obscura "darkened, dark ''), also referred to as pinhole image, is the natural optical phenomenon that occurs when an image of a scene at the other side of a screen (or for instance a wall) is projected through a small hole in that screen as a reversed and inverted image (left to right and upside down) on a surface opposite to the opening. The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms.
The term "camera obscura '' also refers to constructions or devices that make use of the principle within a box, tent or room. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century and became popular as an aid for drawing and painting. The camera obscura box was developed further into the photographic camera in the first half of the 19th century when camera obscura boxes were used to expose light - sensitive materials to the projected image.
Before the term "camera obscura '' was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including "cubiculum obscurum '', "cubiculum tenebricosum '', "conclave obscurum '' and "locus obscurus ''.
A camera obscura device without a lens but with a very small hole is sometimes referred to as a "pinhole camera '', although this more often refers to simple (home - made) lens-less cameras in which photographic film or photographic paper is used.
Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a screen only lets through rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side and together form an image of that scene when they are reflected on a surface into the eye of an observer. The human eye as well as those of other animals including birds, fish reptiles etc. works much like a camera obscura with an opening (pupil), a biconvex lens and a surface where the image is formed (retina).
A camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted (thus upside - down) and reversed (left to right), but with color and perspective preserved. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce a highly accurate representation.
In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1 / 100th the distance to the screen, or less.
Many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole (as in a pinhole camera) because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus.
As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but the projected image becomes dimmer. With too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction.
Using mirrors, as in an 18th - century overhead version, it is possible to project a right - side - up image. Another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright (but still reversed) as viewed from the back.
There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects (through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide) inspired paleolithic cave paintings. Distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave artworks might be inspired by distortions seen when the surface on which an image was projected was not straight or not in the right angle. It is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures.
Perforated gnomons projecting a pinhole image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings (1046 BCE -- 256 BCE with material added until circa 220 CE). The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Arab and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Ibn Yunus around 1000 CE.
Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in temple worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections.
The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings called Mozi and dated to the 4th century BCE, traditionally ascribed to and named for Mozi (circa 470 BCE - circa 391 BCE), a Han Chinese philosopher and the founder of Mohist School of Logic. In these writings it is explained how the inverted image in a "collecting - point '' or "treasure house '' is inverted by an intersecting point (a pinhole) that collected the (rays of) light. Light coming from the foot of an illuminated person would partly be hidden below (strike below the pinhole) and partly form the top part of the image. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above (strike above the pinhole) and partly form the lower part of the image. This is a remarkably early correct description of the camera obscura; there are no other examples known that are dated before the 11th century.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE), or possibly a follower of his ideas, touched upon the subject in the work Problems - Book XV, asking:
"Why is it that when the sun passes through quadri - laterals, as for instance in wickerwork, it does not produce a figure rectangular in shape but circular? ''
and further on:
"Why is it that an eclipse of the sun, if one looks at it through a sieve or through leaves, such as a plane - tree or other broadleaved tree, or if one joins the fingers of one hand over the fingers of the other, the rays are crescent - shaped where they reach the earth? Is it for the same reason as that when light shines through a rectangular peep - hole, it appears circular in the form of a cone? ''
Aristotle never found an answer. The oldest known correct answer was given more than 1800 years later in Francesco Maurolico 's Photosmi de lumine et umbra (1521). He concluded that the circular shapes on the ground were pinhole images of the sun and thus became crescent - shaped during an eclipse.
Euclid is sometimes reported to have mentioned the camera obscura phenomenon as a demonstration that light travels in straight lines in his very influential Optics (circa 300 BCE). However, in common translations no remarks of anything that resembles camera obscura can be found. Claims could be based on later versions, since Ignazio Danti added a description of camera obscura in his 1573 annotated translation.
In the 4th century, Greek scholar Theon of Alexandria observed that "candlelight passing through a pinhole will create an illuminated spot on a screen that is directly in line with the aperture and the center of the candle. ''
In the 6th century, the Byzantine - Greek mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles (most famous as co-architect of the Hagia Sophia), experimented with effects related to the camera obscura. Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light - ray diagram he constructed in 555 CE.
In the 9th century, Al - Kindi (Alkindus) demonstrated that "light from the right side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the left side of the screen, while light from the left side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the right side of the screen. ''
In the 10th century Yu Chao - Lung supposedly projected images of pagoda models through a small hole onto a screen to study directions and divergence of rays of light.
Arab physicist Ibn al - Haytham (known in the West by the Latinised Alhazen) (965 -- 1039) explained in his Book of Optics (circa 1027) that rays of light travel in straight lines and are distinguished by the body that reflected the rays and then wrote:
"Evidence that light and color do not mingle in air or (other) transparent bodies is (found in) the fact that, when several candles are at various distinct locations in the same area, and when they all face a window that opens into a dark recess, and when there is a white wall or (other white) opaque body in the dark recess facing that window, the (individual) lights of those candles appear individually upon that body or wall according to the number of those candles; and each of those lights (spots of light) appears directly opposite one (particular) candle along a straight line passing through that window. Moreover, if one candle is shielded, only the light opposite that candle is extinguished, but if the shielding object is lifted, the light will return. ''
He described a ' dark chamber ' and did a number of trials of experiments with small pinholes and light passing through them. This experiment consisted of three candles in a row and seeing the effects on the wall after placing a cutout between the candles and the wall.
"The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moon - sickle. The image of the sun shows this peculiarity only when the hole is very small. When the hole is enlarged, the picture changes, and the change increases with the added width. When the aperture is very wide, the sickle - form image will disappear, and the light will appear round when the hole is round, square if the hole is square, and if the shape of the opening is irregular, the light on the wall will take on this shape, provided that the hole is wide and the plane on which it is thrown is parallel to it. ''
Al - Haytham also analyzed the rays of sunlight and concluded that they make a conic shape where they meet at the hole, forming another conic shape reverse to the first one from the hole to the opposite wall in the dark room (see illustration). Ibn al - Haytham is reported to have stated about the camera obscura: "We did not invent this ''. al - Haytam 's writings on optics became very influential in Europe through Latin translations since circa 1200. Among the people who he inspired were Witelo, John Peckham, Roger Bacon, Leonardo Da Vinci, René Descartes and Johannes Kepler.
In his 1088 book Dream Pool Essays the Song Dynasty Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095) compared the focal point of a concave burning - mirror and the "collecting '' hole of camera obscura phenomena to an oar in a rowlock to explain how the images were inverted:
"When a bird flies in the air, its shadow moves along the ground in the same direction. But if its image is collected (shu) (like a belt being tightened) through a small hole in a window, then the shadow moves in the direction opposite of that of the bird. (...) This is the same principle as the burning - mirror. Such a mirror has a concave surface, and reflects a finger to give an upright image if the object is very near, but if the finger moves farther and farther away it reaches a point where the image disappears and after that the image appears inverted. Thus the point where the image disappears is like the pinhole of the window. So also the oar is fixed at the rowlock somewhere at its middle part, constituting, when it is moved, a sort of ' waist ' and the handle of the oar is always in the position inverse to the end (which is in the water). ''
Shen Kuo also responded to a statement of Duan Chengshi in Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang written in about 840 that the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda tower beside a seashore, was inverted because it was reflected by the sea: "This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole. ''
English statesman and scholastic philosopher Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175 -- 9 October 1253) commented on the camera obscura.
English philosopher and Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (c. 1219 / 20 -- c. 1292) tried to answer Aristotle 's question (see above), but falsely argued that light travels in spherical waves and therefore assumed its natural shape after passing through square holes. He also advised to study solar eclipses safely by observing the rays passing through some round hole and studying the spot of light they form on a surface. Bacon wrote about optics in his work Opus Majus Part five De Scientia Perspectivae (1267) for which he seems to have studied the writings of Al - Kindi and Al - Haytam. Bacon is sometimes thought to have used a camera obscura projection in combination with mirrors, based on a passage in his book which says (translated from Latin):
"Mirrors may be so arranged that we may see whatever we choose and anything in the house or in the street, and everyone looking at those things will see them as if they were real, but when they go to the spot they will find nothing. For the mirrors can be hidden from things in such a way that the images will be in the open and will appear in the air at the intersection of the visual rays and the catheti (perpendicular plane), and therefore those looking at them would run up to the places where they appear and would judge that the objects are there when there is in reality nothing except an image. ''
Others point out this contains no evidence of camera obscura and think this possibly alludes to projection with concave mirrors.
A picture of a three - tiered camera obscura (see illustration) has been attributed to Bacon, but the source for this attribution is not given. A very similar picture is found in Athanasius Kircher 's Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae (1646).
Polish friar, theologian, physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher Erazmus Ciołek Witelo (also known as Vitello Thuringopolonis and by many different spellings of the name "Witelo '') wrote about the camera obscura in his very influential treatise Perspectiva (circa 1270 - 1278), which was largely based on Ibn al - Haytham 's work.
English archbishop and scholar John Peckham (circa 1230 -- 1292) wrote about the camera obscura in his Tractatus de Perspectiva (circa 1269 - 1277) and Perspectiva communis (circa 1277 - 79), falsely arguing that light gradually forms the circular shape after passing through the aperture. His writings were influenced by Roger Bacon.
At the end of the 13th century, Arnaldus de Villa Nova is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment.
French astronomer Guillaume de Saint - Cloud suggested in his 1292 work Almanach Planetarum that the eccentricity of the sun could be determined with the camera obscura from the inverse proportion between the distances and the apparent solar diameters at apogee and perigee.
Kamāl al - Dīn al - Fārisī (1267 -- 1319) described in his 1309 work Kitab Tanqih al - Manazir (The Revision of the Optics) how he experimented with a glass sphere filled with water in a camera obscura with a controlled aperture and found that the colors of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light.
French Jewish philosopher, mathematician, physicist and astronomer / astrologer Levi ben Gershon (1288 -- 1344) (also known as Gersonides or Leo de Balneolis) made several astronomical observations using a camera obscura with a Jacob 's staff, describing methods to measure the angular diameters of the sun, the moon and the bright planets Venus and Jupiter. He determined the eccentricity of the sun based on his observations of the summer and winter solstices in 1334. Levi also noted how the size of the aperture determined the size of the projected image. He wrote about his findings in Hebrew in his treatise Sefer Milhamot Ha - Shem (The Wars of the Lord) Book V Chapters 5 and 9.
Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452 -- 1519), familiar with the work of Alhazen in Latin translation and after an extensive study of optics and human vision, wrote the oldest known clear description of the camera obscura in mirror writing in a notebook in 1502, later published in the collection Codex Atlanticus (translated from Latin):
If the facade of a building, or a place, or a landscape is illuminated by the sun and a small hole is drilled in the wall of a room in a building facing this, which is not directly lighted by the sun, then all objects illuminated by the sun will send their images through this aperture and will appear, upside down, on the wall facing the hole.
You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above - mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.
These descriptions, however, would remain unknown until Venturi deciphered and published them in 1797. Da Vinci also drew 270 diagrams of the camera obscura in his notebooks.
The camera obscura 's potential as a drawing aid may have been familiar to artists by as early as the 15th century.
The oldest known published drawing of a camera obscura is found in Dutch physician, mathematician and instrument maker Gemma Frisius ' 1545 book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica, in which he described and illustrated how he used the camera obscura to study the solar eclipse of January 24, 1544
Italian polymath Gerolamo Cardano described using a biconvex lens in a camera obscura in his 1550 book De subtilitate, vol. I, Libri I - VII,
Sicilian mathematician and astronomer Francesco Maurolico (1494 - 1575) answered Aristotle 's problem how sunlight that shines through rectangular holes can form round spots of light or crescent - shaped spots during an eclipse in his treatise Photismi de lumine et umbra (1521 - 1554). However this was n't published before 1611, after Johannes Kepler had published similar findings of his own.
Italian polymath Giambattista della Porta described the camera obscura, which he called "obscurum cubiculum '', in the 1558 first edition of his book series Magia Naturalis. He suggested to use a convex mirror to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. Della Porta compared the human eye to the camera obscura: "For the image is let into the eye through the eyeball just as here through the window ''. The popularity of Della Porta 's books helped spread knowledge of the camera obscura.
In his 1567 work La Pratica della Perspettiva Venetian nobleman Daniele Barbaro (1513 - 1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle.
In his influential and meticulously annotated Latin edition of the works of Al - Haytam and Witelo Opticae thesauru (1572) German mathematician Friedrich Risner proposed a portable camera obscura drawing aid; a lightweight wooden hut with lenses in each of its four walls that would project images of the surroundings on a paper cube in the middle. The construction could be carried on two wooden poles. A very similar setup was illustrated in 1645 in Athanasius Kircher 's influential book Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae.
Around 1575 Italian Dominican priest, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer Ignazio Danti designed a camera obscura gnomom and a meridian line for the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence and he later had a massive gnomon built in the San Petronio church in Bologna. The gnomon was used to study the movements of the sun during the year and helped in determining the new Gregorian calendar for which Danti took place in the commission appointed by Pope Gregorius XIII and instituted in 1582.
In his 1585 book Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum Venetian mathematician Giambattista Benedetti proposed to use a mirror in a 45 degree angle to project the image upright. This leaves the image reversed, but would become common practice in later camera obscura boxes.
Giambattista della Porta added a "lenticular crystal '' or biconvex lens to the camera obscura description in the 1589 second edition of Magia Naturalis. He also imagined use of the camera obscura to project hunting scenes, battles, games or anything desired. Real or artificial forests, rivers, mountains as well as animals could be used for scenes on an outside stage and projected into a dark room with spectators.
The earliest use of the term "camera obscura '' is found in the 1604 book Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer Johannes Kepler. Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many - cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book. He also realized that images are "painted '' inverted and reversed on the retina of the eye and figured that this is somehow corrected by the brain. In 1607 Kepler studied the sun in his camera obscura and noticed a sunspot, but he thought it was Mercury transiting the sun. In his 1611 book Dioptrice Kepler described how the projected image of the camera obscura can be improved and reverted with a lens. It is believed he later used a telescope with three lenses to revert the image in the camera obscura.
In 1611 Frisian / German astronomers David and Johannes Fabricius (father and son) studied sunspots with a camera obscura, after realizing looking at the sun directly with the telescope could damage their eyes. They are thought to have combined the telescope and the camera obscura into camera obscura telescopy.
In 1612 Italian mathematician Benedetto Castelli wrote to his mentor, the Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher and mathematician Galileo Galilei about projecting images of the sun through a telescope (invented in 1608) to study the recently discovered sunspots. Galilei wrote about Castelli 's technique to the German Jesuit priest, physicist and astronomer Christoph Scheiner.
From 1612 to at least 1630 Christoph Scheiner would keep on studying sunspots and constructing new telescopic solar projection systems. He called these "Heliotropii Telioscopici '', later contracted to helioscope. For his helioscope studies Scheiner built a box around the viewing / projecting end of the telescope, which can be seen as the oldest known version of a box - type camera obscura. Scheiner also made a portable camera obscura.
In his 1613 book Opticorum Libri Sex Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist and architect François d'Aguilon described how some charlatans cheated people out of their money by claiming they knew necromancy and would raise the specters of the devil from hell to show them to the audience inside a dark room. The image of an assistant with a devil 's mask was projected through a lens into the dark room, scaring the uneducated spectators.
By 1620 Kepler used a portable camera obscura tent with a modified telescope to draw landscapes. It could be turned around to capture the surroundings in parts.
Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel is thought to have constructed a box - type camera obscura which corrected the inversion of the projected image. In 1622 he sold one to the Dutch poet, composer and diplomat Constantijn Huygens who used it to paint and recommended it to his artist friends. Huygens wrote to his parents (translated from French):
I have at home Drebbel 's other instrument, which certainly makes admirable effects in painting from reflection in a dark room; it is not possible for me to reveal the beauty to you in words; all painting is dead by comparison, for here is life itself or something more elevated if one could articulate it. The figure and the contour and the movements come together naturally therein and in a grandly pleasing fashion.
German Orientalist, mathematician, inventor, poet, and librarian Daniel Schwenter wrote in his 1636 book Deliciae Physico - Mathematicae about an instrument that a man from Pappenheim had shown him, which enabled movement of a lens to project more from a scene through the camera obscura. It consisted of a ball as big as a fist, through which a hole (AB) was made with a lens attached on one side (B). This ball was placed inside two halves of part of a hollow ball that were then glued together (CD), in which it could be turned around. This device was attached to a wall of the camera obscura (EF). This universal joint mechanism was later called a scioptric ball.
In his 1637 book Dioptrique French philosopher, mathematician and scientist René Descartes suggested placing an eye of a recently dead man (or if a dead man was unavailable, the eye of an ox) into an opening in a darkened room and scraping away the flesh at the back until one could see the inverted image formed on the retina.
Italian Jesuit philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Mario Bettini wrote about making a camera obscura with twelve holes in his Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae (1642). When a foot soldier would stand in front of the camera, a twelve person army of soldiers making the same movements would be projected.
French mathematician, Minim friar, and painter of anamorphic art Jean - François Nicéron (1613 - 1646) wrote about the camera obscura with convex lenses. He explained how the camera obscura could be used by painters to achieve perfect perspective in their work. He also complained how charlatans abused the camera obscura to fool witless spectators and make them believe that the projections were magic or occult science. These writings were published in a posthumous version of La Perspective Curieuse (1652).
German Jesuit scientist Gaspar Schott heard from a traveler about a small camera obscura device he had seen in Spain, which one could carry under one arm and could be hidden under a coat. He then constructed his own sliding box camera obscura, which could focus by sliding a wooden box part fitted inside another wooden box part. He wrote about this in his 1657 Magia universalis naturæ et artis (volume 1 - book 4 "Magia Optica '' pages 199 - 201).
By 1659 the magic lantern was introduced and partly replaced the camera obscura as a projection device, while the camera obscura mostly remained popular as a drawing aid. The magic lantern can be seen as a development of the (box - type) camera obscura device.
The 17th century Dutch Masters, such as Johannes Vermeer, were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of camerae obscurae, but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of considerable controversy, recently revived by the Hockney -- Falco thesis.
German philosopher Johann Sturm published an illustrated article about the construction of a portable camera obscura box with a 45 ° mirror and an oiled paper screen in his book Collegium experimentale: sive curiosum (1676).
Johann Zahn 's Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium, published in 1685, contains many descriptions, diagrams, illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and the magic lantern. A hand - held device with a mirror reflex mechanism was first proposed by Johann Zahn in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras.
The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone - shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user.
From the beginning of the 18th century craftsmen and opticians would make camera obscura devices in the shape of books, which were much appreciated by lovers of optical devices.
One chapter in the Conte Algarotti 's Saggio sopra Pittura (1764) is dedicated to the use of a camera ottica ("optic chamber '') in painting.
By the 18th century, following developments by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke, more easily portable models in boxes became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels, but they were also employed by professionals, including Paul Sandby and Joshua Reynolds, whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the Science Museum in London. Such cameras were later adapted by Joseph Nicephore Niepce, Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot for creating the first photographs.
While the technical principles of the camera obscura have been known since antiquity, the broad use of the technical concept in producing images with a linear perspective in paintings, maps, theatre setups and architectural and later photographic images and movies started in the Western Renaissance and the scientific revolution. While e.g. Alhazen (Ibn al - Haytham) had already observed an optical effect and developed a state of the art theory of the refraction of light, he was less interested to produce images with it (compare Hans Belting 2005); the society he lived in was even hostile (compare Aniconism in Islam) towards personal images. Western artists and philosophers used the Arab findings in new frameworks of epistemic relevance. E.g. Leonardo da Vinci used the camera obscura as a model of the eye, René Descartes for eye and mind and John Locke started to use the camera obscura as a metaphor of human understanding per se. The modern use of the camera obscura as an epistemic machine had important side effects for science. While the use of the camera obscura has dwindled away, for those who are interested in making one it only requires a few items including: a box, tracing paper, tape, foil, a box cutter, a pencil and a blanket to keep out the light.
A freestanding room - sized camera obscura at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A pinhole can be seen to the left of the door.
A freestanding room - sized camera obscura in the shape of a camera. Cliff House, San Francisco
Image of the South Downs of Sussex in the camera obscura of Foredown Tower, Portslade, England
A camera obscura created by Mark Ellis in the style of an Adirondack mountain cabin, Lake Flower, Saranac Lake, NY
A 19th - century artist using a camera obscura to outline his subject
A modern - day camera obscura
A modern - day camera obscura used indoors
View from Aberystwyth 's camera obscura
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is the tv show speechless based on a true story | Speechless (TV series) - Wikipedia
Speechless is an American sitcom television series that debuted on ABC on September 21, 2016. Created by Scott Silveri and co-executive produced with Christine Gernon, Jake Kasdan and Melvin Mar, the 20th Century Fox Television / ABC Studios co-production was greenlighted to series order on May 13, 2016. A first - look trailer was released on the same day. Starring Minnie Driver, John Ross Bowie and Micah Fowler, the sitcom explores both the serious and humorous challenges a family faces with a teenager who is disabled. On September 29, 2016, the series was picked up for a full 22 - episode season. An additional episode was ordered on December 13, 2016, for a 23 - episode season.
On May 12, 2017, ABC renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 27, 2017.
The series follows the DiMeo family, each with a unique personality: Maya, a take - charge British mother with a no - holds - barred attitude; her husband Jimmy, who does not seem to care what others think; Dylan, their no - nonsense athletic daughter; Ray, their scholarly middle child who acts as the "voice of reason '' in the family; and their oldest son, JJ -- a high schooler with cerebral palsy who has a biting wit and sense of humor. Unable to speak himself, JJ communicates by using headgear with a laser pointer to indicate various words, letters, and numbers on a board attached to his wheelchair, while others read aloud what he "says ''. The DiMeos move frequently in an attempt to find a good educational environment for JJ. They believe they have found an optimal choice when they discover a school that prides itself on being inclusive and where JJ will have an aide to speak for him. Because the school is in an upscale part of town, Jimmy and Maya move the family into the cheapest, most rundown house in an otherwise nice neighborhood. Though they quickly find that not everything is as good as it could be, JJ enjoys having Kenneth, a likeable, well - meaning school groundskeeper with a deep and resonant speaking voice, work as his aide.
Speechless received largely positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has a rating of 98 %, based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Speechless speaks to a sensitive topic with a heartfelt lead performance and a fine balance of sensitivity and irreverence. '' On Metacritic, the series has a score of 79 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The editors of TV Guide placed Speechless seventh among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016 - 17 season. In its review from writer Liam Matthews, "ABC has another worthwhile addition to its strong lineup of modern families with Speechless, '' adding "It 's a clear - eyed and empathetic exploration of life in a special needs family that makes plenty of room for hilarity. ''
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fr ted down with this sort of thing | The Passion of Saint Tibulus - wikipedia
Jim Norton as Bishop Brennan Jon Kenny as Michael
"The Passion of Saint Tibulus '' is the third episode of Channel 4 sitcom Father Ted.
Ted is hosting Father Hernandez from Cuba at the Craggy Island parochial house. Father Hernandez, seeing Mrs Doyle, confesses he sometimes finds a life of celibacy difficult, and Ted mentions Bishop Brennan, who is rumoured to have a son who lives in America.
Bishop Brennan arrives the next day and orders Ted and Dougal to protest the playing of The Passion of Saint Tibulus at the Craggy Island cinema. The film, considered blasphemous and has been condemned by the Pope and banned from playing nearly anywhere else, is only being shown on Craggy Island due to an odd loophole. Brennan wants Ted and Dougal to show that the Catholic Church has made a stand on it, and considers this matter of utmost importance as he had to be recalled from his holiday in California to deal with it.
Ted and Dougal go to the cinema to find only a couple people there. They make a gentlemen 's agreement with Michael, the cinema manager, to watch the film once and then peaceful protest it so that Michael can throw them out, making it look like a fuss. They return to the parochial house for the night, and discuss the film, agreeing it was difficult to understand and sexually explicit. The next morning, Brennan returns and forces them to start early on their protest, despite the fact the cinema is not yet open. They half - heartedly stand around the cinema, waving placards that say "Down with this sort of thing '' and "Careful now ''. Ted has Dougal buy them handcuffs to chain themselves to the railings outside the cinema, hoping that will increase attention. However, they find their protests have the opposite effect, as people are drawn in to see the film.
Meanwhile, Jack discovers Brennan 's travel bag, which, besides a bottle of alcohol, includes a VHS camcorder containing a video cassette labelled "Holiday ' 95 California ''.
As evening comes, Michael tells Ted that The Passion of Saint Tibulus was more successful for him than even Jurassic Park. Ted decides to give up, but finds Dougal does n't have the handcuff key, and they are forced to walk home still handcuffed to the railing. Back at the house, Brennan scolds them as they have caused the film to become so popular that people are arriving from all over Ireland and Europe to see it. As punishment, Brennan plans to reassign them all to locations worse than Craggy Island, and then leaves. Ted and Dougal lament their fate, but Jack shows them the video cassette, which has a video of Brennan in California with his secret mistress and his son. Ted realises he can use this tape for blackmail and force Brennan to change his mind, and joins the other two as they watch the tape a few more times.
The episode 's central theme is ineffectual protest. The plot of the Church 's opposition to a blasphemous film was inspired by the reaction to several real - world films, including The Last Temptation of Christ, Sebastiane, Hail Mary and Monty Python 's Life of Brian; the latter was banned in Ireland upon its release, so Linehan joined a film club specifically to get a chance to watch it.
This episode was the second to be recorded, and the writers originally planned to air it first; they later moved it to second, feeling that "Good Luck, Father Ted '' would make a better introduction, and finally moved it to third because of Mathews 's particular love for "Entertaining Father Stone ''. The cinema used was the Ormonde in Greystones, Co. Wicklow. It continued to operate until July 2007, when it closed due to commercial difficulties.
One of the writers ' early ideas for the series was that every priest in the world knows every other personally; this idea is introduced in the opening scene with the Cuban priest Father Hernandez. When Hernandez speaks in Spanish, he is clumsily dubbed over by an English translator, which the Craggy Islanders can inexplicably hear and understand -- an idea Linehan considered "just this side of being too mad to do ''. The translator 's voice is provided by producer Geoffrey Perkins.
This episode introduced the recurring character of Bishop Brennan, who was initially based on Eamon Casey, and later on Michael Cleary. The writers cast Jim Norton after seeing him as Wentworth in the 1995 Frasier episode "The Club ''; Mathews has also heard his reading of James Joyce 's Ulysses. The writers always felt that Bishop Brennan was Father Jack 's nemesis, as Jack himself had the potential to become a bishop, but never did because he was not a career priest.
The scenes with Ted and Dougal sharing a bedroom were inspired by similar scenes in the Morecambe and Wise shows. The writers used these scenes for end - of - the - day conversations to wrap up the story, and to provide a sort of "safe zone '' for Ted and Dougal to discuss the plot. Linehan and Mathews had to cut laughs in some scenes because the studio audience incorrectly thought they were making sex jokes.
The vague protest signs carried by Ted and Dougal are among the show 's most recognised jokes. This is acknowledged in the closing montage of the final episode, where the slogans are the only soundbite used.
The signs were referred to by Green Party leader John Gormley - on 28 June 2010 - to describe his view that the Labour Party have little or no policies. He accused the Labour Party of saying "Down with this sort of thing '' without providing their alternative.
During a number of high - profile UK protests, including the Pope 's state visit to the September 2010 and Student protests against tuition fee rises in November 2010, as well as protests against the Irish EU bailout and austerity measures in November 2010, several protesters displayed banners saying "Down with this sort of thing '' and "Careful now ''.
The line is referenced in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V, where a protester is seen carrying a "Down with this sort of thing '' sign.
A black - and - white silent short film, Saint Tibulus & The Bog Water, was shot on 1 March 2014, at the eighth annual Ted Fest event in the Aran Islands. A professional camera crew and actors took part in the production, which featured fans as minor characters and extras.
The film is set at a young couple 's wedding on Craggy Island in 1740. A ship bringing alcohol for the wedding loses its cargo in a storm. The attendees are devastated. Saint Tibulus appears and miraculously transforms a pot of bog water to a new alcoholic drink, saving the wedding. The drink is known as "The Saints Brew '' until 1759, when Arthur, a young man who witnessed the miracle, recreates it to sell the drink as his own.
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are dr martens and doc martens the same | Dr. Martens - wikipedia
Dr. Martens is a British footwear and clothing brand, which also makes a range of accessories -- shoe care products, clothing, luggage, etc. In addition to Dr. Martens, they are also commonly known as Doctor Martens, Doc Martens, or Docs. The footwear is distinguished by its air - cushioned sole (dubbed Bouncing Soles), upper shape, welted construction and yellow stitching. The boots have been the choice of footwear among various groups in British culture: in the 1960s skinheads started to wear them, "Docs '' being the usual naming, and by the late 1980s, they were popular among scooter riders, punks, some new wave musicians, and members of other youth subcultures, most notably the grunge fashion scene in the early nineties.
In 2006, Griggs ' 1960 Dr. Martens AirWair boot was named in the list of British design icons which included Concorde, Mini, Jaguar E-Type, Aston Martin DB5, Supermarine Spitfire, Tube map, World Wide Web and the AEC Routemaster bus.
Klaus Märtens was a doctor in the German army during World War II. While on leave in 1945, he injured his ankle while skiing in the Bavarian Alps. He found that his standard - issue army boots were too uncomfortable on his injured foot. While recuperating, he designed improvements to the boots, with soft leather and air - padded soles made of tires. When the war ended and some Germans recovered valuables from their own cities, Märtens took leather from a cobbler 's shop. With that leather he made himself a pair of boots with air - cushioned soles.
Märtens did not have much success selling his shoes until he met up with an old university friend, Herbert Funck, a Luxembourger, in Munich in 1947. Funck was intrigued by the new shoe design, and the two went into business that year in Seeshaupt, Germany, using discarded rubber from Luftwaffe airfields. The comfortable soles were a big hit with housewives, with 80 % of sales in the first decade to women over the age of 40.
Sales had grown so much by 1952 that they opened a factory in Munich. In 1959, the company had grown large enough that Märtens and Funck looked at marketing the footwear internationally. Almost immediately, British shoe manufacturer R. Griggs Group Ltd. bought patent rights to manufacture the shoes in the United Kingdom. Griggs anglicised the name, slightly re-shaped the heel to make them fit better, added the trademark yellow stitching, and trademarked the soles as AirWair.
The first Dr. Martens boots in the United Kingdom came out on 1 April 1960 (known as style 1460 and still in production today), with an eight - eyelet oxblood coloured smooth leather design. Dr. Martens boots were made in their Cobbs Lane factory in Wollaston, Northamptonshire (which is still operating today). In addition, a number of shoe manufacturers in the Northamptonshire area produced DMs under licence, as long as they passed quality standards. The boots were popular among workers such as postmen, police officers and factory workers. By the later 1960s, skinheads started to wear them, "dms '' being the usual naming, and by the late 1970s, they were popular among scooter riders, punks, some new wave musicians, and members of other youth subcultures. The shoes ' popularity among skinheads led to the brand gaining an association with violence. Alexei Sayle sang the song "Dr. Martens ' Boots '' in a 1982 episode of the British TV comedy The Young Ones.
The boots and shoes became popular in the 1990s as grunge fashion arose. In late November 1994, a six - storey Dr. Martens department store was opened in Covent Garden in London which sold food, belts, and watches, as well as shoes. At this time the R. Griggs company employed 2,700 people, expected to earn annual revenue of £ 170 million, and could produce up to 10 million pairs of shoes per year. Dr. Martens sponsored Rushden & Diamonds F.C. from 1998 to 2005. Diamonds approached owner and local businessman, Max Griggs to request sponsorship from his company. A new main stand was built at Nene Park in 2001, named the Airwair Stand. Dr. Martens were also the principal sponsors of Premier League club, West Ham United F.C., renaming the upgraded west stand ' The Dr Martens Stand ' until 2009.
In the 2000s, Dr. Martens were sold exclusively under the AirWair name, and came in dozens of different styles, including conventional black shoes, sandals and steel - toed boots. AirWair International 's revenue fell from US $412 million in 1999 to $127 million in 2006. In 2003, the Dr. Martens company came close to bankruptcy. On 1 April that year, under pressure from declining sales, the company ceased making shoes in the United Kingdom, and moved all production to China and Thailand. Five factories and two shops were closed in the UK as a result of this decision, and more than 1,000 of the firm 's employees lost their jobs. Following the closures, the R. Griggs company employed only 20 people in the UK, all of whom were located in the firm 's head office. 5 million pairs of Dr. Martens were sold during 2003, which was half the level of annual sales during the 1990s.
In 2004 a new range of Dr. Martens was launched in an attempt to appeal to a wider market, and especially young people. The shoes and boots were intended to be more comfortable, and easier to break in, and included some new design elements. Dr. Martens also began producing footwear again at the Cobbs Lane Factory in Wollaston, England in 2004. These products are part of the "Vintage '' line, which the company advertises as being made to the original specifications. Sales of these shoes are low in comparison to those made in Asia, however; in 2010, the factory was producing about 50 pairs per day. In 2005, the R. Griggs company was given an award by the "Institute for Turnaround '' for implementing a successful restructure.
Worldwide sales of Dr. Martens shoes grew strongly in the early 2010s, and in 2012 it was assessed as being the eighth fastest - growing British company. Over 100 million pairs of Dr. Martens shoes have been sold from 1960 to 2010, and in 2010, the company offered 250 different models of footwear. The R. Griggs company opened 14 new Dr. Martens retail stores in the United Kingdom, United States and Hong Kong between 2009 and 2011, and also launched a line of clothing during 2011. In 1999 Dr Martens battled it out in counter lawsuits in US Courts. Dr Martens brand began a number of lawsuits in 2016 based on trademark law primarily
In October 2013, the private equity company Permira acquired R. Griggs Group Limited (the owner of the Dr. Martens brand) for a consideration of £ 300M.
Distinctive yellow stitching on Dr. Martens shoe.
Inside of pre-2003 Dr. Martens made in England.
Inside of post-2003 Dr. Martens made in Thailand.
Sole of pre-2003 Dr. Martens made in England
Sole of post-2003 Dr. Martens made in Thailand.
Dr. Martens logo stamped on the outer side of a boot.
Floral - patterned Dr. Martens boots
Solovair (Brand) Footwear made in the original Wollaston, Northamptonshire factory.
Dr. Martens have not been used officially by any military service. Some of the later "2976 Chelsea boot '' models have been used by the Australian Navy Cadets as a replacement for ADF Cadet issue boots due to their comfort during the 2010 's.
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which one has the highest runs in test series of pakistan | List of Pakistan Test cricket records - wikipedia
Test cricket is the oldest form of cricket played at international level. A Test match is scheduled to take place over a period of five days, and is played by teams representing Full Member nations of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Pakistan obtained Full Member status of the ICC in 1952, becoming the seventh nation eligible to play Test cricket. The Pakistan national cricket team played their first Test match on 16 October 1952 against India which they lost by an innings and 70 runs. They recorded their first victory in their second ever match against India on 23 October 1952. Since then, they have played 410 matches, against every other Test - playing nation. As of August 2017, Pakistan is fourth most successful team in Test cricket with an overall winning percentage of 32.19, ahead of Australia (47.00), South Africa (36.86) and England (35.89).
Top order batsman and former captain Younis Khan holds several Pakistan batting records. He has scored the most runs (10,099) for Pakistan in Test cricket -- the first and only player to score over 10,000 runs in the format for his country. He is the record holder for the highest number of centuries (34) as well as the highest number of double centuries (six with Javed Miandad) for Pakistan. Hanif Mohammad 's 337 runs against the West Indies in 1958 is the highest individual score by a Pakistani cricketer, surpassing the previous best of 209 by Imtiaz Ahmed, which was established in 1955. It is also the eighth highest individual score in Test cricket. Hanif, Inzamam - ul - Haq (329), Younis Khan (313) and Azhar Ali (302 not out) are the only Pakistani players who have scored triple centuries.
Wasim Akram, regarded as "one of the greatest left - arm bowlers in the history of world cricket '', holds several Test records. He holds the record for the most Test wickets (414) as well as the record for the most number of five wickets per innings (25) for Pakistan. Abdul Qadir 's nine wickets for 56 runs, against England at Gaddafi Stadium in 1987, is the best bowling figures in an innings by a Pakistani bowler. 14 wickets for 116 runs by Imran Khan against Sri Lanka in 1982 at the same ground is the best bowling performance in a Test by a Pakistani player. He also holds the record for best bowling average for Pakistan with 22.81. Younis Khan took 139 catches from 118 matches as fielder, the most by a Pakistani and twelfth highest overall. Wasim Bari is Pakistan 's most successful wicket - keeper having taken 228 dismissals; he is eleventh in the list of most number of dismissals in Test cricket.
The top five records are listed for each category, except in "team wins, losses, and draws '' and "highest wicket partnerships ''. Tied records for the fifth place are listed as well. Explanations of the general symbols and cricketing terms used in the list are given below. Specific details are provided in each category where appropriate.
Pakistan has played 410 Test matches resulting in 132 victories, 120 defeats and 158 draws for an overall winning percentage of 32.19, the fourth highest winning percentage of Test playing teams. A tie can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings. Only two matches have ended in a tie in Test cricket history, neither of which involved Pakistan.
The highest innings total scored in Test cricket came in the series between Sri Lanka and India in August 1997. Playing in the first Test at the R. Premadasa Stadium in Colombo, the hosts posted a first innings total of 952 / 6d. This broke the longstanding record of 903 / 7d which England set against Australia in the final Test of the 1938 Ashes series at The Oval. The first Test of the 2008 -- 09 series against Sri Lanka saw Pakistan set their highest innings total of 765 / 5d, the fifth highest score in Test cricket.
The lowest innings total scored in Test cricket came in the second Test of England 's tour of New Zealand in March 1955. Trailing England by 46, New Zealand was bowled out in their second innings for 26 runs. The twentieth lowest score in Test history is Pakistan 's total of 49 scored in their second innings against South Africa in the first Test of the 2012 -- 13 series.
A Test match is won when one side has scored more runs than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their two innings. If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If one side scores more runs in a single innings than the total runs scored by the other side in both their innings, it is known as a win by innings and runs. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by wickets, indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.
The fifth Test of the 1938 Ashes series at The Oval saw England win by an innings and 579 runs, the largest victory by an innings in Test cricket history. The fifth largest victory was Pakistan 's win against New Zealand in the first Test of the 2002 tour at the Gaddafi Stadium, where the hosts won by an innings and 324 runs.
The greatest winning margin by runs in Test cricket was England 's victory over Australia by 675 runs in the first Test of the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series. Pakistan 's largest victory by runs was recorded in the second Test of the 2014 -- 15 series where they defeated Australia by 356 runs.
Pakistan have won a Test match by a margin of 10 wickets on 13 occasions, rank fourth in the list after Australia (28), West Indies (25) and England (20).
Pakistan 's narrowest win by runs was against India in the first Test of the 1998 -- 99 series at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore. Set 271 runs for victory in the final innings, India were bowled all out for 258 to give victory to Pakistan by twelve runs. This was the twelfth narrowest win in the history of Test cricket.
Out of twelve occasions, Pakistan have achieved their narrowest win of one - wicket victory twice. Their first narrowest win by wickets came in the first Test of the Australia tour of Pakistan in 1994 -- 95. Played at the National Stadium in Karachi, the hosts won the match by a margin of one wicket. Pakistan repeated the feat against Bangladesh at Multan Cricket Stadium in 2003.
Lord 's in London played host Pakistan 's greatest defeat by an innings in Test cricket. The final Test of the 2010 series saw England defeat the tourists by an innings and 225 runs, to the won the series 2 -- 0.
The first Test of the 2004 -- 05 series saw Pakistan defeated by Australia by 491 runs, fourth greatest losing margin by runs in Test cricket.
Australia have lost a Test match by a margin of 10 wickets on nine occasions.
The first Test of Pakistan -- Sri Lanka series in in 2017 -- 18 contested at Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Pakistan was set 136 runs for victory in the final innings. With just 22 runs left to score, Pakistan 's number eleven batsman Muhammad Abbas was out leg before wicket (lbw) to give the victory to Sri lanka.
Test cricket has seen twelve matches been decided by a margin of one wicket, with Pakistan being defeated once of them. This was the final Test of the 1999 -- 2000 series at Antigua Recreation Ground where the West Indies ran down the target of 216 runs in the final innings.
A run is the basic means of scoring in cricket. A run is scored when the batsman hits the ball with his bat and with his partner runs the length of 22 yards (20 m) of the pitch.
India 's Sachin Tendulkar has scored the most runs in Test cricket with 15,921. Second is Ricky Ponting of Australia with 13,378 ahead of Jacques Kallis from South Africa in third with 13,289. Younis Khan is the only Pakistani batsman who has scored more than 10,000 runs in Test cricket.
Hanif Mohammad set the highest Test score for Pakistan with 337, surpassing Imtiaz Ahmed 's 209 scored against New Zealand in October 1955 at Bagh - e-Jinnah. Inzamam - ul - Haq (329), Younis Khan (313) and Azhar Ali (302 *) are the only others to sore a triple century for Pakistan.
A batsman 's batting average is the total number of runs they have scored divided by the number of times they have been dismissed.
Pakistan 's Javed Miandad, "one of the best and most exciting players in the world '', finished his Test career with an average of 52.57. The next closest Pakistani to him is Mohammad Yousuf who retired in 2012 with an average of 52.29.
A half - century is a score of between 50 and 99 runs. Statistically, once a batsman 's score reaches 100, it is no longer considered a half - century but a century.
Sachin Tendulkar of India has score the most half - centuries in Test cricket with 68. He is followed by the West Indies ' Shivnarine Chanderpaul on 66, Pakistan 's Inzamam - ul - Haq has 46 fifties to his name.
A century is a score of 100 or more runs in a single innings.
Tendulkar has also scored the most centuries in Test cricket with 51. South Africa 's Jacques Kallis is next on 45 and Ponting with 41 hundreds is in third. Younis Khan is the highest century - maker for Pakistan.
A double century is a score of 200 or more runs in a single innings.
Bradman holds the Test record for the most double centuries scored with twelve, one ahead of Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara who finished his career with eleven. In third is Brian Lara of the West Indies with nine. England 's Wally Hammond and Mahela Jayawardene of Sri Lanka both scored seven, and Miandad and Younis Khan are two of six cricketers who reached the mark on six occasions.
Test cricket is the oldest form of cricket played at international level The 1930 Ashes series in England saw Bradman set the record for the most runs scored in a single series, falling just 26 short of 1,000 runs. He is followed by Wally Hammond with 905 runs scored in the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series. Mark Taylor with 839 in the 1989 Ashes and Neil Harvey with 834 in 1952 -- 53 South African series are third and fourth on the list respectively. Pakistani cricketer Mudassar Nazar is seventeenth in the list with 761.
A duck refers to a batsman dismissed without scoring a run. West Indian Courtney Walsh has the most number of ducks to his name with 43. Pakistan 's Danish Kaneria has scored the ninth highest number of ducks in Test cricket along with Indian cricketer Ishant Sharma with 25.
A bowler takes the wicket of a batsman when the form of dismissal is bowled, caught, leg before wicket, stumped or hit wicket. If the batsman is dismissed by run out, obstructing the field, handling the ball, hitting the ball twice or timed out the bowler does not receive credit.
Shane Warne held the record for the most Test wickets with 708 until December 2007 when Sri Lankan bowler Muttiah Muralitharan passed Warne 's milestone. Muralitharan, who continued to play until 2010, finished with 800 wickets to his name. India 's Anil Kumble is third on the list taking 610 wickets and Glenn McGrath of Australia with 563 holds the record for most wickets by a fast bowler in Test cricket. Wasim Akram is the highest wicket taker for Pakistan with 414.
Bowling figures refers to the number of the wickets a bowler has taken and the number of runs conceded.
There has been two occasions in Test cricket where a bowler has taken all ten wickets in a single innings -- Jim Laker of England took 10 / 53 against Australia in 1956 and India 's Anil Kumble in 1999 returned figures of 10 / 74 against Pakistan. Abdul Qadir is one of 15 bowlers who has taken nine wickets in a Test match innings.
A bowler 's bowling figures in a match is sum of the wickets taken and the runs conceded in two innings.
No bowler in the history of Test cricket has taken all 20 wickets in a match. The closest to do so was English spin bowler Jim Laker. During the fourth Test of the 1956 Ashes series, Laker took 9 / 37 in the first innings and 10 / 53 in the second to finish with match figures of 19 / 90. Imran Khan 's figures of 14 / 116, taken in finaal match of the 1981 -- 82 Test series against Sri Lanka, is the sixteenth best in Test cricket history.
A bowler 's bowling average is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of wickets they have taken.
Nineteenth century English medium pacer George Lohmann holds the record for the best career average in Test cricket with 10.75. J.J. Ferris, one of fourteen cricketers to play Test cricket for more than one team, is second behind Lohmann with an overall career average of 12.70 runs per wicket. Imran Khan 's bowling average of 22.81 is the best figures for Pakistan.
A bowler 's economy rate is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of overs they have bowled.
English bowler William Attewell, who played 10 matches for England between 1884 and 1892, holds the Test record for the best career economy rate with 1.31. Pervez Sajjad, with a rate of 2.04 runs per over conceded over his 19 - match Test career, is the best for Pakistan.
A bowler 's strike rate is the total number of balls they have bowled divided by the number of wickets they have taken.
English George Lohmann has best Test career strike rate with 34.1; Waqar Younis of Pakistan with an overall career strike rate of 43.4 balls per wicket, is eighth in the list.
A five - wicket haul refers to a bowler taking five wickets in a single innings.
Sri Lanka 's Muttiah Muralitharan has taken the most number five - wicket hauls in Test cricket with 67 throughout his career. former Pakistani captain Wasim Akram is tenth in the list and leading the equivalent list for Pakistan.
A ten - wicket haul refers to a bowler taking ten or more wickets in a match over two innings.
Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka has taken the most ten - wicket hauls in Test cricket with 22. Imran Khan, jointly tenth with Derek Underwood of England, leads the equivalent list for Pakistan with 6 ten - wicket hauls.
The worst figures in a single innings in Test cricket came in the third Test between the West Indies at home to Pakistan in 1958. Pakistan 's Khan Mohammad returned figures of 0 / 259 from his 54 overs in the second innings of the match.
The worst figures in a match in Test cricket were taken by South Africa 's Imran Tahir in the 2006 Boxing Day Test match against Australia. He returned figures of 0 / 180 from his 23 overs in the first innings and 0 / 80 off 14 in the third innings for a total 0 / 260 from 37 overs. He claimed the record in his final over when two runs came from it -- enough for him to pass the previous record of 0 / 259, set 48 years prior by Pakistan 's Khan Mohammad.
South Africa 's seventh Test tour of England in 1913 -- 14 saw the record set for the most wickets taken by a bowler in a Test series. English paceman Sydney Barnes played in four of the five matches and achieved a total of 49 wickets to his name. Jim Laker sits second on the list with 46 wickets taken during the 1956 Ashes series. Pakistan 's Imran Khan is seventh with his 40 wickets taken against India during the 1982 -- 83 tour.
The wicket - keeper is a specialist fielder who stands behind the stumps being guarded by the batsman on strike and is the only member of the fielding side permitted to wear gloves and external leg guards.
A wicket - keeper can be credited with the dismissal of batsman in two ways, caught or stumped. A fair catch is a taken when the ball is caught fully within the field of play without it bouncing when the ball has touched the striker 's bat or glove holding the bat, while a stumping occurs when the wicket - keeper puts down the wicket while the batsman out of his ground and not attempting a run.
Pakistan 's Wasim Bari is eleventh in taking most dismissals in Test cricket as a designated wicket - keeper with 228.
Bari leads in the list of most number of catches taken as a designated wicket - keeper in Test cricket for Pakistan, with 201.
Bert Oldfield, Australia 's fifth most capped wicket - keeper, holds the record for most stumpings in Test cricket with 52. He is followed by England 's Godfrey Evans with 46 to his name. Indian glovemen Syed Kirmani and MS Dhoni are both equal third on 38 and Gilchrist is fifth on the list with 37. Bari, Pakistan 's most capped wicket - keeper, is eighth in the list for most stumpings in Test cricket with 27.
Four wicket - keepers have taken seven wickets in a single innings in a Test match -- Wasim Bari of Pakistan in 1979, Englishman Bob Taylor in 1980, New Zealand 's Ian Smith in 1991 and most recently West Indian gloveman Ridley Jacobs against Australia in 2000.
The feat of taking 6 wickets in an innings has been achieved by 22 wicket - keepers on 30 occasions including 2 Pakistanis.
Brad Haddin holds the Test cricket record for the most dismissals taken by a wicket - keeper in a series. He took 29 catches during the 2013 Ashes series which broke the previous record held by fellow Australian Rod Marsh where he took 28 catches in the 1982 -- 83 Ashes series. Rashid Latif has the most number of dismissals for Pakistan in a Test series.
Caught is one of the ten methods a batsman can be dismissed in cricket. A fair catch is defined as a fielder catches the ball, from a legal delivery, fully within the field of play without it bouncing when the ball has touched the striker 's bat or glove holding the bat. The majority of catches are caught in the slips, located behind the batsman, next to the wicket - keeper, on the off side of the field. Most slip fielders are top order batsmen.
India 's Rahul Dravid holds the record for the most catches in Test cricket by a non-wicket - keeper with 210, followed by Mahela Jayawardene of Sri Lanka on 205 and South African Jacques Kallis with 200. Younis Khan is the highest ranked Pakistani and twelfth overall, securing 139 catches in his Test career.
The 1920 -- 21 Ashes series, in which Australia whitewashed England 5 -- 0 for the first time, saw the record set for the most catches taken by non-wicket - keeper in a Test series. Australian all - rounder Jack Gregory took 15 catches in the series as well as 23 wickets. Greg Chappell, a fellow Australian all - rounder, is second behind Gregory with 14 catches taken during the 1974 -- 75 Ashes series. Three players have taken 13 catches in a series on five occasions with both Bob Simpson and Brian Lara having done so twice and Rahul Dravid once. Younis Khan has taken 10 catches, the most by a Pakistani.
India 's Sachin Tendulkar holds the record for the most Test matches played with 200 with former captains in Ricky Ponting and Steve Waugh being joint second with each having represented Australia on 168 occasions. Javed Miandad played for Pakistan in 124 matches.
Graeme Smith, who led the South African cricket team from 2003 to 2014, holds the record for the most matches played as captain in Test cricket with 109. Allan Border, the man who skippered Australia from 1984 to 1994 is second with 93 matches. New Zealand 's captain from 1997 to 2006, Stephen Fleming, is third on the list with 80 and in fourth on 77 is Australia 's Ricky Ponting who led the side for six years from 2004 to 2010. Pakistan 's Misbah - ul - Haq is ninth in the list along with Sri Lankan Arjuna Ranatunga.
Pakistan won 26 Tests under Misbah - ul - Haq 's captaincy followed by Imran Khan and Javed Miandad with 14 each.
The youngest player to play in a Test match is claimed to be Hasan Raza at the age of 14 years and 227 days. Making his debut for Pakistan against Zimbabwe on 24 October 1996, there is some doubt as to the validity of Raza 's age at the time. The second and third youngest players are also from Pakistan -- Mushtaq Mohammad and Aaqib Javedwith 15 years and 124 days and 16 years and 189 days respectively.
At 49 years and 119 days, James Southerton of England, playing in the very first Test match in March 1877, is the oldest player to make his debut in Test cricket. Second on the list is Miran Bakhsh of Pakistan who at 47 years and 284 days made his debut against India in 1955. Australia 's Don Blackie is the third oldest player to make his debut, breaking into the side during the second Test of the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series at the age of 46 years and 253 days.
In cricket, two batsman are always present at the crease batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is dismissed, retires or the innings comes to a close.
A wicket partnership describes the number of runs scored before each wicket falls. The first wicket partnership is between the opening batsman and continues until the first wicket falls. The second wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the number three batsman. This partnership continues until the second wicket falls. The third wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the new batsman. This continues down to tenth wicket partnership. When the eleventh wicket has fallen, there is no more batsman left so the innings is closed.
The highest Test partnership by runs for any wicket is held by the Sri Lankan pairing of Kumar Sangakkara and Mahela Jayawardene who put together a third wicket partnership of 624 runs during the first Test against South Africa in July 2006. This broke the record of 576 runs set by their compatriots Sanath Jayasuriya and Roshan Mahanama against India in 1997. New Zealand 's Andrew Jones and Martin Crowe hold the third highest Test partnership with 467 made in 1991 against Sri Lanka. Equal fourth on the list is Mudassar Nazar and Javed Miandad of Pakistan who together scored 451 against Pakistan in 1983 and the Australian pairing of Bill Ponsford and Don Bradman putting on the same score against England in the 1934 Ashes series.
An umpire in cricket is a person who officiates the match according to the laws of cricket. Two umpires adjudicate the match on the field, whilst a third umpire has access to video replays, and a fourth umpire looks after the match balls and other duties. The records below are only for on - field umpires.
Steve Bucknor of the West Indies holds the record for the most Test matches umpired with 128. He is followed by the currently active Aleem Dar from Pakistan who has stood in 114 Test matches and South Africa 's Rudi Koertzen who has officiated in 108.
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when can we say that an object is at rest | Rest (physics) - Wikipedia
Rest, in physics, refers to an object being stationary relative to a particular frame of reference or another object. When the position of a body with respect to its surroundings does not change with time it is said to be "at rest ''. According to the theory of relativity, it is said that an object is "at rest relative to '' another. For example, a train decelerates approaching a station and eventually comes to rest alongside the platform. The train can be said to be "at rest with respect to the station '', or, as the correct frame of reference is usually implicit and / or provided by context, simply "at rest ''.
Given an inertial frame of reference, Newton 's first law of motion states that an object at rest will remain at rest, while the motion of a moving object will remain unchanged until acted upon by an external force. An object at rest, therefore, can be described as without velocity and acceleration -- although, according to relativity, an object is either at rest or in motion relative to other moving objects. The concept of "relative rest '' is closely linked to that of inertial observers and the statement that nothing is at absolute rest is loosely equivalent to stating that there are no frames of reference which are truly inertial. So - called non-inertial observers are addressed by the theory of general relativity.
In reality, there is nothing at absolute rest. For example, Earth 's gravitation constantly pulls objects toward its surface, while Earth is one of the objects the Sun constantly pulls towards itself, causing it to orbit the Sun; the Sun, in turn, orbits the center of the Milky Way; and so on. Two or more than two objects are said to be at rest, if its position with respect to each other is not changing or moving with uniform velocity with respect to each other. Rest and motion are relative term.
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what is the difference between ti 82 and ti 83 | Comparison of Texas Instruments Graphing Calculators - wikipedia
A graphing calculator is a class of hand - held calculator that is capable of plotting graphs and solving complex functions. There are several companies that manufacture models of graphing calculators. Texas Instruments is a major manufacturer.
The following table compares general and technical information for a selection of common and uncommon Texas Instruments graphing calculators. See the individual calculators ' articles for further information.
College Board Standardized Tests
TI - 73, TI - 73 Explorer
TI - 80
TI - 81
TI - 82
TI - 83 Plus Silver Edition
TI - 84 Plus
TI - 84 Plus Silver Edition
TI - 84 Plus C Silver Edition
TI - 84 Plus CE
TI - 85
TI - 86
TI - 89
TI - 89 Titanium
Voyage 200
TI - Nspire, TI - Nspire CAS
TI - Nspire CX, TI - Nspire CX CAS
College Board Standardized Tests
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can you see kennecott copper mine from space | Man - made structures visible from space - wikipedia
Man - made structures visible from earth orbit without magnification (by mechanical aids such as a camera or binoculars) include highways, dams, and cities. The most commonly cited example, the Great Wall of China, is barely visible from low Earth orbit, and even then only under perfect conditions, but not from the Moon.
Part of the problem in authoritatively answering questions about visibility from space is that such questions are often very vaguely framed: askers frequently do not precisely define how far above sea level their hypothetical or actual observer in space is located. When just speaking of "space '', an asker might mean anywhere from the edge of space (Kármán line) at an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 mi) to low Earth orbit of 160 -- 2,000 km (99 - 1200 mi) to Apollo 12 's orbit at 290 km (180 mi) to the Moon, which orbits about 381,415 km (237,000 mi) away. The Kármán line is accepted by the World Air Sports Federation, an international standard setting and record - keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics, as the boundary between the Earth 's atmosphere and outer space. However, a practical definition for the purpose of answering questions on what astronauts generally can see from space would reflect altitudes that manned spacecraft typically orbit the Earth at -- often several hundreds of kilometres. Because of the inverse square law, there are major differences in visibility from just above the Kármán line (100 km / 62 miles) and the ISS orbit (394 km / 245 miles), for example.
From US Space Shuttles, which typically orbit at around 135 miles (237 km), cities are easily distinguishable from surrounding countryside. Using binoculars, astronauts could even see roads, airports, dams, harbors, even large vehicles such as ships and planes. At night, cities are also easily visible from the higher orbit of the ISS.
Metropolitan areas are clear at night, particularly in industrialized countries, due to a multitude of street lights and other light sources in urban areas (see light pollution).
The greenhouse complex that covers almost 50,000 acres (200 km) in the province of Almería, Andalucía, Spain is visible from space.
The Bingham Canyon Mine, more commonly known as Kennecott Copper Mine, is an open - pit mining operation extracting a large porphyry copper deposit southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, in the Oquirrh Mountains. The mine is the largest man - made excavation in the world.
The claim that the Great Wall of China is the only man - made object visible from the moon or outer space has been debunked many times, but remains a common misconception in popular culture. According to astronauts Eugene Cernan and Ed Lu, the Great Wall is visible from the lower part of low Earth orbit, but only under very favorable conditions.
Different claims are made for the factoid that the Great Wall is visible from the Moon. William Stukeley mentioned this claim in his letter dated 1754, and Henry Norman made the same claim in 1895. The issue of "canals '' on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long, thin objects were visible from space. A viewer would need visual acuity 17,000 times better than normal to see the Great Wall from the Moon.
Trivia questions and urban legends often claim certain constructed objects or effects are so large they are visible from outer space. For example, a giant beaver dam in Canada was described as "so large it is visible from outer space. '' Field and Stream, a Canadian Magazine, wrote, "How big? Big enough to be visible... from outer space. ''
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when did the amazon fire 8 come out | Kindle Fire - wikipedia
The Kindle Fire is a tablet computer developed by Amazon.com. Built with Quanta Computer, the Kindle Fire was first released in November 2011, featuring a color 7 - inch multi-touch display with IPS technology and running a custom version of Google 's Android operating system called Fire OS. The Kindle Fire HD followed in September 2012, and the Kindle Fire HDX in September 2013. In September 2014, when the fourth generation was introduced, the adjective "Kindle '' was dropped. In September 2015, the fifth generation Fire 7 was released, followed by the sixth generation Fire HD 8, in September 2016. The seventh generation Fire 7 appeared in June 2017.
The Kindle Fire -- which includes access to the Amazon Appstore, streaming movies and TV shows, and the Kindle Store for e-books -- was released to consumers in the United States on November 15, 2011, after being announced on September 28.
On September 7, 2012, upgrades to the device were announced with consumer availability to those European countries with a localized version of Amazon 's website (United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Spain).
The original Kindle Fire retailed for US $199 in 2011. Estimates of the device 's initial bill of materials cost ranged from $150 to $202. Amazon 's business strategy was stated in 2011 as making money through sales of digital content on the Fire, rather than through sales of the device itself.
As of October 2012, the Kindle Fire was the second best selling tablet after Apple 's iPad, with about 7 million units sold according to estimates by Forrester Research and as of 2013 Amazon 's tablets were the fourth best selling.
On September 6, 2012, the Kindle Fire was upgraded to the second generation, and its price was reduced to US $159, RAM upgraded to 1 GB and processor clock speed upgraded to 1.2 GHz. A more powerful and video - friendly version, the Kindle Fire HD (7 and 8.9 inch versions) was also made available, initially priced at $199 and $299.
On September 25, 2013, the Kindle Fire HD was upgraded as the third generation Fire, priced at US $139, and the Kindle Fire HDX was introduced. The Kindle Fire HDX had an improved graphics engine, double the memory, and triple the processor speed of the previous model. The 7 - inch and 8.99 - inch versions were introduced at US $229 and US $379 respectively.
In September 2014, the Fire HDX 8.9 and the Fire HD were upgraded to the fourth generation of Fire tablets, removing the "Kindle '' adjective in the naming scheme. There was also the Fire HD 6 that has a six - inch screen with a quad - core processor priced at US $99.
In September 2015, Amazon announced the release of the Fire 7, priced at US $49.99 for the 8GB version that displays advertisements on the lock screen. As of March 2016 it was the lowest - priced Amazon tablet. In June 2016, its price was dropped briefly to US $39.99. This fifth generation tablet includes for the first time a micro SD card slot for extra storage.
In September 2016, Amazon announced the release of the Fire HD 8 which includes the virtual assistant Alexa, priced at US $89.99. Fortune reported that, "As with most of Amazon 's devices, the aim is n't to make money off of the hardware but instead to sell digital content such as books, movies, and TV shows to users ''.
A slightly improved Fire 7 was released in June 2017, keeping the US $49.99 price point.
The Kindle Fire hardware was originally manufactured by Quanta Computer (an Original Design Manufacturer), which had also helped design the BlackBerry PlayBook, using it as a hardware template for the Kindle Fire. First - generation Kindle Fire devices employed a 1 - GHz Texas Instruments OMAP 4430 dual - core processor. The device has a 2 - point multi-touch color LCD screen with a diagonal length of 7 inches (180 mm) and a 600 × 1024 - pixel resolution (160 dpi density). Connectivity is through 802.11 n Wi - Fi and USB 2.0 (Micro-B connector). The device includes 8 GB of internal storage -- said to be enough for 80 applications, plus either 10 movies or 800 songs or 6,000 books. According to Amazon the first - generation Kindle Fire 's 4400 mAh battery sustains up to 8 hours of consecutive reading and up to 7.5 hours of video playback with wireless off; later generations all offered around 7 -- 8 hours
Of the 8 GB internal storage available in the first - generation Kindle Fire, approximately 6.5 GB was available for content.
The first - generation Kindle Fire has a sensor on the upper left - hand corner of the screen. This was widely considered to be an ambient - light sensor, disabled since an early software upgrade.
Color display technologies consume much more power than monochrome electronic paper (E-ink) types; Fire offer a typical battery life of 8 hours of mixed usage, while monochrome Kindles offer 15 to 30 hours ' use without WiFi -- "battery lasts weeks on a single charge '' -- with a much lower - capacity battery.
The first generation of Kindle Fire devices run a customized Android 2.3. 3 Gingerbread OS. The second - generation Kindle Fire HD runs a customized Android 4.0. 3 Ice Cream Sandwich OS. Along with access to Amazon Appstore, the Fire includes a cloud - accelerated "split browser '', Amazon Silk, using Amazon EC2 for off - device cloud computation; including webpage layout and rendering, and Google 's SPDY protocol for faster webpage content transmission. The user 's Amazon digital content is given free storage in Amazon Cloud 's web - storage platform, 5 GB music storage in Amazon Cloud Drive, and a built - in email application allows webmail (Gmail, Yahoo!, Hotmail, AOL Mail, etc.) to be merged into one inbox. The subscription - based Amazon Prime, which includes unlimited streaming of movies and TV shows, is available with a free 30 - day trial period.
Content formats supported by the first - generation Kindle Fire were Kindle Format 8 (KF8), Kindle Mobi (. azw), TXT, PDF, unrestricted MOBI, PRC natively, Audible (Audible Enhanced (AA, AAX)), DOC, DOCX, JPEG, GIF, PNG, BMP, non-DRM AAC, MP3, MIDI, OGG, WAV, MP4, VP8.
Because of Amazon 's USB driver implementation, the first - generation Kindle Fire suffered from slow USB transfer speeds. For example, transferring an 800MB video file may have taken more than three minutes in 2011.
It is possible to convert a Kindle Fire to a tablet running standard Android, with some loss of Amazon - related functionality, and lacking features such as Bluetooth, microphone, camera, and memory expansion.
Analysts had projected the device to be a strong competitor to Apple 's iPad, and that other Android device makers would suffer lost sales.
In a 2012 review published by Project Gutenberg, the Kindle Fire was called a "huge step back in freedom from the Kindle 3 ''; the reviewer noted that Amazon introduced a "deliberate limitation '' into the Fire that did n't exist in the previous version: it is no longer possible to download free e-books from websites such as Project Gutenberg, Internet Archive and Google Books and have them stored permanently in the same places where books from Amazon are kept.
Customers began receiving Kindle Fires on November 15, 2011, and in December 2012, customers had purchased over a million Kindle devices per week. International Data Corporation (IDC) estimated that the Kindle Fire sold about 4.7 million units during the fourth quarter of 2011.
The Amazon Kindle Fire helped the company beat their 2012 first quarter estimates and boosted the company 's stock in extended trading. As of May 2013, about 7 million units had been sold according to estimates. Statistics for FY2014 or Q1&2 2015 are not yet available.
The Kindle Fire in horizontal position displaying web page
Kindle Fire 7 in (180 mm) size relative to a hand
The iPad (left) compared with the Kindle Fire (right)
The Kindle Fire (left) compared with the iPod Touch (right)
The Kindle Fire (left) compared with the iPad Mini (center) and the Nexus 7 (2012 version) (right)
There have been seven generations of Kindle Fire tablets, spread across three different models: Fire, Fire HD and Fire HDX. There have also been different - sized tablets within the Fire HD and Fire HDX models. Items in bold are currently available.
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who sings in the victoria's secret fashion show 2017 | Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show 2017 - wikipedia
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual fashion show sponsored by Victoria 's Secret, a brand of lingerie and sleepwear. Victoria 's Secret uses the show to promote and market its goods in high - profile settings. The show features some of the world 's leading fashion models, such as current Victoria 's Secret Angels Adriana Lima, Alessandra Ambrosio, Candice Swanepoel, Lily Aldridge, Lais Ribeiro, Elsa Hosk, Jasmine Tookes, Sara Sampaio, Martha Hunt, Taylor Hill, Stella Maxwell, Romee Strijd, and Josephine Skriver. Behati Prinsloo missed this year 's show, once again, due to the birth of her second child. The show also featured PINK spokesmodels Grace Elizabeth and Zuri Tibby
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show 2017 was taped in Shanghai, China at the Mercedes - Benz Arena, it was the first Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show held in Asia. The show featured musical performances by Harry Styles, Miguel, Leslie Odom Jr. and Jane Zhang. Early rumors suggested that Taylor Swift would perform alongside Styles, but this was determined to be a hoax. A performance by Katy Perry was cancelled due to her visa being revoked, which also affected several models like Gigi Hadid and media members covering the show.
Li Yundi
Li Yundi
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walked up a hill came down a mountain | The Englishman who Went up a hill but Came down a mountain - wikipedia
Stephen Endelman
The Englishman who Went up a Hill but Came down a Mountain is a 1995 British film with a story by Ifor David Monger and Ivor Monger, written and directed by Christopher Monger. It was entered into the 19th Moscow International Film Festival and was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival.
The film is based on a story heard by Christopher Monger from his grandfather about the real village of Taff 's Well, in the old county of Glamorgan, and its neighbouring Garth Hill. Due to 20th century urbanisation of the area, it was filmed in the more rural Llanrhaeadr - ym - Mochnant and Llansilin in Powys. The Welsh Male Voice Choir used to provide background music throughout the film was, in fact, the London - based Gwalia Male Choir.
The film is set in 1917 (with World War I in the background), and revolves around two English cartographers, the pompous Garrad (Ian McNeice) and his junior, Anson (Hugh Grant). They arrive at the fictional Welsh village of Ffynnon Garw ((ˈfɪn. nɔn ˈɡa. rʊ) "Rough Fountain '' or "Rough Spring '' in Welsh) to measure its "mountain '' -- only to cause outrage when they conclude that it is only a hill because it is slightly short of the required 1000 feet (305 m) in height. The villagers, aided and abetted by the wily Morgan the Goat (Colm Meaney) and the Reverend Mr Jones (Kenneth Griffith) (who after initially opposing the scheme, grasps its symbolism in restoring the community 's war - damaged self - esteem), conspire with Morgan to delay the cartographers ' departure while they build an earth mound on top of the hill to make it high enough to be considered a mountain.
In regard to its humorous and affectionate description of the locals, the film has often been compared with Waking Ned, a comedy film written and directed by Kirk Jones. The movie has resulted in a stream of visitors climbing to the summit of The Garth, and the Pentyrch History Society and the local community council have erected a notice on the mountain to explain its real historical significance.
One of the most obscure jokes in the film occurs when a mechanic is asked about a nondescript broken part he has removed from a car, and replies "Well I do n't know the English word, but in Welsh we call it a be'chi'ngalw. '' In Welsh, be'chi'ngalw is a placeholder name, like "whatchamacallit '' or "thingamajig '' in English. This is made obvious in the novel of the film.
The 13th episode of Veggie Tales, "King George and the Ducky, '' contained a brief parody of The Englishman Who Went up a Hill but Came down a Mountain entitled The Englishman Who Went up a Hill and Came Down with All the Bananas.
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what is the function of the cervical vertebrae | Cervical vertebrae - wikipedia
In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the vertebrae of the neck, immediately below the skull.
Thoracic vertebrae in all mammalian species are those vertebrae that also carry a pair of ribs, and lie caudal to the cervical vertebrae. Further caudally follow the lumbar vertebrae, which also belong to the trunk, but do not carry ribs. In reptiles, all trunk vertebrae carry ribs and are called dorsal vertebrae.
In many species, though not in mammals, the cervical vertebrae bear ribs. In many other groups, such as lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The vertebral transverse processes of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other amniotes. Most mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae.
In humans, cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the true vertebrae, and can be readily distinguished from those of the thoracic or lumbar regions by the presence of a foramen (hole) in each transverse process, through which the vertebral artery, vertebral veins and inferior cervical ganglion passes.
The remainder of this article focuses upon human anatomy.
By convention, the cervical vertebrae are numbered, with the first one (C1) closest to the skull and higher numbered vertebrae (C2 -- C7) proceeding away from the skull and down the spine. The general characteristics of the third through sixth cervical vertebrae are described here. The first, second, and seventh vertebrae are extraordinary, and are detailed later.
The anterior tubercle of the sixth cervical vertebra is known as the carotid tubercle or Chassaignac tubercle. This separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery and the carotid artery can be massaged against this tubercle to relieve the symptoms of supraventricular tachycardia. The carotid tubercle is also used as a landmark for anaesthesia of the brachial plexus and cervical plexus.
The cervical spinal nerves emerge from above the cervical vertebrae. For example, the cervical spinal nerve 3 (C3) passes above C3.
The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are the two topmost vertebrae.
The atlas, C1, is the topmost vertebra, and along with the axis; forms the joint connecting the skull and spine. Its chief peculiarity is that it has no body because the body of the atlas has been fused with that of the axis.
The axis, C2, forms the pivot on which the atlas rotates. The most distinctive characteristic of this bone is the strong odontoid process (dens) that rises perpendicularly from the upper surface of the body. The body is deeper in front than behind, and prolonged downward anteriorly so as to overlap the upper and front part of the third vertebra.
The vertebra prominens, or C7, has a distinctive long and prominent spinous process, which is palpable from the skin surface. Sometimes, the seventh cervical vertebra is associated with an abnormal extra rib, known as a cervical rib, which develops from the anterior root of the transverse process. These ribs are usually small, but may occasionally compress blood vessels (such as the subclavian artery or subclavian vein) or nerves in the brachial plexus, causing pain, numbness, tingling, and weakness in the upper limb, a condition known as thoracic outlet syndrome. Very rarely, this rib occurs in a pair.
The long spinous process of C7 is thick and nearly horizontal in direction. It is not bifurcated, and ends in a tubercle that the ligamentum nuchae attaches to. This process is not always the most prominent of the spinous processes, being found only about 70 % of the time, C6 or T1 can sometimes be the most prominent.
The transverse processes are of considerable size, their posterior roots are large and prominent, while the anterior are small and faintly marked; the upper surface of each has usually a shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents more than a trace of bifurcation.
The transverse foramen may be as large as that in the other cervical vertebrae, but is generally smaller on one or both sides; occasionally it is double, sometimes it is absent.
On the left side it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides; but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, and not through the foramen.
The movement of nodding the head takes place predominantly through flexion and extension at the atlanto - occipital joint between the atlas and the occipital bone. However, the cervical spine is comparatively mobile, and some component of this movement is due to flexion and extension of the vertebral column itself. This movement between the atlas and occipital bone is often referred to as the "yes joint '', owing to its nature of being able to move the head in an up - and - down fashion.
The movement of shaking or rotating the head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto - axial joint. A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the "no joint '', owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side - to - side fashion.
Cervical degenerative changes arise from conditions such as spondylosis, stenosis of intervertebral discs, and the formation of osteophytes. The changes are seen on radiographs which are used in a grading system from 0 - 4 ranging from no changes (0), to early with minimal development of osteophytes (1), mild with definite osteophytes (2), moderate with additional disc space stenosis or narrowing (3), to the stage of many large osteophytes, severe narrowing of the disc space, and more severe vertebral end plate sclerosis (4).
Injuries to the cervical spine are common at the level of the second cervical vertebrae, but neurological injury is uncommon. C4 and C5 are the areas that see the highest amount of cervical spine trauma.
If it does occur, however, it may cause death or profound disability, including paralysis of the arms, legs, and diaphragm, which leads to respiratory failure.
Common patterns of injury include the odontoid fracture and the hangman 's fracture, both of which are often treated with immobilization in a cervical collar or Halo brace.
A common practice is to immobilize a patient 's cervical spine to prevent further damage during transport to hospital. This practice has come under review recently as incidence rates of unstable spinal trauma can be as low as 2 % in immobilized patients. In clearing the cervical spine, Canadian studies have developed the Canadian C - Spine Rule (CCR) for physicians to decide who should receive radiological imaging.
The vertebral column is often used as a marker of human anatomy. This includes:
Position of cervical vertebrae (shown in red). Animation.
Illustration of cervical vertebrae.
Shape of cervical vertebrae (shown in blue and yellow). Animation.
Cervical vertebrae, lateral view (shown in blue and yellow).
Vertebral column
Vertebral column.
X-Ray of cervical vertebrae.
X-ray of cervical spine in flexion and extension.
First cervical vertebra, or Atlas
Second cervical vertebra, or epistropheus, from above.
Second cervical vertebra, epistropheus, or axis, from the side.
Seventh cervical vertebra.
Posterior atlanto - occipital membrane and atlantoaxial ligament.
Median sagittal section through the occipital bone and first three cervical vertebræ.
Section of the neck at about the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who played captain nemo in 20 000 leagues under the sea | 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film) - wikipedia
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea is a 1954 American Technicolor adventure film and the first science fiction film shot in CinemaScope. The film was personally produced by Walt Disney through Walt Disney Productions, directed by Richard Fleischer, and stars Kirk Douglas, James Mason, Paul Lukas and Peter Lorre. It was also the first feature - length Disney film to be distributed by Buena Vista Distribution. The film is adapted from Jules Verne 's 19th - century novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. It is considered an early precursor of the steampunk genre.
In 1868, rumors of a sea monster attacking ships in the Pacific Ocean have disrupted shipping lanes. The United States invites Professor Pierre M. Aronnax and his assistant, Conseil, onto an expedition to prove the monster 's existence. On board with them is the cocky master harpooner Ned Land.
After months of searching, the "monster '' is spotted shortly before it rams the ship. Ned and Aronnax are thrown overboard, and Conseil goes in after Aronnax. The warship, burning and helpless, drifts away, and no one aboard responds to the overboard passengers. The three find a strange - looking metal vessel, and realize the "monster '' is a man - made "submerging boat '' that appears deserted. Aronnax finds a large viewport and witnesses an underwater funeral.
Ned, Aronnax, and Conseil attempt to leave in their lifeboat, but the submarine crew stops the castaways. The captain introduces himself as Nemo, master of the Nautilus. He returns Ned and Conseil to the deck while offering Aronnax, whom he recognizes for his work, the chance to stay. After Aronnax proves willing to die with his companions, Nemo allows Ned and Conseil to remain.
Nemo takes them to the penal colony island of Rura Penthe. Nemo was a prisoner there, as were many of his crew. The prisoners are loading a munitions ship. The Nautilus rams it, destroying its cargo and killing the crew. An anguished Nemo tells Arronax that his actions have saved thousands from death in war; he also discloses that this "hated nation '' tortured his wife and son to death while attempting to force him to reveal the secrets of his work. Ned discovers the coordinates of Nemo 's secret island base, Vulcania, and releases messages in bottles, hoping somebody will find them.
Off the coast of New Guinea, the Nautilus becomes stranded on a reef. Ned is surprised when Nemo allows him to go ashore with Conseil, ostensibly to collect specimens. Ned goes off alone to explore avenues of escape. While drinking from a pool he sees human skulls on stakes. Ned runs for his life and rejoins Conseil as they are pursued by cannibals. The cannibals are repelled from the ship by electrical charges through its hull. Nemo is furious with Ned for disobeying his orders, confining him to the brig.
A warship approaches, firing upon The Nautilus, which descends into the depths, where it attracts a giant squid. After an electric charge fails to repel the monster, Nemo and his men surface to dislodge it. Nemo is caught in one of its tentacles. Ned, having escaped from captivity, saves Nemo 's life. Nemo has a change of heart and claims he wants to make peace with the world.
As the Nautilus nears Vulcania, Nemo finds the island surrounded by warships whose marines are converging on his base. As Nemo goes ashore, Ned attempts to identify himself as the author of the bottled messages. Aronnax is furious, recognizing that Nemo will destroy all evidence of his discoveries. Nemo enters the base and plants a bomb, but is mortally wounded on the Nautilus 's deck from a slug to the back. After navigating the submarine away from Vulcania, Nemo announces he will be "taking the Nautilus down for the last time ''. Nemo 's crew declare they will accompany their captain in death.
Aronnax, Conseil, and Ned are confined to their cabins. The Nautilus 's crew also retreat to their cabins at Nemo 's instructions. Ned escapes and manages to surface the Nautilus, hitting a reef in the process and causing the boat to flood. Nemo staggers to his viewport, watching his beloved sea as he dies.
The Professor tries retrieving his detailed journal, but the urgency of their escape obliges Ned to knock him unconscious and carry him out. The companions witness Vulcania and her invaders destroyed in a series of nuclear explosions, which at last reveals to Aronnax how destructive Nemo 's technology could be in the wrong hands. Ned apologizes to Aronnax for hitting him, but the Professor states that Ned 's actions may have done a service to mankind. As the Nautilus disappears beneath the waves, Nemo 's last words to Aronnax echo:
"There is hope for the future. And when the world is ready for a new and better life, all this will someday come to pass, in God 's good time ''.
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea was filmed at various locations in The Bahamas and Jamaica, with the cave scenes filmed beneath what is now the Xtabi Resort on the cliffs of Negril. Filming began in spring of 1954. Some of the location filming sequences were so complex that they required a technical crew of more than 400 people. The film presented many other challenges, as well. The famous giant squid attack sequence had to be entirely re-shot, as it was originally filmed as taking place at dusk and in a calm sea. The sequence was filmed again, this time taking place at night and during a huge gale, both to increase the drama and to better hide the cables and other mechanical workings of the animatronic squid.
Cost overruns during production made the film very expensive for a Disney production, although by no means as expensive as other recent releases: Joan of Arc (1948) had cost $4.6 million; Quo Vadis (1951) had an estimated budget of $7.6 million.
Upon the film 's original release, The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther gave it a generally positive review by stating that, "As fabulous and fantastic as anything he has ever done in cartoons is Walt Disney 's "live action '' movie made from Jules Verne 's ' 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. ' Turned out in CinemaScope and color, it is as broad, fictitiously, as it is long (128 minutes), and should prove a sensation -- at least with the kids. '' In his 1967 biography The Disney Version, the critic, Richard Schickel, stated that James Mason was "superbly cast as the mad inventor Captain Nemo ''.
The film was also praised for the performances of the leading actors. This was the first time that major international stars such as Kirk Douglas, James Mason, and Peter Lorre had appeared in a Disney film, although Robert Newton, a well - known actor in British films, had played Long John Silver in Disney 's Treasure Island (1950), and Richard Todd, another well - known British actor, had appeared in Disney 's Technicolor live - action version of The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952). Mason especially was singled out for his performance of Captain Nemo. Many people who had first seen him on - screen in the film identify him most strongly with this role.
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea received positive reviews from critics, was the second highest - grossing film of the year (behind White Christmas), earning $8 million in box office attendance in North America and has become a notable classic film of the Disney corporation.
Modern - day film critic Steve Biodrowski said that the film is "far superior to the majority of genre efforts from the period (or any period, for that matter), with production design and technical effects that have dated hardly at all. '' Biodrowski also added that the film "may occasionally succumb to some of the problems inherent in the source material (the episodic nature does slow the pace), but the strengths far outweigh the weaknesses, making this one of the greatest science - fiction films ever made. ''
Audiences remember it primarily for its giant - squid battle sequence as well as the Nautilus itself and James Mason 's portrayal of Nemo. The film currently holds an 89 % approval rating at the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus being: "One of Disney 's finest live - action adventures, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea brings Jules Verne 's classic sci - fi tale to vivid life, and features an awesome giant squid. ''
The film won two Academy Awards and was nominated for one more.
The film 's primary art designer, Harper Goff, who designed the Nautilus, was not a member of the Art Directors Union in 1954 and therefore, under a bylaw within the Academy of Motion Pictures, he was unable to receive his Academy Award for Art Direction.
American Film Institute recognition
Rather than an authentic soundtrack recording of the film 's score or dialogue, two vinyl studio cast record albums were released to coincide with the film 's first two releases. Both albums contained condensed and heavily altered versions of the film 's script without the usage of any of the film 's cast for character voices. In addition, both albums were narrated by Ned Land as opposed to Aronnax, who narrated the film and the original novel. Neither album mentioned Nemo as actually being "cracked '' (i.e. insane), as the film does, and considerably sanitized the character by omitting any mention of him killing anyone and even having him sing sea chanties with his crew. The albums also had Nemo surviving at the end and releasing Ned, Arronax, and Conseil out of gratitude for their saving his life. In this version, Ned, Aronnax and Conseil were not shipwrecked because the Nautilus rammed the ship they were on, but because a hurricane came up.
The first album was issued in 1954 in conjunction with the film 's original release, and starred William Redfield as the voice of Ned. This album, a book - and - record set, was issued as part of RCA Victor 's Little Nipper series on two 45 - RPM records. The second album, released by Disneyland Records in 1963 in conjunction with the film 's first re-release, was issued on one 33 ⁄ RPM 12 - inch LP with no accompanying booklet and no liner notes -- the usual practice with most Disneyland label albums. It contained much more of the film 's plot, but with many of the same alterations as the first album, so this recording was technically a remake of the earlier one. The cast for the 1963 album was uncredited. Neither album listed the film 's credits or made any mention of the film 's cast.
A single for the film 's most memorable song "A Whale of a Tale '', written by Norman Gimbel and Al Hoffman and sung by Kirk Douglas, was also released in 1954 under the Decca Children 's Series label. The song "And the Moon Grew Brighter and Brighter '', which Douglas had sung in the movie Man Without a Star (written by Lou Singer and Jimmy Kennedy), was the B - side. Both songs can be found on the 2008 digital release of the film 's soundtrack. In the film, Johann Sebastian Bach 's Toccata and Fugue in D minor is played by Nemo on the Nautilus 's organ, but James Mason 's playing is actually dubbed by an anonymous organist.
On January 29, 2008, Walt Disney Records released a 26 - track digital album containing the music of Paul Smith 's original soundtrack score to 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea plus both sides of the "A Whale of a Tale '' single, as well as a digital booklet companion that explores the music of the film. This was the first official release of the film score and was initially available only through the iTunes Store. Intrada released the same soundtrack on CD in 2011.
Disneyland used the original sets as a walk - through attraction from 1955 to 1966. Walt Disney World Resort 's Magic Kingdom also had a dark ride named 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea: Submarine Voyage from 1971 to 1994 which consisted of a submarine ride, complete with the giant squid attack, and an arrangement of the main theme from the 1954 film playing on Captain Nemo 's organ in the background. For this ride, voice artist Peter Renaday stood in for James Mason in the role of Captain Nemo. In 1994, a walkthrough attraction at Disneyland Paris, named Les Mystères du Nautilus, opened, and a dark ride at Tokyo DisneySea was created in 2001.
The film has been released on VHS and DVD. An HD version was released on iTunes.
On January 6, 2009, Variety reported that a remake titled 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea: Captain Nemo was being planned with Joseph McGinty Nichol, known as "McG '', attached to direct. The film serves as an origin story for the central character, Captain Nemo, as he builds his warship, the Nautilus. McG has remarked that it will be "much more in keeping with the spirit of the novel '' than Richard Fleischer 's film, in which it will reveal "what Aronnax is up to and the becoming of Captain Nemo, and how the man became at war with war itself. '' It was written by Bill Marsilli, with Justin Marks and Randall Wallace brought in to do rewrites. The film was to be produced by Sean Bailey with McG 's Wonderland Sound and Vision.
McG once suggested that he wanted Will Smith for the Captain Nemo role, but he has reportedly turned down the part. As a second possible choice, McG had mentioned Sam Worthington, whom he worked with on Terminator Salvation, though they did not ever discuss it seriously. The project was later shelved in November 2009 with McG backing out of directing.
During the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con, director David Fincher announced plans of directing 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea for Walt Disney Pictures based on a script by Scott Z. Burns. While Fincher was wrapping up The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo (2011), it was speculated that 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea would enter principal photography by late 2012. In the meantime, Fincher began courting Brad Pitt to play the role of Ned Land while the film was kept on hold. However, in February 2013, it was announced that Pitt had officially turned down the role.
In April 2013, it was announced that the Australian government will provide a one - off incentive of $20 million in order to secure the production. Despite this, the film was put on hold again the following month due to complications in casting a lead. On July 17, 2013, Fincher dropped out of the film to direct the adaptation of Gone Girl. Fincher revealed in an interview that he left the film because he wanted Channing Tatum for Ned Land, but Disney wanted Chris Hemsworth for the role. Additionally, the money originally allocated for the production of this film was redirected towards Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales.
In February 2016, it was announced that Disney will still planning to film titled Captain Nemo with James Mangold directing.
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when was the arch built in st. louis | Gateway arch - wikipedia
The Gateway Arch is a 630 - foot (192 m) monument in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Clad in stainless steel and built in the form of a weighted catenary arch, it is the world 's tallest arch, the tallest man - made monument in the Western Hemisphere, and Missouri 's tallest accessible building. Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, and officially dedicated to "the American people, '' it is the centerpiece of the Gateway Arch National Park and has become an internationally recognized symbol of St. Louis, as well as a popular tourist destination.
The Arch was designed by Finnish - American architect Eero Saarinen in 1947; construction began on February 12, 1963, and was completed on October 28, 1965, for $13 million (equivalent to $77.5 million in). The monument opened to the public on June 10, 1967. It is located at the site of St. Louis 's founding on the west bank of the Mississippi River.
Around late 1933, civic leader Luther Ely Smith, returning to St. Louis from the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Vincennes, Indiana, saw the St. Louis riverfront area and envisioned that building a memorial there would both revive the riverfront and stimulate the economy. He communicated his idea to mayor Bernard Dickmann, who on December 15, 1933, raised it in a meeting with city leaders. They sanctioned the proposal, and the nonprofit Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Association (JNEMA -- pronounced "Jenny May '') was formed. Smith was appointed chairman and Dickmann vice chairman. The association 's goal was to create:
A suitable and permanent public memorial to the men who made possible the western territorial expansion of the United States, particularly President Jefferson, his aides Livingston and Monroe, the great explorers, Lewis and Clark, and the hardy hunters, trappers, frontiersmen and pioneers who contributed to the territorial expansion and development of these United States, and thereby to bring before the public of this and future generations the history of our development and induce familiarity with the patriotic accomplishments of these great builders of our country.
Many locals did not approve of depleting public funds for the cause. Smith 's daughter SaLees related that when "people would tell him we needed more practical things '', he would respond that "spiritual things '' were equally important.
The association expected that $30 million would be needed to undertake the construction of such a monument. It called upon the federal government to foot three - quarters of the bill ($22.5 million).
The suggestion to renew the riverfront was not original, as previous projects were attempted but lacked popularity. The Jefferson memorial idea emerged amid the economic disarray of the Great Depression and promised new jobs. The project was expected to create 5,000 jobs for three to four years. Committee members began to raise public awareness by organizing fundraisers and writing pamphlets. They also engaged Congress by planning budgets and preparing bills, in addition to researching ownership of the land they had chosen, "approximately one - half mile in length... from Third Street east to the present elevated railroad. '' In January 1934, Senator Bennett Champ Clark and Representative John Cochran introduced to Congress an appropriation bill seeking $30 million for the memorial, but the bill failed to garner support due to the large amount of money solicited. In March of the same year, joint resolutions proposed the establishment of a federal commission to develop the memorial. Although the proposal aimed for only authorization, the bill incurred opposition because people suspected that JNEMA would later seek appropriation. On March 28 the Senate bill was reported out, and on April 5 it was turned over to the House Library Committee, which later reported favorably on the bills. On June 8, both the Senate and House bills were passed. On June 15, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill into law, instituting the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission. The commission comprised 15 members, chosen by Roosevelt, the House, the Senate, and JNEMA. It first convened on December 19 in St. Louis, where members examined the project and its planned location.
Meanwhile, in December, the JNEMA discussed organizing an architectural competition to determine the design of the monument. Local architect Louis LeBeaume had drawn up competition guidelines by January 1935. On April 13, 1935, the commission certified JNEMA 's project proposals, including memorial perimeters, the "historical significance '' of the memorial, the competition, and the $30 million budget. Between February and April, the Missouri State Legislature passed an act allowing the use of bonds to facilitate the project. On April 15, then Governor Guy B. Park signed it into law. Dickmann and Smith applied for funding from two New Deal agencies -- the Public Works Administration (headed by Harold Ickes) and the Works Progress Administration (headed by Harry Hopkins). On August 7, both Ickes and Hopkins assented to the funding requests, each promising $10,000,000, and said that the National Park Service (NPS) would manage the memorial. A local bond issue election granting $7.5 million for the memorial 's development was held on September 10 and passed.
On December 21, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 7253 to approve the memorial, allocating the 82 - acre area as the first National Historic Site. The order also appropriated $3.3 million through the WPA and $3.45 million through the PWA ($6,750,000 in total). The motivation of the project was twofold -- commemorating westward expansion and creating jobs. Some taxpayers began to file suits to impede the monument, which they called a "boondoggle ''.
Using the 1935 grant of $6.75 million and $2.25 million in city bonds, the NPS acquired the buildings within the historic site -- through condemnation rather than purchase -- and demolished them. By September 1938, condemnation was complete. The condemnation was subject to many legal disputes which culminated on January 27, 1939, when the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that condemnation was valid. A total of $6.2 million was distributed to land owners on June 14. Demolition commenced on October 9, 1939, when Dickmann extracted three bricks from a vacant warehouse.
Led by Paul Peters, adversaries of the memorial delivered to Congress a leaflet titled "Public Necessity or Just Plain Pork ''. The JNEMA 's lawyer, Bon Geaslin, believed that the flyers did not taint the project, but motivated members of Congress to find out more about the same. Although Representative John Cochran wanted to ask Congress to approve more funds, Geaslin believed the association should "keep a low profile, maintaining its current position during this session of Congress ''. He advised the association to "get a good strong editorial in one of the papers to the effect that a small group of tenants... is soliciting funds (to fight) the proposed improvement, and stating that these efforts do not represent the consensus of opinion in St. Louis..., and pointing out that such obstructions should be condemned ''.
Congress 's reduction in spending made it impossible for the allocated funds to be obtained. NPS responded that the city would reduce its contribution if the federal government did. It also asserted that the funds were sanctioned by an executive order, but superintendent John Nagle pointed out that what "one Executive Order does, another can undo ''. In March 1936, Representative Cochran commented during a House meeting that he "would not vote for any measure providing for building the memorial or allotting funds to it ''. Geaslin found Cochran 's statements to be a greater hindrance to the project than Paul Peters ' opposition, for Congress might have Cochran 's opinions as representative of public opinion.
Peters and other opponents asked Roosevelt to rescind Executive Order 7253 and to redirect the money to the American Red Cross. Smith impugned their motives, accusing them of being "opposed to anything that is ever advanced in behalf of the city. '' In February 1936, an editorial written by Paul W. Ward in The Nation denounced the project. Smith was infuriated, fearing the impact of attacks from a prestigious magazine, and wanted "to jump on it strong with hammer and tongs ''. William Allen White, a renowned newspaper editor, advised Smith not to fret.
Because the Mississippi River played an essential role in establishing St. Louis 's identity as the gateway to the west, a memorial commemorating it should be near the river. Railroad tracks that had been constructed in the 1930s on the levee obstructed views of the riverfront from the memorial site. When Ickes declared that the railway must be removed before he would allocate funds for the memorial, President of the St. Louis Board of Public Service Baxter Brown suggested that "a new tunnel... conceal the relocated tracks and re-grading of the site to elevate it over the tunnel. These modifications would eliminate the elevated and surface tracks and open up the views to the river. '' Although rejected by NPS architect Charles Peterson, Brown 's proposal formed the basis for the ultimate settlement.
Eero Saarinen: Shaping the Future, 2006
In November 1944, Smith discussed with Newton Drury, the National Park Service Director, the design of the memorial, asserting that the memorial should be "transcending in spiritual and aesthetic values, '' best represented by "one central feature: a single shaft, a building, an arch, or something else that would symbolize American culture and civilization. ''
The idea of an architectural competition to determine the design of the memorial was favored at the JNEMA 's inaugural meeting. They planned to award cash for the best design. In January 1945, the JNEMA officially announced a two - stage design competition that would cost $225,000 to organize. Smith and the JNEMA struggled to raise the funds, garnering only a third of the required total by June 1945. Then mayor Aloys Kaufmann feared that the lack of public support would lead officials to abandon hope in the project. The passage of a year brought little success, and Smith frantically underwrote the remaining $40,000 in May 1946. By June, Smith found others to assume portions of his underwriting, with $17,000 remaining under his sponsorship. In February 1947, the underwriters were compensated, and the fund stood over $231,199.
Local architect Louis LaBeaume prepared a set of specifications for the design, and architect George Howe was chosen to coordinate the competition. On May 30, 1947, the contest officially opened. The seven - member jury that would judge the designs comprised Charles Nagel Jr., Richard Neutra, Roland Wank, William Wurster, LaBeaume, Fiske Kimball, and S. Herbert Hare. The competition comprised two stages -- the first to narrow down the designers to five and the second to single out one architect and his design. The design intended to include:
"(a) an architectural memorial or memorials to Jefferson; dealing (b) with preservation of the site of Old St. Louis -- landscaping, provision of an open - air campfire theater, reerection or reproduction of a few typical old buildings, provision of a Museum interpreting the Westward movement; (c) a living memorial to Jefferson 's ' vision of greater opportunities for men of all races and creeds; ' (d) recreational facilities, both sides of the river; and (e) parking facilities, access, relocation of railroads, placement of an interstate highway. ''
Saarinen 's team included himself as designer, J. Henderson Barr as associate designer, and Dan Kiley as landscape architect, as well as Lily Swann Saarinen as sculptor and Alexander Girard as painter. In the first stage of the competition, Carl Milles advised Saarinen to change the bases of each leg to triangles instead of squares. Saarinen said that he "worked at first with mathematical shapes, but finally adjusted it according to the eye. '' At submission, Saarinen 's plans laid out the arch at 569 feet (173 m) tall and 592 feet (180 m) wide from center to center of the triangle bases.
On September 1, 1947, submissions for the first stage were received by the jury. The submissions were labeled by numbers only, and the names of the designers were kept anonymous. Upon four days of deliberation, the jury narrowed down the 172 submissions, which included Saarinen 's father Eliel, to five finalists, and announced the corresponding numbers to the media on September 27. Saarinen 's design (# 144) was among the finalists, and comments written on it included "relevant, beautiful, perhaps inspired would be the right word '' (Roland Wank) and "an abstract form peculiarly happy in its symbolism '' (Charles Nagel). Hare questioned the feasibility of the design but appreciated the thoughtfulness behind it. Local St. Louis architect Harris Armstrong was also one of the finalists. The secretary who sent out the telegrams informing finalists of their advancement mistakenly sent one to Eliel rather than Eero. The family celebrated with champagne, and two hours later, a competition representative called to correct the mistake. Eliel "' broke out a second bottle of champagne ' to toast his son. ''
They proceeded to the second stage, and each was given a $10,069 prize. Saarinen changed the height of the arch from 580 feet to 630 feet (190 m) and wrote that the arch symbolized "the gateway to the West, the national expansion, and whatnot. '' He wanted the landscape surrounding the arch to "be so densely covered with trees that it will be a forest - like park, a green retreat from the tension of the downtown city, '' according to The New York Times architectural critic Aline Bernstein Louchheim The deadline for the second stage arrived on February 10, 1948, and on February 18, the jury chose Saarinen 's design unanimously, praising its "profoundly evocative and truly monumental expression. '' The following day, during a formal dinner at Statler Hotel that the finalists and the media attended, Wurster pronounced Saarinen the winner of the competition and awarded the checks -- $40,000 to his team and $50,000 to Saarinen. The competition was the first major architectural design that Saarinen developed unaided by his father.
On May 25, the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission endorsed the design. Later, in June, the NPS approved the proposal. Representative H.R. Gross, however, opposed the allocation of federal funds for the arch 's development.
The design drew varied responses. In a February 29, 1969, The New York Times article, Louchheim praised the arch 's design as "a modern monument, fitting, beautiful and impressive. '' Some local residents likened it to a "stupendous hairpin and a stainless steel hitching post. '' The most aggressive criticism emerged from Gilmore D. Clarke, whose February 26, 1948, letter compared Saarinen 's arch to an arch imagined by fascist Benito Mussolini, rendering the arch a fascist symbol. This allegation of plagiarism ignited fierce debates among architects about its validity. Douglas Haskell from New York wrote that "The use of a common form is not plagiarism... (T) his particular accusation amounts to the filthiest smear that has been attempted by a man highly placed in the architectural profession in our generation. '' Wurster and the jury refuted the charges, arguing that "the arch form was not inherently fascist but was indeed part of the entire history of architecture. '' Saarinen considered the opposition absurd, asserting, "It 's just preposterous to think that a basic form, based on a completely natural figure, should have any ideological connection. ''
By January 1951, Saarinen created 21 "drawings, including profiles of the Arch, scale drawings of the museums and restaurants, various parking proposals, the effect of the levee - tunnel railroad plan on the Arch footings, the Arch foundations, the Third Street Expressway, and the internal and external structure of the Arch. '' Fred Severud made calculations for the arch 's structure.
Several proposals were offered for moving the railroad tracks, including:
On July 7, 1949, in Mayor Joseph Darst 's office, city officials chose the Levee - Tunnel plan, rousing JNEMA members who held that the decision had been pressed through when Smith was away on vacation. Darst notified Secretary of the Interior Julius Krug of the city 's selection. Krug planned to meet with Smith and JNEM but canceled the meeting and resigned on November 11. His successor, Oscar L. Chapman, rescheduled the meeting for December 5 in Washington with delegates from the city government, JNEM, railroad officials, and Federal government. A day after the conference, they ratified a memorandum of understanding about the plan: "The five tracks on the levee would be replaced by three tracks, one owned by the Missouri Pacific Railroad (MPR) and two by the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA) proceeding through a tunnel not longer than 3,000 feet. The tunnel would be approximately fifty feet west of the current elevated line. '' It would also have an overhead clearance of 18 feet (5.5 m), lower than the regular requirement of 22 feet (6.7 m). Chapman approved the document on December 22, 1949, and JNEM garnered the approval of the Missouri Public Service Commission on August 7, 1952.
Efforts to appropriate congressional funds began in January 1950 but were delayed until 1953 by the Korean War 's depletion of federal funds.
In August 1953, Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton declared that the Department of the Interior and the railroads should finalize the agreement on the new route. In October, NPS and the TRRA decided that the TRRA would employ a surveyor endorsed by Spotts "to survey, design, estimate, and report on '' the expenses of shifting the tracks. They chose Alfred Benesch and Associates, which released its final report on May 3, 1957. The firm estimated that the two proposals would cost more than expected: more than $11 million and $14 million, respectively. NPS director Conrad Wirth enjoined Saarinen to make small modifications to the design. In October, Saarinen redrafted the plans, suggesting:
(the placement of) the five sets of railroad tracks into a shortened tunnel 100 feet west of the trestle, with the tracks being lowered sixteen feet. This did not mean that the memorial would be cut off from the river, however, for Saarinen provided a 960 - foot - long (290 m) tunnel to be placed over the railroad where a "grand staircase '' rose from the levee to the Arch. At the north and south ends of the park, 150 - foot tunnels spanned the tracks, and led to the overlook museum, restaurant, and stairways down to the levee. Saarinen designed a subterranean visitor center the length of the distance between the legs, to include two theaters and an entrance by inward - sloping ramps.
On November 29, involved interests signed another memorandum of understanding approving Saarinen 's rework; implementing it would cost about $5.053 million. On March 10, 1959, mayor Raymond Tucker proposed that they drop "the tunnel idea in favor of open cuts roofed with concrete slabs, '' which would cost $2.684 million, $1.5 million less than the cost of the approved plan. On May 12, 1958, Tucker, TRRA president Armstrong Chinn, and Missouri Pacific Railroad president Russell Dearmont entered a written agreement: "The TRRA would place $500,000 in escrow for the project, and the city (would) sell $980,000 of the 1935 bonds to match the Federal contribution. '' Director Wirth and Secretary Seaton approved the plan on June 2.
In July 1953, Representative Leonor Sullivan introduced H.R. 6549, a bill authorizing the allocation of no more than $5 million to build the arch. After much negotiation, both houses of Congress approved the bill in May 1954, and on May 18, 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law as Public Law 361. Congress could not afford to appropriate the funds in 1955, so association president William Crowdus resorted to asking the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations for $10 million. The foundations denied the request because their function as private foundations did not include funding national memorials. In 1956, Congress appropriated $2.64 million to be used to move the railroad tracks. The remainder of the authorized appropriation was requested via six congressional bills, introduced on July 1, 1958, that revised Public Law 361 to encompass the cost of the entire memorial, increasing federal funds by $12.25 million. A month later the Department of the Interior and the Bureau of the Budget endorsed the bill, and both houses of Congress unanimously passed the bill. Eisenhower signed it into law on September 7. The NPS held off on appropriating the additional funds, as it planned to use the already - appropriated funds to initiate the railroad work.
Saarinen and city functionaries collaborated to zone buildings near the arch. In April 1959, real estate developer Lewis Kitchen decided to construct two 40 - level edifices across from the arch. In July, after the plan was condemned for its potential obstruction of the arch, Kitchen discussed the issue with officials. A decision was delayed for several months because Saarinen had yet to designate the arch 's height, projected between 590 and 630 feet (180 and 190 m). By October, Mayor Tucker and Director Wirth resolved to restrict the height of buildings opposite the arch to 275 feet (84 m) (about 27 levels), and the city stated that plans for buildings opposite the arch would require its endorsement. Kitchen then decreased the height of his buildings, while Saarinen increased that of the arch.
Moving the railroad tracks was the first stage of the project. On May 6, 1959, after an official conference, the Public Service Commission called for ventilation to accompany the tunnel 's construction, which entailed "placing 3,000 feet of dual tracks into a tunnel 105 feet west of the elevated railroad, along with filling, grading, and trestle work. '' Eight bids for the work were reviewed on June 8 in the Old Courthouse, and the MacDonald Construction Co. of St. Louis won with a bid of $2,426,115, less than NPS 's estimate of the cost. At 10: 30 a.m. on June 23, 1959, the groundbreaking ceremony occurred; Tucker spaded the first portion of earth. Wirth and Dickmann delivered speeches.
The NPS acquired the $500,000 in escrow and transferred it to MacDonald to begin building the new tracks. In August, demolition of the Old Rock House was complete, with workers beginning to excavate the tunnel. In November, they began shaping the tunnel 's walls with concrete. Twenty - nine percent of the construction was completed by March and 95 % by November. On November 17, trains began to use the new tracks. June 1962 was the projected date of fruition.
On May 16, 1959, the Senate appropriations subcommittee received from St. Louis legislators a request for $2.4911 million, of which it granted only $133,000. Wirth recommended that they reseek the funds in January 1960.
On March 10, 1959, Regional Director Howard Baker received $888,000 as the city 's first subsidy for the project. On December 1, 1961, $23,003,150 in total had been authorized, with $19,657,483 already appropriated -- $3,345,667 remained not yet appropriated.
The bidding date, originally December 20, 1961, was postponed to January 22, 1962, to clarify the details of the arch construction. About 50 companies that had requested the construction requirements received bidding invitations. Extending from $11,923,163 to $12,765,078, all four bids exceeded the engineer estimate of $8,067,000. Wirth had a committee led by George Hartzog determine the validity of the bids in light of the government 's conditions. Following a meeting with the bidders, the committee affirmed the bids ' reasonableness, and Wirth awarded the lowest bidder, MacDonald Construction Co. of St. Louis, the contract for the construction of the arch and the visitor center. On March 14, 1962, he signed the contract and received from Tucker $2,500,000, the city 's subsidy for the phase. MacDonald reduced its bid $500,000 to $11,442,418. The Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel Company served as the subcontractor for the shell of the arch.
In 1959 and 1960, ground was broken, and in 1961, the foundation of the structure was laid. Construction of the arch itself began on February 12, 1963, as the first steel triangle on the south leg was eased into place. These steel triangles, which narrowed as they spiraled to the top, were raised into place by a group of cranes and derricks. The arch was assembled of 142 12 - foot - long (3.7 m) prefabricated stainless steel sections. Once in place, each section had its double - walled skin filled with concrete, prestressed with 252 tension bars. In order to keep the partially completed legs steady, a scissors truss was placed between them at 530 feet (160 m), later removed as the derricks were taken down. The whole endeavor was expected to be completed by fall 1964, in observance of St. Louis 's bicentennial.
Contractor MacDonald Construction Co. arranged a 30 - foot (9.1 m) tower for spectators and provided recorded accounts of the undertaking. In 1963, a million people went to observe the progress, and by 1964, local radio stations began to broadcast when large slabs of steel were to be raised into place.
The project manager of MacDonald Construction Co., Stan Wolf, said that a 62 - story building was easier to build than the arch: "In a building, everything is straight up, one thing on top of another. In this arch, everything is curved. ''
Although an actuarial firm predicted thirteen workers would die while building the arch, no workers were killed during the monument 's construction. However, construction of the arch was still often delayed by safety checks, funding uncertainties, and legal disputes.
Civil rights activists regarded the construction of the arch as a token of racial discrimination. African Americans worked on the arch, and were hired because they were skilled laborers. On July 14, 1964, during the workers ' lunchtime, civil rights protesters Percy Green and Richard Daly, both members of Congress of Racial Equality, climbed up 125 - feet on the north leg of the arch to "expose the fact that federal funds were being used to build a national monument that was racially discriminating against black contractors and skilled black workers. '' As the pair disregarded demands to get off, protesters on the ground demanded that at least 10 % of the skilled jobs belong to African Americans. Four hours later Green and Daly dismounted from the arch, to charges of "trespassing, peace disturbance, and resisting arrest. '' This incident inter alia spurred the United States Department of Justice to file the first pattern or practice case against AFL -- CIO under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, on February 4, 1966, but the department later called off the charges. The 1966 lawsuit was an attempt by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance (OFCC) to desegregate building - trade unions nationwide. Many technical building unions had little or no African - American representation into the mid-1960s. During Lyndon Johnson 's presidency, the federal government recognized the need for more integration in all levels of society and started enforcing equal employment opportunity through federally funded job contracts.
In 1964, the Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel Company of Warren, Pennsylvania sued MacDonald for $665,317 for tax concerns. In 1965, NPS requested that Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel remove the prominent letters "P-D-M '' (its initials) from a creeper derrick used for construction, contending that it was promotional and violated federal law with regards to advertising on national monuments. Although Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel initially refused to pursue what it considered a precarious venture, the company relented after discovering that leaving the initials would cost $225,000 and after that, $42,000 per month, and the NPS dropped its lawsuit.
On October 26, 1965, the International Association of Ironworkers delayed work to ascertain that the arch was safe. After NPS director Kenneth Chapman gave his word that conditions were "perfectly safe, '' construction resumed on October 27. After the discovery of 16 defects, the tram was also delayed from running. The Bi-State Development Agency assessed that it suffered losses of $2,000 for each day the trains were stagnant.
On January 7, 1966, members of AFL -- CIO deserted their work on the visitor center, refusing to work with plumbers affiliated with Congress of Industrial Unions (CIU), which represented black plumbers. A representative of AFL -- CIO said, "This policy has nothing to do with race. Our experience is that these CIU members have in the past worked for substandard wages. '' CIU applied to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) for an injunction that required the AFL -- CIO laborers to return to work. On February 7, Judge John Keating Regan ruled that AFL -- CIO workers had participated in a secondary boycott. By February 11, AFL -- CIO resumed work on the arch, and an AFL -- CIO contractor declared that ten African Americans were apprenticed for arch labor. The standstill in work lasted a month. Considering how large Federal projects often "go haywire '', Secretary of War Newton D. Baker said, "This memorial will be like a cathedral; built slowly but surely. ''
President Lyndon B. Johnson and Mayor Alfonso J. Cervantes decided on a date for the topping out ceremony, but the arch had not been completed by then. The ceremony date was reset to October 17, 1965, and workers strained to meet the deadline, taking double shifts, but by October 17, the arch was still not complete. The chairman of the ceremony anticipated the ceremony to be held on October 30, a Saturday, to allow 1,500 schoolchildren, whose signatures were to be placed in a time capsule, to attend. Ultimately, PDM set the ceremony date to October 28.
The time capsule, containing the signatures of 762,000 students and others, was welded into the keystone before the final piece was set in place. On October 28, the arch was topped out as then Vice President Hubert Humphrey observed from a helicopter. A Catholic priest and a rabbi prayed over the keystone, a 10 - short - ton (9.1 t), eight - foot - long (2.4 m) triangular section. It was slated to be inserted at 10: 00 a.m. local time but was done 30 minutes early because thermal expansion had constricted the 8.5 - foot (2.6 m) gap at the top by 5 inches (13 cm). To mitigate this, workers used fire hoses to spray water on the surface of the south leg to cool it down and make it contract. The keystone was inserted in 13 minutes, only 6 inches (15 cm) remained. For the next section, a hydraulic jack had to pry apart the legs six feet (1.8 m). The last section was left only 2.5 feet (0.76 m). By 12: 00 p.m., the keystone was secured. Some filmmakers, in hope that the two legs would not meet, had chronicled every phase of construction.
The Gateway Arch was expected to open to the public by 1964, but in 1967 the public relations agency stopped forecasting the opening date. The arch 's visitor center opened on June 10, 1967, and the tram began operating on July 24.
The arch was dedicated by Humphrey on May 25, 1968. He declared that the arch was "a soaring curve in the sky that links the rich heritage of yesterday with the richer future of tomorrow '' and brings a "new purpose '' and a "new sense of urgency to wipe out every slum. '' "Whatever is shoddy, whatever is ugly, whatever is waste, whatever is false, will be measured and condemned '' in comparison to the Gateway Arch. About 250,000 people were expected to attend, but rain canceled the outdoor activities. The ceremony had to be transferred into the visitor center. After the dedication, Humphrey crouched beneath an exit as he waited for the rain to subside so he could walk to his vehicle.
The project did not provide 5,000 jobs as expected -- as of June 1964, workers numbered fewer than 100. The project did, however, incite other riverfront restoration efforts, totaling $150 million. Building projects included a 50,000 - seat sports stadium, a 30 - story hotel, several office towers, four parking garages, and an apartment complex. The idea of a Disneyland amusement park that included "synthetic riverboat attractions '' was considered but later abandoned. The developers hoped to use the arch as a commercial catalyst, attracting visitors who would use their services. One estimate found that since the 1960s, the arch has incited almost $503,000,000 worth of construction.
In June 1976, the memorial was finalized by federal allocations -- "the statue of Thomas Jefferson was unveiled, the Museum of Westward Expansion was previewed, a theater under the Arch was dedicated in honor of Mayor Raymond Tucker and the catenary - like curving staircases from the Arch down to the levee were built. ''
Both the width and height of the arch are 630 feet (192 m). The arch is the tallest memorial in the United States and the tallest stainless steel monument in the world.
The cross-sections of the arch 's legs are equilateral triangles, narrowing from 54 feet (16 m) per side at the bases to 17 feet (5.2 m) per side at the top. Each wall consists of a stainless steel skin covering a sandwich of two carbon - steel walls with reinforced concrete in the middle from ground level to 300 feet (91 m), with carbon steel to the peak. The arch is hollow to accommodate a unique tram system that takes visitors to an observation deck at the top.
The structural load is supported by a stressed - skin design. Each leg is embedded in 25,980 short tons (23,570 t) of concrete 44 feet (13 m) thick and 60 feet (18 m) deep. Twenty feet (6.1 m) of the foundation is in bedrock. The arch is resistant to earthquakes and is designed to sway up to 18 inches (46 cm) in either direction, while withstanding winds up to 150 miles per hour (240 km / h). The structure weighs 42,878 short tons (38,898 t), of which concrete composes 25,980 short tons (23,570 t); structural steel interior, 2,157 short tons (1,957 t); and the stainless steel panels that cover the exterior of the arch, 886 short tons (804 t). This amount of stainless steel is the most used in any one project in history. The base of each leg at ground level had to have an engineering tolerance of ⁄ inch (0.40 mm) or the two legs would not meet at the top.
The geometric form of the structure was set by mathematical equations provided to Saarinen by Hannskarl Bandel. Bruce Detmers and other architects expressed the geometric form in blueprints with this equation:
y = A (cosh C x L − 1) ⇔ x = L C cosh − 1 (1 + y A) (\ displaystyle y = A \ left (\ cosh (\ frac (Cx) (L)) - 1 \ right) \ quad \ Leftrightarrow \ quad x = (\ frac (L) (C)) \ cosh ^ (- 1) \ left (1 + (\ frac (y) (A)) \ right)),
with the constants
A = f c Q b / Q t − 1 = 68.7672 (\ displaystyle A = (\ frac (f_ (c)) (Q_ (b) / Q_ (t) - 1)) = 68.7672)
C = cosh − 1 Q b Q t = 3.0022 (\ displaystyle C = \ cosh ^ (- 1) (\ frac (Q_ (b)) (Q_ (t))) = 3.0022)
where f = 625.0925 ft (191 m) is the maximum height of centroid, Q = 1,262.6651 sq ft (117 m) is the maximum cross sectional area of arch at base, Q = 125.1406 sq ft (12 m) is the minimum cross sectional area of arch at top, and L = 299.2239 ft (91 m) is the half width of centroid at the base. The triangular cross sectional area varies linearly with the vertical height of its centroid.
This hyperbolic cosine function describes the shape of a catenary. A chain that supports only its own weight forms a catenary; the chain is purely in tension. Likewise, an inverted catenary arch that supports only its own weight is purely in compression, with no shear. The catenary arch is the stablest of all arches since "the thrust passes down through the legs and is absorbed in the foundations, whereas in other arches, the pressure tends to force the legs apart. '' The Gateway Arch itself is not a common catenary, but a more general curve of the form y = Acosh (Bx). This makes it an inverted weighted catenary. Saarinen chose a weighted catenary over a normal catenary curve because it looked less pointed and less steep. In 1959, he caused some confusion about the actual shape of the arch when he wrote, "This arch is not a true parabola, as is often stated. Instead it is a catenary curve -- the curve of a hanging chain -- a curve in which the forces of thrust are continuously kept within the center of the legs of the arch. '' William V. Thayer, a professor of mathematics at St. Louis Community College, later wrote to the St. Louis Post-Dispatch calling attention to the fact that the structure was a weighted catenary.
The first proposal to illuminate the arch at night was announced on May 18, 1966, but the plan never came to fruition. In July 1998, funding for an arch lighting system was approved by St. Louis 's Gateway Foundation, which agreed to take responsibility for the cost of the equipment, its installation, and its upkeep. In January 1999, MSNBC arranged a temporary lighting system for the arch so the monument could be used as the background for a visit by Pope John Paul II. Since November 2001, the arch has been bathed in white light between 10 p.m. and 1 a.m. via a system of floodlights. Designed by Randy Burkett, it comprises 44 lighting fixtures situated in four pits just below ground level.
On October 5, 2004, the U.S. Senate, at the pressing of Senators Jim Talent and Kit Bond, approved a bill permitting the illumination in pink of the arch in honor of breast cancer awareness month. Both Estee Lauder and May Department Store Co. had championed the cause. One employee said that the arch would be a "beacon... for the importance of prevention and finding a cure. '' While the National Park Service took issue with the plan due to the precedent it would set for prospective uses of the arch, it yielded due to a realization that it and Congress were "on the same team '' and because the illumination was legally obligatory; on October 25, the plan was carried out. The previous time the arch was illuminated for promotional purposes was on September 12, 1995, under the management of local companies Fleishman - Hillard and Technical Productions when a rainbow spectrum was shone on the arch to publicize the debut of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus ' Wizard of Oz on Ice at the Scottrade Center (then named the "Kiel Center '').
In April 1965, three million tourists were expected to visit the arch after completion; 619,763 tourists visited the top of the arch in its first year open. On January 15, 1969, a visitor from Nashville, Tennessee, became the one - millionth person to reach the observation area; the ten - millionth person ascended to the top on August 24, 1979. In 1974, the arch was ranked fourth on a list of "most - visited man - made attraction (s) ''. The Gateway Arch is one of the most visited tourist attractions in the world with over four million visitors annually, of which around one million travel to the top. The arch was listed as a National Historic Landmark on June 2, 1987, and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
On December 8, 2009, sponsored by nonprofit CityArchRiver2015, the international design competition "Framing a Modern Masterpiece: The City + The Arch + The River 2015 '' commenced. It aimed to "design a plan to improve the riverfront park landscape, ease access for pedestrians across Memorial Drive and expand onto the East St. Louis riverfront, '' as well as to lure visitors. The contest consisted of three stages -- portfolio assessment (narrowed down to 8 -- 10 teams), team interviews (narrowed down to 4 -- 5 teams), and review of design proposals. The competition received 49 applicants, which were narrowed down to five in the first two stages. On August 17, 2010, the designs of the five finalists were revealed to the public and exhibited at the theater below the arch. On August 26, the finalists made their cases to an eight - member jury, and on September 21, the winner was revealed -- Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. The initiative 's plans include updating Kiener Plaza and the Old Courthouse, connecting the city to the Arch grounds with a park over Interstate 70, a re-imagined museum and improved accessibility. The budget for the project is $380 million and is set to be completed in 2018.
Ground broke on the ' Park over the Highway ' project, the first component of the CityArchRiver project, on August 2, 2013. This project features a landscaped structure over Interstate 70 and rerouted surface traffic that had previously formed a moat separating the Gateway Arch from the Old Courthouse. This project was completed in December 2014.
The underground visitor center for the arch was designed as part of the National Park Service 's Mission 66 program. The 70,000 - square - foot (6,500 m) center is located directly below the arch, between its legs. Although construction on the visitor center began at the same time as construction for the arch itself, it did not conclude until 1976 because of insufficient funding; however, the center opened with several exhibits on June 10, 1967. Access to the visitor center is provided through ramps adjacent to each leg of the arch.
The center houses offices, mechanical rooms, and waiting areas for the arch trams, as well as its main attractions: the Museum of Westward Expansion and two theaters displaying films about the arch. The older theater opened in May 1972; the newer theater, called the Odyssey Theatre, was constructed in the 1990s and features a four - story - tall screen. Its construction required the expansion of the underground complex, and workers had to excavate solid rock while keeping the disruption to a minimum so the museum could remain open. The museum houses several hundred exhibits about the United States ' westward expansion in the 19th century and opened on August 10, 1977.
As part of the CityArchRiver project, the visitor center and museum are undergoing a $176 million expansion and renovation that is set to be completed by the summer of 2018. Once completed, the renovation will include a 46,000 - square - foot underground addition featuring interactive story galleries, video walls, a fountain and a cafe.
Near the top of the Arch, passengers exit the tram compartment and climb a slight grade to enter the observation area. This arched deck, which is over 65 feet (20 m) long and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide, can hold up to about 160 people, four trams ' worth Sixteen windows per side, each measuring 7 by 27 inches (180 mm × 690 mm), offer views up to 30 miles (48 km) to the east across the Mississippi River and southern Illinois with its prominent Mississippian culture mounds at Cahokia Mounds and to the west over the city of St. Louis and St. Louis County beyond.
There are three modes of transportation up the arch: two sets of 1,076 - step emergency stairs (one per leg), a 12 - passenger elevator to the 372 - foot (113 m) height, and a tram in each leg.
Each tram is a chain of eight cylindrical, five - seat compartments with a small window on the doors. As each tram has a capacity of 40 passengers and there are two trams, 80 passengers can be transported at one time, with trams departing from the ground every 10 minutes. The cars swing like Ferris - wheel cars as they ascend and descend the arch. This fashion of movement gave rise to the idea of the tram as "half - Ferris wheel and half - elevator. '' The trip to the top takes four minutes, and the trip down takes three minutes.
Because of a lack of funds in March 1962, the NPS did not accept bids for the arch 's internal train system and considered discarding the idea. In May 1962, the Bi-State Development Agency proposed that it issue revenue bonds to obtain the required funds. The Department of the Interior and Bi-State entered into an agreement where Bi-State would construct and operate the tram. Bi-State would have to raise $1,977,750 for the construction of the tram system. It retired the bonds by setting a $1 riding fee to the top. Two months later, the agency had already received 45 advance reservations for seats on the tram.
Bi-State put in $3.3 million revenue bonds and has operated the tram system since. The tram in the north leg entered operation in June 1967, but visitors were forced to endure three - hour - long waits until April 21, 1976, when a reservation system was put in place. The south tram was completed by March 1968. Commemorative pins were awarded to the first 100,000 passengers. As of 2007, the trams have traveled 250,000 miles (400,000 km), conveying more than 25 million passengers.
On July 8, 1970, a six - year - old boy, his mother, and two of her friends were trapped in a tram in the arch 's south leg after the monument closed. According to the boy 's mother, the group went up the arch around 9: 30 p.m. CDT, but when the tram reached the de-boarding area, its doors did not open. The tram then reportedly traveled up to a storage area 50 feet (15 m) above the ground, and the power was switched off. One person was able to pry open the tram door and the four managed to reach a security guard for help after being trapped for about 45 minutes.
On July 21, 2007, a broken cable forced the south tram to be shut down, leaving only the north tram in service until repairs were completed in March 2008. Around 200 tourists were stuck inside the arch for about three hours because the severed cable contacted a high - voltage rail, causing a fuse to blow. The north tram was temporarily affected by the power outage as well, but some passengers were able to exit the arch through the emergency stairs and elevator. It was about two hours until all the tram riders safely descended, while those in the observation area at the time of the outage had to wait an additional hour before being able to travel back down. An arch official said the visitors, most of whom stayed calm during the ordeal, were not in any danger; they were later given refunds. The incident occurred while visitors in the arch were watching a fireworks display, and no one was seriously injured in the event. However, two people received medical treatment; one person needed oxygen and the other was diabetic. Almost immediately after the tram returned to service, however, it was closed again for new repairs after an electrical switch broke. The incident, which occurred on March 14, 2008, was billed as a "bad coincidence. ''
On the morning of February 9, 2011, a National Park Service worker was injured while performing repairs on the south tram. The 55 - year - old was working on the tram 's electrical system when he was trapped between it and the arch wall for around 30 seconds, until being saved by other workers. Emergency officials treated the injured NPS employee at the arch 's top before taking him to Saint Louis University Hospital in a serious condition.
On March 24, 2011, around one hundred visitors were stranded in the observation area for 45 minutes after the doors of the south tram refused to close. The tourists were safely brought down the arch in the north tram, which had been closed that week so officials could upgrade it with a new electronic transportation system. The National Park Service later attributed the malfunction to a computer glitch associated with the new system, which had already been implemented with the south tram. No one was hurt in the occurrence, but the arch suffered a slight loss in spring break tourism revenue.
Around 2: 15 p.m. local time on June 16, 2011, the arch 's north tram stalled due to a power outage. The tram became stuck about 200 feet (61 m) from the observation deck, and passengers eventually were told to climb the stairs to the observation area. It took National Park Service workers about one hour to manually pull the tram to the top, and the 40 trapped passengers were able to return down on the south tram, which had previously not been operating that day because there was not an abundance of visitors. An additional 120 people were at the observation deck at the time of the outage and also exited via the south tram. During the outage, visitors were stuck in the tram with neither lighting nor air conditioning. No one was seriously injured in the incident, but one visitor lost consciousness after suffering a panic attack, and a park ranger was taken away with minor injuries. The cause of the outage was not immediately known.
On June 16, 1965, the Federal Aviation Administration cautioned that aviators who flew through the arch would be fined and their licenses revoked. At least ten pilots have disobeyed this order, beginning on June 22, 1966.
In 1973, Nikki Caplan was granted an FAA exception to fly a hot air balloon between the arch 's legs as part of the Great Forest Park Balloon Race. During the flight, on which the St. Louis park director was a passenger, the balloon hit the arch and plummeted 70 feet before recovering.
In 1976, a U.S. Army exhibition skydiving team was permitted to fly through the arch as part of Fourth of July festivities, and since then, numerous skydiving exhibition teams have legally jumped onto the Arch grounds, after having flown their parachutes through the legs of the Arch.
The arch has been a target of various stunt performers, and while such feats are generally forbidden, several people have parachuted to or from the arch regardless. In June 1980, the National Park Service declined a request by television producers to have a performer jump from the arch; a similar appeal by stuntman Dan Koko was also turned away in February 1986. Koko, who was a stunt double for Superman, wanted to perform the leap during Fourth of July celebrations. In 2013 Alexander Polli, a European BASE jumper, planned to fly a wingsuit under the arch but had his demo postponed by the FAA.
1980 accident
On November 22, 1980, at about 8: 45 a.m. CST, 33 - year - old Kenneth Swyers of Overland, Missouri, parachuted onto the top of the arch. His plan was to release his main parachute and then jump off the arch using his reserve parachute to perform a base jump. Unfortunately, after landing the wind blew him to the side, and he slid down the north leg to his death. The accident was witnessed by several people, including Swyers ' wife, also a parachutist. She said her husband "was not a hot dog, daredevil skydiver '' and that he had prepared for the jump two weeks in advance. Swyers, who had made over 1,600 jumps before the incident, was reported by one witness to have "landed very well '' on the top of the arch, but "had no footing. '' Swyers was reportedly blown to the top of the arch by the wind and was unable to save himself when his reserve parachute failed to deploy. The Federal Aviation Administration said the jump was unauthorized, and investigated the pilot involved in the incident.
On December 27, 1980, St. Louis television station KTVI reported receiving calls from supposed witnesses of another stunt landing. The alleged parachutist, who claimed to be a retired professional stuntman, was said to be wearing a Santa Claus costume when he jumped off an airplane around 8: 00 a.m. CST, parachuted onto the arch, grasped the monument 's beacon, and used the same parachute to glide down unharmed. KTVI said it was told the feat was done as an act of homage to Swyers, and "apparently was a combination of a dare, a drunk, and a tribute. '' On the day after the alleged incident, authorities declared the jump a hoax. A spokesperson for the St. Louis Metropolitan Police Department said no calls were received about the jump until after it was broadcast on the news, and the Federal Aviation Administration said the two calls it had received were very similar. One caller also left an out - of - service phone number, while the other never followed up with investigators. Arch officials said they did not witness any such jump, and photos provided by the alleged parachutist were unclear.
1992 stunt
On September 14, 1992, 25 - year - old John C. Vincent climbed to the top of the Gateway Arch using suction cups and proceeded to parachute back to the ground. He was later charged with two misdemeanors: climbing a national monument and parachuting in a national park. Federal prosecutor Stephen Higgins called the act a "great stunt '' but said it was "something the Park Service does n't take lightly. '' Vincent, a construction worker and diver from Harvey, Louisiana, said he did it "just for the excitement, just for the thrill, '' and had previously parachuted off the World Trade Center in May 1991. He said that scaling the arch "was n't that hard '' and had considered a jump off the monument for a few months. In an interview, Vincent said he visited the arch 's observation area a month before the stunt, to see if he could use a maintenance hatch for accessing the monument 's peak. Due to the heavy security, he instead decided to climb up the arch 's exterior using suction cups, which he had used before to scale shorter buildings. Dressed in black, Vincent began crawling up the arch around 3: 30 a.m. CST on September 14 and arrived undetected at the top around 5: 45 a.m., taking an additional 75 minutes to rest and take photos before finally jumping. During this time, he was seen by two traffic reporters inside the One Metropolitan Square skyscraper.
Vincent was also spotted mid-air by Deryl Stone, a Chief Ranger for the National Park Service. Stone reported seeing Vincent grab his parachute after landing and run to a nearby car, which quickly drove away. However, authorities were able to detain two men on the ground who had been videotaping the jump. Stone said 37 - year - old Ronald Carroll and 27 - year - old Robert Weinzetl, both St. Louis residents, were found with a wireless communication headset and a video camera, as well as a still camera with a telephoto lens. The two were also charged with two misdemeanors: disorderly conduct and commercial photography in a national park. Vincent later turned himself in and initially pleaded not guilty to the charges against him. However, he eventually accepted a guilty plea deal in which he testified against Carroll and Weinzetl, revealing that the two consented to recording the jump during a meeting of all three on the day before his stunt occurred. Federal magistrate judge David D. Noce ruled on January 28, 1993, that Carroll had been involved in a conspiracy and was guilty of both misdemeanor charges; the charges against Weinzetl had been dropped by federal attorneys. In his decision, Noce stated, "There are places in our country where the sufficiently skilled can savor the exhilaration and personal satisfaction of accomplishing courageous and intrepid acts, of reaching dreamed - of heights and for coursing dangerous adventures, '' but added that other places are designed for "the exhilaration of mere observation and for the appreciation of the imaginings and the works of others. The St. Louis Arch and the grounds of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial are in the latter category. ''
Two years after the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, a little over $1 million was granted to institute a counterterrorism program. Park officials were trained to note the activity of tourists, and inconspicuous electronic detection devices were installed. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, security efforts were more prominent, security checkpoints moved to the entrance of the visitor center. At the checkpoints, visitors are screened by magnetometers and x-ray equipment, devices which have been in place since 1997.
The Arch also became one of several U.S. monuments placed under restricted airspace during 2002 Fourth of July celebrations. In 2003, 10 - foot - long (3.0 m), 32 - inch - high (81 cm), 4,100 - pound (1,900 kg) movable Jersey barriers were installed to impede terrorist attacks on the arch. Later that year, it was announced that these walls were to be replaced by concrete posts encased in metal to be more harmonious with the steel color of the arch. The movable bollards can be manipulated from the park 's dispatch center, which has also been upgraded.
In 2006, arch officials hired a "physical security specialist, '' replacing a law enforcement officer. The responsibilities of the specialist include risk assessment, testing the park 's security system, increasing security awareness of other employees, and working with other government agencies to improve the arch 's security procedures.
Robert W. Duffy of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 4, 2003
Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, the arch typifies "the pioneer spirit of the men and women who won the West, and those of a latter day to strive on other frontiers. '' The arch has become the iconic image of St. Louis, appearing in many parts of city culture. In 1968, three years after the monument 's opening, the St. Louis phone directory contained 65 corporations with "Gateway '' in their title and 17 with "Arch ''. Arches also appeared over gas stations and drive - in restaurants. In the 1970s, a local sports team adopted the name "Fighting Arches ''; St. Louis Community College would later (when consolidating all athletic programs under a single banner) name its sports teams "Archers ''. Robert S. Chandler, an NPS superintendent, said, "Most (visitors) are awed by the size and scale of the Arch, but they do n't understand what it 's all about... Too many people see it as just a symbol of the city of St. Louis. ''
The arch has also appeared as a symbol of the State of Missouri. On November 22, 2002, at the Missouri State Capitol, Lori Hauser Holden, wife of then Governor Bob Holden uncovered the winning design for a Missouri coin design competition as part of the Fifty States Commemorative Coin Program. Designed by watercolorist Paul Jackson, the coin portrays "three members of the Lewis and Clark expedition paddling a boat on the Missouri River upon returning to St. Louis '' with the arch as the backdrop. Holden said that the arch was "a symbol for the entire state... Four million visitors each year see the Arch. (The coin) will help make it even more loved worldwide. '' A special license plate designed by Arnold Worldwide featured the arch, labeled with "Gateway to the West. '' Profits earned from selling the plates would fund the museum and other educational components of the arch.
Louchheim wrote that although the arch "has a simplicity which should guarantee timeliness '', it is entirely modern as well because of the innovative design and its scientific considerations. In The Dallas Morning News, architectural critic David Dillon opined that the arch exists not as a functional edifice but as a symbol of "boundless American optimism ''. He articulates the arch 's multiple "moods '' -- "reflective in sunlight, soft and pewterish in mist; crisp as a line drawing one moment, chimerical the next '' -- as a way the arch has "paid for itself many times over in wonder ''.
Some have questioned whether St. Louis really was -- as Saarinen said -- the "Gateway to the West ''. Kansas City - born "deadline poet '' Calvin Trillin wrote,
I know you 're thinking that there are considerable differences between T.S. Eliot and me. Yes, it is true that he was from St. Louis, which started calling itself the Gateway to the West after Eero Saarinen 's Gateway Arch was erected, and I 'm from Kansas City, where people think of St. Louis not as the Gateway to the West but as the Exit from the East.
In 1966, the arch was given a Special Award for Excellence from the American Institute of Steel Construction for being "an outstanding achievement in technology and aesthetics. '' On February 9, 1967, the arch received the Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award of 1967 from the American Society of Civil Engineers. The arch was once among Travel + Leisure 's unofficial rankings for the most - visited attraction in the world, after Lenin 's Tomb, Disney World, Disneyland, and the Eiffel Tower. On February 22, 1990, the arch received the American Institute of Architects ' (AIA) Twenty - Five Year Award for its "enduring significance that has withstood the test of time. '' It was declared "a symbolic bridge between East and West, past and future, engineering and art '' that "embodies the boundless optimism of a growing nation. '' In 2007, the arch was ranked fourteenth on the AIA 's "America 's Favorite Architecture '' list.
The first act of vandalism was committed in June 1968: the vandals etched their names on various parts of the arch. In all, $10,000 was spent that year to repair damage from vandalism. The arch was first targeted by graffiti artists on March 5, 1969.
In 2010, signs of corrosion were reported at the upper regions of the stainless steel surface. Carbon steel in the north leg has been rusting, possibly a result of water accumulation, a side effect of leaky welds in an environment that often causes rain inside. Maintenance workers use mops and a temporary setup of water containers to ease the problem. According to NPS documents, the corrosion and rust pose no safety concerns.
A more comprehensive study of the corrosion had been suggested as early as 2006 by architectural specialists studying the Arch, and reiterated in a 2010 Historic Structure Report. In September 2010, the NPS granted Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. a contract for a structural study that would "gather data about the condition of the Arch to enable experts to develop and implement the right long - term solutions. ''
Stain samples were taken from the west face of the Arch on October 21, 2014, to determine the best way to clean it. The cleaning will cost about $340,000.
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when did the late devonian mass extinction occur | Late Devonian extinction - wikipedia
The Late Devonian extinction was one of five major extinction events in the history of the Earth 's biota. A major extinction, the Kellwasser event, occurred at the boundary that marks the beginning of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Famennian faunal stage (the Frasnian -- Famennian boundary), about 375 -- 360 million years ago. Overall, 19 % of all families and 50 % of all genera became extinct. A second, distinct mass extinction, the Hangenberg event, closed the Devonian period.
Although it is clear a massive loss of biodiversity occurred in the Later Devonian, the extent of time during which these events took place is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to 25 million years, extending from the mid-Givetian to the end - Famennian. Nor is it clear whether it concerned two sharp mass extinctions or a series of smaller extinctions, though the latest research suggests multiple causes and a series of distinct extinction pulses through an interval of some three million years. Some consider the extinction to be as many as seven distinct events, spread over about 25 million years, with notable extinctions at the ends of the Givetian, Frasnian, and Famennian stages.
By the late Devonian, the land had been colonized by plants and insects. In the oceans were massive reefs built by corals and stromatoporoids. Euramerica and Gondwana were beginning to converge into what would become Pangaea. The extinction seems to have only affected marine life. Hard - hit groups include brachiopods, trilobites, and reef - building organisms; the reef - building organisms almost completely disappeared. The causes of these extinctions are unclear. Leading hypotheses include changes in sea level and ocean anoxia, possibly triggered by global cooling or oceanic volcanism. The impact of a comet or another extraterrestrial body has also been suggested, such as the Siljan Ring event in Sweden. Some statistical analysis suggests the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in speciation than by an increase in extinctions. This might have been caused by invasions of cosmopolitan species, rather than any single event. Surprisingly, jawed vertebrates seem to have been unaffected by the loss of reefs or other aspects of the Kellwasser event, while agnathans were in decline long before the end of the Frasnian.
During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently, with a supercontinent, Gondwana, covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The continent of Siberia occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent, Laurussia (formed by the collision of Baltica and Laurentia), was drifting towards Gondwana, closing the Iapetus ocean. The Caledonian mountains were also growing across what is now the Scottish Highlands and Scandinavia, while the Appalachians rose over America.
The biota was also very different. Plants, which had been on land in forms similar to mosses, liverworts, and lichens since the Ordovician, had just developed roots, seeds, and water transport systems that allowed them to survive away from places that were constantly wet -- and consequently built huge forests on the highlands. Several different clades had developed a shrubby or tree - like habit by the Late Givetian, including the cladoxylalean ferns, lepidosigillarioid lycopsids, and aneurophyte and archaeopterid progymnosperms. Fish were also undergoing a huge radiation, and the first tetrapods, such as Tiktaalik, were beginning to evolve leg - like structures.
Extinction rates appear to have been higher than the background rate for an extended period lasting the last 20 -- 25 million years of the Devonian. During this period, about eight to ten distinct events can be seen, of which two stand out as particularly severe. The Kellwasser event was preceded by a longer period of prolonged biodiversity loss. The fossil record of the following first 15 million years of the Carboniferous is largely void of terrestrial animal fossils, likely related to losses during the end - Devonian Hangenberg event. This period is known as Romer 's gap.
The Kellwasser event, named for its locus typicus, the Kellwassertal in Niedersachsen, Germany, is the term given to the extinction pulse that occurred near the Frasnian -- Famennian boundary. Most references to the "Late Devonian extinction '' are in fact referring to the Kellwasser, which was the first event to be detected based on marine invertebrate record. There may in fact have been two closely spaced events here as shown by the presence of two distinct anoxic shale layers.
The Hangenberg event sits on or just below the Devonian -- Carboniferous boundary and marks the last spike in the period of extinction. It is marked by an anoxic black shale layer and an overlying sandstone deposit. Unlike the Kellwasser event, the Hangenberg event affected marine and terrestrial habitats.
The extinction events were accompanied by widespread oceanic anoxia; that is, a lack of oxygen, prohibiting decay and allowing the preservation of organic matter. This, combined with the ability of porous reef rocks to hold oil, has led to Devonian rocks being an important source of oil, especially in the USA.
The Kellwasser event and most other Later Devonian pulses primarily impacted the marine community, and had a greater effect on shallow warm - water organisms than on cool - water organisms. The most important group to be affected by the Kellwasser event were the reef - builders of the great Devonian reef - systems, including the stromatoporoids, and the rugose and tabulate corals. Reefs of the later Devonian were dominated by sponges and calcifying bacteria, producing structures such as oncolites and stromatolites. The collapse of the reef system was so stark that bigger reef - building by new families of carbonate - secreting organisms, the modern scleractinian or "stony '' corals, did not recover until the Mesozoic era.
Further taxa to be starkly affected include the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, conodonts, and acritarchs. Both graptolites and cystoids disappeared during this event. The surviving taxa show morphological trends through the event. Trilobites evolved smaller eyes in the run up to the Kellwasser event, with eye size increasing again afterwards. This suggests vision was less important around the event, perhaps due to increasing water depth or turbidity. The brims of trilobites (i.e. the rims of their heads) also expanded across this period. The brims are thought to have served a respiratory purpose, and the increasing anoxia of waters led to an increase in their brim area in response. The shape of conodonts ' feeding apparatus varied with δ O, thus seawater temperature; this may relate to them occupying different trophic levels as nutrient input changed. As with most extinction events, specialist taxa occupying small niches were harder hit than generalists.
The Hangenberg event affected both marine and freshwater communities. This mass extinction affected ammonites and trilobites, as well as jawed vertebrates, including tetrapod ancestors. The Hangenberg is linked to the extinction of 44 % of high - level vertebrate clades, including all placoderms and most sarcopterygians, and the complete turnover of the vertebrate biota. 97 per cent of vertebrate species disappeared, with only smaller forms surviving. After the event only sharks less than a meter and most fishes and tetrapods less than 10 centimeters remained, and it would take 40 million years before they started to increase in size again. This led to the establishment of the modern vertebrate fauna, consisting mostly of actinopterygians, chondrichthyans, and tetrapods, in the Carboniferous. Romer 's gap, a 15 million - year hiatus in the early Carboniferous tetrapod record, has been linked to this event. Also, some of the losses attributed to the Kellwasser event likely actually occurred during the Hangenberg extinction, due to the poor Famennian record for marine invertebrates.
The late Devonian crash in biodiversity was more drastic than the familiar extinction event that closed the Cretaceous: a recent survey (McGhee 1996) estimates that 22 % of all the ' families ' of marine animals (largely invertebrates) were eliminated. The family is a great unit, and to lose so many signifies a deep loss of ecosystem diversity. On a smaller scale, 57 % of genera and at least 75 % of species did not survive into the Carboniferous. These latter estimates need to be treated with a degree of caution, as the estimates of species loss depend on surveys of Devonian marine taxa that are perhaps not well enough known to assess their true rate of losses, so it is difficult to estimate the effects of differential preservation and sampling biases during the Devonian.
Since the Kellwasser - related extinctions occurred over such a long time, it is difficult to assign a single cause, and indeed to separate cause from effect. The sedimentological record shows that the late Devonian was a time of environmental change, which directly affected organisms and caused extinction. What caused these changes is somewhat more open to debate.
From the end of the Middle Devonian, into the Late Devonian, several environmental changes can be detected from the sedimentary record. Evidence exists of widespread anoxia in oceanic bottom waters; the rate of carbon burial shot up, and benthic organisms were devastated, especially in the tropics, and especially reef communities. Good evidence has been found for high - frequency sea - level changes around the Frasnian -- Famennian Kellwasser event, with one sea level rise associated with the onset of anoxic deposits. The Hangenberg event has been associated with sea - level rise followed swiftly by glaciation - related sea - level fall.
Bolide impacts can be dramatic triggers of mass extinctions. An asteroid impact was posited as the prime cause of this faunal turnover, but no secure evidence of a specific extraterrestrial impact has been identified in this case. Impact craters, such as the Kellwasser - aged Alamo and the Hangenberg - aged Woodleigh, can not generally be dated with sufficient precision to link them to the event; others dated precisely are not contemporaneous with the extinction. Although some minor features of meteoric impact have been observed in places (iridium anomalies and microspherules), these were probably caused by other factors.
During the Devonian, land plants underwent a hugely significant phase of evolution. Their maximum height went from 30 cm at the start of the Devonian, to 30 m at the end of the period. This increase in height was made possible by the evolution of advanced vascular systems, which permitted the growth of complex branching and rooting systems. In conjunction with this, the development of seeds permitted reproduction and dispersal in areas which were not waterlogged, allowing plants to colonise previously inhospitable inland and upland areas. The two factors combined to greatly magnify the role of plants on the global scale. In particular, Archaeopteris forests expanded rapidly during the closing stages of the Devonian.
These tall trees required deep rooting systems to acquire water and nutrients, and provide anchorage. These systems broke up the upper layers of bedrock and stabilised a deep layer of soil, which would have been on the order of metres thick. In contrast, early Devonian plants bore only rhizoids and rhizomes that could penetrate no more than a few centimetres. The mobilisation of a large portion of soil had a huge effect; soil promotes weathering, the chemical breakdown of rocks, releasing ions which act as nutrients to plants and algae. The relatively sudden input of nutrients into river water may have caused eutrophication and subsequent anoxia. For example, during an algal bloom, organic material formed at the surface can sink at such a rate that decomposing organisms use up all available oxygen by decaying them, creating anoxic conditions and suffocating bottom - dwelling fish. The fossil reefs of the Frasnian were dominated by stromatolites and (to a lesser degree) corals -- organisms which only thrive in low - nutrient conditions. Therefore, the postulated influx of high levels of nutrients may have caused an extinction, just as phosphate run - off from Australian farmers is causing immeasurable damage to the Great Barrier Reef today. Anoxic conditions correlate better with biotic crises than phases of cooling, suggesting anoxia may have played the dominant role in extinction.
The "greening '' of the continents occurred during Devonian time. The covering of the planet 's continents with massive photosynthesizing land plants in the first forests may have reduced carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Since CO is a greenhouse gas, reduced levels might have helped produce a chillier climate. Evidence such as glacial deposits in northern Brazil (located near the Devonian South Pole) suggest widespread glaciation at the end - Devonian, as a broad continental mass covered the polar region. A cause of the extinctions may have been an episode of global cooling, following the mild climate of the Devonian period. The Hangenberg event has also been linked to glaciation in the tropics equivalent to that of the Pleistocene ice age.
The weathering of silicate rocks also draws down carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This acted in concert with the burial of organic matter to decrease atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations from about 15 to three times present levels. Carbon in the form of plant matter would be produced on prodigious scales, and given the right conditions, could be stored and buried, eventually producing vast coal measures (e.g. in China) which locked the carbon out of the atmosphere and into the lithosphere. This reduction in atmospheric CO would have caused global cooling and resulted in at least one period of late Devonian glaciation (and subsequent sea level fall), probably fluctuating in intensity alongside the 40ka Milankovic cycle. The continued drawdown of organic carbon eventually pulled the Earth out of its Greenhouse Earth state into the Icehouse that continued throughout the Carboniferous and Permian.
Magmatism was suggested as a cause of the Late Devonian extinction in 2002. The end of the Devonian Period was a time of extremely widespread trap magmatism and rifting in the Russian and Siberian platforms, which were situated above the hot mantle plumes and suggested as a cause of the Frasnian / Famennian and end Devonian extinctions. The Viluy and Pripyat - Dniepr - Donets large igneous provinces were suggested to correlate with the Frasnian / Famennian extinction and the Kola and Timan - Pechora magmatism was suggested to correspond to the end Devonian - Carboniferous extinction. Most recently, scientists have confirmed a correlation between Viluy traps (in the Vilyuysk region) on the Siberian Craton and the Kellwasser extinction by Ar / Ar dating. The Viluy Large igneous province covers most of the present day north - eastern margin of the Siberian Platform. The triple - junction rift system was formed during the Devonian Period; the Viluy rift is the western remaining branch of the system and two other branches form the modern margin of the Siberian Platform. Volcanic rocks are covered with post Late Devonian -- Early Carboniferous sediments. Volcanic rocks, dyke belts, and sills that cover more than 320 × 10 km, and a gigantic amount of magmatic material (more than 1000 × 10 km) formed in the Viluy branch. Ages show that the two volcanic phase hypotheses are well supported and the weighted mean ages of each volcanic phase are 376.7 ± 3.4 and 364.4 ± 3.4 Ma or 373.4 ± 2.1 and 363.2 ± 2.0 Ma, which the first volcanic phase is in agreement with the age of 372.2 ± 3.2 Ma proposed for the Kellwasser event. However, the second volcanic phase is slightly older than Hangenberg event which place at 358.9 ± 1.2 Ma. Viluy magmatism may inject enough CO and SO into the atmosphere to generate a destabilised greenhouse and ecosystem, such as rapid global cooling, sea - level falls and marine anoxia occur during Kellwasser black shale deposition.
Other mechanisms put forward to explain the extinctions include tectonic - driven climate change, sea - level change, and oceanic overturning. These have all been discounted because they are unable to explain the duration, selectivity, and periodicity of the extinctions.
Millions of years before present
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what do the lyrics for american pie mean | American Pie (song) - wikipedia
"American Pie '' is a song by American singer and songwriter Don McLean. Recorded and released on the American Pie album in 1971, the single was the number - one US hit for four weeks in 1972 and also topped the charts in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. In the UK, the single reached number 2, where it stayed for 3 weeks, on its original 1972 release while a reissue in 1991 reached No. 12. The song was listed as the No. 5 song on the RIAA project Songs of the Century. A truncated version of the song was covered by Madonna in 2000 and reached No. 1 in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. McLean 's combined version is the fourth longest song to enter the Billboard Hot 100, at the time of release it was the longest, in addition to being the longest song to reach # 1.
The repeatedly mentioned phrase "the day the music died '' refers to the plane crash in 1959 which killed early rock and roll performers Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper, and Ritchie Valens. (The crash was not known by that name until after McLean 's song became a hit.) The meaning of the other lyrics has long been debated, and for decades, McLean declined to explain the symbolism behind the many characters and events mentioned. However, the overall theme of the song is the loss of innocence of the early rock and roll generation as symbolized by the plane crash which claimed the lives of three of its heroes.
In 2017, McLean 's original recording was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant ''.
While it has been claimed that Don McLean began writing the song in upstate Saratoga Springs, New York, at Caffe Lena, a 2011 New York Times article quotes Don McLean as disputing this claim. Some employees at Caffe Lena claim that he started writing the song there, and then continued to write the song in both Cold Spring, New York, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. McLean claims that the song was only written in Cold Spring and Philadelphia. Tin & Lint, a bar on Caroline Street in Saratoga Springs, claims the song was written there, and a plaque marks the table. While some have claimed other places, such as Saint Joseph 's University, as where the song was first performed, McLean insists that the song made its debut in Philadelphia at Temple University when he opened for Laura Nyro on March 14, 1971.
Except to acknowledge that he first learned about Buddy Holly 's death on February 3, 1959 -- McLean was age 13 -- when he was folding newspapers for his paper route on the morning of February 4, 1959 (the line "February made me shiver / with every paper I 'd deliver ''), McLean has generally avoided responding to direct questions about the song 's lyrics; he has said: "They 're beyond analysis. They 're poetry. '' He also stated in an editorial published in 2009, on the 50th anniversary of the crash that killed Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J.P. "The Big Bopper '' Richardson, that writing the first verse of the song exorcised his long - running grief over Holly 's death and that he considers the song to be "a big song... that summed up the world known as America ''. McLean dedicated the American Pie album to Holly.
It was also speculated that the song contains numerous references to post-World War II American events (such as the murders of civil rights workers Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner), and elements of culture, including 1960s culture (e.g. sock hops, cruising, Bob Dylan, The Beatles, Charles Manson, and much more).
When asked what "American Pie '' meant, McLean jokingly replied, "It means I do n't ever have to work again if I do n't want to. '' Later, he stated, "You will find many interpretations of my lyrics but none of them by me... Sorry to leave you all on your own like this but long ago I realized that songwriters should make their statements and move on, maintaining a dignified silence. '' He also commented on the popularity of his music, "I did n't write songs that were just catchy, but with a point of view, or songs about the environment. ''
In February 2015, McLean announced he would reveal the meaning of the lyrics to the song when the original manuscript went for auction in New York City, in April 2015. The lyrics and notes were auctioned on April 7, and sold for $1.2 million. In the sale catalogue notes, McLean revealed the meaning in the song 's lyrics: "Basically in American Pie things are heading in the wrong direction... It (life) is becoming less idyllic. I do n't know whether you consider that wrong or right but it is a morality song in a sense. '' The catalogue confirmed some of the better known references in the song 's lyrics, including mentions of Elvis Presley ("the king '') and Bob Dylan ("the jester ''), and confirmed that the song culminates with a near - verbatim description of the death of Meredith Hunter at the Altamont Free Concert, ten years after the plane crash that killed Holly, Valens, and Richardson.
Mike Mills of R.E.M. reflected: "American Pie just made perfect sense to me as a song and that 's what impressed me the most. I could say to people this is how to write songs. When you 've written at least three songs that can be considered classic that is a very high batting average and if one of those songs happens to be something that a great many people think is one of the greatest songs ever written you 've not only hit the top of the mountain but you 've stayed high on the mountain for a long time. ''
In 2017, Bob Dylan was asked about how he was referenced in the song. "A jester? Sure, the jester writes songs like ' Masters of War ', ' A Hard Rain 's a-Gonna Fall ', ' It 's Alright, Ma ' -- some jester. I have to think he 's talking about somebody else. Ask him. ''
In 1999, "Weird Al '' Yankovic wrote and recorded a parody of "American Pie ''. Titled "The Saga Begins '', the song recounts the plot of Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace from Obi - Wan Kenobi 's point of view. While McLean gave permission for the parody, he did not make a cameo appearance in its video, despite popular rumor. McLean himself praised the parody, even admitting to almost singing Yankovic 's lyrics during his own live performances because his children played the song so often.
The City of Grand Rapids, Michigan created a lip dub video to "American Pie '' in response to a Newsweek article that stated the city was "dying ''. The video was hailed as a fantastic performance by many including Roger Ebert, who said it was "the greatest music video ever made ''.
On March 21, 2013, Harmonix announced that "American Pie '' would be the final downloadable track made available for the Rock Band series of music video games.
On March 14, 2015, the National Museum of Mathematics announced that one of two winners of its songwriting contest was "American Pi '' by mathematics education professor Dr. Lawrence M. Lesser. The contest was in honor of "Pi Day of the Century '' because "3 / 14 / 15 '' would be the only day in the 21st - century showing the first five digits of π (pi).
American singer Madonna released a cover version of the song in March 2000 to promote the soundtrack of her film The Next Best Thing (2000), with the song being serviced to radio on February 2. Her cover is much shorter than the original (it contains only the beginning of the first verse and all of the second and sixth verses) and was recorded as a dance - pop song. It was co-produced by Madonna and William Orbit and released on the singer 's Maverick label, after Rupert Everett (Madonna 's co-star in The Next Best Thing) had convinced her to cover the song for the film 's soundtrack.
Released in March 2000, the song was a worldwide hit, reaching No. 1 in many countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Iceland, Italy, Germany (her first since "La Isla Bonita '', in 1987), Switzerland, Austria, and Finland. The song was the 19th best selling of 2000 in the UK and the 9th best selling of 2000 in Italy. The single was not released commercially in the United States, but it reached No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 due to strong radio airplay.
NME gave it a negative review, saying that it was "sub-karaoke fluff '' and that "it 's a blessing she did n't bother recording the whole thing. '' Chuck Taylor from Billboard, on the other hand, was impressed by the recording and commented, "Applause to Madonna for not pandering to today 's temporary trends and for challenging programmers to broaden their playlists... In all, a fine preview of the forthcoming soundtrack to The Next Best Thing. '' Don McLean himself praised the cover, saying it was "a gift from a goddess '', and that her version is "mystical and sensual ''. He also jokingly said, "It means that if I do n't want to, I do n't have to work again. '' In 2017, the Official Charts Company stated the song had sold 385,000 copies in the United Kingdom and was her 16th best selling single to date in the nation.
The music video, filmed in the southern United States and in London and directed by Philipp Stölzl, depicts a diverse array of ordinary Americans, including scenes showing same - sex couples kissing. Throughout the music video Madonna, who is wearing a tiara on her head, dances and sings in front of a large American flag.
Two official versions of the video were produced, the first of which now appears on Madonna 's greatest - hits DVD compilation, Celebration, and was released as the official video worldwide. The second version was issued along with the "Humpty Remix '', a more upbeat and dance - friendly version of the song. This video was aired on MTV 's dance channel in the United States to promote the film The Next Best Thing, starring Madonna and Rupert Everett; it contains totally different footage and new outtakes of the original and omits the lesbian kiss. Everett, who provides backing vocals in the song, is also featured in the video.
Credits and personnel adapted from American Pie single liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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world cup goals scoring record in one tournament | FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
More than 2,500 goals have been scored at the 21 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, not counting penalties scored during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, more than 1,250 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, of which just 97 have scored at least five.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more at all the games played at the World Cup than Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 for West Germany in 1970 and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Ronaldo 's 15 goals between 1998 and 2006 for Brazil. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have surpassed 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970 for Brazil, and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998 for Germany.
Of all the players who have played at the World Cup, only six have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Russia 's Oleg Salenko, Switzerland 's Josef Hügi, and Poland 's Ernst Wilimowski -- the latter scored four in his single World Cup game in 1938. The top 97 goalscorers have represented 28 nations, with 14 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 64 footballers came from UEFA (Europe), 29 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only four from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top scorer was in 1962, when six players tied at only four goals each. Across the 21 editions of the World Cup, 30 footballers have been credited with the most tournament goals, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Brazil 's Jairzinho became in 1970 the only footballer to score at least seven goals without being the top goalscorer of that tournament. These 30 top goalscorers played for 19 nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Another five came from other South American countries, with the remaining 20 coming from Europe. Excluding the 2010 edition, all the top tournament scorers won the Golden Boot.
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according to islamic calendar what is the date today | Islamic calendar - Wikipedia
The Islamic, Muslim, or Hijri calendar (Arabic: التقويم الهجري at - taqwīm al - hijrī) is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used (often alongside the Gregorian calendar) to date events in many Muslim countries. It is also used by Muslims to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual period of fasting and the proper time for the pilgrimage to Mecca.
The Islamic calendar employs the Hijri era whose epoch was retrospectively established as the Islamic New Year of AD 622. During that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (now Medina) and established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as the Hijra. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin: Anno Hegirae, "in the year of the Hijra '') in parallel with the Christian (AD) and Jewish eras (AM). In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H from its Arabic form (سَنة هِجْريّة, abbreviated هـ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra '').
The current Islamic year is 1439 AH. In the Gregorian calendar, 1439 AH runs from approximately 21 September 2017 to 10 September 2018.
For Central Arabia, especially Mecca, there is a lack of epigraphical evidence but details are found in the writings of Muslim authors of the Abbasid era. Inscriptions of the ancient South Arabian calendars reveal the use of a number of local calendars. At least some of these South Arabian calendars followed the lunisolar system. Both al - Biruni and al - Mas'udi suggest that the Ancient Arabs used the same month names as the Muslims, though they also record other month names used by the pre-Islamic Arabs.
The Islamic tradition is unanimous in stating that Arabs of Tihamah, Hejaz, and Najd distinguished between two types of months, permitted (ḥalāl) and forbidden (ḥarām) months. The forbidden months were four months during which fighting is forbidden, listed as Rajab and the three months around the pilgrimage season, Dhu al - Qa'dah, Dhu al - Hijjah, and Muharram. Information about the forbidden months is also found in the writings of Procopius, where he describes an armistice with the Eastern Arabs of the Lakhmid al - Mundhir which happened in the summer of 541 AD. However, Muslim historians do not link these months to a particular season. The Qur'an links the four forbidden months with Nasī ', a word that literally means "postponement ''. According to Muslim tradition, the decision of postponement was administered by the tribe of Kinanah, by a man known as the al - Qalammas of Kinanah and his descendants (pl. qalāmisa).
Different interpretations of the concept of Nasī ' have been proposed. Some scholars, both Muslim and Western, maintain that the pre-Islamic calendar used in Central Arabia was a purely lunar calendar similar to the modern Islamic calendar. According to this view, Nasī ' is related to the pre-Islamic practices of the Meccan Arabs, where they would alter the distribution of the forbidden months within a given year without implying a calendar manipulation. This interpretation is supported by Arab historians and lexicographers, like Ibn Hisham, Ibn Manzur, and the corpus of Qur'anic exegesis.
This is corroborated by an early Sabaic inscription, where a religious ritual was "postponed '' (ns ' ' w) due to war. According to the context of this inscription, the verb ns ' ' has nothing to do with intercalation, but only with moving religious events within the calendar itself. The similarity between the religious concept of this ancient inscription and the Qur'an suggests that non-calendaring postponement is also the Qur'anic meaning of Nasī '. Thus the Encyclopaedia of Islam concludes "The Arabic system of (Nasī ') can only have been intended to move the Hajj and the fairs associated with it in the vicinity of Mecca to a suitable season of the year. It was not intended to establish a fixed calendar to be generally observed. ''
Others concur that it was originally a lunar calendar, but suggest that about 200 years before the Hijra it was transformed into a lunisolar calendar containing an intercalary month added from time to time to keep the pilgrimage within the season of the year when merchandise was most abundant. This interpretation was first proposed by the medieval Muslim astrologer and astronomer Abu Ma'shar al - Balkhi, and later by al - Biruni, al - Mas'udi, and some Western scholars. This interpretation considers Nasī ' to be a synonym to the Arabic word for "intercalation '' (kabīsa). The Arabs, according to one explanation mentioned by Abu Ma'shar, learned of this type of intercalation from the Jews. The Jewish Nasi was the official who decided when to intercalate the Jewish calendar. Some sources say that the Arabs followed the Jewish practice and intercalated seven months over nineteen years, or else that they intercalated nine months over 24 years; there is, however, no consensus among scholars on this issue.
In the tenth year of the Hijra, as documented in the Qur'an (Sura At - Tawba (9): 36 -- 37), Muslims believe God revealed the "prohibition of the Nasī ' ''.
The number of the months, with God, is twelve in the Book of God, the day that He created the heavens and the earth; four of them are sacred. That is the right religion. So wrong not each other during them. And fight the unbelievers totally even as they fight you totally and know that God is with the godfearing. Know that intercalation (nasi) is an addition to disbelief. Those who disbelieve are led to error thereby, making it lawful in one year and forbidden in another in order to adjust the number of (the months) made sacred by God and make the sacred ones permissible. The evil of their course appears pleasing to them. But God gives no guidance to those who disbelieve.
The prohibition of Nasī ' would presumably have been announced when the intercalated month had returned to its position just before the month of Nasi ' began. If Nasī ' meant intercalation, then the number and the position of the intercalary months between 1 AH and 10 AH are uncertain; Western calendar dates commonly cited for key events in early Islam such as the Hijra, the Battle of Badr, the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Trench, should be viewed with caution as they might be in error by one, two or even three lunar months. This prohibition was mentioned by Muhammad during the farewell sermon which was delivered on 9 Dhu al - Hijjah 10 AH (Julian date Friday 6 March, AD 632) on Mount Arafat during the farewell pilgrimage to Mecca.
Certainly the Nasi ' is an impious addition, which has led the infidels into error. One year they authorise the Nasi ', another year they forbid it. They observe the divine precept with respect to the number of the sacred months, but in fact they profane that which God has declared to be inviolable, and sanctify that which God has declared to be profane. Assuredly time, in its revolution, has returned to such as it was at the creation of the heavens and the earth. In the eyes of God the number of the months is twelve. Among these twelve months four are sacred, namely, Rajab, which stands alone, and three others which are consecutive.
The three successive sacred (forbidden) months mentioned by Prophet Muhammad (months in which battles are forbidden) are Dhu al - Qa'dah, Dhu al - Hijjah, and Muharram, months 11, 12, and 1 respectively. The single forbidden month is Rajab, month 7. These months were considered forbidden both within the new Islamic calendar and within the old pagan Meccan calendar.
Four of the twelve Hijri months are considered sacred: Rajab (7), and the three consecutive months of Dhū al - Qa'dah (11), Dhu al - Ḥijjah (12) and Muḥarram (1). As the lunar calendar lags behind the solar calendar by about ten days every Gregorian year, months of the Islamic calendar fall in different parts of the Gregorian calendar each year. The cycle repeats every 33 lunar years.
Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle. Traditionally this is based on actual observation of the crescent (hilal) marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Bohras Muslims namely Alavis, Dawoodis and Sulaymanis and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use a tabular Islamic calendar (see section below) in which odd - numbered months have thirty days (and also the twelfth month in a leap year) and even months have 29.
In Arabic, the "first day '' of the week corresponds with Sunday of the planetary week. The Islamic weekdays, like those in the Hebrew and Bahá'í calendars, begin at sunset. The Christian liturgical day, kept in monasteries, begins with vespers (see vesper), which is evening, in line with the other Abrahamic traditions. Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a mosque at noon on "gathering day '' (Yawm al - Jum'ah, yawm يوم meaning "day '') which corresponds with Friday.
Thus "gathering day '' is often regarded as the weekly day of rest. This is frequently made official, with many Muslim countries adopting Friday and Saturday (e.g., Egypt, Saudi Arabia) or Thursday and Friday as official weekends, during which offices are closed; other countries (e.g., Iran) choose to make Friday alone a day of rest. A few others (e.g., Turkey, Pakistan, Morocco, Nigeria) have adopted the Saturday - Sunday weekend while making Friday a working day with a long midday break to allow time off for worship.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, it was customary to identify a year after a major event which took place in it. Thus, according to Islamic tradition, Abraha, governor of Yemen, then a province of the Christian Kingdom of Aksum (Ethiopia), attempted to destroy the Kaaba with an army which included several elephants. The raid was unsuccessful, but that year became known as the Year of the Elephant, during which Muhammad was born (sura al - Fil). Most equate this to the year AD 570, but a minority use AD 571.
The first ten years of the Hijra were not numbered, but were named after events in the life of Muhammad according to Abū Rayḥān al - Bīrūnī:
In AD 638 (17 AH), Abu Musa Ashaari, one of the officials of the Caliph Umar in Basrah, complained about the absence of any years on the correspondence he received from Umar, making it difficult for him to determine which instructions were most recent. This report convinced Umar of the need to introduce an era for Muslims. After debating the issue with his counsellors, he decided that the first year should include the date of Muhammad 's arrival at Medina (known as Yathrib, before Muhammad 's arrival). Uthman ibn Affan then suggested that the months begin with Muharram, in line with the established custom of the Arabs at that time. The years of the Islamic calendar thus began with the month of Muharram in the year of Muhammad 's arrival at the city of Medina, even though the actual emigration took place in Safar and Rabi ' I. Because of the Hijra, the calendar was named the Hijra calendar.
The first day of the first month of the Islamic calendar (1 Muharram 1 AH) was set to the first new moon after the day the Prophet moved from Quba ' to Medina (originally 26 Rabi ' I on the pre-Islamic calendar) i.e., Friday, 16 July AD 622, the equivalent civil tabular date (same daylight period) in the Julian calendar. The Islamic day began at the preceding sunset on the evening of 15 July. This Julian date (16 July) was determined by medieval Muslim astronomers by projecting back in time their own tabular Islamic calendar, which had alternating 30 - and 29 - day months in each lunar year plus eleven leap days every 30 years. For example, al - Biruni mentioned this Julian date in the year AD 1000. Although not used by either medieval Muslim astronomers or modern scholars to determine the Islamic epoch, the thin crescent moon would have also first become visible (assuming clouds did not obscure it) shortly after the preceding sunset on the evening of 15 July, 1.5 days after the associated dark moon (astronomical new moon) on the morning of 14 July.
Though Cook and Crone in Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World cite a coin from 17 AH, the first surviving attested use of a Hijri calendar date alongside a date in another calendar (Coptic) is on a papyrus from Egypt in 22 AH, PERF 558.
Due to the fact that the Islamic calendar relies on certain variable methods of observation which are used to determine its month - start - dates, the start - dates of its months sometimes vary slightly from the month - start - dates of the astronomical lunar calendar, which are based directly on astronomical calculations. Still, the Islamic calendar seldom varies by more than three days from the astronomical - lunar - calendar system, and roughly approximates it. Both the Islamic calendar and the astronomical - lunar - calendar take no account of the solar year in their calculations, and thus both of these strictly lunar based calendar systems have no ability to reckon the timing of the four seasons of the year.
In the astronomical - lunar - calendar system, a year of 12 lunar months is 354.37 days long. In this calendar system, lunar months begin precisely at the time of the monthly "conjunction '', when the Moon is located most directly between the Earth and the Sun. The month is defined as the average duration of a revolution of the Moon around the Earth (29.53 days). By convention, months of 30 days and 29 days succeed each other, adding up over two successive months to 59 full days. This leaves only a small monthly variation of 44 minutes to account for, which adds up to a total of 24 hours (i.e., the equivalent of one full day) in 2.73 years. To settle accounts, it is sufficient to add one day every three years to the lunar calendar, in the same way that one adds one day to the Gregorian calendar every four years. The technical details of the adjustment are described in Tabular Islamic calendar.
The Islamic calendar, however, is based on a different set of conventions being used for the determination of the month - start - dates. Each month still has either 29 or 30 days, but due to the variable method of observations employed, there is usually in no discernible order in the sequencing of either 29 or 30 day month lengths. Traditionally, the first day of each month is the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the hilal (crescent moon) shortly after sunset. If the hilal is not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month (either because clouds block its view or because the western sky is still too bright when the moon sets), then the day that begins at that sunset is the 30th. Such a sighting has to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in astronomy, which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. Still, due to the fact that both lunar reckoning systems are ultimately based on the lunar cycle itself, both systems still do roughly correspond to one another, never being more than three days out of synch with one another.
This traditional practice for the determination of the start - date of the month is still followed in the overwhelming majority of Muslim countries. Each Islamic state proceeds with its own monthly observation of the new moon (or, failing that, awaits the completion of 30 days) before declaring the beginning of a new month on its territory. But, the lunar crescent becomes visible only some 17 hours after the conjunction, and only subject to the existence of a number of favourable conditions relative to weather, time, geographic location, as well as various astronomical parameters. Given the fact that the moon sets progressively later than the sun as one goes west, with a corresponding increase in its "age '' since conjunction, Western Muslim countries may, under favorable conditions, observe the new moon one day earlier than eastern Muslim countries. Due to the interplay of all these factors, the beginning of each month differs from one Muslim country to another, during the 48 hour period following the conjunction. The information provided by the calendar in any country does not extend beyond the current month.
A number of Muslim countries try to overcome some of these difficulties by applying different astronomy - related rules to determine the beginning of months. Thus, Malaysia, Indonesia, and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset). In Egypt, the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun. A detailed analysis of the available data shows, however, that there are major discrepancies between what countries say they do on this subject, and what they actually do. In some instances, what a country says it does is impossible.
Due to the somewhat variable nature of the Islamic calendar, in most Muslim countries, the Islamic calendar is used primarily for religious purposes, while the Solar - based Gregorian calendar is still used primarily for matters of commerce and agriculture.
If the Islamic calendar were prepared using astronomical calculations, Muslims throughout the Muslim world could use it to meet all their needs, the way they use the Gregorian calendar today. But, there are divergent views on whether it is licit to do so.
A majority of theologians oppose the use of calculations (beyond the constraint that each month must be not less than 29 nor more than 30 days) on the grounds that the latter would not conform with Muhammad 's recommendation to observe the new moon of Ramadan and Shawal in order to determine the beginning of these months.
However, some jurists see no contradiction between Muhammad 's teachings and the use of calculations to determine the beginnings of lunar months. They consider that Muhammad 's recommendation was adapted to the culture of the times, and should not be confused with the acts of worship.
Thus the jurists Ahmad Muhammad Shakir and Yusuf al - Qaradawi both endorsed the use of calculations to determine the beginning of all months of the Islamic calendar, in 1939 and 2004 respectively. So did the Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA) in 2006 and the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR) in 2007.
The major Muslim associations of France also announced in 2012 that they would henceforth use a calendar based on astronomical calculations, taking into account the criteria of the possibility of crescent sighting in any place on Earth. But, shortly after the official adoption of this rule by the French Council of the Muslim Faith (CFCM) in 2013, the new leadership of the association decided, on the eve of Ramadan 2013, to follow the Saudi announcement rather than to apply the rule just adopted. This resulted in a division of the Muslim community of France, with some members following the new rule, and others following the Saudi announcement.
Isma'ili - Taiyebi Bohras having the institution of da'i al - mutlaq follow the tabular Islamic calendar (see section below) prepared on the basis of astronomical calculations from the days of Fatimid imams.
Turkish Muslims use an Islamic calendar which is calculated several years in advance (currently up to 1444 AH / 2022 CE) by the Turkish Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı). From 1 Muharrem 1400 AH (21 November 1979) until 29 Zilhicce 1435 (24 October 2014) the computed Turkish lunar calendar was based on the following rule: "The lunar month is assumed to begin on the evening when, within some region of the terrestrial globe, the computed centre of the lunar crescent at local sunset is more than 5 ° above the local horizon and (geocentrically) more than 8 ° from the Sun. '' In the current rule the (computed) lunar crescent has to be above the local horizon of Ankara at sunset.
Saudi Arabia uses the sighting method to determine the beginning of each month of the Hijri calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998 / 99) several official hilal sighting committees have been set up by the government to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the beginning of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announce the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see it.
The country also uses the Umm al - Qura calendar, based on astronomical calculations, but this is restricted to administrative purposes. The parameters used in the establishment of this calendar underwent significant changes over the past decade.
Before AH 1420 (before 18 April 1999), if the moon 's age at sunset in Riyadh was at least 12 hours, then the day ending at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the Saudis to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other predominantly Muslim countries, including the dates for the Hajj, which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca.
For AH 1420 -- 22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which the hilal was observed).
Since the beginning of AH 1423 (16 March 2002), the rule has been clarified a little by requiring the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent.
In 2007, the Islamic Society of North America, the Fiqh Council of North America and the European Council for Fatwa and Research announced that they will henceforth use a calendar based on calculations using the same parameters as the Umm al - Qura calendar to determine (well in advance) the beginning of all lunar months (and therefore the days associated with all religious observances). This was intended as a first step on the way to unify, at some future time, Muslims ' calendars throughout the world.
Since 1 October 2016, as a cost - cutting measure, Saudi Arabia no longer uses the Islamic calendar for paying the monthly salaries of government employees but the Gregorian calendar.
The Solar Hijri calendar is a solar calendar used in Iran and Afghanistan which counts its years from the Hijra or migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in AD 622.
The Tabular Islamic calendar is a rule - based variation of the Islamic calendar, in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30 - year cycle with 11 leap years of 355 days and 19 years of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2,500 solar years or 2,570 lunar years. It also deviates up to about one or two days in the short term.
Microsoft uses the "Kuwaiti algorithm '', a variant of the tabular Islamic calendar, to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. Microsoft claimed that the variant is based on a statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait, however it matches a known tabular calendar.
Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are:
Days considered important predominantly for Shia Muslims:
Days considered important for Sunni Muslims (especially in India & parts of Asia):
Conversions may be made by using the Tabular Islamic calendar, or, for greatest accuracy (one day in 15,186 years), via the Jewish calendar. Theoretically, the days of the months correspond in both calendars if the displacements which are a feature of the Jewish system are ignored. The table below gives, for nineteen years, the Muslim month which corresponds to the first Jewish month.
This table may be extended since every nineteen years the Muslim month number increases by seven. When it goes above twelve, subtract twelve and add one to the year AH. From AD412 to AD632 inclusive the month number is 1 and the calculation gives the month correct to a month or so. AD622 corresponds to BH1 and AH1. For earlier years, year BH = (623 or 622) -- year AD).
An example calculation: What is the civil date and year AH of the first day of the first month in the year AD 20875?
We first find the Muslim month number corresponding to the first month of the Jewish year which begins in AD20874. Dividing 20874 by 19 gives quotient 1098 and remainder 12. Dividing 2026 by 19 gives quotient 106 and remainder 12. 2026 is chosen because it gives the same remainder on division by 19 as 20874. The two years are therefore (1098 -- 106) = 992 × 19 years apart. The Muslim month number corresponding to the first Jewish month is therefore 992 × 7 = 6944 higher than in 2026. To convert into years and months divide by twelve -- 6944 / 12 = 578 years and 8 months. Adding, we get 1447y 10m + 20874y -- 2026y + 578y 8m = 20874y 6m. Therefore, the first month of the Jewish year beginning in AD20874 corresponds to the sixth month of the Muslim year AH20874. The worked example in Conversion between Jewish and civil dates, shows that the civil date of the first day of this month (ignoring the displacements) is Friday, 14 June. The year AH20875 will therefore begin seven months later, on the first day of the eighth Jewish month, which the worked example shows to be 7 January, AD20875 (again ignoring the displacements). The date given by this method, being calculated, may differ by a day from the actual date, which is determined by observation.
A reading of the section which follows will show that the year AH20875 is wholly contained within the year AD20875, also that in the Gregorian calendar this correspondence will occur one year earlier. The reason for the discrepancy is that the Gregorian year (like the Julian) is slightly too long, so the Gregorian date for a given AH date will be earlier and the Muslim calendar catches up sooner.
An Islamic year will be entirely within a Gregorian year of the same number in the year 20874, after which year the number of the Islamic year will always be greater than the number of the concurrent civil year. The Islamic calendar year of 1429 occurred entirely within the civil calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 civil years). More are listed here:
Because a Hijri or Islamic lunar year is between 10 and 12 days shorter than a civil year, it begins 10 -- 12 days earlier in the civil year following the civil year in which the previous Hijri year began. Once every 33 or 34 Hijri years, or once every 32 or 33 civil years, the beginning of a Hijri year (1 Muharram) coincides with one of the first ten days of January. Subsequent Hijri New Years move backward through the civil year back to the beginning of January again, passing through each civil month from December to January.
The Islamic calendar is now used primarily for religious purposes, and for official dating of public events and documents in Muslim countries. Because of its nature as a purely lunar calendar, it can not be used for agricultural purposes and historically Islamic communities have used other calendars for this purpose: the Egyptian calendar was formerly widespread in Islamic countries, and the Iranian calendar and the 1789 Ottoman calendar (a modified Julian calendar) were also used for agriculture in their countries. In the Levant and Iraq the Aramaic names of the Babylonian calendar are still used for all secular matters. In Morocco, the Berber calendar (another Julian calendar) is still used by farmers in the countryside. These local solar calendars have receded in importance with the near - universal adoption of the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes. The Saudi Arabia uses the lunar Islamic calendar. In Indonesia, the Javanese calendar, created by Sultan Agung in 1633, combines elements of the Islamic and pre-Islamic Saka calendars.
British author Nicholas Hagger writes that after seizing control of Libya, Muammar Gaddafi "declared '' on 1 December 1978 "that the Muslim calendar should start with the death of the prophet Mohammed in 632 rather than the hijra (Mohammed 's ' emigration ' from Mecca to Medina) in 622 ''. This put the country ten solar years behind the standard Muslim calendar. However, according to the 2006 Encyclopedia of the Developing World, "More confusing still is Qaddafi 's unique Libyan calendar, which counts the years from the Prophet 's birth, or sometimes from his death. The months July and August, named after Julius and Augustus Caesar, are now Nasser and Hannibal respectively. '' Reflecting on a 2001 visit to the country, American reporter Neil MacFarquhar observed, "Life in Libya was so unpredictable that people were n't even sure what year it was. The year of my visit was officially 1369. But just two years earlier Libyans had been living through 1429. No one could quite name for me the day the count changed, especially since both remained in play... Event organizers threw up their hands and put the Western year in parentheses somewhere in their announcements. ''
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who won in the war of porus and alexander | Porus - Wikipedia
Porus (IPA: (porus)) or Poros (from Ancient Greek: Πῶρος, Pôros), was an Indian king from the Punjab region, whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes (River of Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab River), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills. Porus fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC), thought to be fought at the site of modern - day Mong, Punjab, which is now part of the modern country of Pakistan. Though not recorded in any available ancient Indian source, Ancient Greek historians describe the battle and the aftermath of Alexander 's victory. After the defeat and arrest of Porus in the war, Alexander asked Porus how he would like to be treated. Porus, although defeated, being a valiant, proud king, demanded that he be treated like a king. Alexander was reportedly so impressed by his adversary that he not only reinstated him as a satrap of his own kingdom but also granted him dominion over lands to the south - east extending until the Hyphasis (Beas). Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.
The only information available on Porus and his kingdom is from Greek sources. The Macedonians stated that King Porus belonged to the Pauravas. No primary source traces or validates the lineage of the Pauravas. Thus, Porus is its only recorded king, having no predecessors or successors.
Due to similar nomenclatures, the Pauravas are often mistakenly ascribed as the Puru tribe or the Pandavas of the Kuru Kingdom which descended from King Pururavas. However, these entities were located in a different region and epoch entirely. The Pauravas were far removed from the Puru tribe and Kuru Kingdom which were situated in Indraprastha and Hastinapur during the Vedic period.
The Achaemenid Empire occupied the western Indus basin since the conquests of Darius the Great. Neither the occupying Achaemenid nor local native sources confirmed the existence of Porus ' Kingdom at the time. Following the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, Porus and other regional powers contested for the land left behind.
The historian, Ishwari Prasad, noted that Porus might have been a Yaduvanshi Shurasena. He argued that Porus ' vanguard soldiers carried a banner of Herakles whom Megasthenes -- who travelled to India after Porus had been supplanted by Chandragupta -- explicitly identified with the Shurasenas of Mathura. This Herakles of Megasthenes and Arrian has been identified by some scholars as Krishna and by others as his elder brother Baladeva, who were both the ancestors and patron deities of Shoorsainis. Iswhari Prashad and others, following his lead, found further support of this conclusion in the fact that a section of Shurasenas were supposed to have migrated westwards to Punjab and modern Afghanistan from Mathura and Dvārakā, after Krishna walked to heaven and had established new kingdoms there.
The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought in 326 BC by Alexander the Great against King Porus, on the banks of the river Hydaspes. The battle resulted in a Macedonian victory. Alexander was greatly impressed by his adversary and not only reinstated him as a satrap of his own kingdom but also granted him dominion over lands to the south - east extending until the Hyphasis (Beas).
After Alexander 's death in 323 BC, Porus was assassinated by one of Alexander 's generals, Eudemus.
"While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit. ''
"Among the many battles fought by invaders who entered the plains of India from the north - west, the first recorded in history is the battle of the Hydaspes, and in Hogarth 's opinion, when coupled with the crossing of the river, together they ' rank among the most brilliant operations in warfare '. ''
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who is the voice of the villain in the incredibles | List of the Incredibles Characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of fictional characters from the 2004 Disney / Pixar computer - animated superhero film The Incredibles and its 2018 sequel Incredibles 2.
Robert "Bob '' Parr (a.k.a. Mr. Incredible) (voiced by Craig T. Nelson in the films, Richard McGonagle in Rise of the Underminer, and Jeff Bergman in Lego The Incredibles) possesses tremendous strength and durability. He also has enhanced senses. He is married to Helen Parr, the superheroine known as Elastigirl, and they have three children together: Violet, Dash, and Jack - Jack.
Sometime after his marriage, Mr. Incredible was sued by Oliver Sansweet for thwarting his suicide and the passengers of the train he stopped from running off the tracks which was part of the events that led to the government silently initiating the Superhero Relocation Program. Bob found forced retirement difficult, and often had to cheat his way out of the house on Wednesdays so that he could continue his superheroics. He was shocked to discover that his "Number 1 fan '', Buddy Pine, had reformed himself as the villain Syndrome after Mr. Incredible had squelched Pine 's wish to be his ward in an attempt to protect him. It was not until Syndrome threatened the family 's lives that Bob realized that his family was his "greatest adventure ''.
His red superhero suit, designed by Edna Mode, appears to have the same level of durability as Mr. Incredible himself. In his prime, Mr. Incredible drove a gadget - laden car, the Incredibile, reminiscent of ones driven by James Bond or Batman. The silhouette of a newer version of the Incredibile for the entire family is seen in the end credits of the first, and the new car makes a full appearance in the comic series and at the end of the second film.
His face was physically modeled after director Brad Bird.
Mr. Incredible was ranked number 5 in IGN 's list of the Top 10 Pixar Characters. Readers of Empire magazine also voted Mr. Incredible number 8 in that magazine 's list of The Top 20 Pixar Characters.
Helen Parr (a.k.a. Elastigirl or Mrs. Incredible) (voiced by Holly Hunter) is Mr. Incredible 's wife. Helen can stretch any part of her body up to 300 feet and can be 1 mm thin. She can also reshape her body in a variety of ways. In the movie she becomes a parachute and a rubber boat, and has used her arms for swings and a slingshot. In her early years she seemed to be a feminist and had no desire to "settle down ''. Since her marriage to Bob, Helen has become a dedicated spouse and mother, although she is frustrated with her husband 's continuing dreams of glory. Helen is also an experienced jet pilot, from having a close friend who flew her around the world when she was a Super. Her sharp wit and superb espionage skills, as well as her experience as a superhero, make her an excellent tactician and leader. Her red superheroine suit, designed by Edna Mode, can stretch as far as she can and still retain its shape. It is virtually indestructible yet it breathes like Egyptian cotton. The filmmakers drew inspiration from actresses Mary Tyler Moore, Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn for Helen 's role and appearance in the sequel.
Gina Bennett, interviewed by Maureen Dowd as part of a group of current and former CIA professionals, said "the Band of Sisters had a favorite crime fighter... Just think of us as a work force of Elastigirls. ''
Violet Parr (voiced by Sarah Vowell) is a 14 - year - old junior high school teenager stuck at the crossroads between girl and woman. Violet desperately wants to be like everyone else, to blend in with normal people, and not to stand out. Her superpowers allow her to turn instantly invisible, and to generate spherical force fields to protect herself and also to levitate extremely heavy objects; the interiors of the force fields have an anti-gravitational effect, allowing Violet to levitate inside, but she can be stunned temporarily if the field is struck by a sufficiently large force.
During the first film, she and Dash combine their powers to create the IncrediBall (named in the video game), a tactic in which Violet generates a force field around herself, and Dash uses his speed power to use the ball like a cannonball or battering ram. Her struggle with her shyness and lack of confidence constitutes a major side story in the movie; she is spurred on by Helen 's encouragement that she has more power than she realizes and that she just has to believe it. In the end, Violet sheds her shyness and ends up at the confident side when her crush Tony Rydinger asks her for a date.
Unlike her normal clothes, her red superheroine suit, designed by Edna Mode, also turns invisible when Violet does.
Dashiell "Dash '' Robert Parr (voiced by Spencer Fox in the first film, Huck Milner in the second film) is a speedster. While he is only as strong as the average 10 - year - old boy, the film 's official website lists "enhanced durability '' amongst Dash 's powers, which is implied in the film by the amount of incidental high - speed collisions and crashes Dash endures without apparent injury. Dash also discovers throughout the course of the movie that his speed allows him to be able to run over water without submerging.
Dash would like to go out for sports, but his mother Helen will not allow it because she thinks that he would show off his superspeed and blow the family 's civilian cover. To vent his frustration, Dash uses his power to play pranks on his teacher, Bernie Kropp, which also threatens their cover.
Dash 's reckless and impulsive nature and one - track mind have put him at odds with Violet 's gloomier and more sarcastic nature more often than their parents would like, but when Dash is in battle, he cares deeply about his family; he was willing to attack a fully grown man who was about to kill his sister.
His red superhero suit, designed by Edna Mode, is resistant to air friction, wear and heat when Dash is running at super speed.
John Jackson "Jack - Jack '' Parr (voiced by Eli Fucile and Maeve Andrews in the first film, Fucile and Nicholas Bird (as a monster) in the second film) is the Parrs ' infant son, the youngest of the Parr children. Initially believed to be the only family member without any powers, he manifests a multitude of superhuman abilities at the end of the first film, most of which are types of shapeshifting. More powers are seen in the short film Jack - Jack Attack on the Incredibles DVD, making his powers the most versatile of the family, and according to a collectible poster included with some Incredibles toys, still more powers are undisclosed.
Although Edna Mode did not know what powers Jack - Jack might develop, she covered various possibilities by making him a fireproof and bulletproof blanket sleeper - like jumpsuit. Creator Brad Bird explains on the DVD that Jack - Jack 's varied abilities are a metaphor for how young children have infinite possibilities ahead of them in life. He begins to manifest a broader range of powers during Incredibles 2, inspiring Edna to upgrade his suit with sensors that allow his family to track him or rein in his powers via remote control.
In issue # 0 of the comic series, it is mentioned that Jack - Jack 's full name is John Jackson Parr.
Jack - Jack was ranked number 15 in Empire magazine 's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters.
Lucius Best (a.k.a. Frozone) (voiced by Samuel L. Jackson in the films, Isaac C. Singleton Jr. in Rise of the Underminer, and John Eric Bentley in Lego The Incredibles) is a long - time friend of the Parr family. Frozone is Bob Parr 's best friend, and was the best man at Bob and Helen 's wedding. Similar to the Marvel Comics superhero Iceman, Frozone has the power to freeze water, or even ambient moisture in the air. He is limited by the amount of water available, either in liquid form, or in the air. It is also indicated that he can use the moisture of his own body, and that dehydration weakens his abilities as a result. During the first film, it is suggested that he has adapted to civilian life much more easily than his long - time friend, Bob Parr, though he still possesses a hidden cache containing his costume and all of his old gadgets in working condition.
Lucius married an unseen woman whom he refers to as Honey (voiced by Kimberly Adair Clark), who is aware of his superhero past, but is unsupportive of his public minded ideals. Lucius is best friends with Bob, and a close friend of Helen and the kids, who are the only supers he socializes with following the banning of superheroes. Whenever Lucius and Bob go out on Wednesdays to engage in superheroics, they have to cover from their respective wives by claiming to be going bowling, but they stop going out when Bob is caught by Helen. Lucius 's super suit is designed to keep him warm in the cold, but he must wear a special set of refraction goggles not only to protect his identity, but also to protect his eyes from the glare of the sunlight that bounces off his ice crystals. The soles of Frozone 's snow boots can change into ice skates, alpine ice skis, and a concave disc he uses as a snowboard. These forms of transport, combined with chutes of ice, result in particularly speedy travel.
Frozone was ranked number 16 in Empire magazine 's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters.
Frozone returns in Incredibles 2. He fights alongside the Incredibles against the Underminer, before being forced to permanently retire to his secret identity, alongside all supers, including the Incredibles, as a result of the battle. He is approached by Winston Deavor, and he brings Helen and Bob with him to meet Deavor together. He is later overwhelmed by other mind controlled Supers as he successfully attempts to protect the Parr children from them, and, as a result, is put under Evelyn 's mind control via goggles. However, he is soon freed by Helen and her children.
Edna Marie "E '' Mode (voiced by Brad Bird) is an eccentric fashion designer who designs the costumes for many members of the superhero community. To that end, not only does she take the aesthetics of the clothes into account, but also their practical uses such as protective qualities and accommodation to the powers of the wearer. She was a guest at Mr. Incredible and Elastigirl 's wedding. Rick Dicker, who felt that Edna was "difficult '' to work with, was the one who first referred Elastigirl to Edna. Edna was conceived as an amalgam between James Bond 's gadget supplier, Q, and Oscar - winning costume designer Edith Head. Pixar artist Teddy Newton, who co-designed the character, stated that the film 's animators looked for inspiration in the 1995 fashion documentary Unzipped, which spotlighted a number of designers, including Isaac Mizrahi and Polly Mellen. Edna Mode also appeared with Pierce Brosnan to present the Academy Award for Costume Design at the 77th Academy Awards. Edna refuses to design super suits with capes in light of the number of supers having unfortunate accidents because their capes got caught in airliner turbines, elevators, missiles, etc. The film 's creators originally could not find an appropriate actress to voice Edna. Finally, when asking actress Lily Tomlin to voice Edna, Brad Bird provided an example of what she should sound like. Tomlin told Bird that he successfully captured her voice so well that he should provide it in the film himself, which Bird did.
Edna Mode was ranked number 8 in IGN 's list of the Top 10 Pixar Characters, and number 6 in Empire magazine 's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters.
Edna returns in Incredibles 2. She agrees to babysit super toddler Jack - Jack when an overwhelmed Bob becomes exhausted with taking care of him. She also outfits the baby with his first super suit.
Rick Dicker (voiced by Pixar animator Bud Luckey in the first film, Jonathan Banks in the second film) is a government agent who was once part of the NSA (National Supers Agency) and now oversees the Superhero Relocation Program. He was one of the guests present at Mr. Incredible and Elastigirl 's wedding. Rick is often frustrated by Bob clinging on to the "Glory Days '', which usually ends up in Rick having to erase memories and repair damages caused by Bob 's actions. By the first film 's conclusion, Dicker congratulates Bob and his family after they stop the Omnidroid and expose Syndrome 's plot.
Rick Dicker also appears in the short film Jack - Jack Attack where he interrogates Jack - Jack 's babysitter Kari about the events that unfolded while she was babysitting Jack - Jack and then erases Kari 's memories at the end. In the DVD commentary, Brad Bird jokes that he had an idea to start Luckey 's short film Boundin ' with Rick Dicker coming into his office late at night, pulling out a bottle of "booze '' and a banjo to start in on Boundin.
Rick returns in Incredibles 2. He informs the Parr family that his department 's "Super Relocation '' program is being shut down, forcing supers across the world to permanently adhere to their secret identities. He then goes on to tell the family that they are on their own now and that he can not help them any longer, because he is going into forced retirement. It is later revealed that as a result of Tony accidentally witnessing Violet in her super-suit without her mask during the battle with the Underminer, Rick was forced to wipe Tony 's mind of the day including that of Violet.
Snug is an old friend of Helen Parr, presumably from her super days as Elastigirl. He never appears in the films, but his voice can be heard on the phone when Helen calls him to acquire a jet to access Syndrome 's island (in The Incredibles). In the movie, Snug can be seen in a photograph which Helen holds, showing the two of them in holiday clothing. In the deleted scenes, Snug was intended to travel with them on the plane to the island and would be killed in the following crash with the missiles. This scene was cut out, however.
Winston Deavor (voiced by Bob Odenkirk) is an ardent superhero fan who leads a telecommunications company with his sister Evelyn. In Incredibles 2, he wants to re-legalize supers, whose activities have been outlawed by the government, through a marketing campaign. Winston selects Helen Parr to carry out a publicity stunt as Elastigirl in order to regain the general public 's support of supers, and houses the Parr family in a luxurious mansion. His sister, however, places him under her control via hypnotic signals transmitted by television screens, as part of her scheme to permanently undermine the legal status of supers. She intends to do this by sabotaging a summit of supers and similarly - hypnotized political delegates taking place on the Deavors ' cruise ship by crashing the ship into the city. When Winston is freed from her control, he aids in foiling Evelyn 's plan to collide his cruise ship into the city by reboarding the runaway ship and freeing the delegates to then ensure their safety, while the supers attempt to retake control of the ship. He later presumably explains the truth of his sister 's scheme to the delegates and to the authorities to exonerate the superheroes.
Oliver Sansweet is the president of a bank in Municiberg. While en route to his wedding, Mr. Incredible saw him jump off a building and saved him whereby Oliver got injured in the process. Following the incident, Sansweet sued Mr. Incredible in Superior Court for preventing his suicide. He claimed that he did n't want to be saved nor did he ask to be saved and the injuries caused by Mr. Incredible 's intervention brings him daily pain. Oliver 's lawsuit against Mr. Incredible, alongside a series of other Super related lawsuits, led to the government silently initiating the Superhero Relocation Program.
Gilbert Huph (voiced by Wallace Shawn) is Bob Parr 's diminutive, strict supervisor at his insurance company Insuricare. His main priority at Insuricare is its profits despite concerns from the company 's staff or its customers. He is a stickler for bureaucracy, but prefers that customers should be unaware of any "loopholes '' that would help secure an insurance claim.
One day when Huph refuses to let Bob stop a mugging out in the street by threatening to fire him if he took action, Bob loses his cool, grabs Huph by the neck, and throws him through several office walls, leaving him hospitalized and in traction. This incident results in Bob revealing his super strength and being dismissed from Insuricare during Bob 's talk with Rick Dicker at the hospital.
A deleted scene on the film 's official website shows that his memories of the incident have been erased by Rick.
Bernard "Bernie '' Kropp (voiced by Lou Romano) is a teacher at Dash Parr 's school, whom Dash pulls pranks on. After sitting on a tack placed on his seat at his desk, Kropp sends Dash to the principal 's office where they conference with Helen Parr. Kropp reveals that he had secretly videotaped the incident with Dash, which he claims "proves '' Dash placed the tack on his desk chair. However, the principal is unconvinced and Dash is allowed to leave with Helen with no school repercussions, infuriating Kropp.
Anthony "Tony '' Rydinger (voiced by Michael Bird) is a junior high school teenager, attending the same school as Violet Parr. Violet harbors a secret crush on him. In the end of The Incredibles, with boosted confidence, Violet manages to attract Tony 's attention and he asks her out on a date, which she accepts.
Tony returns in Incredibles 2. It is revealed that Tony accidentally witnessed Violet in her supersuit unmasked during their battle with the Underminer, which resulted in Rick Dicker being forced to wipe Tony 's memory of the day, including that of Violet and his planned date with her. Following Evelyn Deavor 's defeat, Violet is forced to start from scratch with Tony, asking him out to the movies again. However, she is forced to leave him at the cinema (with the promise of returning quickly) when a new threat calls for the Incredibles to take action.
Kari McKeen (voiced by Bret Parker) is a friend of the Parrs, whom Violet calls upon to babysit Jack - Jack while the rest of the family are flying to save Mr. Incredible (in The Incredibles). She has taken numerous babysitting classes and feels more than adequately prepared to care for Jack - Jack in any capacity, and assures Helen Parr to that effect. She has one scene in the film, and she is heard later on Mrs. Parr 's voice mail, complaining that some "very weird things '' are happening; she does apparently learn all of Jack - Jack 's powers as she has a defense for all of them after one day. Her eventful night with the baby (see above) is documented in the Jack - Jack Attack short included on the DVD release, ending with Rick Dicker erasing her memory of the incident.
The Ambassador (voiced by Isabella Rossellini) is a dignified foreign official committed to the support and legalization of superheroes. She is rescued by Elastigirl in Incredibles 2, when Evelyn attempts to kill her.
In The Incredibles, Buddy Pine (a.k.a. Syndrome) (voiced by Jason Lee) first appears as a 10 - year - old child who professes to be Mr. Incredible 's "number 1 fan ''. However, Mr. Incredible, having his patience long exhausted by this obsessed child pestering him, bluntly tells the child to leave him alone. In an attempt to earn his hero 's respect, Buddy Pine tries to aid him in fighting crime as "IncrediBoy '', with gadgets of his own invention. Mr. Incredible declines Buddy 's offer, and during a subsequent conflict between Mr. Incredible and the supervillain Bomb Voyage, Buddy intervenes and ends up with a bomb attached to his cape. Mr. Incredible 's attempt to remove it leads to the destruction of a section of train tracks, which requires him to save the approaching L - Train. Mr. Incredible then hands Buddy over to the police to have them take him home and tell his mother what he 's been doing. Buddy feels rejected and completely misconstrues his hero 's reasons, blindly disregarding all the trouble he caused because of his reckless obsession, and rationalizing that it is simply because Mr. Incredible considers him inferior because he does not have innate powers.
Fifteen years later, Buddy has recreated himself as an evil genius called Syndrome who plans to exact revenge on his former idol, whom he now regards as his nemesis. He starts by having his assistant Mirage lure a series of Supers to his lair on Nomanisan Island under the cover of a job offer so that his Omnidroids can be improved by killing each one. After his plans to fraudulently become a superhero and replace the Supers that he had killed off are foiled by the Omnidroid turning against him, and then by both the Incredibles and Frozone destroying the robot themselves, Syndrome has his assets frozen by the authorities and a warrant issued for his arrest. However, he abducts Jack - Jack with the intention of raising him as a sidekick, but fails due to the sudden emergence of Jack - Jack 's powers. Syndrome vows to eventually abduct Jack - Jack, but Mr. Incredible tosses his car at the villain, causing his cape to get caught in his jet 's intake and suck him in to his demise.
Syndrome has no superhuman powers, but he is incredibly intelligent, having invented numerous weapons and high - tech vehicles that use such principles as robotics, anti-gravity, and zero - point energy, which he sold to black market buyers to make himself rich. He owns his own island, complete with a mansion, a sophisticated monorail system, missiles, and a staff of guards equipped with exotic vehicles of Syndrome 's design.
Like Mr. Incredible, his character was also physically modeled after Brad Bird.
Syndrome was chosen as the 64th Greatest Villain Ever by Wizard Magazine.
The Omnidroids are a series of intelligent and destructive robots developed by Syndrome to fight and kill Supers. Syndrome made many different versions of this battle robot. All were designed to fight and kill Supers, and each subsequent model improved upon the previous one by correcting flaws and weaknesses found during fights. The Omnidroid 's only weakness is itself: in the film, Mr. Incredible climbs into the Omnidroid 's internal structure, causing the robot to pierce its own armor in a vain attempt to pry Mr. incredible out of itself.
The Omnidroid series of robots were designed by Syndrome to use AI and destructive features such as claws and laser guns to target and destroy its enemies. It is self - learning and can correct its own mistakes, and also collects information on superheroes it encounters.
Omnidroids were used to kill various superheroes - each time a superhero eventually defeated an Omnidroid, data from the nearly destroyed version was then used to create an improved model, specifically designed to have functions to defeat the superhero who had previously destroyed it. Through the instructions of Mirage, the superheroes do not fully destroy the Omnidroid as "it is government property ''.
The final Omnidroid created by Syndrome was controlled via a remote, which he uses to appear as a superhero by "destroying '' it after launching it himself into Metroville. However, the Omnidroid learns that Syndrome is controlling it and turns on him. The Omnidroid is eventually destroyed by the combined efforts of the Parr family and Frozone when a separated claw is used to rip out its power core.
The Incredibles credits includes the sentence, "The term OMNIDROID used by permission of Lucasfilm Ltd ''. George Lucas apparently holds a trademark on the term "droid '' (it 's the word used to refer to the robots in the Star Wars franchise) and as "Omnidroid '' has the term "droid '' in it, permission was requested (and granted) from Lucasfilm to use the term in the film.
In The Incredibles, Mirage (voiced by Elizabeth Peña) was Syndrome 's seductive right - hand woman and accomplice in the murder of many Supers. Though she has no superhuman abilities, she has extensive computer and espionage skills. In her video - tablet message to Mr. Incredible, Mirage mentions that, according to the government, neither of them officially exists.
Initially, Mirage is at ease with Syndrome 's casual regard to murder, but has a change of heart after Syndrome takes a gamble on her life, daring an imprisoned Mr. Incredible to go through with his threat to kill her. Incredible abandons his bluff, after which Mirage secretly frees him, and helps his family escape the island.
Bomb Voyage (voiced by Dominique Louis) is a mime - themed, explosive using, French supervillain and a recurring enemy of Mr. Incredible. The character 's name is intended to be a pun for the French phrase "Bon Voyage ''. He is first seen in The Incredibles confronting Mr. Incredible when stealing money from a bank vault. Buddy Pine, Mr. Incredible 's big - time fan, interrupted their impending showdown and tried to appeal to Mr. Incredible that he would be a worthy sidekick. As Buddy flew off to get the police, Voyage plants a bomb on Buddy 's cape (unknown to Buddy), forcing Mr. Incredible to release him to save Buddy. The resulting explosion destroys a section of railroad tracks during the incident, resulting in an attempt by Mr. Incredible to save the occupants of an approaching train.
Brad Bird originally pitched the idea of Bomb Voyage 's name. His original idea was that he would be named Bomb Pérignon in reference to the similarly named champagne Dom Pérignon, but the Moët et Chandon company rejected that.
Voyage makes a cameo in the 2007 Pixar film Ratatouille as a street mime.
The Underminer (voiced by John Ratzenberger) is a mole - like supervillain who appears at the end of The Incredibles riding on a gigantic drill - tipped vehicle, where he announces his "war on peace and happiness '', leading into the last shot of the Parr family putting their masks on for battle.
He returns in Incredibles 2, where he robs the Metroville Bank before his rampaging drill machine is disabled by the Incredibles and Frozone. However, he manages to escape.
In Incredibles 2, Evelyn Deavor (voiced by Catherine Keener) is the sister of Winston Deavor and a technological genius who has never encountered a problem she could n't solve. She utilizes a smokescreen in the form of the masked Screenslaver in order to carry out herself hidden from her plans to hypnotize and control people undiscovered. When the Screenslaver himself is unmasked by Elastigirl, he turns out to be just a confused pizza delivery guy (voiced by Bill Wise) with no knowledge of what he has done. When Elastigirl finds out that Evelyn was behind the Screenslaver, Evelyn traps her and reveals her plan to brainwash and control the world leaders so that the Supers ca n't be legalized. After trapping Mr. Incredible and Frozone, her plans are thwarted when Dash, Violet, and Jack - Jack manage to free them and Elastigirl and expose Evelyn 's plans to the world leaders. Evelyn attempts to flee while setting the ship everyone is on to go runaway and collide with the city to attempt to kill them. However, the superheroes manage to stop the ship with a minimum of harm while Evelyn is apprehended by Elastigirl and arrested by the authorities.
Most of the following information comes from one of four main sources, two of which are scenes from the film The Incredibles. The first is the scene, 45 minutes into the film, in which Edna Mode explains to Mr. Incredible why she refuses to design super suits with capes during which a montage of a number of late supers ' deaths is shown. The second is the scene, one hour into the film, in which Mr. Incredible hacks into Syndrome 's computer files. The third source is the "NSA Files '' feature in the "Top Secret '' section of Disc 2 of The Incredibles two - disc DVD edition. A minor amount of information, such as information on Fironic, comes from other scenes in the film, as noted.
The following are characters that aspire to be superheroes and appear in Incredibles 2:
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when does one piece come out every week | One Piece - wikipedia
One Piece (Japanese: ワンピース, Hepburn: Wan Pīsu) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Eiichiro Oda. It has been serialized in Shueisha 's Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine since July 22, 1997, and has been collected in 88 tankōbon volumes. The story follows the adventures of Monkey D. Luffy, a boy whose body gained the properties of rubber after unintentionally eating a Devil Fruit. With his crew of pirates, named the Straw Hat Pirates, Luffy explores the Grand Line in search of the world 's ultimate treasure known as "One Piece '' in order to become the next Pirate King.
The manga has been adapted into an original video animation (OVA) produced by Production I.G in 1998, and an anime series produced by Toei Animation, which began broadcasting in Japan in 1999. Additionally, Toei has developed thirteen animated feature films, one OVA and eleven television specials. Several companies have developed various types of merchandising such as a trading card game and numerous video games. The manga series was licensed for an English language release in North America and the United Kingdom by Viz Media and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. The anime series was licensed by 4Kids Entertainment for an English - language release in North America in 2004, before the license was dropped and subsequently acquired by Funimation in 2007.
One Piece has received praise for its storytelling, art, characterization, and humor. Several volumes of the manga have broken publishing records, including the highest initial print run of any book in Japan. The official website for Eiichiro Oda 's One Piece manga announced that the manga has set a Guinness World Record for "the most copies published for the same comic book series by a single author ''. As of October 2017, the manga has sold over 430 million copies worldwide, making it the best - selling manga series in history. It became the best - selling manga for the tenth consecutive year in 2017.
The series focuses on Monkey D. Luffy, a young man who, inspired by his childhood idol and powerful pirate "Red Haired '' Shanks, sets off on a journey from the East Blue Sea to find the famed treasure One Piece and proclaim himself the King of the Pirates. In an effort to organize his own crew, the Straw Hat Pirates (麦わら 海賊 団 篇, Mugiwara Kaizoku - dan), Luffy rescues and befriends a swordsman named Roronoa Zoro, and they head off in search of the One Piece. They are joined in their journey by Nami, a navigator and thief; Usopp, a sniper and a liar; and Sanji, a womanizing chef. They acquire a ship named the Going Merry and engage in confrontations with notorious pirates of the East Blue. As Luffy and his crew set out on their adventures, others join the crew later in the series, including the doctor and anthropomorphized reindeer Tony Tony Chopper, the archaeologist and former assassin Nico Robin, the cyborg shipwright Franky, the skeletal musician Brook, and the fishman helmsman Jimbei, and they also acquire a new ship named Thousand Sunny.
The world of One Piece is populated by humans and many other races such as "fishmen '' (a race of fish / human hybrids, similar to mermen and mermaids), dwarves, Minkmen (a race of humanoid animals), and giants. It is covered by two vast oceans, which are divided by a massive mountain range called the Red Line (赤い 土 の 大陸 (レッド ライン), Reddo Rain), which is also the only continent in the world. The Grand Line (偉大 なる 航路 (グランド ライン), Gurando Rain), a sea that runs perpendicular to the Red Line, further divides them into four seas: North Blue (北 の 海 (ノース ブルー), Nōsu Burū), East Blue (東 の 海 (イースト ブルー), Īsuto Burū), West Blue (西 の 海 (ウェスト ブルー), Uesuto Burū) and South Blue (南 の 海 (サウス ブルー), Sausu Burū). Surrounding the Grand Line are two regions called Calm Belts (凪 の 帯 (カーム ベルト), kāmu beruto), similar to horse latitudes, which experience almost no wind or ocean currents and are the breeding ground for huge sea creatures called sea kings (海王 類, kaiōrui, lit. "sea kings ''). Because of this, the calm belts are very effective barriers for those trying to enter the Grand Line. However, navy ships, members of an intergovernmental organization known as the World Government, are able to use a sea - prism stone (海 楼 石, kairōseki) to mask their presence from the sea kings and can simply pass through the calm belts. All other ships are forced to take a more dangerous route, going through a mountain at the first intersection of the Grand Line and the Red Line, a canal system known as Reverse Mountain (リヴァース ・ マウンテン, Rivāsu Maunten). Sea water from each of the four seas runs up that mountain and merges at the top to flow down a fifth canal and into the first half of the Grand Line. The second half of the Grand Line, beyond the second intersection with the Red Line, is known as the New World (新 世界, Shin Sekai).
The currents and weather of the Grand Line 's open sea are extremely unpredictable, whereas in the vicinity of islands the climate is stable. The magnetic fields within the Grand Line cause normal compasses to malfunction, making it even more difficult to navigate, and instead a special compass called a Log Pose (記録 指針 (ログポース), Rogu Pōsu) must be used. The Log Pose functions by locking on to one island 's magnetic field and then locking on to another island 's magnetic field. The time for it to set depends on the island. This process can be bypassed by obtaining an Eternal Pose (永久 指針 (エターナル ポース), Etānaru Pōsu), a Log Pose variation that is permanently set to a specific island and never changes.
The world of One Piece includes anachronisms, such as the Transponder Snails (電 伝 虫, Den - Den Mushi), snail - like animals that can be attached to electric equipment and function as rotary phones, fax machines, surveillance cameras, and similar devices. Dials (貝 (ダイアル), daiaru), the shells of certain sky - dwelling animals, can be used to store kinetic energy, wind, sound, images, heat, and the like and have various applications.
A Devil Fruit (悪魔 の 実, Akuma no Mi) is a type of fruit that, when eaten, grants a power to the eater. A person may only eat one Devil Fruit during their lifetime, as eating a second devil fruit will swiftly end their life. There are three categories of Devil Fruits; Zoan (動物 系 (ゾオン), Zoon, "animal type '') fruits allow the user to fully or partially transform into a specific animal. As well as real - life animals, some Zoan fruits allow the user to transform into mythical creatures. Logia (自然 系 (ロギア), Rogia, "nature type '') fruits give control over, and allow the user "to change their living body structure into the powers of nature ''. Paramecia (超人 系 (パラミシア), Paramishia, "superhuman type '') is a category of fruits that give the user superhuman abilities. Devil Fruits are said to be incarnations of the sea devil himself, and as a result, Devil Fruit users can not swim in sea water, as "they are hated by the sea ''. Sea - prism stone also has this effect. When even partially submerged in sea water, they lose all their strength and coordination, although some abilities remain. For example, Luffy is still able to stretch after being totally submerged. Moving water, such as rain or waves, does not have this effect. When a Devil Fruit user dies, the powers reincarnate into a new Devil Fruit. For unknown reasons, Devil Fruit users ca n't eat a second Devil Fruit because it would cause their bodies to burst, although Blackbeard managed to get a second Devil Fruit power through a unknown method. Devil Fruit powers can be in a stage called "Awakened '', where the user can turn anything around them, besides their own bodies, into what their Devil Fruit power is.
Haki (覇気, lit. "Ambition '') is a latent ability that every living being in the world of One Piece possesses; very few manage to awaken it, and even fewer master it. There are three varieties of Haki: Color of Observation or Mantra (見聞 色 の 覇気, Kenbunshoku no Haki) allows one to sense the presence of other beings and to have a form of limited precognition. (This is a great advantage in combat because the user can foresee his opponent 's attacks). Color of Armament (武装 色 の 覇気, Busōshoku no Haki) allows one to envelop body parts and even inanimate forms with a force akin to an invisible armor that possesses defensive and offensive properties. It also allows one to inflict harm upon Devil Fruit users. The rare Color of the Conquering King (覇王 色 の 覇気, Haōshoku no Haki) is an ability that, unlike the other two Haki, only a few gifted people have. (If a person is not gifted, then no matter how much they train they will never be able to use it). The Color of the Conquering King enables one to overpower the will of the weak - willed. It can be used to mind - control or even render the victim unconscious. Note that strong willed people can withstand, or even completely ignore, the effects of this Haki, even if they do not possess this ability themselves. This Haki can also have physical impacts, such as causing tremors and destruction to the user 's surrounding area. It is shown that when it is used too much Haki will stop working for certain periods of time, so it ca n't be in use constantly.
While working as an assistant to Nobuhiro Watsuki, Oda began writing One Piece in 1996. It started as two one - shot stories entitled Romance Dawn -- which would later be used as the title for One Piece 's first chapter and volume. They both featured the character of Luffy, and included elements that would appear later in the main series. The first of these short stories was published in August 1996 in Akamaru Jump and later in One Piece Red. The second was published in the 41st issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump in 1996, and reprinted in 1998 in Oda 's short story collection, Wanted!.
Oda revealed that he originally planned One Piece to last five years, and that he had already planned the ending. However, he found it would take longer than he had expected. Oda stated that the ending would be what he had decided in the beginning; he is committed to seeing it through.
When creating a Devil Fruit, Oda thinks of something that would fulfill a human desire; he added that he does not see why he would draw a Devil Fruit unless the fruit 's appearance would entice one to eat it. The names of many special attacks, as well as other concepts in the manga, consist of a form of punning in which phrases written in kanji are paired with an idiosyncratic reading. The names of Luffy, Sanji, Chopper, Robin, and Franky 's techniques are often mixed with other languages, and the names of several of Zoro 's sword techniques are designed as jokes; some of them look fearsome when read by sight but sound like kinds of food when read aloud. For example, Zoro 's signature move is Onigiri, which is written as demon cut but is pronounced the same as rice ball in Japanese. Eisaku Inoue, the animation director, has said that the creators did not use these kanji readings in the anime since they "might have cut down the laughs by about half ''. Nevertheless, Konosuke Uda, the director, said that he believes that the creators "made the anime pretty close to the manga ''.
Oda was "sensitive '' about how his work would be translated. In many instances, the English version of the One Piece manga uses one onomatopoeia for multiple onomatopoeia used in the Japanese version. For instance, "saaa '' (the sound of light rain, close to a mist) and "zaaa '' (the sound of pouring rain) are both translated as "fshhhhhhh ''. Unlike other manga artists, Oda draws everything that moves himself to create a consistent look while leaving his staff to draw the backgrounds based on sketches he has drawn.
When a reader asked Oda who Nami is in love with, he answered that there will not likely be any references to romance, since he believes the series ' intended demographic is not interested.
Written and illustrated by Eiichiro Oda, One Piece has been serialized in the manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Jump since July 22, 1997. The chapters have been collected into tankōbon volumes by Shueisha since December 24, 1997. In total, there are 900 chapters and 88 tankōbon volumes. Oda teamed up with Akira Toriyama to create a single crossover of One Piece and Toriyama 's Dragon Ball. Entitled Cross Epoch, the one - shot was published in the December 25, 2006, issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump and the April 2011 issue of the English Shonen Jump. Oda collaborated with Mitsutoshi Shimabukuro, author of Toriko, for a crossover one - shot of their series titled Taste of the Devil Fruit (実 食! 悪魔 の 実!!, Jitsushoku! Akuma no Mi!!, lit. "The True Food! Devil Fruit!! ''), which ran in the April 4, 2011, issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump. The spinoff series One Piece Party (ワンピース パーティー, Wan Pīsu Pātī), written by Ei Andō in a super deformed art style, began serialization in the January 2015 issue of Saikyō Jump.
The One Piece manga was licensed for an English language release by Viz Media, who published it via chapters in the manga anthology Shonen Jump, since the magazine 's launch in November 2002, and in bound volumes since June 30, 2003. In 2009, Viz announced the release of five volumes per month during the first half of 2010 to catch up with the serialization in Japan. Following the discontinuation of the print Shonen Jump, Viz began releasing One Piece chapterwise in its digital successor Weekly Shonen Jump on January 30, 2012. In the United Kingdom, the volumes were published by Gollancz Manga, starting in March 2006, until Viz Media took it over after the fourteenth volume. In Australia and New Zealand, the English volumes have been distributed by Madman Entertainment since November 10, 2008.
In Poland, Japonica Polonica Fantastica is publishing the manga; twenty - six volumes were released. In France, Glénat is publishing the manga. It is published by Panini Comics in Mexico, LARP Editores in Argentina, Planeta de Libros in Spain, and Edizioni Star Comics in Italy.
One Piece: Defeat Him! The Pirate Ganzack! was produced by Production I.G for the 1998 Jump Super Anime Tour and was directed by Gorō Taniguchi. Luffy, Nami, and Zoro are attacked by a sea monster that destroys their boat and separates them. Luffy is found on an island beach, where he saves a little girl, Medaka, from two pirates. All the villagers, including Medaka 's father have been abducted by Ganzack and his crew and forced into labor. After hearing that Ganzack also stole all the food, Luffy and Zoro rush out to retrieve it. As they fight the pirates, one of them kidnaps Medaka. A fight starts between Luffy and Ganzack, ending with Luffy 's capture. Meanwhile, Zoro is forced to give up after a threat is made to kill all the villagers. They rise up against Ganzack, and while the islanders and pirates fight, Nami unlocks the three captives. Ganzack defeats the rebellion and reveals his armored battleship. The Straw Hat Pirates are forced to fight Ganzack once more to prevent him from destroying the island.
A second film, One Piece: Romance Dawn Story, was produced by Toei Animation in July 2008 for the Jump Super Anime Tour. It is 34 minutes in length and based on the first version of Romance Dawn. It includes the Straw Hat Pirates up to Brook and their second ship, the Thousand Sunny. In search for food for his crew, Luffy arrives at a port after defeating a pirate named Crescent Moon Gally on the way. There he meets a girl named Silk, who was abandoned by attacking pirates as a baby and raised by the mayor. Her upbringing causes her to value the town as her "treasure ''. The villagers mistake Luffy for Gally and capture him just as the real Gally returns. Gally throws Luffy in the water and plans to destroy the town, but Silk saves him and Luffy pursues Gally. His crew arrives to help him, and with their help he recovers the treasure for the town, acquires food, and destroys Gally 's ship.
The film was later released as a triple feature DVD with Dragon Ball: Yo! Son Goku and His Friends Return!! and Tegami Bachi: Light and Blue Night, that was available only though a mail - in offer exclusively to Japanese residents.
The One Piece Film Strong World: Episode 0 original video animation adapts the manga 's special "Chapter 0 '', which shows how things were before and after the death of Roger. It received a limited release of three thousand DVDs as a collaboration with the House Foods brand.
Toei Animation produces an anime television series based on the One Piece manga. The series, which premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on October 20, 1999, has aired more than 800 episodes, and has been exported to various countries around the world. Two cross-over episodes with the anime adaptation of Toriko were aired. The first of these, which was also the first episode of Toriko, aired on April 3, 2011. A second special, which also crossed over with Dragon Ball Z, aired on April 7, 2013.
On June 8, 2004, 4Kids Entertainment acquired the license for distribution of One Piece in North America. 4Kids contracted Viz Media to handle home video distribution. 4Kids ' in - house musicians wrote a new background score and theme song nicknamed "Pirate Rap ''. 4Kids ' dub mandated edits for content and length, which reduced the first 143 episodes into 104. Initially, 4Kids originally created an English version of the first opening theme, "We Are! '' It premiered in the United States on September 18, 2004, in first - run syndication on the Fox network as part of the weekend programming block Fox Box, and later aired on Cartoon Network on their weekday afternoon programming block Toonami in April 2005. Production was halted in 2006 after episode 143 / 104. Viz also ceased its home video release of the series after volume 11. On July 22, 2010, an interview with Anime News Network and Mark Kirk, senior vice-president of digital media for 4Kids Entertainment, revealed that 4Kids acquired One Piece as part of a package deal with other anime, and that the company did not screen the series before licensing it. However, once 4Kids realized One Piece was not appropriate for their intended demographic, the company decided to edit it into a more child - oriented series until they had an opportunity to legally drop the license. Kirk said the experience of producing One Piece "ruined the company 's reputation ''. Since then, 4Kids established a stricter set of guidelines, checks, and balances to determine which anime the company acquires.
On April 13, 2007, Funimation licensed the series and started production on an English - language release of One Piece. In an interview with voice actor Christopher Sabat, he stated that Funimation had been interested in acquiring One Piece from the very beginning, and produced a "test episode, '' in which Sabat portrayed the character of Helmeppo and Eric Vale played the part of the main character, Monkey D. Luffy. (They would later go on to provide the English voices for Roronoa Zoro and Sanji, respectively.) After resuming production of the renewed English dub, which featured less censorship because of fewer restrictions on cable programming, Funimation released its first uncut, bilingual DVD box set containing 13 episodes on May 27, 2008. Similarly sized sets followed with fourteen sets released. The Funimation - dubbed episodes premiered on Cartoon Network on September 29, 2007 and aired until its removal on March 22, 2008. On October 28, 2011, Funimation posted a press release on their official website confirming the acquisition of episodes 206 -- 263, and the aspect ratio, beginning with episode 207, would be changed to the 16: 9 widescreen format. On May 18, 2013, the uncut series began airing on Adult Swim 's revived Toonami late - night programming block from episode 207 onward. One Piece was removed from the Toonami block after March 18, 2017.
In May 2009, Funimation, Toei Animation, Shueisha, and Fuji Television announced they would simulcast stream the series within an hour of the weekly Japanese broadcast at no charge. Originally scheduled to begin on May 30, 2009, with episode 403, a lack of security resulted in a leak of the episode, and Funimation delayed the offer until episode 415 on August 29, 2009.
On February 12, 2013, it was announced that Manga Entertainment would start releasing the Funimation dub of One Piece in the United Kingdom in a DVD box set format. Crunchyroll began simulcasting the series on November 2, 2013, for the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America.
Thirteen animated theatrical films based on the One Piece series have been released in Japan. The films are typically released in March in accordance with the spring vacation of Japanese schools. The films feature self - contained, completely original plots, or alternate retellings of story arcs with animation of a higher quality than what the weekly anime allows. The first three films were typically double features paired up with other anime films, and were thus, usually an hour or less in length. The films themselves offer contradictions in both chronology and design that make them incompatible with a single continuity. Funimation has licensed the eighth, tenth, and twelfth films for release in North America, and these films have received in - house dubs by the company.
The One Piece franchise has been adapted into multiple video games published by subsidiaries of Bandai and later as part of Bandai Namco Entertainment. The games have been released on a variety of video game, handheld consoles, and mobile devices. The video games feature role - playing games, and fighting games, such as the titles of the Grand Battle! meta - series. The series debuted in Japan on July 19, 2000, with From TV Animation - One Piece: Become the Pirate King!. Over forty games have been produced based on the franchise. Additionally, One Piece characters and settings have appeared in various Shonen Jump crossover games, such as Battle Stadium D.O.N, Jump Super Stars, Jump Ultimate Stars, and J - Stars Victory VS.
Music soundtracks have been released that are based on songs that premiered in the series. Kohei Tanaka and Shiro Hamaguchi composed the score for One Piece. Various theme songs and character songs were released on a total of 49 singles. Eight compilation albums and seventeen soundtrack CDs have been released featuring songs and themes that were introduced in the series.
A series of light novels was published based on the first festival film, certain episodes of the anime television series, and all but the first feature film. They feature artwork by Oda and are written by Tatsuya Hamasaki. The first of these novels, One Piece: Defeat The Pirate Ganzak! was released on June 3, 1999. One Piece: Logue Town Chapter followed on July 17, 2000, as an adaptation of the anime television series ' Logue Town story arc. The first feature film to be adapted was Clockwork Island Adventure on March 19, 2001. On December 25, 2001, saw the publication of the second, and so far last, light novel adaptation of an anime television series arc in One Piece: Thousand - year Dragon Legend. The adaptation of Chopper 's Kingdom on the Island of Strange Animals was released on March 22, 2002, and that of Dead End Adventure on March 10, 2003. Curse of the Sacred Sword followed on March 22, 2004, and Baron Omatsuri and the Secret Island on March 14, 2005. The light novel of The Giant Mechanical Soldier of Karakuri Castle was released on March 6, 2006, and that of The Desert Princess and the Pirates: Adventures in Alabasta on March 7, 2007. The newest novel adapts Episodes of Chopper Plus: Bloom in the Winter, Miracle Cherry Blossom and was released on February 25, 2008.
Five art books and five guidebooks for the One Piece series have been released. The first art book, One Piece: Color Walk 1, released June 2001, was also released in English by Viz Media on November 8, 2005. A second art book, One Piece: Color Walk 2, was released on November 4, 2003; and One Piece: Color Walk 3 -- Lion the third art book, was released January 5, 2006. The fourth art book, subtitled Eagle, was released on March 4, 2010, and One Piece: Shark, the fifth art book, was released on December 3, 2010.
The first guidebook One Piece: Red -- Grand Characters was released on March 2, 2002. The second, One Piece: Blue -- Grand Data File, followed on August 2, 2002. The third guidebook, One Piece: Yellow -- Grand Elements, was released on April 4, 2007, and the fourth, One Piece: Green -- Secret Pieces, followed on November 4, 2010. An anime guidebook, One Piece: Rainbow!, was released on May 1, 2007, and covers the first eight years of the TV anime.
The Baratie restaurant, modeled after the restaurant of the same name in the manga, opened in June 2013 at the Fuji Television headquarters. An indoor theme park located inside the Tokyo Tower called the Tokyo One Piece Tower, which includes the Mugiwara Cafe, opened on March 13, 2015.
Other One Piece media include a trading card game by Bandai called One Piece CCG and a drama CD centering on the character of Nefertari Vivi released by Avex Trax on December 26, 2002. A Hello Kitty - inspired Chopper was used for several pieces of merchandise as a collaboration between One Piece and Hello Kitty. A kabuki play inspired by One Piece ran at Tokyo 's Shinbashi Enbujō throughout October and November 2015.
One Piece is the first - ever manga series to hold a "Dome Tour '', in which events were held from March 25 to 27 at the Kyocera Dome in Osaka, and from April 27 to May 1 at the Tokyo Dome. In 2014, the first One Piece exhibition in Korea was held at the War Memorial of Korea, and the second exhibition in Hongik Daehango Art Center. In 2015, a One Piece trompe - l'œil exhibition was held at the Hong Kong 3D Museum.
On July 21, 2017, Weekly Shōnen Jump editor - in - chief Hiroyuki Nakano announced that Tomorrow Studios (a partnership between Marty Adelstein and ITV Studios) and Shueisha would commence production of an American live - action television adaptation of Eiichiro Oda 's One Piece manga series as part of the series ' 20th anniversary celebrations. Eiichiro Oda will serve as executive producer for the series alongside Tomorrow Studios CEO Adelstein and Becky Clements. The series will reportedly begin with the East Blue arc.
One Piece is the best - selling manga series in history; it sold 100 million collected tankōbon volumes by February 2005, over 200 million by February 2011, over 360 million copies sold in Japan and 430 million copies in circulation worldwide as of October 2017. According to Oricon, One Piece has been the best - selling manga series every year since 2008 when the company began its chart, and it became the best - selling manga for the tenth consecutive year in 2017. Due to promotions for the Strong World film, all 56 volumes of the manga released at the time charted on Oricon 's list of the top 200 manga for the week of December 7 -- 13, 2009.
Additionally, individual volumes of One Piece have broken publishing and sales records in Japan. In 2009, Volume 56 had the highest initial print run of any manga: 2.85 million copies. Volume 57 's print run of 3 million copies in 2010 was the highest first print for any book of any subject in Japan -- a record that was broken several times by subsequent volumes and currently held by Volume 67 's 4.05 million initial printing in 2012. Volume 60 was the first book to sell over two million copies in its opening week on Oricon book rankings, and later became the first book to sell over three million copies since the chart began in 2008.
One Piece has also sold well in North America, charting on Publishers Weekly 's list of bestselling comics for April / May 2007 and numerous times on The New York Times Manga Best Seller list. On ICv2 's list of Top 25 Manga Properties Fall 2008 for North America, which is compiled by interviews with retailers and distributors, Nielsen BookScan 's Top 20 Lists of graphic novels and ICv2 's own analysis of information provided by Diamond Comic Distributors, One Piece came in 15th place. It rose to second place on their Top 25 Manga Properties Q3 2010 list.
Allen Divers of Anime News Network comments in 2003 that the art style One Piece employs "initially seems very cartoonish with much of the character designs showing more North American influence than that from its Japanese origins ''. Adding that the "artwork and settings come across as timeless in their presentation ''. He also notes that the influence of Akira Toriyama (Dragon Ball) shines through in Oda 's style of writing with its "huge epic battles punctuated by a lot of humor '' and that, in One Piece, he "manages to share a rich tale without getting bogged down by overly complicated plots ''. Rebecca Silverman of the same site stated that one of the series ' strengths is to "blend action, humor, and heavy fare together '' and praised the art, but stated that the panels could get too crowded for easy reading. The website activeAnime describes the artwork in One Piece as "wonderfully quirky and full of expression ''. Splashcomics comments that Oda 's "pleasantly bright and dynamic '' (German: "angenehm hell und dynamisch '') art style suits the story 's "funny and exciting '' (German: "witzigen und... spannenden '') atmosphere.
EX Media lauds Oda 's art for its "crispy '' monochrome pictures, "great use of subtle shade changes '' on color pages, "sometimes exquisite '' use of angles, and for its consistency. Shaenon K. Garrity, who at some point edited the series for English Shonen Jump, said that, while doing so, her amazement over Oda 's craft grew steadily. She states that "he has a natural, playful mastery of the often restrictive weekly - manga format, '' notes that "interesting things (are) going on deep in the narrative structure, '' and recommends "sticking through to the later volumes to see just how crazy and Peter Max - y the art gets ''. Mania Entertainment writer Jarred Pine comments that "One Piece is a fun adventure story, with an ensemble cast that is continuing to develop, with great action and character drama. '' He praised Oda 's artwork as "imaginative and creative '' and comments that "Oda 's imagination just oozes all of the panels (sic) ''. He also notes that "Oda 's panel work (...) features a lot of interesting perspectives and direction, especially during the explosive action sequences which are always a blast, '' though he complains that the panels can sometimes get "a little chaotic ''.
The anime adaptations have also been very well - received. The first episode of the anime adaptation earned a viewer ratings percentage of 12.4, behind Pokémon and ahead of Ojamajo Doremi. As of 2017, One Piece is among the top 10 anime in viewer ratings every week in Japan. On several occasions the One Piece anime has topped Japan 's DVD sales.
In a review of the second DVD release of 4Kids Entertainment 's dub, Todd Douglass, Jr. of DVD Talk called its adaptation a "shabby treatment '' resulting in an "arguably less enjoyable rendition ''. Douglass said that the 4Kids original opening was "a crappy rap song '' and that the removal of whole scenes leaves a "feeling that something is missing ''. He later went on to say that "Fans of the ' real ' One Piece will want to skip picking (...) up (4Kids Entertainment 's One Piece DVDs) until an uncut release is announced '', and also stated that "kids may get into this version because it 's what they have seen on TV ''. Margaret Veira of activeAnime praised the TV series ' "great '' animation, stating that "It gives life and stays true to the style and characters of the manga. '' She notes the fight scenes in particular have "a lot of energy to them ''. Patrick King of Animefringe comments that the art style of One Piece is "very distinctive and fresh ''.
In a review of the first Funimation DVD release for Mania Entertainment, Bryce Coulter comments that One Piece is "not your typical pirate adventure '' and that mixed with "the right amount of random fun along with a shonen style storyline '' it becomes "an appealing and fun romp ''. In a review of Funimation 's second DVD release for Mania Entertainment, Bryce Coulter comments that "You can tell that they are giving One Piece the attention that was neglected by 4Kids '' and that "One Piece is a great tale of high - seas fun that will leave you wanting more! ''
In Indonesia, Global TV was reprimanded by the Indonesian Broadcasting Commission (KPI) for airing the anime television series. Nina Armando, member of the KPI and a lecturer at the University of Indonesia, said the show should not be aired at times when children are likely to watch.
The One Piece manga was a finalist for the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize three times in a row from 2000 to 2002, with the highest number of fan nominations in the first two years. The German translation of its 44th volume won the Sondermann audience award in the international manga category, a yearly comic award given in seven categories by the Frankfurt Book Fair, the Frankfurter Rundschau, Spiegel Online and Comicforum, at the Fair 's Comics Centre in 2005. In a 2008 poll by Oricon, Japanese teenagers voted it the most interesting manga. The manga was nominated for Favorite Manga Series in Nickelodeon Magazine 's 2009 Comics Awards. In 2012, One Piece won the 41st Japan Cartoonists Association Award Grand Prize, alongside Kimuchi Yokoyama 's Nekodarake Nice. Da Vinci magazine named One Piece number three on their list of 2013 's top manga, which was voted on 4,619 professional book reviewers, bookstore employees, and Da Vinci readers. On June 15, 2015, it was announced that Eiichiro Oda and One Piece had set the Guinness World Record for "The most copies published for the same comic book series by a single author '' with 320,866,000 copies printed worldwide as of December 2014.
The first opening of the One Piece anime television series, "We Are! '', won the Animation Kobe Theme Song Award of the year 2000. In February 2001, One Piece placed 9th among anime television series in Japan. In 2001, the readers of Animage, a popular Japanese anime magazine, voted the anime television series in 5th place of The Readers ' Picks for the Anime that should be remembered in the 21st Century. In June 2002, Animage readers voted One Piece to be the 16th best new anime of the year 2001, and gave it another 16th place in 2004 in the category Favorite Anime Series. In a 2005 web poll by Japanese television network TV Asahi One Piece was voted 6th most popular animated TV series. Before the poll, Asahi TV broadcast another list based on a nationwide survey in which One Piece placed 4th among teenagers. In 2006, it was elected 32nd of the Top 100 Japanese anime by TV Asahi and 21st by its viewers. Funimation 's first DVD release of the series "One Piece: Season 1 First Voyage '' was nominated for the Fifth Annual TV DVD Awards.
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which movie won the best picture award at 89th oscar academy award held in 2017 | 89th Academy Awards - wikipedia
The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2016, and took place on February 26, 2017, at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, at 5: 30 p.m. PST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Michael De Luca and Jennifer Todd and directed by Glenn Weiss. Comedian Jimmy Kimmel hosted the ceremony for the first time.
In related events, the Academy held its 8th Annual Governors Awards ceremony at the Grand Ballroom of the Hollywood and Highland Center on November 12, 2016. On February 11, 2017, in a ceremony at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, the Academy Scientific and Technical Awards were presented by hosts John Cho and Leslie Mann.
Moonlight won three awards including Best Picture and La La Land won the most awards of the ceremony with six after receiving a record - tying 14 nominations. In an event unprecedented in the history of the Oscars, La La Land was incorrectly announced as the Best Picture. After a few minutes the error was corrected and Moonlight was declared the winner. Moonlight became the first film with an all - black cast and the first LGBT - themed film to win Best Picture. Hacksaw Ridge and Manchester by the Sea won two awards each. Winners with one award include Arrival, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, Fences, The Jungle Book, O.J.: Made in America, Piper, The Salesman, Sing, Suicide Squad, The White Helmets, and Zootopia.
The nominees for the 89th Academy Awards were announced on January 24, 2017, via global live stream from the Academy. La La Land received the most nominations with a record - tying fourteen (1950 's All About Eve and 1997 's Titanic also achieved this distinction); Arrival and Moonlight came in second with eight apiece. La La Land 's Best Picture loss to Moonlight meant it set a record for most nominations without winning Best Picture.
O.J.: Made in America, at 467 minutes, became the longest film to win an Academy Award, surpassing the 431 - minute War and Peace, which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1969. With Casey Affleck winning the Oscar for Best Actor, he and his older brother, Ben Affleck, became the 16th pair of siblings to win Academy Awards. Mahershala Ali became the first Muslim actor to win an Oscar. Viola Davis became the first black person to receive the Triple Crown of Acting with her Oscar, Tony and Emmy wins. 32 - year - old Damien Chazelle became the youngest person to win Best Director; Norman Taurog was 33 when he won Best Director for the 1931 comedy Skippy.
Kevin O'Connell finally ended the longest losing streak in Oscar history after 20 unsuccessful nominations for sound mixing, winning for Hacksaw Ridge. Moonlight ' s Dede Gardner became the first woman to win twice for producing, following her previous Best Picture win for 12 Years a Slave. This was the first time since the 70th Academy Awards that none of the winners of the acting awards won for playing real people, and the first time since the 70th Awards that all four acting winners were American.
Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface.
The Academy held its eighth annual Governors Awards ceremony on November 12, 2016, during which the following awards were presented:
The following individuals were brought onto the ceremony to present awards or perform musical numbers.
Due to the mixed reception and low ratings of the previous year 's ceremony, producers David Hill and Reginald Hudlin declined to helm the upcoming festivities. They were replaced by Michael De Luca and Jennifer Todd as producers. Actor and comedian Chris Rock told Variety regarding if he would return to host, "Someone else will do it. '' On December 5, 2016, it was announced that Jimmy Kimmel would host the ceremony. Kimmel expressed that it was truly an honor and a thrill to be asked to host Academy Awards, commenting "Mike and Jennifer have an excellent plan and their enthusiasm is infectious. I am honored to have been chosen to host the 89th and final Oscars. ''
Due to his hosting duties, ABC did not broadcast a special episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live! following the ceremony, as in past years. Instead, ABC aired Live from Hollywood: The After Party, co-hosted by Anthony Anderson, and Lara Spencer of Good Morning America. The stage set was designed by Derek McLane.
At the time of the nominations announcement on January 24, 2017, the combined gross of the nine Best Picture nominees at the North American box offices was $483.8 million, with an average of $53.8 million per film. When the nominations were announced, Arrival was the highest - grossing film among the Best Picture nominees with $95.7 million in domestic box office receipts. La La Land was the second - highest - grossing film with $90.5 million, followed by Hidden Figures ($85 million), Hacksaw Ridge ($65.5 million), Fences ($48.8 million), Manchester by the Sea ($39 million), Hell or High Water ($27 million), Lion ($16.5 million) and Moonlight ($15.8 million).
Thirty - five nominations went to 13 films on the list of the top 50 grossing movies of the year. Of those 13 films, only Zootopia (3rd), Moana (15th), La La Land (45th), and Arrival (48th) were nominated for Best Picture, Best Animated Feature or any of the directing, acting or screenwriting awards. The other top 50 box - office hits that earned nominations were Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (4th), The Jungle Book (5th), Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (8th), Suicide Squad (10th), Doctor Strange (11th), Star Trek Beyond (24th), Trolls (25th), Passengers (30th), and Sully (32nd).
In the previous two years, the awards had come under scrutiny for the lack of racial diversity among the nominees in major categories, which included no actors of color being nominated. After the nominees for the 89th Awards were announced on January 24, many media outlets noted the diversity of the nominations, which included a record - tying seven minority actors and a record - setting six black actors. For the first time in the Academy 's history, each acting category had black actors, with three nominated in the Best Supporting Actress category and three black screenwriters nominated in the Best Adapted Screenplay category in the same year. Also nominated was one black director, the fourth in Oscar history.
The awards continued to be criticized by actors and media organizations representing non-black minorities. The National Hispanic Media Coalition stated that Latino actors were "not getting the opportunities to work in front of camera, and with few exceptions, in back of the camera as well. '' Daniel Mayeda, chair of the Asian Pacific American Media Coalition, stated that the omission of Asian actors from the nominations list (with only one actor, Dev Patel, nominated) reflected "the continued lack of real opportunities for Asians in Hollywood. '' A skit performed during the ceremony, in which a group of tourists enter the theater, led to criticism of host Jimmy Kimmel over his mocking of an Asian woman 's name.
Having previously been nominated for Doubt (2008) and The Help (2011), Viola Davis became the first African - American actress to garner three Academy Award nominations. She went on to win the award, making her the first African - American to achieve the Triple Crown of Acting: winning a competitive Emmy, Tony, and Oscar in acting categories. Bradford Young became the first African - American to be nominated for Best Cinematography, while Joi McMillon became the first African - American to be nominated for Best Film Editing since Hugh A. Robertson for Midnight Cowboy, as well as the first black woman to be nominated for that award.
Moonlight became the first film with an all - black cast to win the Best Picture award. Additionally, the ceremony had the most black winners of the Academy Awards ever.
Iranian director Asghar Farhadi, who won the Best Foreign Language Film for The Salesman, was revealed to initially be unable to attend the ceremony due to President Donald Trump 's immigration ban. He boycotted the event, saying, "I have decided to not attend the Academy Awards ceremony alongside my fellow members of the cinematic community. '' The Academy president Cheryl Boone Isaacs reacted to the travel ban, saying, "America should always be not a barrier but a beacon and each and every one of us knows that there are some empty chairs in this room which has made academy artists into activists. ''
Two prominent Iranian Americans -- engineer Anousheh Ansari, known as the first female space tourist, and Firouz Naderi, a former director of Solar Systems Exploration at NASA -- accepted Asghar Farhadi 's Oscar on his behalf at the ceremony. Congratulations which had initially been tweeted to the Iranian people from the US State Department 's official Persian - language Twitter account were deleted following the acceptance speech given by Firouz Naderi in which President Trump 's travel ban was described as "inhumane ''.
Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway came onstage to present the award for Best Picture, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of Bonnie and Clyde. After opening the envelope, Beatty hesitated to announce the winner, eventually showing it to Dunaway, who glanced at it and declared La La Land the winner. However, more than two minutes later, as the producers of La La Land were making their acceptance speeches, Oscar crew members came on stage and took the envelopes from those assembled, explaining to them that there had been a mistake. La La Land producer Fred Berger, having heard the news, concluded his brief speech by saying "we lost, by the way ''.
Beatty was then given the correct opened envelope as La La Land producer Jordan Horowitz stepped to the microphone, announced the error, stated that Moonlight had actually won the award, and took the card bearing the film 's title from Beatty 's hand and showed it to the camera and the audience as proof. Horowitz would later be praised for his professional handling of the situation. Beatty returned to the microphone and explained that the envelope he had initially been given named Emma Stone for her performance in La La Land, hence his confused pause, and confirmed that Moonlight was the winner. The producers of Moonlight then came onstage, Horowitz presented the Best Picture award given to him to them, and they gave their acceptance speeches.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) -- the accounting firm responsible for tabulating results, preparing the envelopes, and handing them to presenters -- creates two sets of envelopes, which are kept on opposite sides of the stage. It is intended that each award has one primary envelope and one backup envelope that remains with one of the PwC Accountants in the wings. Video stills from the broadcast show that Beatty and Dunaway had been given the single remaining still - unopened backup envelope for Actress in a Leading Role as they walked onto the stage.
PwC issued a statement apologizing for this error:
An article from The New York Times explained:
Brian Cullinan, the PwC accountant who handed Beatty the wrong envelope, had been instructed not to use social media during the event, but had tweeted a snapshot of Emma Stone moments before handing the wrong envelope to the official presenters. Variety published photographs of Cullinan that were taken at the time which showed him backstage while tweeting the image.
The show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets received the broadcast more positively with praise directed toward host Kimmel. Television critic Sonia Saraiya of the Variety remarked, "Kimmel 's Oscars found a way to balance the telecast between that sensibility -- the treacly self - satisfaction of sweeping orchestrals and tap - dancing starlets -- and the very real widening gulf between the wealthy and cultured elites in Hollywood and the global public they make art for. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today said that, "a host can make matters better or worse, and on that scale, Kimmel definitely fell on the ' better ' side. He was a constantly amusing, good - natured presence who usually hit the mark, and who was able to recover quickly when he did n't. '' Television critic Brian Lowry from CNN stated, "Kimmel proved a helpful choice given the polarized climate. He brought a light touch to his satire -- acknowledging partisan division and poking at Trump without seeming mean - spirited -- and an overall silliness to the proceedings. ''
Others were more critical of the show. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly remarked, "Kimmel (and / or the producers) did n't know when to stop and did n't know when to bail on stuff that was n't working, a judgment fail that got more irritating at the show went long. They had to do the parachuting snack delivery thing three times? '' Time television critic Daniel D'Addario wrote, "To dispense with what did not work: It was unfortunate that the evening 's host did n't seem to share the evening 's general embrace of humanity, but, well, one ca n't have everything. '' The Oregonian columnist Kristi Turnquist wrote, "His recurring visits got less entertaining as the evening dragged on. '' She added, "And does anybody else find the long - running mock feud between Kimmel and Matt Damon as hilarious as they do? By the end of the Oscars broadcast, this bit felt as tedious as the ill - advised recurring segments featuring actors waxing on about favorite films. ''
Attaining 32.9 million U.S. viewers according to Nielsen ratings, the ceremony 's telecast had a 4 - percent drop in viewership from last year 's ceremony and had the lowest U.S. viewership since the 80th ceremony in 2008, which averaged 32 million viewers.
The annual In Memoriam segment was introduced by Jennifer Aniston with Sara Bareilles performing a rendition of "Both Sides, Now '' during the montage. Beforehand, Aniston paid verbal tribute to actor Bill Paxton, who died the day before the ceremony. The segment paid tribute to:
The slide for Janet Patterson, an Australian costume designer, mistakenly used a photograph of Australian producer Jan Chapman, who is still alive.
Official websites
News resources
Analysis
Other resources
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what is the name of the hallelujah song in shrek | List of songs featured in Shrek - wikipedia
The Shrek Soundtracks are a collection of soundtracks from all four movies of the Shrek series, including separate editions for the movie score. Each soundtrack contains all songs that featured in their respective film, and the score soundtrack contains the music composed by Harry Gregson - Williams.
Shrek introduced a new element to give the film a unique feel; the film used pop music and other oldies to make the story more forward. Covers of songs like "On the Road Again '' and "Try a Little Tenderness '' were integrated in the film 's score. As the film was about to be completed, Katzenberg suggested the filmmakers redo the film 's ending in order to "go out with a big laugh ''; instead of ending the film with a storybook closing over Shrek and Fiona as they ride off into the sunset, they decided to add the song "I 'm a Believer '' by Smash Mouth and show all the fairytale creatures in the film.
Although Rufus Wainwright 's version of the song "Hallelujah '' appeared in the soundtrack album, it was John Cale 's version that appeared in the film. Wainwright was an artist for DreamWorks and John Cale was not, thus licensing issues prohibited Cale 's version from appearing in the soundtrack album.
Shrek: Music from the Original Motion Picture is the soundtrack of the 2001 Academy Award - winning and Golden Globe - nominated animated feature Shrek.
The album was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music (lost to the score of Moulin Rouge!) and the Grammy Award for "Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media '' (lost to the score of O Brother, Where Art Thou?).
The album has sold 2,475,000 copies in the US as of April 2014.
These songs feature in the party at the end of the movie.
Shrek: Original Motion Picture Score is the film score to the 2001 Academy Award winning animated feature, Shrek. It is composed by Harry Gregson - Williams and John Powell and was the second soundtrack released from the film. It is also the third collaboration between Gregson - Williams and Powell for a DreamWorks animated film, the first two being Antz and Chicken Run.
All tracks written by Harry Gregson - Williams and John Powell.
Shrek 2: Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack for the hit animated comedy film Shrek 2 and was released in May 2004, to accompany the release of the film. The soundtrack reached the Top 10 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Soundtrack Albums as well as topping the albums chart in Australia. The lead single, "Accidentally in Love '' by the Counting Crows, reached the Top 10 of the Billboard Adult Top 40, the Top 20 of singles charts worldwide and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song. The soundtrack also features two versions of the 1980s Bonnie Tyler hit "Holding Out for a Hero ''.
Most of the original voice -- actors reprised their roles, with some performed by additional singers.
Shrek 2: Party CD is a bonus CD released exclusively at US Walmart stores alongside the Shrek 2 film. The bonus CD features six songs taken from the Far Far Away Idol ending featured at the end of the film as well as six karaoke tracks of the same six songs. The songs are credited to the characters who sang the songs.
Shrek 2: Original Motion Picture Score is the film score to the 2004 animated feature, Shrek 2, the sequel to the Academy Award winner Shrek. Unlike its predecessor, the score for Shrek 2 was only composed by Harry Gregson - Williams.
All tracks written by Harry Gregson - Williams.
Footnotes:
Shrek the Third: Motion Picture Soundtrack, the soundtrack for the film Shrek the Third was released on May 15, 2007 on Geffen Records. A wide range of artists are featured in this soundtrack, including Paul McCartney & Wings, Led Zeppelin, Eels, The Ramones, pop / R&B singer Fergie, and Wolfmother. Eddie Murphy and Antonio Banderas perform another duet, a cover of Sly & the Family Stone 's "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) ''.
Shrek the Third: Original Motion Picture Score is the film score to the 2007 animated feature Shrek the Third, the third movie in the Shrek series. It was composed by British composer Harry Gregson - Williams.
All tracks written by Harry Gregson - Williams.
Shrek Forever After: Original Motion Picture Score is the film score to the 2010 animated feature Shrek Forever After, the fourth and final movie in the Shrek series. It was composed by British composer Harry Gregson - Williams.
All tracks written by Harry Gregson - Williams.
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part 121 of the international traffic in arms regulations (itar) | International Traffic in Arms Regulations - Wikipedia
International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) is a United States regulatory regime to restrict and control the export of defense and military related technologies to safeguard U.S. national security and further U.S. foreign policy objectives.
Defense - related articles and services on the United States Munitions List (USML) are covered by the regulations, which implement the provisions of the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), and are described in Title 22 (Foreign Relations), Chapter I (Department of State), Subchapter M of the Code of Federal Regulations. The Department of State Directorate of Defense Trade Controls (DDTC) interprets and enforces ITAR. The related Export Administration Regulations (Code of Federal Regulations Title 15 chapter VII, subchapter C) are enforced and interpreted by the Bureau of Industry and Security in the Commerce Department. The Department of Defense is also involved in the review and approval process. Physical enforcement of the ITAR; and all import and export laws of the United States is performed by Homeland Security Investigations Special Agents (formerly U.S. Customs) under Immigration and Customs Enforcement, an agency of the Department of Homeland Security. Additionally, Customs and Border Protection Officers, also under the Department of Homeland Security, inspect imports and exports at U.S. Border Crossings and International Airports and enforce import and export regulations.
For practical purposes, ITAR regulations dictate that information and material pertaining to defense and military related technologies (items listed on the U.S. Munitions List) may only be shared with U.S. Persons unless authorization from the Department of State is received or a special exemption is used. U.S. Persons (including organizations) can face heavy fines if they have, without authorization or the use of an exemption, provided foreign persons with access to ITAR - protected defense articles, services or technical data.
The U.S. Munitions List changes over time. Until 1996 -- 1997, ITAR classified strong cryptography as arms and prohibited their export from the U.S. Another change occurred as a result of Space Systems / Loral 's conduct after the February 1996 failed launch of the Intelsat 708 satellite. The Department of State charged Space Systems / Loral with violating the Arms Export Control Act and the ITAR. As a result, technology pertaining to satellites and launch vehicles became more carefully protected.
ITAR does not apply to information related to general scientific, mathematical or engineering principles that are commonly taught in schools and colleges or information that is in the public domain. Nor does it apply to general marketing information or basic system descriptions. Broad interpretations of these exceptions have faced several legal challenges. For example, college professors have been prosecuted for breaches of the AECA as a result of access to USML items by foreign graduate students and companies have been penalized for alleged breaches of the AECA for failing to properly remove USML items from material used to market defense articles. The U.S. Government has also taken action (albeit unsuccessfully) for the export of technical data that was allegedly already publicly available on the Internet.
ITAR applies to items identified under the Invention Secrecy Act.
The AECA and ITAR were enacted in 1976 during the Cold War with USSR and were intended to implement unilateral arms export controls that reflected those imposed on Eastern Bloc countries by the multilateral Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls.
U.S. Government enforcement activities have increased dramatically since 1999, when the U.S. Department of State took over export regulations for satellites. The U.S. Department of State has published 29 instances of Consent Agreements (agreements entered into by parties charged with breaches of ITAR) since 1999. This compares to 12 Consent Agreements in the preceding 22 years. ITAR 's prominence has also increased as its implications for foreign parties that handle USML items have become better understood (see "Controversy '' below).
ITAR 's impact of increased regulations also meant America 's worldwide market share in satellite technology declined from 83 percent to 50 percent in 2008, states The Economist, which cited a report from Space Review. In early 2013 legislation was passed allowing the removal of satellite technology from ITAR regulation.
All U.S. manufacturers, exporters, and brokers of defense articles, defense services, or related technical data, as defined on the USML, are required to register with U.S. Department of State. Registration is primarily a means to provide the U.S. Government with necessary information on who is involved in certain manufacturing and exporting activities. Registration does not confer any export rights or privileges, but is a precondition for the issuance of any license or other approval for export. Registration fees start at US $2,250 per year.
Under ITAR, a "US person '' who wants to export USML items to a "foreign person '' must obtain authorization from the U.S. Department of State before the export can take place.
A "U.S. person '' can be
A foreign person is any person who is not a lawful permanent resident of the U.S. and includes foreign governments and organizations. This means that, for example a foreign person who is visiting the U.S. will remain a foreign person for the purposes of ITAR and any export of USML items to them inside the U.S. must be subject to an export authorization. This is similar to the concept of "Deemed Exports '' used by the Bureau of Industry and Security within the Department of Commerce in administration of the Export Administration Regulations although the Department of State does not use the term "Deemed Export '' (see also "Restrictions on Dual and Third Country Nationals below '').
The export authorization may take the form of:
Where the export authorization relates to USML items that are classified information or are identified as "Significant Military Equipment '' on the USML, a DSP - 83 Nontransfer and Use Certificate will also be required.
Collaborative programs (also known as "Armaments Cooperative Projects '' ("ACPs '')) between the U.S. and foreign Governments (such as the Joint Strike Fighter) may also authorize export of USML items (subject to strict controls).
ITAR also operates to prohibit the "Retransfer '' (also called "Re-export '') of items on the USML by foreign persons unless the Retransfer is specifically authorized under the relevant export authorization.
The prohibition on Retransfer stems from the requirement for all export authorizations to include the statement that "(t) he technical data or defense service exported from the United States in furtherance of this agreement and any defense article which may be produced or manufactured from such technical data or defense service may not be transferred to a person in a third country or to a national of a third country except as specifically authorized in this agreement unless the prior written approval of the Department of State has been obtained. ''
This means that if, for example, a foreign person wants to Retransfer a USML item to another foreign person (such as a subcontractor), both foreign persons must be authorized under the relevant export authorization:
Where a foreign person requires access to USML items exported under a specific export authorization, but that foreign person is not authorized under the export authorization, the export authorization must be amended and re-approved by the U.S. Department of State. This can be a time - consuming process.
ITAR treats access to USML items by "Dual - National '' and "Third Country National '' employees of a foreign organization as a Retransfer to the employees ' other countries of nationality. As a result, access to USML items by such employees must be specifically authorized under the relevant export authorization. If access to USML items by Dual and Third Country National employees of a foreign organization is authorized, it only authorizes transfer to the employee. It does not authorize export to the employee 's country of Dual or Third Nationality.
If a U.S. export authorization is silent as to access by Dual and Third Country National employees of a foreign party, the authorization has the effect of limiting access to employees who are nationals only of the country of their employer. This means that, for example, a TAA that includes a UK company as the foreign person, but which does not include clauses authorizing access by Dual and Third Country Nationals will limit access to USML items supplied under the TAA to employees of the UK company who are UK citizens only.
This can cause significant problems for foreign governments and organizations from countries with large first generation immigrant populations (which is discussed in more detail under "Controversy ''). As a result, the U.S. Government and the Australian Government have drawn attention to the importance for U.S. companies to consult closely with foreign persons who will be subject to a U.S. export authorization before it is submitted to the U.S. Department of State for approval.
Clauses approved by the U.S. Department of State must be included in TAAs and MLAs in order to authorize access to USML items by Dual and Third Country National employees of foreign parties to the export authorization. These clauses will generally permit access by Dual and Third Country Nationals from NATO, EU, Japan, Switzerland, New Zealand and Australia (subject to certain conditions). Employees of foreign persons holding Dual or Third Country Nationality from countries proscribed under ITAR 126.1, such as Vietnam, The People 's Republic of China ("PRC ''), North Korea, Syria and Iran, will, as a general rule, not be authorized to have access to USML items. It is less - clear how Dual and Third Country Nationals are addressed in FMS Cases and export licenses such as DSP - 5s.
The U.S. Government has substantially increased action against organizations and individuals responsible for breaches of ITAR since 1999. The most notable enforcement action was the $100 M penalty applied to ITT as a result of the unauthorized Retransfer of night vision technology to the PRC in 2007. Other major U.S. defense contractors penalized for alleged breaches of ITAR in recent years include (among others) Lockheed Martin, Motorola, Boeing, L - 3 Communications, and Northrop Grumman.
In most cases, penalties against corporate entities involve a mandatory compliance component requiring the entity to spend funds on compliance measures, including the appointment of "Internal Special Compliance Officers ''. Penalties may also require the party to submit to external audit. In serious cases, a party may be debarred from future exporting for a period of time.
U.S. Government policy also imposes a positive obligation on U.S. companies to fully disclose any breaches of ITAR to the U.S. Government. Failure to do so can significantly increase penalties applied by the U.S. Government.
The U.S. Government:
The U.S. Government will also take action against individuals responsible for breaches of ITAR and such action can involve criminal penalties. Actions are often initiated by U.S. Immigrations and Customs Enforcement and include:
Since 1990, the U.S. Government has also operated the "Blue Lantern '' end - use monitoring program. Blue Lantern "monitors the end - use of commercially exported defense articles, defense services, and related technical data subject to licensing or other authorizations under section 38 of the AECA. '' Blue Lantern checks are conducted following a careful selection process to identify transactions that appear most at risk for diversion or misuse. Unfavorable Blue Lanterns are reviewed by DTCC 's Enforcement Division. Where appropriate, parties involved in unfavorable Blue Lantern cases may be subject to civil enforcement actions or referred to law enforcement for criminal investigation.
Because failure to implement an effective export compliance program can be an exacerbating factor in the event of a breach of ITAR, the U.S. Government encourages U.S. exporters to implement internal export compliance programs. The U.S. Government may also require U.S. exporters that are party to an export authorization to develop a "Technology Transfer Control Plan '' specific to that export authorization.
Other countries also encourage their nationals who are using USML items to implement internal export compliance programs to address ITAR requirements. It is notable that the failure of overseas companies to implement ITAR compliance programs has been criticized by the U.S. Department of State.
Companies in U.S. and Overseas are increasingly using the ERP software to track the ITAR controlled items through the Supply Chain.
While political debate over the wisdom of placing all satellite and launch technology on the US Munitions List (USML) has been ongoing since the advent of ITAR regulation in 1999, there has been a shift in political opinion since 2007. In late 2012, the US Congress passed the 2013 defense authorization bill which, if signed into law, will allow U.S. satellite manufacturers to "be more able to collaborate with international partners and (place) U.S. component makers on a more even footing in the global marketplace. '' The bill "allows the president to remove commercial satellites and components from the U.S. Munitions List (USML) and allows him to decide which satellite technologies are the most important to protect. The bill still restricts the export and transfer of technology to China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan and Syria. ''
The political changes in 2012 came after several years of a gradual shift in thinking. In 2010, the Congress formally requested "an assessment of the national security risks of removing satellites and components from the USML. The study, known as the 1248 report, was completed in April 2012.
While satellite technology had been subjected to ITAR since 1999, the U.S. had seen its share of global satellite manufacturing halved with, according to the Aerospace Industries Association, an estimated loss of $21 billion in revenue from 1999 to 2009.
There is an open debate between the Department of State and the industries and academia regulated by ITAR concerning how harmful the regulatory restrictions are for U.S. - domiciled businesses and higher education institutions.
Higher education institutions argue that ITAR prevents the best international students from studying and contributing in the United States, and prevents cooperation on certain types of international scientific projects. ITAR generally prohibits foreign persons from collaborating with US citizens on projects pertaining to items on the USML without export licensing, as such work can be construed to fall under one of the several enumerated definitions of "export, '' such as:
Where the definition of "defense service '' includes "the furnishing of assistance (including training) to foreign persons, whether in the United States or abroad in the design, development, engineering, manufacture, production, assembly, testing, repair, maintenance, modification, operation, demilitarization, destruction, processing or use of defense articles. ''
The ITAR specifies that the products of "fundamental research '' are not considered controlled "technical data, '' so long as they are published freely. Fundamental research is defined as university - based "basic and applied research in science and engineering where the resulting information is ordinarily published and shared broadly within the scientific community, as distinguished from research the results of which are restricted for proprietary reasons or specific U.S. Government access and dissemination controls. ''
Research that does not meet the criteria of "fundamental research '' can not involve foreign persons without export licenses; however, research activities that are considered fundamental typically can involve foreign persons, even when they involve the design and construction of defense articles, as the US State Department has deemed such research activities to fall outside of the purview of training activities that would constitute the illegal export of a "defense service. '' The need to make this distinction has led many U.S. research universities to adopt ITAR policies and compliance programs. These measures can vary widely; for example, MIT states that "the intent of the ITAR is that research conducted on campus, without restrictions on publication or participation, is fundamental research from inception to publication as long as the intent is to publish the results, '' while Stanford University maintains a more nuanced and restrictive approach to research involving defense articles.
University interpretation and up - to - date understanding of export control regulations and willingness to seek opinions from the U.S. State Department affect the research that can be conducted on their campuses; for example, the University of Michigan successfully obtained an opinion from the Department of State stating that satellite development work on an (at the time) ITAR - controlled satellite being conducted by a student group containing both U.S. and non-U.S. citizens was considered fundamental research and was allowed to proceed. In contrast, as of March 2016, Stanford 's Export Control Officer maintains that all satellite systems are controlled defense articles under the ITAR (despite their reclassification under the EAR in 2014) and, based on NASA criteria for automatic designation of a research project as fundamental research, does not consider projects above TRL 4 to be fundamental research, limiting the activities of laboratories and project - based groups on campus. This and similar policies are particularly damaging to international students studying aerospace engineering or related fields at U.S. universities, as opportunities to gain practical experience in their studies through internships are, due to licensing requirements, typically not offered to them at U.S. aerospace companies, and on - campus projects, when allowed, offer an alternate route for developing skills like those obtained through internships and co-op programs.
The Department of State insists that ITAR has limited effect and provides a security benefit to the nation that outweighs any impact that these sectors must bear. Every year, the Department of State can cite multiple arrests of ITAR violators by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents and the FBI. It is apparent that companies and institutions within the affected areas are somewhat stifled by ITAR regulations, in addition to the trade the U.S. economy would receive, and the science technology that it would share, notwithstanding that its restrictions encourage U.S. allies (such as Australia and the UK) to procure defense equipment from other sources that may not be interoperable with U.S. equipment. Companies argue that ITAR is a significant trade barrier that acts as a substantial negative subsidy, weakening U.S. industries ' ability to compete. U.S. companies point to announcements in Europe by TAS (Thales Alenia Space) promoting their "ITAR - free '' telecommunication satellites. In 2008, officials at the Department of State dismissed the burden on industry and educational institutions as minor compared to the contributions to national security provided by ITAR. They also view the announcements of "ITAR - free '' items as anecdotal and not systemic.
There is evidence that ITAR considerations have been a factor in decisions by foreign governments to avoid U.S. products and decisions by U.S. companies to remove USML items from their products:
The U.S. Department of State charges back fees to manufacturers who have failed to register previously. Smaller exporters who may not have been aware of the requirement to register can potentially be charged crippling back fees when they first register. Allegations have been put to the U.S. Department of State - industry advisory group, the Defense Trade Advisory Group, that charging back fees discourages some manufacturers from registration.
Restrictions on Retransfer of USML items can also cause difficulties where those items have been incorporated into a product manufactured by a foreign person. If the foreign person wants to Retransfer the product to another foreign person, it must obtain authorization from the U.S. Government before the Retransfer can take place.
It is open to the U.S. Government to refuse to authorize Retransfer of a foreign product that includes USML items:
As a consequence of the blocking of these sales, Venezuela has subsequently purchased aircraft and other military hardware from Russia and Belarus.
The restrictions on access to USML items by Dual and Third Country National employees of a foreign person can cause significant difficulties because the current accepted definitions of Dual and Third Country Nationals do not reflect the definition of "US persons ''. The Department of State defines Dual and Third Country Nationality as follows:
Although "nationality '' is not defined under ITAR, it is accepted that the U.S. Government will take country of origin and continued ties or allegiance to a country into account when determining Dual or Third Country Nationality.
This means that a person who was born in the UK but is a U.S. permanent resident working in the U.S. for a U.S. company will be considered a U.S. person only (under the definition of "US person ''). If, however, the same person emigrated to Canada, obtained Canadian citizenship and commenced employment with a Canadian company, she would be treated as a Canadian - UK Dual National for the purposes of any U.S. export authorization to which her employer was a party. If she did not obtain Canadian citizenship but instead became a temporary or permanent Canadian resident, she would be treated as a UK Third Country National for the purposes of such U.S. export authorization.
It is also possible for a person who was born in one country to become a Dual National for the purposes of ITAR without necessarily leaving his country of origin, simply by obtaining a foreign passport (thereby "holding nationality '' from another country). This is frequently the case where the individual 's parent / s were born in a country that grants citizenship to children of its citizens, regardless of where the children were born, for example, a child born in Canada to parents who were born in the UK is able to obtain a UK passport (see British nationality law). Once he has done so, he becomes a Canadian - UK Dual National for the purposes of ITAR.
Restrictions on access to USML items by Dual and Third Country National employees of foreign persons essentially forces foreign persons to discriminate against their employees who do not meet the nationality criteria under an export authorization. Such discrimination may be illegal in some countries under anti-discrimination law (such as in Canada and Australia).
In addition, the prohibition on access by Dual and Third Country Nationals from countries proscribed under ITAR 126.1 can cause problems for countries with large immigrant populations from those countries (such as Canada and Australia, which both have large Overseas Chinese and Overseas Vietnamese immigrant populations: see immigration to Canada and immigration to Australia).
The U.S. Government actively enforces restrictions on access to USML items by Dual and Third Country Nationals:
The ease with which USML items can be exported and retransferred using computer networks and removable media significantly increases the risk of unauthorized retransfer of USML items. As discussed above, carrying a laptop computer which contains USML items overseas is considered a retransfer of those items. Likewise, access to USML items on corporate systems, such as intranets, by foreign persons overseas or in the U.S., is considered a Retransfer of the items.
It is important to note that, in both cases, theoretical access to the USML items overseas or by foreign persons is sufficient to constitute a breach of ITAR. Files on a laptop carried overseas do not need to be opened overseas, and foreign persons do not need to have actual access to USML items on computer networks for a breach to occur.
Theoretical access to USML items by foreign persons (including dual and third country nationals) can create difficulties for the engagement of IT professionals from overseas as network administrators or the use of overseas companies to support IT systems.
Several countries have sought ITAR exemptions or treaties with the U.S. Government in an effort to minimize the impact of ITAR, with varying degrees of success. The U.S. Government remains reluctant to consider broad exemptions from ITAR because of continuing concerns regarding the adverse effect unauthorized release of USML items can have on U.S. national security.
Canada is the recipient of an ITAR exemption related to the 1963 Defense Development Sharing Arrangement with the U.S. Government.
Attempts by the UK Government to obtain a similar exemption were also stymied. The UK Government sought an exemption in the context of the JSF project. The Clinton administration promised the United Kingdom 's Ministry of Defence that an ITAR waiver would be given, allowing greater technology transfer associated with the project. Yet, despite the backing of the Bush administration, the waiver was repeatedly blocked by the late U.S. Congressman Henry Hyde because of his security concerns about potential technology transfer to third countries. With his departure, ITAR - related impacts regarding the F - 35 / JSF program remain in flux. These difficulties caused the UK to threaten that it would abandon the JSF project and consider alternative aircraft.
The U.S. Government signed bilateral defense trade cooperation treaties with the UK and Australian governments in June and September 2007 respectively. The treaties are designed to allow the exchange of technical data, defense articles and defense services (including USML items) without the need for export authorizations such as TAAs and MLAs, subject to restrictions on the type and classification of the technology in question and its intended end - use. In return, the UK and Australian governments will be required to take steps to improve their export control laws (such as the Australian Customs Act). As of September 2008, the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee had deferred consideration of the treaties on the grounds that it had not had time to properly evaluate proposed amendments to ITAR required in order to implement the treaties.
There have been exemptions for scientific research: notably certain specialized components used in the Large Hadron Collider are "dual use '' but as the US contributes both research grant money and personnel it is generally believed that a reciprocal arrangement exists.
Some high - performance computers are affected by ITAR and it is believed that the removal of Linux from the Sony PS3 and PS4 is actually part of a review on restricting certain types of hardware from running arbitrary code to prevent its malicious use by a hostile government.
Before 1992, satellite components were classified as munitions, and ITAR export compliance was controlled by the State Department. After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster resulted in a growing backlog of commercial satellite launches, ITAR kept the Soviet Union out of the market. In September 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan agreed to allow U.S satellites to be launched on Chinese rockets. Communications satellites were gradually transferred from the State Department to the Commerce Department in 1992 -- 1996, falling under the Export Administration Regulations.
After the failed launches of Apstar 2 (1995) and Intelsat 708 (1996), the satellite insurance companies required the satellite manufacturers to work with China to investigate the failures. The Commerce Department determined that the "export '' of information as part of the failure analysis complied with the export license. However, the Justice Department maintained that a separate export license was required in addition to the original launch license. In 1998, Congress reclassified satellite technology as a munition and returned it to the control of the State Department under ITAR. Space Systems / Loral paid a $20 million fine in 2002, and Boeing paid a $32 million fine in 2003 on behalf of its Hughes subsidiary. The ChinaSat 8 satellite, which had been scheduled for launch in April 1999 on a Long March 3B rocket, was placed in storage for a decade and finally launched on a French rocket in 2008.
China used the results of the insurance investigation to improve the reliability of its Long March rockets, which would not experience another mission failure until 2011. ITAR has been blamed for "destroy (ing) an industry, '' reducing the market share of U.S. satellite makers by almost 25 % from 1997 to 2007. The European company Thales Alenia Space developed a line of ITAR - free satellites that used no restricted U.S. components, allowing them to be launched on Chinese rockets between 2005 and 2012. However, the U.S. Department of State did not accept the ITAR - free status of these satellites and fined the US company Aeroflex $8 million for selling ITAR components. Thales Alenia was forced to discontinue its ITAR - free satellite line in 2013.
In May 2014, the United States Department of State reclassified satellites and several related components so they will no longer be treated as munitions whose export is controlled by ITAR, but will be covered instead under the Export Administration Regulations. These new classifications took effect in November 2014, six months after the announcement of the reclassification. Restrictions were loosened on 36 countries, strict controls remained on another 150 countries, and exports remained prohibited to 20 countries. An official at the Bureau of Industry and Security emphasized that "no U.S. - origin content, regardless of significance, regardless of whether it 's incorporated into a foreign - made item, can go to China. '' Thales Alenia had long complained that "every satellite nut and bolt '' was being classified as ITAR - restricted, and the European Space Agency accused the United States of having no real interest in protecting U.S. satellite technology.
ITAR remains a major concern in the European aerospace industry as of 2016. The European Space Agency and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency have supplied components that were launched on Chinese rockets. European manufacturers of satellite components report that ITAR - free status is the first question they are asked by potential customers. Even U.S. companies have expressed interest in ITAR - free technology. The Chinese space industry has been able to sell in the global market by bundling Chinese satellites with Chinese rockets, avoiding ITAR.
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what is the origin of the name texas | Texas - wikipedia
Texas (/ ˈtɛksəs /, locally / - sɪz /; Spanish: Texas or Tejas (ˈtexas)) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Geographically located in the South Central region of the country, Texas shares borders with the U.S. states of Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the west, and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the southwest, while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast.
Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the U.S., while San Antonio is the second-most populous in the state and seventh largest in the U.S. Dallas -- Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country, respectively. Other major cities include Austin, the second-most populous state capital in the U.S., and El Paso. Texas is nicknamed "The Lone Star State '' to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico. The "Lone Star '' can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texan state seal. The origin of Texas 's name is from the word taysha, which means "friends '' in the Caddo language.
Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, Texas contains diverse landscapes common to both the U.S. Southern and Southwestern regions. Although Texas is popularly associated with the U.S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 % of Texas 's land area is desert. Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests, and the coastline. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend.
The term "six flags over Texas '' refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short - lived colony. Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the union as the 28th state. The state 's annexation set off a chain of events that led to the Mexican -- American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U.S. in early 1861, and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year. After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation.
Historically four major industries shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II: cattle and bison, cotton, timber, and oil. Before and after the U.S. Civil War the cattle industry, which Texas came to dominate, was a major economic driver for the state, thus creating the traditional image of the Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as the cattle industry became less lucrative. It was ultimately, though, the discovery of major petroleum deposits (Spindletop in particular) that initiated an economic boom which became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century. As of 2015, it is second on the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with 54. With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace, and biomedical sciences. Texas has led the nation in state export revenue since 2002, and has the second - highest gross state product. If it were a country, Texas would be the 10th largest economy in the world.
The name Texas, based on the Caddo word taysha (or tayshas) meaning "friends '' or "allies '', was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas.
During Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas (English: New Kingdom of the Philippines: The Province of Texas).
Texas is the second - largest U.S. state, after Alaska, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km). Though 10 % larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia.
Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers. The Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100 ° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36 ° 30 ' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103 ° W. El Paso lies on the state 's western tip at 32 ° N and the Rio Grande.
With 10 climatic regions, 14 soil regions and 11 distinct ecological regions, regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils, topography, geology, rainfall, and plant and animal communities. One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and Basin and Range Province.
The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine - hardwood forest.
The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state 's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state 's hill country near Austin. This region is dominated by prairie and steppe. "Far West Texas '' or the "Trans - Pecos '' region is the state 's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the Stockton Plateau, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.
Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers, with the Rio Grande as the largest. Other major rivers include the Pecos, the Brazos, Colorado, and Red River. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs.
The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable; it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old.
These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time.
This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains -- Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas -- Waco -- Austin -- San Antonio trend.
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today 9 to 12 miles (14 to 19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer. Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.
A wide range of animals and insects live in Texas. It is the home to 65 species of mammals, 213 species of reptiles and amphibians, and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States -- 590 native species in all. At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas.
Texas plays host to several species of wasps. Texas is one of the regions that has the highest abundance of Polistes exclamans. Additionally, Texas has provided an important ground for the study of Polistes annularis.
During the spring Texas wildflowers such as the state flower, the bluebonnet, line highways throughout Texas. During the Johnson Administration the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson, worked to draw attention to Texas wildflowers.
The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall, while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year. Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.
Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow falls south of San Antonio or on the coast in rare circumstances only. Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville, where the average high temperature in December is 65 ° F.
Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s ° F (26 ° C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 ° F (38 ° C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 ° F (32 ° C) range.
Night - time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s ° F (14 ° C) in the West Texas mountains to 80 ° F (27 ° C) in Galveston.
The table below consists of averages for August (generally the warmest month) and January (generally the coldest) in selected cities in various regions of the state. El Paso and Amarillo are exceptions with July and December respectively being the warmest and coldest months respectively, but with August and January only being narrowly different.
Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle. Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.
Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed about 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city. The 1900 Galveston hurricane subsequently devastated that city, killing about 8,000 people or possibly as many as 12,000. This makes it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. In 2017, Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Rockport as a Category 4 Hurricane, causing significant damage there. The storm stalled over land for a very long time, allowing it to drop unprecedented amounts of rain over the Greater Houston area and surrounding counties. The result was widespread and catastrophic flooding that inundated hundreds of thousands of homes. Harvey ultimately became the costliest hurricane worldwide, causing an estimated $198.6 billion in damage, surpassing the cost of Hurricane Katrina.
Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008. Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage: Allison in 1989 and again during 2001, and Claudette in 1979 among them.
Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S. The state emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world 's seventh - largest producer of greenhouse gases. Causes of the state 's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state 's large number of coal power plants and the state 's refining and manufacturing industries. In 2010, there were 2,553 "emission events '' which poured 44.6 million pounds of contaminants into the Texas sky.
Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America: the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were:
No culture was dominant in the present - day Texas region, and many peoples inhabited the area. Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present - day Texas include the Alabama, Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Coahuiltecan, Comanche, Choctaw, Coushatta, Hasinai, Jumano, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita. The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends '' or "allies ''.
Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land. Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game. Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers.
The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda. Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in what is now Texas. Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us. '' Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas:
They went about with a firebrand, setting fire to the plains and timber so as to drive off the mosquitos, and also to get lizards and similar things which they eat, to come out of the soil. In the same manner they kill deer, encircling them with fires, and they do it also to deprive the animals of pasture, compelling them to go for food where the Indians want.
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado describes his 1541 encounter with:
Two kinds of people travel around these plains with the cows; one is called Querechos and the others Teyas; they are very well built, and painted, and are enemies of each other. They have no other settlement or location than comes from traveling around with the cows. They kill all of these they wish, and tan the hides, with which they clothe themselves and make their tents, and they eat the flesh, sometimes even raw, and they also even drink the blood when thirsty. The tents they make are like field tents, and they set them up over some poles they have made for this purpose, which come together and are tied at the top, and when they go from one place to another they carry them on some dogs they have, of which they have many, and they load them with the tents and poles and other things, for the country is so level, as I said, that they can make use of these, because they carry the poles dragging along on the ground. The sun is what they worship most.
European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René - Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River. The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.
In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas. After Native American resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico. When France began settling Louisiana, mostly in the southern part of the state, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas. Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area.
Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to the area. It was one of New Spain 's least populated provinces. In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai. The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes. With more numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity.
When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted that the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819, at what is now the border between Texas and Louisiana. Eager for new land, many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico. Due to its low population, Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas.
Hoping that more settlers would reduce the near - constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain. Under the Mexican immigration system, large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior. The first grant, to Moses Austin, was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death.
Austin 's settlers, the Old Three Hundred, made places along the Brazos River in 1822. Twenty - three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority of whom were from the United States. The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent. By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent. Most of these early settlers who arrived with Austin and soon after were persons less than fortunate in life, as Texas was devoid of the comforts found elsewhere in Mexico and the United States during that time period. Early Texas settler David B. Edwards described his fellow Texans as being "banished from the pleasures of life. ''
Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery. Combined with United States ' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens (Tejanos) and recent immigrants.
The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation 's president. Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas. They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues. The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833.
Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety. The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales. This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next two months, the Texians defeated all Mexican troops in the region. Texians elected delegates to the Consultation, which created a provisional government. The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.
During this time of political turmoil, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt. The Mexican expedition was initially successful. General José de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre. Santa Anna 's forces, after a thirteen - day siege, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked panic amongst Texas settlers.
The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded. The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army. After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna 's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.
While Texas had won its independence, political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.
Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived. The republic 's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas 's eventual annexation into the United States.
As early as 1837, the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States. Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction, along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States, slowed Texas 's admission into the Union. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844. On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.
The population of the new state was quite small at first and there was a strong mix between the English - speaking American settlers that dominated in the eastern / northeastern portions of the state and the Spanish - speaking former Mexicans that dominated in the southern and western portions of the state. Statehood brought many new settlers. Because of the long Spanish presence in Mexico and various failed colonization efforts by the Spanish and Mexicans in northern Mexico, there were large herds of Longhorn cattle that roamed the state. Hardy by nature but also suitable for slaughtering and consumption, they represented an economic opportunity that many entrepreneurs seized upon, thus creating the cowboy culture for which Texas is famous. While in the early days of the republic cattle and bison were slaughtered for their hides, soon a beef industry was established with cattle being shipped all over the U.S. and the Caribbean (within a few decades, beef had become a staple of the American diet).
After Texas 's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed that Texas 's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican -- American War. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas.
After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two - year war. In return, for US $18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas 's borders were established at the Rio Grande.
The Compromise of 1850 set Texas 's boundaries at their present form. U.S. Senator James Pearce of Maryland drafted the final proposal where Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present - day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic 's debt. Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.
They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566.
Texas was at war again after the election of 1860. At this time, blacks comprised 30 percent of the state 's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. When Abraham Lincoln was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union. Five other Lower South states quickly followed. A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166 -- 8, the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861 ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23.
Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas 's most notable Unionist was the state Governor, Sam Houston. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed as governor.
While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War, Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy. Union troops briefly occupied the state 's primary port, Galveston. Texas 's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy '' because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade. The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route, but Texas 's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River. The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville, Texas at Palmito Ranch with a Confederate victory.
Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction. Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement. President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas. Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.
Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of a frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, criminal prosecution, or other problems. Indeed, "Gone to Texas '' was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests as well.
The cattle industry continued to thrive though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions of the state. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did the port at Galveston as commerce between Texas and the rest of the U.S. (and the rest of the world) expanded. As with some other states before, the lumber industry quickly decimated the forests of Texas such that by the early 20th century the major of the forest population in Texas was gone (later conservation efforts restored some of it but never to the level it once was).
In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane. On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop, was found south of Beaumont. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting "oil boom '' transformed Texas. Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.
In 1901, the Democratic - dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting, which effectively disenfranchised most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos. In addition, the legislature established white primaries, ensuring that minorities were excluded from the formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties. The Socialist Party became the second - largest party in Texas after 1912, coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like Eugene V. Debs. The Socialists ' popularity soon waned after their vilification by the United States government for their opposition to US involvement in World War I.
The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state 's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation. In 1940, Texas was 74 percent Anglo, 14.4 percent black, and 11.5 percent Hispanic.
World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left the fields for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture. Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states.
Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.
On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized. The state 's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state. As a part of the Sun Belt Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Texas 's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry. By 1990, Hispanics overtook blacks to become the largest minority group in the state.
During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced the Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state, as the latter became more politically liberal and as demographic changes favored the former.
The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state 's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.
Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the governor, which is a weak executive compared to some other states. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the governor. This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties and reduced the ability of the governor to carry out a program. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas 's governor, the state had a Democratic lieutenant governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consist of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three - member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.
The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the lieutenant governor, the Senate. The Legislature meets in regular session biennially for just over 100 days, but the governor can call for special sessions as often as desired (notably, the Legislature can not call itself into session). The state 's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year 's September 1 to the current year 's August 31. Thus, the FY 2015 dates from September 1, 2014 through August 31, 2015.
The judiciary of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the governor fills vacancies by appointment. Texas is notable for its use of capital punishment, having led the country in executions since capital punishment was reinstated in the Gregg v. Georgia case (see Capital punishment in Texas).
The Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction. Over the years, the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from murder to political corruption. They have acted as riot police and as detectives, protected the Texas governor, tracked down fugitives, and functioned as a paramilitary force both for the republic and the state. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835. The Rangers were integral to several important events of Texas history and some of the best - known criminal cases in the history of the Old West.
The Texas constitution defines the responsibilities of county governments, which serve as agents of the state. What are called commissioners court and court judges are elected to serve as the administrative arm. Most cities in the state, those over 5,000 in population, have home - rule governments. The vast majority of these have charters for council - manager forms of government, by which voters elect council members, who hire a professional city manager as operating officer.
In the 1870s, white Democrats wrested power back in the state legislature from the biracial coalition at the end of Reconstruction. In the early 20th century, the legislature passed bills to impose poll taxes, followed by white primaries; these measures effectively disfranchised most blacks, poor whites and Mexican Americans. In the 1890s, 100,000 blacks voted in the state; by 1906, only 5,000 could vote. As a result, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics from the turn of the century, imposing racial segregation and white supremacy. It held power until after passage in the mid-1960s of national civil rights legislation enforcing constitutional rights of all citizens.
Although Texas was essentially a one - party state during this time and the Democratic primary was viewed as "the real election, '' the Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions, which became more pronounced after the New Deal. Additionally, several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 1940s.
The state 's conservative white voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid-20th century. After this period, they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well, and most whites became Republican Party members. The party also attracted some minorities, but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates. The shift to the Republican Party is much - attributed to the fact that the Democratic Party became increasingly liberal during the 20th century, and thus increasingly out - of - touch with the average Texas voter. As Texas was always a conservative state, voters switched to the GOP, which now more closely reflected their beliefs. Commentators have also attributed the shift to Republican political consultant Karl Rove, who managed numerous political campaigns in Texas in the 1980s and 1990s. Other stated reasons included court - ordered redistricting and the demographic shift in relation to the Sun Belt that favored the Republican Party and conservatism.
The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by Republican Tom DeLay, was called by The New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering ''. A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven '', fled the state in a quorum - busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting, but was unsuccessful. The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census. Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans, based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since that date. Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters, but political appointees overrode them and approved it. Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), but the court ruled in favor of the state (and Republicans).
In the 2014 Texas elections, the Tea Party movement made large gains, with numerous Tea Party favorites being elected into office, including Dan Patrick as lieutenant governor, Ken Paxton as attorney general, in addition to numerous other candidates including conservative Republican Greg Abbott as governor.
Texas voters lean toward fiscal conservatism, while enjoying the benefits of huge federal investment in the state in military and other facilities achieved by the power of the Solid South in the 20th century. They also tend to have socially conservative values.
Since 1980, most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. In 2000 and 2004, Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60.1 percent of the vote, partly due to his "favorite son '' status as a former governor of the state. John McCain won the state in 2008, but with a smaller margin of victory compared to Bush at 55 percent of the vote. Austin, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio consistently lean Democratic in both local and statewide elections.
Residents of counties along the Rio Grande closer to the Mexico - United States border, where there are many Latino residents, generally vote for Democratic Party candidates, while most other rural and suburban areas of Texas have shifted to voting for Republican Party candidates.
As of the general elections of 2014, a large majority of the members of Texas 's U.S. House delegation are Republican, along with both U.S. Senators. In the 114th United States Congress, of the 36 Congressional districts in Texas, 24 are held by Republicans and 11 by Democrats. One seat is currently vacant. Texas 's Senators are John Cornyn and Ted Cruz. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state 's Democratic voters are made up primarily by liberal and minority groups in Austin, San Antonio, Dallas, Houston, Beaumont, and El Paso, as well as minority voters in East Texas and South Texas.
Texas has 254 counties -- the most nationwide. Each county runs on Commissioners ' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts in the county, roughly divided according to population) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county. County government runs similar to a "weak '' mayor - council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.
Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements '' to share services, the state does not allow consolidated city - county governments, nor does it have metropolitan governments. Counties are not granted home rule status; their powers are strictly defined by state law. The state does not have townships -- areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas and to some smaller incorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law '' cities or "home rule ''. A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval.
Texas also permits the creation of "special districts '', which provide limited services. The most common is the school district, but can also include hospital districts, community college districts, and utility districts (one utility district located near Austin was the plaintiff in a landmark Supreme Court case involving the Voting Rights Act).
Municipal, school district, and special district elections are nonpartisan, though the party affiliation of a candidate may be well - known. County and state elections are partisan.
Texas has a reputation of very harsh criminal punishment for criminal offenses. It is one of the 32 states that practice capital punishment, and since the US Supreme Court allowed capital punishment to resume in 1976, 40 % of all US executions have taken place in Texas. As of 2008, Texas had the 4th highest incarceration rate in the US. Texas also has strong self defense laws, allowing citizens to use lethal force to defend themselves, their families, or their property.
As of 2016, Texas had a gross state product (GSP) of $1.599 trillion, the second - highest in the U.S. Its GSP is greater than the GDPs of Australia and South Korea, which are the world 's 12th - and 13th - largest economies, respectively. Texas 's economy is the fourth - largest of any country subdivision globally, behind England (as part of the UK), California, and Tokyo Prefecture. Its Per Capita personal income in 2009 was $36,484, ranking 29th in the nation.
Texas 's large population, abundance of natural resources, thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the state 's economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In recent times, urban centers of the state have increased in size, containing two - thirds of the population in 2005. The state 's economic growth has led to urban sprawl and its associated symptoms.
As of April 2013, the state 's unemployment rate is 6.4 percent.
In 2010, Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business - friendly state in the nation, in part because of the state 's three - billion - dollar Texas Enterprise Fund. Texas has the joint - highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States, along with California.
In 2010, there were 346,000 millionaires in Texas, constituting the second - largest population of millionaires in the nation.
Texas has a "low taxes, low services '' reputation. According to the Tax Foundation, Texans ' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation, 7th lowest nationally; state and local taxes cost $3,580 per capita, or 8.4 percent of resident incomes. Texas is one of seven states that lack a state income tax.
Instead, the state collects revenue from property taxes (though these are collected at the county, city, and school district level; Texas has a state constitutional prohibition against a state property tax) and sales taxes. The state sales tax rate is 6.25 percent, but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2 percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25 percent.
Texas is a "tax donor state ''; in 2005, for every dollar Texans paid to the federal government in federal income taxes, the state got back about $0.94 in benefits. To attract business, Texas has incentive programs worth $19 billion per year (2012); more than any other US state.
Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States. The state is ranked # 1 for revenue generated from total livestock and livestock products. It is ranked # 2 for total agricultural revenue, behind California. At $7.4 billion or 56.7 percent of Texas 's annual agricultural cash receipts, beef cattle production represents the largest single segment of Texas agriculture. This is followed by cotton at $1.9 billion (14.6 percent), greenhouse / nursery at $1.5 billion (11.4 percent), broilers at $1.3 billion (10 percent), and dairy products at $947 million (7.3 percent).
Texas leads the nation in the production of cattle, horses, sheep, goats, wool, mohair and hay. The state also leads the nation in production of cotton which is the number one crop grown in the state in terms of value. The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce. Texas has a large commercial fishing industry. With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.
Texas throughout the 21st century has been hammered by drought. This has cost the state billions of dollars in livestock and crops.
Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop, energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state. If Texas were its own country it would be the sixth largest oil producer in the world.
The Railroad Commission of Texas, contrary to its name, regulates the state 's oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining. Until the 1970s, the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas 's oil reserves. The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.
Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m), which makes up about one - fourth of the known U.S. reserves. The state 's refineries can process 4.6 million barrels (730,000 m) of oil a day. The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America. Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one - fourth of the nation 's supply. Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Conoco - Phillips, Exxon - Mobil, Halliburton, Marathon Oil, Tesoro, and Valero, Western Refining.
According to the Energy Information Administration, Texans consume, on average, the fifth most energy (of all types) in the nation per capita and as a whole, following behind Wyoming, Alaska, Louisiana, North Dakota, and Iowa.
Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid, the Texas Interconnection. Texas has a deregulated electric service. Texas leads the nation in total net electricity production, generating 437,236 MWh in 2014, 89 % more MWh than Florida, which ranked second. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world 's eleventh - largest producer of electricity, after South Korea, and ahead of the United Kingdom.
The state is a leader in renewable energy commercialization; it produces the most wind power in the nation. In 2014, 10.6 % of the electricity consumed in Texas came from wind turbines. The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, is one of the world 's largest wind farms with a 781.5 megawatt (MW) capacity. The Energy Information Administration states that the state 's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount biomass for use in biofuels. The state also has the highest solar power potential for development in the nation.
With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund, a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "Silicon Hills '' and the north Dallas area the "Silicon Prairie ''. Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies, such as Dell, Inc., Texas Instruments, Perot Systems, Rackspace and AT&T.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (NASA JSC) located in Southeast Houston, sits as the crown jewel of Texas 's aeronautics industry. Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin 's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron. Lockheed builds the F - 16 Fighting Falcon, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the F - 35 Lightning II in Fort Worth.
Texas 's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail, wholesale, banking and insurance, and construction industries. Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are AT&T, Kimberly - Clark, Blockbuster, J.C. Penney, Whole Foods Market, and Tenet Healthcare. Nationally, the Dallas -- Fort Worth area, home to the second shopping mall in the United States, has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan area.
Mexico, the state 's largest trading partner, imports a third of the state 's exports because of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA has encouraged the formation of controversial maquiladoras on the Texas / Mexico border.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Texas was 27,469,114 on July 1, 2015, a 9.24 percent increase since the 2010 United States Census.
As of 2004, the state had 3.5 million foreign - born residents (15.6 percent of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal immigrants. Texas from 2000 to 2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation. In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 6.0 percent of the population. This was the fifth highest percentage of any state in the country. In 2015, the population of illegal immigrants living in Texas was around 800,000.
Texas 's Rio Grande Valley has seen significant migration from across the U.S. - Mexico border. During the 2014 crisis, many Central Americans, including unaccompanied minors traveling alone from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, reached the state, overwhelming Border Patrol resources for a time. Many sought asylum in the United States.
In 2009, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security estimated that 1.68 million illegal immigrants lived in Texas. While the number of illegal immigrants living in the U.S. has declined since 2009, in Texas there was no change in population between 2009 and 2014.
Texas 's population density is 90.5 people per square mile (34.9 / km) which is slightly higher than the average population density of the U.S. as a whole, at 80.6 people per square mile (31.1 / km). In contrast, while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically, the European country has a population density of 301.8 people per square mile (116.5 / km).
Two - thirds of all Texans live in a major metropolitan area such as Houston. The Dallas - Fort Worth Metropolitan Area is the largest in Texas. While Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States, the Dallas - Fort Worth metropolitan area is larger than that of Houston.
As of the 2015 Texas Population Estimate Program, the population of the state was 27,469,114 non-Hispanic whites 11,505,371 (41.9 %); Black Americans 3,171,043 (11.5 %); other races 1,793,580 (6.5 %); and Hispanics and Latinos (of any race) 10,999,120 (40.0 %).
According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of Texas was the following:
In addition, 37.6 percent of the population are Hispanic or Latino (of any race) (31.6 percent Mexican, 0.9 percent Salvadoran, 0.5 percent Puerto Rican, 0.4 percent Honduran, 0.3 percent Guatemalan 0.3 percent Spaniard, 0.2 percent Colombian, 0.2 percent Cuban)
As of 2011, 69.8 % of the population of Texas younger than age 1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white).
German, Irish, and English Americans are the three largest European ancestry groups in Texas. German Americans make up 11.3 percent of the population, and number over 2.7 million members. Irish Americans make up 8.2 percent of the population, and number over 1.9 million members. There are roughly 600,000 French Americans and 472,000 Italian Americans residing in Texas; these two ethnic groups make up 2.5 percent and 2.0 percent of the population respectively. In the 1980 United States Census the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English with 3,083,323 Texans citing that they were of English or mostly English ancestry making them 27 percent of the state at the time. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and thus many of them today identify as "American '' in ancestry, though they are of predominately British stock. There are nearly 200,000 Czech - Americans living in Texas, the largest number of any state.
African Americans are the largest racial minority in Texas. Their proportion of population has declined since the early 20th century, after many left the state in the Great Migration. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin make up 11.5 percent of the population; blacks of non-Hispanic origin form 11.3 percent of the populace. African Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin number at roughly 2.7 million individuals.
Native Americans are a smaller minority in the state. Native Americans make up 0.5 percent of Texas 's population, and number over 118,000 individuals. Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 0.3 percent of the population, and number over 75,000 individuals. Cherokee made up 0.1 percent of the population, and numbered over 19,400 members. In contrast, only 583 identified as Chippewa.
Asian Americans are a sizable minority group in Texas. Americans of Asian descent form 3.8 percent of the population, with those of non-Hispanic descent making up 3.7 percent of the populace. They total more than 808,000 individuals. Non-Hispanic Asians number over 795,000. Just over 200,000 Indian Americans make Texas their home. Texas is also home to over 187,000 Vietnamese and 136,000 Chinese. In addition to 92,000 Filipinos and 62,000 Koreans, there are 18,000 Japanese Americans living in the state. Lastly, over 111,000 people are of other Asian ancestry groups, such as Cambodian, Thai, and Hmong. Sugar Land, a city within the Houston metropolitan area, and Plano, located within the Dallas metropolitan area, both have high concentrations of ethnic Chinese and Korean residents. The Houston and Dallas areas, and to a lesser extent, the Austin metropolitan area, all contain substantial Vietnamese communities.
Americans with origins from the Pacific are the smallest minority in Texas. According to the survey, only 18,000 Texans are Pacific Islanders; 16,400 are of non-Hispanic descent. There are roughly 5,400 Native Hawaiians, 5,300 Guamanians, and 6,400 people from other groups. Samoan Americans were scant; only 2,920 people were from this group. The city of Euless, a suburb of Fort Worth, contains a sizable population of Tongan Americans, at nearly 900 people, over one percent of the city 's population. Killeen has a sufficient population of Samoans and Guamanian, and people of Pacific Islander descent surpass one percent of the city 's population.
Multiracial individuals are also a visible minority in Texas. People identifying as multiracial form 1.9 percent of the population, and number over 448,000 people. Almost 80,000 Texans claim African and European heritage, and make up 0.3 percent of the population. People of European and Native American heritage number over 108,800 (close to the number of Native Americans), and make up 0.5 percent of the population. People of European and Asian heritage number over 57,600, and form just 0.2 percent of the population. People of African and Native American heritage were even smaller in number (15,300), and make up just 0.1 percent of the total population.
Hispanics and Latinos are the second - largest group in Texas after non-Hispanic European Americans. Over 8.5 million people claim Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. This group forms over 37 percent of Texas 's population. People of Mexican descent alone number over 7.9 million, and make up 31.6 percent of the population. The vast majority of the Hispanic / Latino population in the state is of Mexican descent, the next two largest groups are Salvadorans and Puerto Ricans. There are over 222,000 Salvadorans and over 130,000 Puerto Ricans in Texas. Other groups with large numbers in Texas include Hondurans, Guatemalans, Nicaraguans and Cubans, among others. The Hispanics in Texas are more likely than in some other states (such as California) to identify as white; according to the 2010 U.S. Census, Texas is home to 6,304,207 White Hispanics and 2,594,206 Hispanics of "some other race '' (usually mestizo).
German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast - central Texas. Over one - third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin; while many have recently arrived, some Tejanos have ancestors with multi-generational ties to 18th century Texas. In addition to the descendants of the state 's former slave population, many African American college graduates have come to the state for work recently in the New Great Migration. Recently, the Asian population in Texas has grown -- primarily in Houston and Dallas. Other communities with a significantly growing Asian American population is in Austin, Corpus Christi, and the Sharyland area next McAllen, Texas. Three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas: the Alabama - Coushatta Tribe, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo.
In 2010, 49 percent of all births were Hispanics; 35 percent were non-Hispanic whites; 11.5 percent were non-Hispanic blacks, and 4.3 percent were Asians / Pacific Islanders. Based on Census Bureau data released on February 2011, for the first time in recent history, Texas 's white population is below 50 percent (45 percent) and Hispanics grew to 38 percent. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population growth by 20.6 percent, but Hispanics growth by 65 percent, whereas non-Hispanic whites only grew by 4.2 percent. Texas has the fifth highest rate of teenage births in the nation and a plurality of these are to Hispanics.
The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million: Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas. These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States. As of 2010, six Texas cities had populations greater than 600,000 people. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso are among the 20 largest U.S. cities. Texas has four metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million: Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington, Houston -- Sugar Land -- Baytown, San Antonio -- New Braunfels, and Austin -- Round Rock -- San Marcos. The Dallas -- Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 6.3 million and 5.7 million residents, respectively.
Three interstate highways -- I - 35 to the west (Dallas -- Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between), I - 45 to the east (Dallas to Houston), and I - 10 to the south (San Antonio to Houston) define the Texas Urban Triangle region. The region of 60,000 square miles (160,000 km) contains most of the state 's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people, nearly 75 percent of Texas 's total population. Houston and Dallas have been recognized as beta world cities. These cities are spread out amongst the state. Texas has 254 counties, which is more than any other state by 95 (Georgia).
In contrast to the cities, unincorporated rural settlements known as colonias often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty. The office of the Texas Attorney General stated, in 2011, that Texas had about 2,294 colonias and estimates that about 500,000 lived in the colonias. Hidalgo County, as of 2011, has the largest number of colonias. Texas has the largest number of people of all states, living in colonias.
The most common accent and / or dialect spoken by natives throughout Texas is sometimes referred to as Texan English, which itself is a sub-variety of a broader category of American English known as Southern American English. Creole language is spoken in East Texas. In some areas of the state -- particularly in the large cities -- Western American English and General American English, have been on the increase. Chicano English -- due to a growing Hispanic population -- is widespread in South Texas, while African - American English is especially notable in historically minority areas of urban Texas.
As of 2010, 65.8 % (14,740,304) of Texas residents age 5 and older spoke only English at home, while 29.2 % (6,543,702) spoke Spanish, 0.75 percent (168,886) Vietnamese, and Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin) was spoken by 0.56 % (122,921) of the population over the age of five.
Other languages spoken include German (including Texas German) by 0.33 % (73,137,) Tagalog with 0.29 % (73,137) speakers, and French (including Cajun French) was spoken by 0.25 % (55,773) of Texans. Reportedly, Cherokee is the most widely spoken Native American language in Texas.
In total, 34.2 % (7,660,406) of Texas 's population aged five and older spoke a language at home other than English.
The 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey showed the religious makeup of the state was as follows:
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church (4,673,500); the Southern Baptist Convention (3,721,318); the United Methodist Church with (1,035,168); and Islam (421,972).
Known as the buckle of the Bible Belt, East Texas is socially conservative. The Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex is home to three major evangelical seminaries and a host of Bible schools. Lakewood Church in Houston, boasts the largest attendance in the nation averaging more than 43,000 weekly.
Adherents of many other religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas. In 1990, the Islamic population was about 140,000 with more recent figures putting the current number of Muslims between 350,000 and 400,000. The Jewish population is around 128,000. Around 146,000 adherents of religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism live in Texas. It is the fifth - largest Muslim - populated state in the country.
Historically, Texas culture comes from a blend of Southern (Dixie), Western (frontier), and Southwestern (Mexican / Anglo fusion) influences, varying in degrees of such from one intrastate region to another. Texas is placed in the Southern United States by the United States Census Bureau. A popular food item, the breakfast burrito, draws from all three, having a soft flour tortilla wrapped around bacon and scrambled eggs or other hot, cooked fillings. Adding to Texas 's traditional culture, established in the 18th and 19th centuries, immigration has made Texas a melting pot of cultures from around the world.
Texas has made a strong mark on national and international pop culture. The state is strongly associated with the image of the cowboy shown in westerns and in country western music. The state 's numerous oil tycoons are also a popular pop culture topic as seen in the hit TV series Dallas.
The internationally known slogan "Do n't Mess with Texas '' began as an anti-littering advertisement. Since the campaign 's inception in 1986, the phrase has become "an identity statement, a declaration of Texas swagger ''.
"Texas - sized '' is an expression that can be used in two ways: to describe something that is about the size of the U.S. state of Texas, or to describe something (usually but not always originating from Texas) that is large compared to other objects of its type. Texas was the largest U.S. state, until Alaska became a state in 1959. The phrase, "everything is bigger in Texas, '' has been in regular use since at least 1950; and was used as early as 1913.
Houston is one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines: the Houston Grand Opera, the Houston Symphony Orchestra, the Houston Ballet, and The Alley Theatre. Known for the vibrancy of its visual and performing arts, the Houston Theater District -- a 17 - block area in the heart of Downtown Houston -- ranks second in the country in the number of theater seats in a concentrated downtown area, with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats.
Founded in 1892, Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, also called "The Modern '', is Texas 's oldest art museum. Fort Worth also has the Kimbell Art Museum, the Amon Carter Museum, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, the Will Rogers Memorial Center, and the Bass Performance Hall downtown. The Arts District of Downtown Dallas has arts venues such as the Dallas Museum of Art, the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House, the Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art, and the Nasher Sculpture Center.
The Deep Ellum district within Dallas became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime jazz and blues hotspot in the Southern United States. The name Deep Ellum comes from local people pronouncing "Deep Elm '' as "Deep Ellum ''. Artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson, Robert Johnson, Huddie "Lead Belly '' Ledbetter, and Bessie Smith played in early Deep Ellum clubs.
Austin, The Live Music Capital of the World, boasts "more live music venues per capita than such music hotbeds as Nashville, Memphis, Los Angeles, Las Vegas or New York City. '' The city 's music revolves around the nightclubs on 6th Street; events like the film, music, and multimedia festival South by Southwest; the longest - running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits; and the Austin City Limits Music Festival held in Zilker Park.
Since 1980, San Antonio has evolved into "The Tejano Music Capital Of The World. '' The Tejano Music Awards have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture.
The second president of the Republic of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar, is the Father of Texas Education. During his term, the state set aside three leagues of land in each county for equipping public schools. An additional 50 leagues of land set aside for the support of two universities would later become the basis of the state 's Permanent University Fund. Lamar 's actions set the foundation for a Texas - wide public school system. Between 2006 and 2007, Texas spent $7,275 per pupil ranking it below the national average of $9,389. The pupil / teacher ratio was 14.9, below the national average of 15.3. Texas paid instructors $41,744, below the national average of $46,593. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) administers the state 's public school systems. Texas has over 1,000 school districts - all districts except the Stafford Municipal School District are independent from municipal government and many cross city boundaries. School districts have the power to tax their residents and to assert eminent domain over privately owned property. Due to court - mandated equitable school financing for school districts, the state has a controversial tax redistribution system called the "Robin Hood plan ''. This plan transfers property tax revenue from wealthy school districts to poor ones. The TEA has no authority over private or home school activities.
Students in Texas take the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) in primary and secondary school. STAAR assess students ' attainment of reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies skills required under Texas education standards and the No Child Left Behind Act. The test replaced the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test in the 2011 -- 2012 school year.
Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is not uncommon in more conservative areas of the state, with 28,569 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011 -- 2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Texas is surpassed only by Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas.
The state 's two most widely recognized flagship universities are The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University, ranked as the 52nd and 69th best universities in the nation according to the 2014 edition of U.S. News & World Report 's "Best Colleges '', respectively. Some observers also include the University of Houston and Texas Tech University as tier one flagships alongside UT Austin and A&M. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) ranks the state 's public universities into three distinct tiers:
Texas 's controversial alternative affirmative action plan, Texas House Bill 588, guarantees Texas students who graduated in the top 10 percent of their high school class automatic admission to state - funded universities. The bill encourages demographic diversity while avoiding problems stemming from the Hopwood v. Texas (1996) case.
Thirty - six (36) separate and distinct public universities exist in Texas, of which 32 belong to one of the six state university systems. Discovery of minerals on Permanent University Fund land, particularly oil, has helped fund the rapid growth of the state 's two largest university systems: the University of Texas System and the Texas A&M System. The four other university systems: the University of Houston System, the University of North Texas System, the Texas State System, and the Texas Tech System are not funded by the Permanent University Fund.
The Carnegie Foundation classifies three of Texas 's universities as Tier One research institutions: The University of Texas at Austin, the Texas A&M University, and the University of Houston. The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University are flagship universities of the state of Texas. Both were established by the Texas Constitution and hold stakes in the Permanent University Fund. The state has been putting effort to expand the number of flagship universities by elevating some of its seven institutions designated as "emerging research universities. '' The two that are expected to emerge first are the University of Houston and Texas Tech University, likely in that order according to discussions on the House floor of the 82nd Texas Legislature.
The state is home to various private institutions of higher learning -- ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized top - tier research university. Rice University in Houston is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and is ranked the nation 's 17th - best overall university by U.S. News & World Report. Trinity University, a private, primarily undergraduate liberal arts university in San Antonio, has ranked first among universities granting primarily bachelor 's and select master 's degrees in the Western United States for 20 consecutive years by U.S. News. Private universities include Austin College, Baylor University, University of Mary Hardin -- Baylor, and Southwestern University.
Universities in Texas host three presidential libraries: George Bush Presidential Library at Texas A&M University, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum at The University of Texas at Austin, and the George W. Bush Presidential Library at Southern Methodist University.
Notwithstanding the concentration of elite medical centers located in the state, The Commonwealth Fund ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation. Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare, quality of care, avoidable hospital spending, and equity among various groups. Causes of the state 's poor rankings include politics, a high poverty rate, and the highest rate of illegal immigration in the nation. In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red '' in response to the report that the state had 25.1 percent of the population without health insurance, the largest proportion in the nation.
The Trust for America 's Health ranked Texas 15th highest in adult obesity, with 27.2 percent of the state 's population measured as obese. The 2008 Men 's Health obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America; Houston ranked 6th, Dallas 7th, El Paso 8th, and Arlington 14th. Texas had only one city, Austin, ranked 21st, in the top 25 among the "fittest cities '' in America. The same survey has evaluated the state 's obesity initiatives favorably with a "B + ''. The state is ranked forty - second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise.
Texas has the highest maternal mortality rate in the developed world, and the rate by which Texas women died from pregnancy related complications doubled from 2010 to 2014, to 23.8 per 100,000. A rate unmatched in any other U.S. state or economically developed country.
Many elite research medical centers are located in Texas. The state has nine medical schools, three dental schools, and two optometry schools. Texas has two Biosafety Level 4 (BSL - 4) laboratories: one at The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, and the other at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio -- the first privately owned BSL - 4 lab in the United States.
The Texas Medical Center in Houston, holds the world 's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions, with 47 member institutions. Texas Medical Center performs the most heart transplants in the world. The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston is a highly regarded academic institution that centers around cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.
San Antonio 's South Texas Medical Center facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States. The University of Texas Health Science Center is another highly ranked research and educational institution in San Antonio.
Both the American Heart Association and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center call Dallas home. The Southwestern Medical Center ranks "among the top academic medical centers in the world ''. The institution 's medical school employs the most medical school Nobel laureates in the world.
Texans have historically had difficulties traversing Texas due to the state 's large size and rough terrain. Texas has compensated by building both America 's largest highway and railway systems in length. The regulatory authority, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) maintains the state 's immense highway system, regulates aviation, and public transportation systems.
Located centrally in North America, the state is an important transportation hub. From the Dallas / Fort Worth area, trucks can reach 93 percent of the nation 's population within 48 hours, and 37 percent within 24 hours. Texas has 33 foreign trade zones (FTZ), the most in the nation. In 2004, a combined total of $298 billion of goods passed though Texas FTZs.
The first Texas freeway was the Gulf Freeway opened in 1948 in Houston. As of 2005, 79,535 miles (127,999 km) of public highway crisscrossed Texas (up from 71,000 miles (114,263 km) in 1984). To fund recent growth in the state highways, Texas has 17 toll roads (see list) with several additional tollways proposed. In central Texas, the southern section of the State Highway 130 toll road has a speed limit of 85 miles per hour (137 km / h), the highest in the nation. All federal and state highways in Texas are paved.
Texas has 730 airports, second-most of any state in the nation. Largest in Texas by size and passengers served, Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) is the second - largest by area in the United States, and fourth in the world with 18,076 acres (73.15 km). In traffic, DFW is the busiest in the state, the fourth busiest in the United States, and sixth worldwide. American Airlines Group 's American / American Eagle, the world 's largest airline in total passengers - miles transported and passenger fleet size, uses DFW as its largest and main hub. Southwest Airlines, headquartered in Dallas, has its operations at Dallas Love Field. It ranks as the largest airline in the United States by number of passengers carried domestically per year and the largest airline in the world by number of passengers carried.
Texas 's second - largest air facility is Houston 's George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH). It served as the largest hub for the former Continental Airlines, which was based in Houston; it serves as the largest hub for United Airlines, the world 's third - largest airline, by passenger - miles flown. IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport. The next five largest airports in the state all serve over 3 million passengers annually; they include Austin - Bergstrom International Airport, William P. Hobby Airport, San Antonio International Airport, Dallas Love Field and El Paso International Airport. The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is Del Rio International Airport.
Around 1,150 seaports dot Texas 's coast with over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of channels. Ports employ nearly one - million people and handle an average of 317 million metric tons. Texas ports connect with the rest of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard with the Gulf section of the Intracoastal Waterway. The Port of Houston today is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage, second in overall tonnage, and tenth worldwide in tonnage. The Houston Ship Channel spans 530 feet (160 m) wide by 45 feet (14 m) deep by 50 miles (80 km) long.
Part of the state 's tradition of cowboys is derived from the massive cattle drives which its ranchers organized in the nineteenth century to drive livestock to railroads and markets in Kansas, for shipment to the East. Towns along the way, such as Baxter Springs, the first cow town in Kansas, developed to handle the seasonal workers and tens of thousands of head of cattle being driven.
The first railroad to operate in Texas was the Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway, opening in August 1853. The first railroad to enter Texas from the north, completed in 1872, was the Missouri -- Kansas -- Texas Railroad. With increasing railroad access, the ranchers did not have to take their livestock up to the Midwest, and shipped beef out from Texas. This caused a decline in the economies of the cow towns.
Since 1911, Texas has led the nation in length of railroad miles within the state. Texas railway length peaked in 1932 at 17,078 miles (27,484 km), but declined to 14,006 miles (22,540 km) by 2000. While the Railroad Commission of Texas originally regulated state railroads, in 2005 the state reassigned these duties to TxDOT.
Both Dallas and Houston feature light rail systems. Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) built the first light rail system in the Southwest United States, completed in 1996. The Trinity Railway Express (TRE) commuter rail service, which connects Fort Worth and Dallas, is provided by the Fort Worth Transportation Authority (the T) and DART. In the Austin area, Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority operates a commuter rail service known as Capital MetroRail to the northwestern suburbs. The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas (METRO) operates light rail lines in the Houston area.
Amtrak provides Texas with limited intercity passenger rail service. Three scheduled routes serve the state: the daily Texas Eagle (Chicago -- San Antonio); the tri-weekly Sunset Limited (New Orleans -- Los Angeles), with stops in Texas; and the daily Heartland Flyer (Fort Worth -- Oklahoma City).
Terminal D at DFW Airport in Dallas.
Terminal E at George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston.
Port of Houston along the Houston Ship Channel
METRORail in Houston
DART Rail in Dallas
Capital MetroRail in Austin
While American football has long been considered "king '' in the state, Texans today enjoy a wide variety of sports.
Texans can cheer for a plethora of professional sports teams. Within the "Big Four '' professional leagues, Texas has two NFL teams (the Dallas Cowboys and the Houston Texans), two Major League Baseball teams (the Texas Rangers and the Houston Astros), three NBA teams (the Houston Rockets, the San Antonio Spurs, and the Dallas Mavericks), and one National Hockey League team (the Dallas Stars). The Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex is one of only twelve American metropolitan areas that hosts sports teams from all the "Big Four '' professional leagues. Outside of the "Big Four '' leagues, Texas also has a WNBA team, (the Dallas Wings) and two Major League Soccer teams (the Houston Dynamo and FC Dallas).
Collegiate athletics have deep significance in Texas culture, especially football. The state has ten Division I - FBS schools, the most in the nation. Four of the state 's universities, the Baylor Bears, Texas Longhorns, TCU Horned Frogs, and Texas Tech Red Raiders, compete in the Big 12 Conference. The Texas A&M Aggies left the Big 12 and joined the Southeastern Conference in 2012, which led the Big 12 to invite TCU to join; TCU was previously in the Mountain West Conference. The Houston Cougars and the SMU Mustangs compete in the American Athletic Conference. The Texas State Bobcats and the UT Arlington Mavericks compete in the Sun Belt Conference. Four of the state 's schools claim at least one national championship in football: the Texas Longhorns, the Texas A&M Aggies, the TCU Horned Frogs, and the SMU Mustangs.
According to a survey of Division I-A coaches the rivalry between the University of Oklahoma and the University of Texas at Austin, the Red River Shootout, ranks the third best in the nation. The TCU Horned Frogs and SMU Mustangs also share a rivalry and compete annually in the Battle for the Iron Skillet. A fierce rivalry, the Lone Star Showdown, also exists between the state 's two largest universities, Texas A&M University and the University of Texas at Austin. The athletics portion of the Lone Star Showdown rivalry has been put on hold after the Texas A&M Aggies joined the Southeastern Conference.
The University Interscholastic League (UIL) organizes most primary and secondary school competitions. Events organized by UIL include contests in athletics (the most popular being high school football) as well as artistic and academic subjects.
Texans also enjoy the rodeo. The world 's first rodeo was hosted in Pecos, Texas. The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the largest rodeo in the world. It begins with trail rides that originate from several points throughout the state that convene at Reliant Park. The Southwestern Exposition and Livestock Show in Fort Worth is the oldest continuously running rodeo incorporating many of the state 's most historic traditions into its annual events. Dallas hosts the State Fair of Texas each year at Fair Park.
Texas Motor Speedway hosts annual NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series auto races since 1997. Since 2012, Austin 's Circuit of the Americas plays host to a round of the Formula 1 World Championship -- the first at a permanent road circuit in the United States since the 1980 Grand Prix at Watkins Glen International --, as well as Grand Prix motorcycle racing, FIA World Endurance Championship and United SportsCar Championship races.
AT&T Stadium, home of the Dallas Cowboys
Playoff game between the San Antonio Spurs and the Los Angeles Lakers in 2007
The Ballpark in Arlington, home of the Texas Rangers
BBVA Compass Stadium, home of the Houston Dynamo
State government
U.S. Government
Coordinates: 31 ° N 100 ° W / 31 ° N 100 ° W / 31; - 100
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where was pirates of the caribbean salazar filmed | Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales (released outside North America as Pirates of the Caribbean: Salazar 's Revenge) is a 2017 American swashbuckler fantasy film, the fifth installment in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to On Stranger Tides (2011). The film is directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg from a script by Jeff Nathanson, with Jerry Bruckheimer serving again as producer. Johnny Depp, Kevin McNally and Geoffrey Rush reprise their roles as Jack Sparrow, Joshamee Gibbs and Hector Barbossa, respectively, and are joined in the cast by Javier Bardem, Brenton Thwaites and Kaya Scodelario.
The filmmakers cited the series ' first installment, The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), as inspiration for the script and tone of the film. Pre-production for the film started shortly before On Stranger Tides was released in early 2011, with Terry Rossio writing the initial script. In early 2013, Jeff Nathanson was hired to write a new script for the film, with Depp being involved in Nathanson 's writing process. Initially planned for a 2015 release, the film was delayed to 2016 and then to 2017, after 6 years of development hell, due to script and budget issues. Principal photography started in Australia in February 2015, after the Australian government offered Disney $20 million in tax incentives, and ended in July 2015.
Dead Men Tell No Tales was released in conventional, 3D, and IMAX formats on May 26, 2017. The film received mixed reviews, with most critics believing the series had run its course, though many considered the film an improvement over its immediate predecessors. The film was a financial success, grossing $794 million worldwide against an estimated budget between $230 -- 320 million, though Dead Men Tell No Tales is the second - lowest grossing installment of the series.
Twelve - year - old Henry Turner boards the Flying Dutchman and informs his father, Will Turner, that the curse which binds Will to the Dutchman and only permits him to step on land once a decade can be broken by the Trident of Poseidon. Henry intends to recruit Captain Jack Sparrow to help find it, but Will believes this is impossible and orders Henry to leave. Will and the Dutchman then disappear into the sea, but Henry vows to find Jack and the Trident.
Nine years later, Henry is a sailor in the British Royal Navy. The ship sails into the supernatural Devil 's Triangle and stumbles upon the wreck of the Silent Mary, whose ghostly crew led by Spanish pirate - hunter Captain Salazar attack. Salazar spares Henry 's life to deliver a message to Jack: Salazar is coming for him.
In Saint Martin, a young astronomer and horologist named Carina Smyth is sentenced to death for witchcraft but escapes and briefly crosses paths with Jack as he and his crew spectacularly blunder a bank robbery. Having suffered years of such bad luck, Jack 's crew lose faith and abandon him. Depressed, Jack trades his magical compass for a drink. However, this betrayal of the compass frees Salazar and his crew from the Devil 's Triangle. Carina learns Henry is looking for the Trident 's location and offers to help him using her unknown father 's diary. Carina and Jack are captured and face execution, but are saved by Henry and Jack 's crew, setting sail on the Dying Gull. Carina deciphers clues that the stars will lead to an island where the Trident is hidden.
Meanwhile, Captain Barbossa hears from his pirate crew that the revived Captain Salazar has killed several pirates at sea, and learns that the Trident could lead him to a new "treasure ''. Barbossa sets off to find the Trident, until Salazar and his crew appear and destroy Barbossa 's fleet. Barbossa manages to talk his way out of being killed by offering to help find Jack. Salazar agrees, wanting revenge on the pirate that caused his demise. Salazar pursues the Dying Gull, forcing Jack, Henry, and Carina to flee to an island, discovering that Salazar 's crew can not go on land. After saving Jack from a forced marriage, Barbossa allies himself with Jack, returning his compass and restoring the miniaturized Black Pearl, trapped in a bottle by Blackbeard, to its original size. They all continue their journey to the Trident 's island, with Barbossa taking command of the Pearl once more. During the voyage, Jack and Barbossa realize Carina is the latter 's long - lost daughter. Barbossa tells Jack that he had left her at an orphanage with his diary so she could live a better life, and refuses to tell her the truth so she will continue to believe her father was an astronomer.
Approaching the Trident 's island, the Pearl evades a British Navy warship, which is destroyed by the Silent Mary before the Pearl runs aground on the island. Jack, Barbossa, and Carina use the island 's magic to part the ocean and open a path to the Trident 's location on the ocean floor. Salazar captures Henry and demonically possesses his body in order to walk on the ocean floor and seize the Trident. Once he does so, Henry is given his body back and decides to destroy the Trident, breaking all curses upon the sea and restoring Salazar 's crew to life. However, the divided sea begins to collapse in on itself. The Pearl lowers its anchor to lift them to safety, but Salazar pursues them, still hell - bent on killing Jack. Carina realizes that Barbossa is her father when she spots a tattoo on his arm identical to the diary 's cover. Barbossa sacrifices himself to kill Salazar, allowing the others to escape alive.
Some time later, Henry and Carina reach Port Royal, where Will appears, free from the Dutchman. His wife, Elizabeth, appears moments later and the Turner family reunites. Henry and Carina begin a relationship as well. Jack watches from the Pearl in faux - disgust before sailing away into the horizon, having been accepted by his crew as their captain once again.
In a post-credits scene, Will appears to have a nightmare where a resurrected Davy Jones enters his room, oblivious that Jones left a trace of wet barnacles on the floor beneath he and Elizabeth.
Additionally, Keira Knightley briefly appears at the end in a non-speaking role as Elizabeth Swann, Will 's wife and Henry 's mother. Adam Brown, Danny Kirrane, and Delroy Atkinson appear as members of Jack 's crew, and in the prison scene, Paul McCartney briefly appears as Jack 's paternal uncle, Uncle Jack. Alexander Scheer plays a young Captain Edward Teague in a flashback sequence. A silhouette of Davy Jones, one of the series ' former villains, is seen in the post-credits scene, but his portrayer Bill Nighy stated that he was not informed about the character 's appearance. Pablo and Chiquita reprised their role as Jack the Monkey.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides in 2011, the cast and crew of the fourth film were told to set aside time in the near future, because Walt Disney Pictures intended to shoot a fifth and sixth film back - to - back. However, it was later stated that only a fifth film was in the works. Terry Rossio wrote a script for a fifth film without his partner Ted Elliott. Rob Marshall was rumoured to return to direct, but declined after choosing to direct Into the Woods (2014), a Disney project starring Johnny Depp. After Marshall passed on the film, many directors were rumored to take over, including Gore Verbinski, who was responsible for the original three films. Verbinski ultimately passed on the project, feeling that "there 's no reason other than financial '' in making the film. The eventual shortlist included Fredrik Bond, Rupert Sanders, and the eventual choice, Norwegian film duo Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. The studio chose them based on their Academy Award - nominated high - sea film Kon - Tiki, and their ability to work with a limited budget.
Rossio 's script draft was ultimately rejected, and the writer stated that a major reason was its use of a female villain, which made actor Johnny Depp "worried that would be redundant to Dark Shadows, which also featured a female villain. '' In January 2013, Disney hired Jeff Nathanson to work on a script. Rønning and Sandberg said they were particularly moved by Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script, which convinced them to sign to direct in May, Rønning believing that the script was "all there '' but needed scenes to "carry the tradition of Gore Verbinski, bring the emotional core and big action set pieces. '' In August, Rønning and Sandberg revealed that the title would be Dead Men Tell No Tales. However, the following month producer Jerry Bruckheimer said, "We have an outline everyone loves but the script is not done, '' explaining that the release would be postponed beyond summer 2015. The studio questioned Depp 's bankability following the financial losses of The Lone Ranger in 2013, and the screenplay 's first drafts were not approved by Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn, who was concerned about the finished product. Bruckheimer revealed that script and budget issues were behind the delay, and that Nathanson was at work on a second draft, based on a well - received outline, saying they needed a script and budget everyone would approve. Depp was also invited to collaborate on the script, with the actor believing it would be the last of the franchise and wanting to end it right. After the script was accepted, the film was officially green - lit by Disney in July 2014, with a planned release on July 7, 2017.
The directors were inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl, stating that the original is thrilling but above all a comedy with heart, and wanted to reinvent the "structure and the dynamics between the characters. '' In addition to recapturing the best of previous franchise installments, the directors had the works of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton in mind when crafting the tone of the film. The pair wanted the film to be the "most emotional '' of the series, and to explore the roots of Jack Sparrow. They decided to use Jack 's compass as the "key to unlock Salazar from his hellish prison in the Triangle, '' and toned down some of the fantastic elements "to ground it, even in Pirates Of The Caribbean. '' Geoffrey Rush argued that the pair brought "Euro sensibility to traditional Hollywood franchise thinking, '' while Orlando Bloom believed that they had "recaptured the simplicity and charm '' of the original film. Kaya Scodelario said that the producers wanted to take the franchise back to its origins, with a story that gave characters a conclusion while opening new possibilities. Along with the directors and writers, many of the crew members were new to the franchise, replacing those who had served on the previous four films, with the exception of Bruckheimer, costume designer Penny Rose, and executive producer Chad Oman.
Speaking at the On Stranger Tides press launch in Cannes, Depp said he would play the role so long as it is popular with the public. In August 2012, news surfaced that Depp had signed for the fifth film, earning A $ 90,000,000 to reprise his role. One month later, Penélope Cruz stated that in spite of her enjoying playing Angelica in On Stranger Tides, she had not been contacted regarding a fifth film. Geoffrey Rush had commented on returning as Hector Barbossa in the fifth installment, saying "If they keep shapeshifting this character, absolutely, '' and implied that he might return as the villain. In December 2014, Rush confirmed his return for the fifth installment, with Barbossa and Jack being "at the heart of it and there 's a whole new set of story lines. '' In late 2011, about four years after choosing not to return for the fourth installment, Orlando Bloom stated that he would like to return for a fifth film, if offered. Several weeks after Disney officially green - lit the film, Bloom stated that there were "discussions '' about his return to the franchise in September 2014. Bloom further commented in December 2014, saying that while he was not sure whether he would return, there were talks. He also indicated that Disney could make a soft reboot with the franchise and focus on Will Turner and his son. Bloom 's participation was kept secret until the Disney D23 in 2015, after filming had wrapped. Once the filmmakers started working with Bloom, they decided that they needed to reunite the character with his wife, Elizabeth. To ensure that Keira Knightley could reprise this role, the production moved for a one - day shoot in London, where she was working.
On December 2, 2013, it was reported that Christoph Waltz was in talks to appear as the film 's main antagonist, but he later declined. The villain was eventually portrayed by Cruz 's husband, Javier Bardem. In 2014, Bardem signed on to portray Armando Salazar, who in early scripts was referred to as Captain John Brand. Bardem had liked the working environment of the fourth movie, which he witnessed accompanying his wife, and stated he was also a fan of the franchise and of Depp 's performance as Jack Sparrow. Australian actor Brenton Thwaites entered talks for the role of Henry in late November 2014, after Disney chose him over Taron Egerton, George MacKay, Mitchell Hope, Ansel Elgort and Sam Keeley.
Kaya Scodelario was chosen as the female lead out of a shortlist that included Gabriella Wilde, Alexandra Dowling, Jenna Thiam, and Lucy Boynton. Her character, Carina, is an astronomer accused of being a witch. Scodelario confirmed that she was playing "a totally different character '' from Elizabeth Swann, and also that she will be Henry 's love interest, given in earlier drafts she was envisioned as a love interest of Sparrow. Kevin McNally confirmed his return as Joshamee Gibbs in late January. Shortly after on - location pre-production opened in Australia, Disney issued a casting call to local agents for actors from all ages and experience levels to apply for roles, and as extras in the upcoming film, with casting also open in the US. Adam Brown, Delroy Atkinson, and Danny Kirrane were revealed as cast members shortly before filming. As filming begun, two actors from the previous films were confirmed to return, Martin Klebba as Marty and Stephen Graham as Scrum. Director Joachim Rønning 's two children appear in the film as extras. Keith Richards expressed interest in reprising his role as Captain Teague, but was unavailable, leading Depp to invite Paul McCartney into appearing as Jack Sparrow 's uncle (also named Jack).
Other actors had expressed interest in reprising their roles from the previous films, such as Tia Dalma portrayer Naomie Harris, and Greg Ellis, even if his character Theodore Groves appeared to die in the previous film. Both Lee Arenberg and Mackenzie Crook commented on the possibility of returning as Pintel and Ragetti. In an interview on November 7, 2014, Crook confirmed that he had received a call of availability from Disney for the film, though he later declined in order to focus on his television series Detectorists. He said he had felt "pangs of nostalgia '' when the cast and crew filmed without him. Arenberg, who also had a television commitment, to Once Upon a Time, added that he felt like the producers "were n't really trying to court us like they really wanted us. ''
Directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg originally stated that shooting would take place in Puerto Rico and New Orleans, and Bruckheimer had previously mentioned that there might be a sequence in Louisiana. However, a spokesman for Australian Arts Minister George Brandis confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot exclusively in Australia, after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives, originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea; thus edging out Mexico and South Africa as filming locations. According to Australian film industry sources, on location pre-production started in late September 2014, and its cost was set at around $250 million. Filming took place exclusively in Queensland, Australia, as the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and the Whitsunday Islands were officially confirmed as filming locations. On January 1, 2015, The Rainbow Gypsy, a 15 - year - old replica of an 1897 Scottish bawley, underwent an extensive refit at the Gold Coast, including a new bowsprit, and reconfigured decks and cabins, for filming as the Dying Gull. Its captain and owner, Kit Woodward, was a rigger on the film.
Filming commenced on February 17, 2015. Ship scenes were filmed in front of a giant outdoor greenscreen in Helensvale, while a film set in the form of a village was built in Maudsland. Because the greenscreens ' height blocked the sunlight, containers with inflatable bluescreens mounted on top were added to the set to allow some light to enter. While an initial draft of the script featured six ships, the end product had eleven vessels; to cut costs, most of these were partial constructs later enhanced by computer graphics, with some built atop an hydraulic rig to mimic the movement of seafaring while on land. The camera crew, led by director of photography Paul Cameron, also made extensive use of drones, to capture immersive views at sea without resorting to aerial footage or cranes.
Filming moved to Doug Jennings Park on The Spit from March 30 to June 15 for water - bound scenes. However, due to extreme sea sickness among the cast and crew from the "big swells, '' filming moved to Raby Bay for calmer waters. Scenes were shot at Byron Bay on June 1. Locals made up more than 75 percent of the 850 - plus crew then working on the film. After much speculation about whether Orlando Bloom would return, Bloom arrived at the Gold Coast in late May to reprise his role as Will Turner. Scenes featuring a skeleton of a sperm whale that had been constructed were shot at Hastings Point from June 21 to 23.
A number of issues and controversies set back the film during its production. The biosecurity laws in Australia posed problems regarding the capuchin monkeys that portray Hector Barbossa 's pet monkey Jack, because the animals are regarded as a category 1 pest and call for strict requirements and a 30 - day quarantine. Further controversy erupted from animal rights activist groups, who urged Federal Environment Minister Greg Hunt to reject the entry application, arguing that the long air - flight would affect their health, and that their performance was unnatural and would create demand for illegal wildlife trade. One of the monkeys caused further disruption when it wandered off set at Movie World, and bit the ear of a make - up artist on another production. Crew and cast members were forced to cover the camera lenses on all mobile phones with duct tape to prevent the film from being pirated before its release. To prevent fans from interfering with the production, secret filming locations used the production name of "Herschel '' to hide the fact it was the fifth Pirates of the Caribbean film. Following the attempt of an armed man trying to bypass security, the already tight security was increased.
On March 10, 2015, Depp was injured off set and had to be flown to the United States for surgery. Due to his absence, filming stalled completely and 200 crew members were forced to stand down for two weeks, after finishing all they could do without Depp. Filming was set to resume "on or about April 20, '' and Depp returned to set on April 21. In June, Kaya Scodelario was injured on set along with a stuntman. In early July, dismantling of the sets at The Spit had began. Most of the cast and crew had finished on July 8, and a wrap party was held on July 11. Filming then moved to the Whitsundays for the final shots. On July 21, 2015, Rønning announced that filming had wrapped after a 95 - day shoot. After nearly a year in post-production, reshoots and additional photography were conducted in Vancouver, Canada from March 24 to April 13, 2016, under the production title "Herschel Additional Photography. ''
This was the first film in the series that Hans Zimmer did not compose the music for. Instead, the main composer is one of his protégés, Geoff Zanelli, who had worked on the previous four installments in the franchise. Zanelli said that Zimmer "redefined the sound of the entire genre '' and considered it a great accomplishment to have worked with him and Bruckheimer. He used this experience with the franchise to build a new sound for the film. He stated that "you do n't have to modernize the melodies, those are timeless, '' and only tried to make the sound more modern by featuring an electric cello to create a menacing leitmotif for Salazar. As it took more than a year for the film to start production following Zanelli being hired, he accompanied the script 's evolution, and was familiar with the character arcs that he would need to translate in their theme songs. Zanelli always started writing the music on the piano, namely a synthesized orchestra. The film 's soundtrack was released on May 26, 2017.
Work on the film concluded on April 19, 2017. Editing was a collaboration between Roger Barton and Leigh Folsom Boyd, with the latter detailing that "Roger started from the beginning of the film and I started from the end, and we kind of met in the middle. '' Boyd added that it was the longest post-production process she was ever involved with, as Disney wanted to give "the support and leeway we needed to tell the story and allow for the complex visual effects to bake. '' The editors worked closely with the previsualization team to, according to effects supervisor Gary Brozenich, "give meat to the bones of the plates that needed effects explanation as well as any new CG beats that would be added later. '' Along with the post-production team in Los Angeles, Brozenich had to split his time going to the UK and Montreal, to check on the eight companies handling the film 's 2,000 visual effects shots, with 150 of them consisting only of computer graphics. The primary vendor was Brozenich 's own employer Moving Picture Company (MPC). Among MPC 's work were Salazar 's undead pirates, whose on - set footage was mostly replaced by CGI to achieve missing body parts and floating hair and clothing. Brozenich stated that what was kept of the original actors was "their run, gait and faces. '' To provide reference for the floating parts, which were meant to resemble a perpetual drowning state, a stuntman in full costume and wig was filmed underwater in a swimming pool performing various actions.
Atomic Fiction handled the scenes at St. Martin, turning the few blocks of buildings built on set into more than 600 CG buildings, surrounded by a jungle environment. The work combined references from both the Caribbean and Thailand, and enhanced through CGI both the guillotine on which Jack Sparrow is nearly executed and the bank from the heist scene; the bank was meant to look as if its foundations were dug through the ground instead of sliding on the surface. Along with sea footage filmed in both the Australian sets and Key West, Florida, there was extensive usage of water simulations, with the artists using the Beaufort scale to ensure the waves and wind realistically matched.
Dead Men Tell No Tales had its world premiere at the Shanghai Disney Resort on May 11, 2017. In several countries, including the United Kingdom, the film was released as Pirates of the Caribbean: Salazar 's Revenge, a decision that the directors were not informed about. It was released at cinemas in Italy and Norway on May 24, and in the United States, Canada, and China on May 26. It is the first Hollywood feature to be released in the United States for the new panorama - like ScreenX format, which played in two locations in the U.S. -- CGV Buena Park and CGV Cinemas -- both in Los Angeles, California. Additionally, it played in 81 screens at select theaters in Korea, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Turkey and Indonesia. The film also played in 4D on 373 4DX screens worldwide. The film was released in IMAX in an expanded 1.9: 1 aspect ratio. It was Disney 's third wide release of the year, following Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
Shortly before release, Dead Men Tell No Tales was allegedly stolen by a group of piracy hackers, who demanded a large sum of money from Disney in order for them not to leak the unreleased film. The company refused to do so and worked with the FBI in order to uncover the identity of the group. Disney CEO Bob Iger reported that hackers did not steal their movie.
A robust marketing effort helped promote Dead Men Tell No Tales. The film was first showcased at the Disney D23 Expo 2015, where Depp appeared in costume as Jack Sparrow and the film 's logo was revealed, with Orlando Bloom confirmed to be starring in the film. Elizabeth Rudnick was self - confirmed to novelize the film, describing it the film as bringing back the series ' initial sensibility, while returning Jack Sparrow to "all of his swaggering glory. '' A tie - in prequel expanding the backstory of the character Carina Smyth was also released, titled Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales -- The Brightest Star in the North. The film was showcased at the 2016 Walt Disney Content Showcase in South Africa, where concept art, story details and on - set images were previewed.
The first teaser trailer was released on October 2, 2016, during Fear the Walking Dead, and showcased Armando Salazar hunting for Jack Sparrow, who is shown on a wanted poster. On January 27, 2017, Disney uploaded an eight - second motion poster to their official Instagram account, promoting the release of a television spot of the film during Super Bowl LI. Disney then released a 30 - second television teaser at Super Bowl LI, with an extended version released online set to Johnny Cash 's "Ai n't No Grave ''. The trailer was considered to be the "big '' trailer of the event and was the most - viewed trailer of all the films advertised at the halftime show. A new teaser poster was released with the trailer. Both teasers received a highly positive reaction from audiences. The official trailer was released on March 2. Another trailer was released on March 25. The first 30 - second TV spot was released on March 31. On April 21, at Disney Parks and on the four Disney cruise ships, Disney showcased a sneak peek of the film. Disney premiered a 5 - minute extended sequence of the film in front of the UK release of Marvel 's Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, on April 28.
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on September 19, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on October 3. It was the top home - media release in its first week, with the Blu - ray version accounting for 78 % of sales, and brought the previous four films back into the 25 best - sold Blu - rays.
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales had a worldwide opening of $271.4 million from 55 markets, with $24 million coming from 1,088 IMAX screens. The film 's six - day opening gross pushed the franchise gross past the $4 billion mark. The film grossed $172.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $622.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $794.9 million, against a production budget of $230 million. Despite being the lowest - grossing film of the series in the US by nearly $70 million, the film became the highest - grossing entry of the Pirates franchise internationally when going by modern foreign - exchange rates, passing On Stranger Tides, which grossed $593.4 million at current rates. The largest - earning foreign markets were China ($172.3 million), Japan ($59.5 million), and Russia and the CIS ($40.7 million), where it was the second - highest - grossing film behind Avatar. Despite weak US totals, Deadline.com noted the film should turn a net profit of around $280 million after factoring together all expenses and revenues.
Dead Men Tell No Tales debuted over the four - day Memorial Day opening weekend, being released in 4,276 theaters, of which over 3,100 were 3D, taking advantage of formats such as IMAX, D - Box and 4DX. The film earned $23.4 million on its first day, including $5.5 million from previews. It was the lowest opening day of the franchise. It grossed $63 million over three days, and $78.5 million over four (Friday -- Monday), finishing first at the box office, ahead of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and fellow newcomer Baywatch. It was the second - smallest opening weekend of the franchise, only earning more than the first film, with each of the other installments earning at least $90 million. Despite the film registering the highest test score in the series, the opening came in well below expectations of $80 -- 115 million. Analysts attributed the underperformance to negative reviews, franchise fatigue, and Johnny Depp 's diminishing returns and depreciating public image, amid his personal problems. Still, it performed better than Disney 's previous Memorial Day releases (Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, Tomorrowland and Alice Through the Looking Glass), and studio executives said they were pleased with the movie 's opening, which helped Disney push past $1 billion in the US.
The film fell by a total of 65 % in its second weekend, the worst of the series, grossing $22.1 million, and finishing in third place, after newcomers Wonder Woman ($103.3 million) and Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie ($23.9 million). It remained in the top ten for four more weeks.
Internationally, where it is marketed as Salazar 's Revenge in most countries, the film was released day - and - date with its North American debut in 54 markets (91 % of its total marketplace, except Japan, where it debuted on July 1). Preliminary reports had the film opening to $150 -- 175 million, but possibly overperforming depending on major markets, most notably China. While its Chinese run benefited from the May 28 -- 30 Dragon Boat Festival -- a lucrative moviegoing period -- and from International Children 's Day (June 1), the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing had a deteriorating effect on certain European markets over the film 's opening weekend. From Wednesday to Friday, it registered an opening of $208.8 million. Around $14 million of that came from IMAX screenings, the second - biggest international IMAX opening in May, after Captain America: Civil War. Similar to its US plunge, it earned $73.8 million in its second weekend, falling to second place, behind Wonder Woman.
It recorded the biggest opening day of the year in several markets, including Germany ($3.6 million), Austria, France ($2.3 million), Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Thailand ($400,000), Indonesia, Malaysia and the Netherlands ($900,000, the second - biggest Disney opening, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens). Russia posted the biggest opening of all time with $18.4 million ($18.6 million including previews). In China, where the film had its global premiere, it earned $21.3 million on its opening day, the fourth - biggest Disney opening in the country. It had an 87 % marketshare and had already surpassed the entire earnings of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End. Earning a total of $67.9 million, it registered the third - highest three - day for any Disney title, and a much - higher opening than the US. The film did extremely well in IMAX, earning $9 million from 401 screens from Friday to early Monday bookings. The robust opening has been attributed to the Dragon Boat Festival, Depp 's star power, the ubiquity of the franchise, the impact of Shanghai Disneyland Park, and good word of mouth, with a score of 7.5 / 10 on reviews aggregator Douban and 8.7 / 10 on top mobile - ticketing platform Weying. The film 's final release market was Japan (July 1), where it opened at number one, achieving the highest - grossing opening for a Western film of the year, earning $9.25 million over the July 1 -- 2 weekend. It retained the box office lead for one more week, and was the highest - grossing foreign film in the following weekend.
Dead Men Tell No Tales received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30 %, based on 239 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "neither a change in directors nor an undead Javier Bardem is enough to drain this sinking franchise 's murky bilge. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported filmgoers gave it an 82 % overall positive score.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx criticized what he termed as a convoluted plot and overabundance of characters, resulting in a film that was "practically incoherent. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film "bloated, boring, repetitive and draining '' and gave it one star out of four. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that the film echoes the first three of the franchise, "in which Johnny Depp 's louche and campy Jack Sparrow played second banana to an insipid love story... the two romantic leads (...) succeed only in making the shortest movie in the series seem just as long as the rest. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times said of the film, "Its pleasures are so meager, its delight in its own inventions so forced and false, that it becomes almost the perfect opposite of entertainment. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post remarked that the film was "loud, overstimulating and hard to take in all in one sitting. '' Mick LaSalle of San Francisco Chronicle found the film to be "a jumble of half - baked impulses '' that had been forced into a played - out franchise.
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, saying: "Dead Men works well enough as a stand - alone, swashbuckling comedic spectacle, thanks to the terrific performances, some ingenious practical effects, impressive CGI and a steady diet of PG - 13 dialogue peppered with not particularly sophisticated but (I have to admit) fairly funny sexual innuendo. '' Pete Hammond of Deadline.com praised the film, calling it "the most entertaining installment, '' and giving credit to Rønning and Sandberg for creating a "rollicking good time ''. He praised the visual effects, particularly Salazar and his crew, arguing that the film should be in line to receive an Academy Award for Visual Effects. He also gave high praise to Bardem for being able to create such a "fully dimensional villain '' under the layers of make - up and CGI, and Depp for keeping the film and franchise going. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' B ', praising the fun nature of the film and its visuals and calling it "gorgeously detailed swashbuckling nonsense, '' but wished that the script had taken more risks instead of following the formula used in previous films. Ashley Esqueda of CNET gave the film a positive review, arguing that it brought the franchise back to what made its first two installments so fun, and praised Depp 's performance as being "delightful as ever. '' Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, saying "What was once a past - its - prime franchise seems to have found new life. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes opined "Dead Men Tell No Tales is n't as good as the first three films, but it 's better than the fourth, '' adding "it has mostly good performances, and a couple of great ones. It has fantastic visual effects, lots of humor that works, a lighthearted feel and sense of fun, and many terrific action set pieces. ''
On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise, and that a sixth film could be released. The post-credits scene of Dead Men shows Will Turner, Elizabeth Swann, and Davy Jones. In September 2017, producer Jerry Bruckheimer indicated that another Pirates sequel is still possible if Dead Men Tell No Tales does well in its home release. In October 2017, the sixth film was confirmed and Kaya Scodelario said that she was contracted to return. Shortly after, it was announced that Rønning is being eyed to return to direct the sequel.
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when is season 7 of glee coming out | I Kissed a Girl (Glee) - wikipedia
"I Kissed a Girl '' is the seventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee, and the fifty - first overall. Written by Matthew Hodgson and directed by Tate Donovan, the episode aired on Fox in the United States on November 29, 2011, and featured the election for a new senior class president at McKinley High. It also covered the special congressional election between Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) and Burt Hummel (Mike O'Malley), plus repercussions from the outing of Santana (Naya Rivera) during the congressional campaign.
The episode as a whole received mixed to negative reviews from critics, though several praised Santana 's scene with her grandmother. The music was viewed more favorably by reviewers, and earned mixed to positive reactions. Six songs are covered in the episode, including Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl ''. All six were released as downloadable singles, and five of them charted on the Billboard Hot 100.
Upon its initial airing, this episode was viewed by 7.9 million American viewers and garnered a 3.2 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The total viewership and ratings were up from the previous episode, "Mash Off '', which had aired two weeks before.
Santana (Naya Rivera) is about to be suspended for hitting Finn (Cory Monteith), but he claims it was merely a stage slap. He then blackmails Santana into having her glee club, the Troubletones, temporarily meet with her former club, New Directions, so he can show her how they all support her. Kurt (Chris Colfer) and Blaine (Darren Criss) sing "Perfect '' to her, which leaves her unimpressed, but Finn 's slow, stripped - down rendition of "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' is better received.
Puck (Mark Salling) ostensibly sings "I 'm the Only One '' for Santana, but delivers most of the song to an embarrassed Shelby (Idina Menzel) in front of a suspicious Quinn (Dianna Agron). Quinn later tries to seduce him, but he refuses and calls her crazy. Shelby calls Puck for assistance when her daughter Beth has a minor medical emergency; the two later have sex, but she regrets it and asks him to leave. Angered, Puck returns to Quinn, and she reveals her desire to have a second baby with him. Puck refuses, and tries to comfort her; he offers to share an important secret if she promises not to tell anyone.
Kurt 's quest to become senior class president appears doomed and along with it his college prospects; he confesses to Rachel (Lea Michele) that he is thinking about stuffing the ballot box to ensure that he wins. Sue 's (Jane Lynch) congressional campaign is also in trouble: to combat allegations that she is a lesbian, Sue decides to start an arbitrary relationship with a man, and chooses former bedmate Cooter Menkins (Eric Bruskotter), who has been having difficulty connecting with Coach Beiste (Dot - Marie Jones) due to her emotional armor. A distraught Beiste sings "Jolene '', confesses her love for Cooter and tells Sue she wo n't give him up without a fight. Sue loses the congressional election to Burt Hummel (Mike O'Malley).
An arrogant jock tries to seduce Santana to "make her normal ''. The female members of both glee clubs defend her, and together they sing "I Kissed a Girl ''. Santana comes out to her parents, who are accepting, but when she tells her abuela (grandmother), she tells Santana to leave and never return, saying it is a sin to speak of such things.
Kurt and his father Burt are called in to see Principal Figgins (Iqbal Theba), where it is revealed that although Kurt apparently won his election by 190 votes, more votes have been cast than there are students. Kurt admits that he contemplated cheating, but decided against doing so. Nevertheless, Kurt is disqualified and Brittany wins the election. Kurt tells Finn and Rachel that he is still under suspicion, and after he leaves, Rachel admits to Finn that she was the one who stuffed the ballot box because she wanted to help Kurt.
To end the week, Santana sings "Constant Craving '' to the combined glee clubs, inter-cut with Shelby and Kurt also singing. Rachel then arrives and confesses that she was the one who committed election fraud: the incident will go on her permanent record, she is suspended for a week and she is banned from participating in the impending show choir Sectionals competition.
The episode was written by Matthew Hodgson and directed by Tate Donovan. Filming began on October 13, 2011, while the fifth and sixth episodes, "The First Time '' and "Mash Off '' respectively, were still shooting, though the fifth episode finished the following day. The final day of filming was November 1, 2011.
Series co-creator Ian Brennan revealed to TV Guide that the episode would have not one election in it, but two: both senior class president and the congressional special election would occur on the same day, and McKinley High would be a polling place for the latter. According to Brennan, "People are voting for both elections in the school, with signs pointing voters in different directions '', and there will be a "very surprising twist '' in the final results.
Football recruiter Cooter Menkins (Bruskotter) returns in this episode, and becomes a bone of contention between Coach Beiste and Sue. Other recurring guest stars who appear in this episode include Principal Figgins (Theba), teachers Shelby Corcoran (Menzel) and Mrs. Hagberg (Mary Gillis), Kurt 's father and congressional candidate Burt Hummel (O'Malley), Coach Beiste (Jones), cheerleader Becky Jackson (Lauren Potter), school reporter Jacob Ben Israel (Josh Sussman), Troubletones member Sugar Motta (Vanessa Lengies) and New Directions member Rory Flanagan (Damian McGinty).
Music in the episode includes the song from which it gets its title, Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl '', which was previously sung by Tina for her glee club audition in the show 's pilot. Jones performs Dolly Parton 's "Jolene '' during the episode, her second time singing on the show; her first was a duet with Matthew Morrison in the second season episode "Blame It on the Alcohol ''. All six songs from the episode have been released as singles including "I Kissed a Girl '' and "Jolene ''; the other four are k.d. lang 's "Constant Craving '' sung by Rivera, Menzel and Colfer, Cyndi Lauper 's "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' in the Greg Laswell version sung by Monteith, Melissa Etheridge 's "I 'm the Only One '' sung by Salling and a clean version of Pink 's "Fuckin ' Perfect '' entitled "Perfect '', sung by Colfer and Criss.
On August 6, 2012, co-creator Ryan Murphy uploaded a deleted scene in which Santana comes out to Sue and her fellow Cheerios to YouTube.
"I Kissed a Girl '' was first broadcast on November 29, 2011 in the United States on Fox. It received a 3.2 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, and attracted 7.90 million American viewers during its initial airing, up from the 7.08 million viewers and 3.0 / 8 rating / share for the previous episode, "Mash Off '', which was broadcast on November 15, 2011.
Viewership was also up significantly in the United Kingdom and Canada. In the United Kingdom, "I Kissed a Girl '' was watched on Sky1 by 1.09 million viewers, an increase of over 21 % compared to "Mash Off '' two weeks before, when 900,000 viewers were watching. In Canada, 1.79 million viewers watched the episode, which made it the eighth most - viewed show of the week, up ten slots and 9 % from the 1.64 million viewers who watched "Mash Off '' two weeks prior.
In Australia, "I Kissed a Girl '' was broadcast on January 27, 2012. It was the first new episode since "Mash Off '' had aired on November 16, 2012, and was in a new Friday evening time slot as opposed to the previously scheduled Wednesday broadcasts. It was watched by 575,000 viewers, down over 15 % from the previous new episode, which was watched by 683,000 viewers. David Dale of the Sydney Morning Herald was scathing in his opinion of the show 's rescheduling: "Channel Ten must be insane to waste a new season of Glee on a night when the target audience are all out trying to get alcohol with fake IDs. Look at the pathetic numbers in the Friday chart. ''
The episode as a whole received mixed to negative reviews from critics. Rae Votta of Billboard wrote that it "stumbles as much as it shines, with two plot lines - worth of structure that make sense, and two that fall completely flat ''. Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman stated that "while there were undeniably significant plot moments, the emotional depth was lacking '', and Robert Canning of IGN said it was "kind of boring '' and nothing happened to "make it better than bland ''. AOLTV 's Crystal Bell found it frustrating, and said that the "worst part '' was that it "made me stop caring about these characters ''. Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that "a ton of it just did n't work ''. The Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson looked on the episode more favorably, however, and maintained that while it did not achieve the level of the previous two, it was a "pretty strong outing nonetheless ''.
Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter said that the scene where Santana comes out to her grandmother only to be rejected was a "powerful moment and Rivera delivered in a way equal to Chris Colfer and Mike O'Malley's scenes during Kurt 's coming out ''. Bell also complimented the sequence, though she criticized the next scene for showing "a happy, smiling Santana '' with no further explanation, and Canning and Kubicek were also unhappy with her abrupt change in mood, as if nothing had happened. VanDerWerff, though he called the coming - out scene "a moment that 's played with a sort of bracing honesty and moving empathy '' for what Santana was going through, stated that the "Santana storyline has been one of the best things about the back half of season two and this front half of season three, and the scenes that should be its emotional crux are occurring in our imaginations '', such as when she comes out to her parents. Goldberg called the fact that Finn suffered no consequences for his outing of Santana "a missed opportunity ''. Bell, however, thought that his telling Santana that "he cares about her and does n't want her to hold her feelings for women in anymore '' was "one of the most touching scenes of the series '', though Kubicek characterized Finn 's statement that he cared for her because Santana "was his first '' as creepy. MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan derided the choice to perform "I Kissed a Girl '' as "poor comprehension of song lyrics '', since Santana "is a lesbian and not just (a) drunk girl who kissed another girl after drinking ''. VanDerWerff wondered why Santana was so happy during the song, since she had just experienced "the sort of outrageous bigotry she 'll have to put up with for the rest of her life ''.
Quinn 's increasingly odd behavior was commented on by several reviewers. Chaney wrote that she was acting "in an irrational manner that has no connection with reality '', and Bell wondered if co-creator Murphy was "trying to make her the most hated character on ' Glee ' ever ''. Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times, though she noted that "Quinn 's character just gets weirder and weirder '', wrote that Puck gets it right: "Quinn 's the craziest, most self - involved character on the show '', but "has a resilience that may take her far in life '' and needs a "healthy dose of self - esteem ''. VanDerWerff was initially pleased that the show "acknowledged that all of her actions are driven by a deep, sucking need to be loved '' and that "Puck gently told her that she was better than that, that she could put herself together again '', but not that it then "just turned into more pointless Puck / Shelby / Quinn drama. Ugh. '' Critics such as Kubicek were even more scathing about Shelby and the storyline with Puck that led to the pair having sex during the episode: "The dumbest storyline Glee has ever done gets even dumber. '' Sullivan called it "the most divisive plot line of the season '', and Bell asked, "Instead of these super creepy scenes between Puck and Shelby, can we please get more screen time for Shelby and Rachel? ''
Votta criticized the show for the "pointless adult love triangle '' involving Coach Beiste, Sue, and Cooter Menkins. VanDerWerff described Jones as "one of the show 's greatest gifts '', and lamented that they had her "fighting with Sue Dynasty - style over a recruiter for Ohio State ''. Bell called the scene where Beiste "confesses her love for Cooter '' a "simply sweet scene that 's only ruined by Sue 's grumpy presence '', and Sue 's decision to go after Cooter a "crazy plot ''. Votta looked at Sue 's pursuit of Cooter through a different lens: "in an episode that should be about kids who are looking for approval and the various ways they do and do n't achieve that '', the show gives a "completely opposite message from Sue 's quest to prove her straightness '', which "muddles '' the show 's messages. Chaney thought that Sue "was back in fine, vindictive catchphrase - spewing form '', and noted that "all the election subplots were tied up remarkably quickly ''. This last point did not sit well with Berk, who wrote that the show resolved "what was one of the more interesting subplots in one of the least interesting ways '', and Canning was disappointed that the episode did not have "more with Burt ''. As for Burt 's son, Kurt, Votta wanted to "leap through the television and explain to him that student council elections mean absolutely nothing '' to his future college prospects, and Kubicek declared himself "sick '' of that plot thread, which he called "just plain moronic ''.
The musical performances received mixed to positive reviews. Hankinson wrote that it was a "strong night ''. Chaney thought it was "decent but not as strong '' as the previous episode, "Mash Off ''; Futterman had a similar take and called it a "hodge - podge of songs that fit the bill but do n't necessarily stand out '', and "musically meh ''. Bell wrote that "the music was awful '', and she was upset because she "really like (s) chick rock '', the musical focus of the episode.
Chaney was not very excited by Kurt and Blaine 's rendition of "Perfect '', while Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called it an "almost cloying duet ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West thought it was "sweetly '' sung and "perfectly lovely '', and Michael Slezak of TVLine said it "really picked up steam '' as it progressed. Votta said that "what we got '' was "wonderfully done, and a perfect balance of Darren Criss and Chris Colfer 's musical strengths '', but she was perplexed that they "cut the verses most relevant to Santana '' yet "kept the cheeky rap bridge ''. In contrast, she thought Puck 's performance of "I 'm the Only One '' was "the most awkward thing Glee has done in a while, and drags on forever '', though she added that Salling sounded "great ''. Slezak expressed the wish that Puck would get to do "a mashup or an interesting arrangement '', and gave the song a "C + '', while Futterman said the song was "a strain on his voice '' and the presentation "another cookie - cutter classroom setting ''. BuddyTV 's John Kubicek called it the "kind of song Puck should always do. ''
Finn 's performance of "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' received the most commentary. Bell wrote that "his cover of Greg Laswell 's cover '' of the Lauper song "may just be my favorite Finn solo ever ''. Kubicek described the "slowed - down, acoustic version '' as "insanely good '', and Flandez called it "poignant '' and "surprising and appealing ''. West said it was "the best showcase for his voice in recent memory ''. Slezak called it his "favorite performance by Finn in the last two seasons '', and added that Monteith "sounded terrific ''. While Votta thought the rendition was "sweet '' and "well sung '', she wrote that it "felt a little off - center ''; Chaney described it as "not terribly compelling ''. Sullivan called it a "horrifyingly creepy '' performance.
Coach Beiste 's first solo number, "Jolene '', was called "haunting '' by Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk, who gave it four stars out of five, and Slezak said it was a "killer use of Dolly Parton '' even if "Beiste is n't the strongest vocalist ''. Both Futterman and Kubicek noted a lack of emotion in Beiste 's voice, but they also noted the emotion in her face, which Kubicek said "more than made up for it ''. Chaney wrote that "the execution felt emotionally flat '' and gave it a "C '', but West graded it a "B + '' and said, "Coach Beiste 's pain... was clear in Dot Marie Jones ' sad - hearted rendition ''.
Chaney called "I Kissed a Girl '' the "liveliest, most enjoyable number of the night ''. Kubicek said that "the ladies rocked out '', but his "favorite parts '' were "Rory 's reaction shots '', which West also mentioned favorably. Futterman declared it as "an OK rendition ''. For "Constant Craving '', she noted some "nice harmonies '', but "in what seems to be a trend this episode, the song falls flat as a whole ''. Kubicek stated that without Santana 's "pent - up emotions '', there was "no subtext, just text ''. Chaney wrote that the performance was "not stunning, but certainly strong ''. Votta said that Santana "kills '' on the song, Hankinson stated that "Shelby and Santana were awesome '' and Slezak called it "gorgeous and totally relevant ''.
Five of the six cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100: "Perfect '' debuted at number fifty - seven, "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' at number fifty - nine, "I Kissed a Girl '' at number sixty - six, "I 'm the Only One '' at number eighty - six and "Constant Craving '' at number eighty - nine. The first three of those singles also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100: "Perfect '' at number seventy - one, "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' at number seventy - five and "I Kissed a Girl '' at number eighty - seven. "Jolene '' did not chart in either country.
Both "Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' and "Constant Craving '' were featured on the soundtrack album Glee: The Music, Volume 7. Three additional songs from the episode were included in the five bonus tracks available on the Target edition of the album: "Perfect '', "I 'm the Only One '' and "I Kissed a Girl ''.
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when did the human genome project start and finish | Human genome Project - wikipedia
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world 's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete in 2003. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government - sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, Spain and China.
The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome (more than three billion). The "genome '' of any given individual is unique; mapping the "human genome '' involved sequencing a small number of individuals and then assembling these together to get a complete sequence for each chromosome. Therefore, the finished human genome is a mosaic, not representing any one individual.
The Human Genome Project was a 15 - year - long, publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the entire euchromatic human genome within 15 years. In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop to discuss sequencing the human genome, but for a number of reasons the NIH was uninterested in pursuing the proposal. The following March, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by Charles DeLisi and David Smith of the Department of Energy 's Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER). At the same time Renato Dulbecco proposed whole genome sequencing in an essay in Science. James Watson followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
The fact that the Santa Fe workshop was motivated and supported by a Federal Agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one, for converting the idea into a public policy in the United States. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research (Alvin Trivelpiece), Charles DeLisi, who was then Director of the OHER, outlined a broad plan for the project. This started a long and complex chain of events which led to approved reprogramming of funds that enabled the OHER to launch the Project in 1986, and to recommend the first line item for the HGP, which was in President Reagan 's 1988 budget submission, and ultimately approved by the Congress. Of particular importance in Congressional approval was the advocacy of Senator Peter Domenici, whom DeLisi had befriended. Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, both of which were key in the DOE budget process. Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies.
Alvin Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisi 's proposal by Deputy Secretary William Flynn Martin. This chart was used in the spring of 1986 by Trivelpiece, then Director of the Office of Energy Research in the Department of Energy, to brief Martin and Under Secretary Joseph Salgado regarding his intention to reprogram $4 million to initiate the project with the approval of Secretary Herrington. This reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $16 million in the Reagan Administration 's 1987 budget submission to Congress. It subsequently passed both Houses. The Project was planned for 15 years.
Candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985.
In 1990, the two major funding agencies, DOE and NIH, developed a memorandum of understanding in order to coordinate plans and set the clock for the initiation of the Project to 1990. At that time, David Galas was Director of the renamed "Office of Biological and Environmental Research '' in the U.S. Department of Energy 's Office of Science and James Watson headed the NIH Genome Program. In 1993, Aristides Patrinos succeeded Galas and Francis Collins succeeded James Watson, assuming the role of overall Project Head as Director of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Center for Human Genome Research (which would later become the National Human Genome Research Institute). A working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome "finishing '' work continued for more than a decade.
The $3 - billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China and myriad other spontaneous relationships.
Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in computing technology, a ' rough draft ' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by U.S. President Bill Clinton and the British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the University of California, Santa Cruz, primarily led by then graduate student Jim Kent. Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on April 14, 2003, two years earlier than planned. In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, when the sequence of the last chromosome was published in Nature.
The project was not able to sequence all the DNA found in human cells. It sequenced only "euchromatic '' regions of the genome, which make up 92 % of the human genome. The other regions, called "heterochromatic '' are found in centromeres and telomeres, and were not sequenced under the project.
The Human Genome Project was declared complete in April 2003. An initial rough draft of the human genome was available in June 2000 and by February 2001 a working draft had been completed and published followed by the final sequencing mapping of the human genome on April 14, 2003. Although this was reported to cover 99 % of the euchromatic human genome with 99.99 % accuracy, a major quality assessment of the human genome sequence was published on May 27, 2004 indicating over 92 % of sampling exceeded 99.99 % accuracy which was within the intended goal. Further analyses and papers on the HGP continue to occur.
The sequencing of the human genome holds benefits for many fields, from molecular medicine to human evolution. The Human Genome Project, through its sequencing of the DNA, can help us understand diseases including: genotyping of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment; identification of mutations linked to different forms of cancer; the design of medication and more accurate prediction of their effects; advancement in forensic applied sciences; biofuels and other energy applications; agriculture, animal husbandry, bioprocessing; risk assessment; bioarcheology, anthropology and evolution. Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based products, a multibillion - dollar industry.
The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as GenBank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations, such as the UCSC Genome Browser at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Ensembl present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analyze the data, because the data itself is difficult to interpret without such programs. Generally speaking, advances in genome sequencing technology have followed Moore 's Law, a concept from computer science which states that integrated circuits can increase in complexity at an exponential rate. This means that the speeds at which whole genomes can be sequenced can increase at a similar rate, as was seen during the development of the above - mentioned Human Genome Project.
The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in a raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is in the domain of bioinformatics. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high - throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. Beginning in 2008, a new technology known as RNA - seq was introduced that allowed scientists to directly sequence the messenger RNA in cells. This replaced previous methods of annotation, which relied on inherent properties of the DNA sequence, with direct measurement, which was much more accurate. Today, annotation of the human genome and other genomes relies primarily on deep sequencing of the transcripts in every human tissue using RNA - seq. These experiments have revealed that over 90 % of genes contain at least one and usually several alternative splice variants, in which the exons are combined in different ways to produce 2 or more gene products from the same locus.
The genome published by the HGP does not represent the sequence of every individual 's genome. It is the combined mosaic of a small number of anonymous donors, all of European origin. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Subsequent projects sequenced the genomes of multiple distinct ethnic groups, though as of today there is still only one "reference genome. ''
Key findings of the draft (2001) and complete (2004) genome sequences include:
The Human Genome Project was started in 1990 with the goal of sequencing and identifying all three billion chemical units in the human genetic instruction set, finding the genetic roots of disease and then developing treatments. It is considered a megaproject because the human genome has approximately 3.3 billion base - pairs. With the sequence in hand, the next step was to identify the genetic variants that increase the risk for common diseases like cancer and diabetes.
It was far too expensive at that time to think of sequencing patients ' whole genomes. So the National Institutes of Health embraced the idea for a "shortcut '', which was to look just at sites on the genome where many people have a variant DNA unit. The theory behind the shortcut was that, since the major diseases are common, so too would be the genetic variants that caused them. Natural selection keeps the human genome free of variants that damage health before children are grown, the theory held, but fails against variants that strike later in life, allowing them to become quite common. (In 2002 the National Institutes of Health started a $138 million project called the HapMap to catalog the common variants in European, East Asian and African genomes.)
The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces were then ligated into a type of vector known as "bacterial artificial chromosomes '', or BACs, which are derived from bacterial chromosomes which have been genetically engineered. The vectors containing the genes can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small "shotgun '' project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the "hierarchical shotgun '' approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing.
Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and a UK charity organization, the Wellcome Trust, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The funding supported a number of large sequencing centers including those at Whitehead Institute, the Wellcome Sanger Institute (then called The Sanger Centre) based at the Wellcome Genome Campus, Washington University in St. Louis, and Baylor College of Medicine.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) served as an important channel for the involvement of developing countries in the Human Genome Project.
In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter, and his firm Celera Genomics. Venter was a scientist at the NIH during the early 1990s when the project was initiated. The $300,000,000 Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. The Celera approach was able to proceed at a much more rapid rate, and at a lower cost than the public project because it relied upon data made available by the publicly funded project.
Celera used a technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, employing pairwise end sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three billion base pair human genome.
Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200 -- 300 '' genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection '' on "fully - characterized important structures '' amounting to 100 -- 300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary ("place - holder '') patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 "Bermuda Statement '', by releasing new data annually (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or scientific use of the data. The publicly funded competitors were compelled to release the first draft of the human genome before Celera for this reason. On July 7, 2000, the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group released a first working draft on the web. The scientific community downloaded about 500 GB of information from the UCSC genome server in the first 24 hours of free and unrestricted access.
In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers. The statement sent Celera 's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology - heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days.
Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly funded project 's scientific paper) and Science (which published Celera 's paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 83 % of the genome (90 % of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to approximately 92 % of the sequence currently.
In the IHGSC international public - sector HGP, researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from many different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Pieter J. de Jong 's. Much of the sequence (> 70 %) of the reference genome produced by the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York (code name RP11).
HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of two male and two female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) -- each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, due to quality considerations. One minor technical issue is that male samples contain just over half as much DNA from the sex chromosomes (one X chromosome and one Y chromosome) compared to female samples (which contain two X chromosomes). The other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes) are the same for both sexes.
Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of single - nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or "haps ''). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe.
In the Celera Genomics private - sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal Science) that his DNA was one of 21 samples in the pool, five of which were selected for use.
In 2007, a team led by Jonathan Rothberg published James Watson 's entire genome, unveiling the six - billion - nucleotide genome of a single individual for the first time.
The work on interpretation and analysis of genome data is still in its initial stages. It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics, started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, hemostasis disorders, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer 's disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management.
There are also many tangible benefits for biologists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down their search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the World Wide Web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three - dimensional structure of its product, its function (s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, and diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes. Further, deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them.
The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of evolution. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data in this project.
The project inspired and paved the way for genomic work in other fields, such as agriculture. For example, by studying the genetic composition of Tritium aestivum, the world 's most commonly used bread wheat, great insight has been gained into the ways that domestication has impacted the evolution of the plant. Which loci are most susceptible to manipulation, and how does this play out in evolutionary terms? Genetic sequencing has allowed these questions to be addressed for the first time, as specific loci can be compared in wild and domesticated strains of the plant. This will allow for advances in genetic modification in the future which could yield healthier, more disease - resistant wheat crops.
At the onset of the Human Genome Project several ethical, legal, and social concerns were raised in regards to how increased knowledge of the human genome could be used to discriminate against people. One of the main concerns of most individuals was the fear that both employers and health insurance companies would refuse to hire individuals or refuse to provide insurance to people because of a health concern indicated by someone 's genes. In 1996 the United States passed the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) which protects against the unauthorized and non-consensual release of individually identifiable health information to any entity not actively engaged in the provision of healthcare services to a patient.
Along with identifying all of the approximately 20,000 -- 25,000 genes in the human genome, the Human Genome Project also sought to address the ethical, legal, and social issues that were created by the onset of the project. For that the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990. Five percent of the annual budget was allocated to address the ELSI arising from the project. This budget started at approximately $1.57 million in the year 1990, but increased to approximately $18 million in the year 2014.
Whilst the project may offer significant benefits to medicine and scientific research, some authors have emphasized the need to address the potential social consequences of mapping the human genome. "Molecularising disease and their possible cure will have a profound impact on what patients expect from medical help and the new generation of doctors ' perception of illness. ''
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what does ts stand for in medical terms | List of medical abbreviations: t - wikipedia
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how did germany respond to italys decision to switch sides in september 1943 | Kingdom of Italy - wikipedia
The Kingdom of Italy (Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state which existed from 1861 -- when King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy -- until 1946 -- when a constitutional referendum led civil discontent to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic. The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state.
Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866 and received the region of Veneto following their victory. Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria - Hungary in 1882, following strong disagreements with France about the respective colonial expansions. However, even if relations with Berlin became very friendly, the alliance with Vienna remained purely formal as the Italians were keen to acquire Trentino and Trieste, corners of Austria - Hungary populated by Italians. So in 1915, Italy accepted the British invitation to join the Allied Powers, as the western powers promised territorial compensation (at the expense of Austria - Hungary) for participation that was more generous than Vienna 's offer in exchange for Italian neutrality. Victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations.
"Fascist Italy '' is the era of National Fascist Party government from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government. The fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed the political and intellectual opposition, while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church. According to Payne (1996), "(the) Fascist government passed through several relatively distinct phases ''. The first phase (1923 -- 1925) was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, albeit with a "legally - organized executive dictatorship ''. Then came the second phase, "the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper, from 1925 to 1929 ''. The third phase, with less activism, was 1929 to 1934. The fourth phase, 1935 -- 1940, was characterized by an aggressive foreign policy: war against Ethiopia, which was launched from Eritrea and Italian Somaliland; confrontations with the League of Nations, leading to sanctions; growing economic autarky; and the signing of the Pact of Steel. The war itself (1940 -- 1943) was the fifth phase with its disasters and defeats, while the rump Salò Government under German control was the final stage (1943 -- 1945).
Italy was an important member of the Axis powers in World War II, until it switched sides to the Allies in September 1943 after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist Party in areas (south of Rome) controlled by the Allied invaders. The remnant fascist state in northern Italy that continued fighting against the Allies was a puppet state of Germany, the Italian Social Republic, still led by Mussolini and his Fascist loyalists. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the constitutional referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the present - day Italian state.
The Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which covers present - day Italy and even more. The development of the Kingdom 's territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870. The state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino - Alto Adige / Südtirol, which are Italian territories today and only annexed them in 1919. The Triple Entente promised to grant to Italy -- if the state joined the Allies in World War I -- several territories including former Austrian Littoral, western parts of former Duchy of Carniola, Northern Dalmazia and notably Zara, Sebenico and most of the Dalmatian islands (except Krk and Rab), according to the secret London Pact of 1915.
After the compromise was nullified under pressure of President Woodrow Wilson with the Treaty of Versailles, Italian claims on Northern Dalmazia were voided. During World War II, the Kingdom gained additional territory: it gained Corsica, Nizza and Savoia from France after its surrender in 1940, territory in Slovenia and Dalmazia from Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1941 and Monaco in 1942. After World War II, the borders of present - day Italy were founded and the Kingdom abandoned its land claims.
The Italian Empire also gained territory until the end of World War II through colonies, protectorates, military occupations and puppet states. These included Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, Libya, Ethiopia (occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941), Albania, British Somaliland, Greece (occupied in World War II), Tunisia, Croatia (Italian and German client state in World War II), Kosovo (occupied in World War II), Montenegro (occupied in World War II) and a 46 - hectare concession from China in Tientsin (see Italian concession in Tianjin).
The Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers. Two chambers of parliament restricted the monarch 's power -- an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdom 's constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the former governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were solely responsible to the king. However, in practice it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament.
Members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50 % of those voting and of 25 % of all enrolled voters to be elected on the first round of balloting. If not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies.
After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, multi-seat electoral constituencies was introduced after World War I. Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian populists and classical liberals. Elections took place in 1919, 1921 and 1924: in this last occasion, Mussolini abolished the proportional representation replacing it with a block voting system on national bases, which gave to the Fascist Party the absolute majority of the Chamber seats.
Between 1925 and 1943, Italy was quasi-de jure Fascist dictatorship, as the constitution formally remained in effect without alteration by the Fascists, though the monarchy also formally accepted Fascist policies and Fascist institutions. Changes in politics occurred, consisting of the establishment of the Grand Council of Fascism as a government body in 1928, which took control of the government system, as well as the Chamber of Deputies being replaced with the Chamber of Fasci and Corporations as of 1939.
The monarchs of the House of Savoy who led Italy were:
The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of concerted efforts of Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula.
After the Revolutions of 1848, the apparent leader of the Italian unification movement was Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, renowned for his extremely loyal followers. Garibaldi led the Italian republican drive for unification in Southern Italy, but the Northern Italy monarchy of the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Sardinia, a state with an important Italian population, whose government was led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, also had ambitions of establishing a united Italian state. Though the Kingdom had no physical connection to Rome (seen by all as the natural capital of Italy, but still capital of the Papal States), the Kingdom had successfully challenged Austria in the Second Italian War of Independence, liberating Lombardy - Venetia from Austrian rule. The Kingdom also had established important alliances which helped it improve the possibility of Italian unification, such as with the United Kingdom and France in the Crimean War. Sardinia was dependent on French protection and in 1860 Sardinia was forced to cede territory to France to maintain relations, including Garibaldi 's birthplace, Nizza.
Cavour moved to challenge republican unification efforts by Garibaldi by organizing popular revolts in the Papal States and used these revolts as a pretext to invade the country, even though the invasion angered the Roman Catholics, whom he told that the invasion was an effort to protect the Roman Catholic Church from the anti-clerical secularist nationalist republicans of Garibaldi. Only a small portion of the Papal States around Rome remained in the control of Pope Pius IX. Despite their differences, Cavour agreed to include Garibaldi 's Southern Italy allowing it to join the union with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. Subsequently, the Parliament declared the creation of the Kingdom of Italy on 18 February 1861 (officially proclaiming it on 17 March 1861) composed of both Northern Italy and Southern Italy. King Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy was then declared King of Italy, though he did not renumber himself with the assumption of the new title. This title had been out of use since the abdication of Napoleon I of France on 6 April 1814.
Following the unification of most of Italy, tensions between the royalists and republicans erupted. In April 1861, Garibaldi entered the Italian parliament and challenged Cavour 's leadership of the government, accusing him of dividing Italy and spoke of the threat of civil war between the Kingdom in the North and Garibaldi 's forces in the South. On 6 June 1861, the Kingdom 's strongman Cavour died. During the ensuing political instability, Garibaldi and the republicans became increasingly revolutionary in tone. Garibaldi 's arrest in 1862 set off worldwide controversy.
In 1866, Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, offered Victor Emmanuel II an alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia in the Austro - Prussian War. In exchange, Prussia would allow Italy to annex Austrian - controlled Veneto. King Emmanuel agreed to the alliance and the Third Italian War of Independence began. Italy fared poorly in the war with a badly - organized military against Austria, but Prussia 's victory allowed Italy to annex Veneto. At this point, one major obstacle to Italian unity remained: Rome.
In 1870, Prussia went to war with France, igniting the Franco - Prussian War. To keep the large Prussian Army at bay, France abandoned its positions in Rome -- which protected the remnants of the Papal States and Pius IX -- in order to fight the Prussians. Italy benefited from Prussia 's victory against France by being able to take over the Papal States from French authority. Rome was captured by the Kingdom of Italy after several battles and guerilla - like warfare by Papal Zouaves and official troops of the Holy See against the Italian invaders. Italian unification was completed and shortly afterward Italy 's capital was moved to Rome. Economic conditions in the united Italy were poor. There were no industry or transportation facilities, extreme poverty (especially in the "Mezzogiorno ''), high illiteracy and only a small percent of wealthy Italians had the right to vote. The unification movement had largely been dependent on the support of foreign powers and remained so afterwards.
Following the capture of Rome in 1870 from French forces of Napoleon III, Papal troops and Zouaves, relations between Italy and the Vatican remained sour for the next sixty years with the Popes declaring themselves to be prisoners in the Vatican. The Roman Catholic Church frequently protested the actions of the secular and anticlerical - influenced Italian governments, refused to meet with envoys from the King and urged Roman Catholics not to vote in Italian elections. It would not be until 1929 that positive relations would be restored between the Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican after the signing of the Lateran Pacts.
A major challenge for the prime ministers of the new Kingdom of Italy was integrating the political and administrative systems of the seven different major components into a unified set of policies. The different regions were proud of their own historic patterns and could not easily be fitted into the Sardinian model. Cavour started the planning, but died before it was fully developed -- indeed, the challenges of administration the various bureaucracies are thought to have hastened his death. The easiest challenge was to harmonize the administrative bureaucracies of Italy 's regions. They practically all followed the Napoleonic precedent, so harmonization was straightforward. The second challenge was to develop a parliamentary system. Cavour and most liberals up and down the peninsula highly admired the British system, so it became the model for Italy to this day. Harmonizing the Army and Navy were much more complex, chiefly because the systems of recruiting soldiers and selecting and promoting officers were so different and needed to be grandfathered in over decades. The disorganization helps explain why the Italian naval record in the 1866 war was so abysmal. The military system was slowly integrated over several decades. The multiple educational system likewise proved complicated for there were few common elements. Shortly before his death, Cavour appointed Francisco De Sanctus as minister of education. De Sanctus was an eminent scholar from the University of Naples who proved an able and patient administrator. The addition of Veneto in 1866 and Rome in 1870 further complicated the challenges of bureaucratic coordination.
Italian society after unification and throughout most of the Liberal Period was sharply divided along class, linguistic, regional and social lines. The North - South divide is still present to this day.
On 20 September 1870, the military forces of the King of Italy overthrew what little was left of the Papal States, capturing in particular the city of Rome. The following year, the capital was moved from Florence to Rome. For the next 59 years after 1870, the Church denied the legitimacy of the Italian King 's dominion in Rome, which it claimed rightfully belonged to the Papal States. In 1929, the dispute was settled by the Lateran Treaty, in which the King recognized Vatican City as an independent state and paid a large sum of money to compensate the Church for the loss of the Papal States.
Liberal governments generally followed a policy of limiting the role of the Roman Catholic Church and its clergy as the state confiscated church lands. Similar policies were supported by such anticlerical and secular movements as republicanism, socialism, anarchism, Freemasonry, Lazzarettism and Protestantism.
Common cultural traits in Italy in this time were social conservative in nature, including a strong belief in the family as an institution and patriarchal values. In other areas, Italian culture was divided: aristocrats and upper middle class families in Italy at this time were highly traditional in nature and they emphasized honor above all, with challenges to honor ending in duels. After unification, a number of descendents of former royal nobility became residents of Italy, comprising 7,400 noble families. Many wealthy landowners maintained a feudal - like tight control over "their '' peasants. Italian society in this period remained highly divided along regional and local sub-societies which often had historical rivalries with each other.
In 1860, Italy lacked a single national language: toscano (Tuscan), which is what we now know as Italian, was only used as a literary language and in Tuscany, while outside other languages were dominant. Even the kingdom 's first king, Victor Emmanuel II, was known to speak almost entirely in Piedmontese and French, even to his cabinet ministers. Illiteracy was high, with the 1871 census indicating that 61.9 % of Italian men were illiterate and 75.7 % of Italian women were illiterate. This illiteracy rate was far higher than that of western European countries in the same time period and also no national popular press was possible due to the multiplicity of regional languages.
Italy had very few public schools upon unification, so the Italian government in the Liberal Period attempted to increase literacy by establishing state - funded schools to teach the official Italian language.
Living standards were low during the Liberal Period, especially in southern Italy, due to various diseases such as malaria and epidemics that occurred during the period. As a whole, there was initially a high death rate in 1871 at 30 people dying per 1,000 people, though this reduced to 24.2 per 1,000 by the 1890s. In addition, the mortality rate of children dying in their first year after birth in 1871 was 22.7 percent while the number of children dying before reaching their fifth birthday was very high at 50 percent. The mortality rate of children dying in their first year after birth decreased to an average of 17.6 percent in the time period of 1891 to 1900.
In terms of the entire period, Giovanni Federico has argued that Italy was not economically backward, for there was substantial development at various times between 1860 and 1940. Unlike most modern nations that relied on large corporations, industrial growth in Italy was a product of the entrepreneurial efforts of small, family - owned firms that succeeded in a local competitive environment.
Political unification did not systematically bring economic integration, as Italy faced serious economic problems and economic division along political, social and regional lines. In the Liberal Period, Italy remained highly economically dependent on foreign trade and the international price of coal and grain.
Upon unifying, Italy had a predominantly agrarian society as 60 % of the active population worked in agriculture. Advances in technology, the sale of vast Church estates, foreign competition along with export opportunities rapidly transformed the agricultural sector in Italy shortly after unification. However, these developments did not benefit all of Italy in this period, as southern Italy 's agriculture suffered from hot summers and aridity damaged crops while the presence of malaria prevented cultivation of low - lying areas along Italy 's Adriatic Sea coast.
The overwhelming attention paid to foreign policy alienated the agricultural community in Italy which had been in decline since 1873. Both radical and conservative forces in the Italian parliament demanded that the government investigate how to improve agriculture in Italy. The investigation, which started in 1877 and was released eight years later, showed that agriculture was not improving, that landowners were earning revenue from their lands and contributing almost nothing to the development of the land. Lower class Italians were hurt by the break - up of communal lands to the benefit of landlords. Most of the workers on the agricultural lands were not peasants, but short - term laborers ("braccianti '') who at best were employed for one year. Peasants without stable income were forced to live off of meager food supplies, disease was spreading rapidly and plagues were reported, including a major cholera epidemic which killed at least 55,000 people.
The Italian government could not deal with the situation effectively because of overspending that left Italy heavily in debt. Italy also suffered economically as a consequence of overproduction of grapes by their vineyards. In the 1870s and 1880s, France 's vineyard industry was suffering from vine disease caused by insects. Italy prospered as the largest exporter of wine in Europe, but following the recovery of France in 1888 Southern Italy was overproducing and had to cut back, which caused greater unemployment and bankruptcies.
The Italian government invested heavily in developing railways in the 1870s, more than doubling the existing length of railway line between 1870 and 1890.
Italy 's population remained severely divided between wealthy elites and impoverished workers, especially in the South. An 1881 census found that over 1 million southern day - laborers were chronically under - employed and were very likely to become seasonal emigrants in order to economically sustain themselves. Southern peasants as well as small landowners and tenants often were in a state of conflict and revolt throughout the late 19th century. There were exceptions to the generally poor economic condition of agricultural workers of the South, as some regions near cities such as Naples and Palermo as well as along the Tyrrhenian Sea coast.
From the 1870s onward, intellectuals, scholars and politicians examined the economic and social conditions of Southern Italy ("Il Mezzogiorno ''), a movement known as meridionalismo ("Meridionalism ''). For example, the 1910 Commission of Inquiry into the South indicated that the Italian government thus far had failed to ameliorate the severe economic differences and the limitation of voting rights only to those with sufficient property allowed rich landowners to exploit the poor.
After unification, Italy 's politics favored liberalism: the liberal - conservative right (destra storica or Historical Right) was regionally fragmented and liberal - conservative Prime Minister Marco Minghetti only held on to power by enacting revolutionary and left - leaning policies (such as the nationalization of railways) to appease the opposition.
In 1876, Minghetti was ousted and replaced by liberal Agostino Depretis, who began the long Liberal Period. The Liberal Period was marked by corruption, government instability, continued poverty in Southern Italy and use of authoritarian measures by the Italian government.
Depretis began his term as Prime Minister by initiating an experimental political notion known as trasformismo ("transformism ''). The theory of trasformismo was that a cabinet should select a variety of moderates and capable politicians from a non-partisan perspective. In practice, trasformismo was authoritarian and corrupt as Depretis pressured districts to vote for his candidates, if they wished to gain favourable concessions from Depretis when in power. The results of the Italian general election of 1876 resulted in only four representatives from the right being elected, allowing the government to be dominated by Depretis. Despotic and corrupt actions are believed to be the key means in which Depretis managed to keep support in Southern Italy. Depretis put through authoritarian measures, such as banning public meetings, placing "dangerous '' individuals in internal exile on remote penal islands across Italy and adopting militarist policies. Depretis enacted controversial legislation for the time, such as abolishing arrest for debt, making elementary education free and compulsory while ending compulsory religious teaching in elementary schools.
In 1887, Francesco Crispi became Prime Minister and began focusing government efforts on foreign policy. Crispi worked to build Italy as a great world power through increased military expenditures, advocacy of expansionism and trying to win the favor of Germany. Italy joined the Triple Alliance which included both Germany and Austria -- Hungary in 1882 and which remained officially intact until 1915. While helping Italy develop strategically, he continued trasformismo and became authoritarian, once suggesting the use of martial law to ban opposition parties. Despite being authoritarian, Crispi put through liberal policies such as the Public Health Act of 1888 and establishing tribunals for redress against abuses by the government.
Francesco Crispi was Prime Minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy:
Crispi pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with this suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy 's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in Eastern Africa. Crispi 's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa... an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances... were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.
Crispi greatly admired the United Kingdom, but was unable to get British assistance for his aggressive foreign policy and turned instead to Germany. Crispi also enlarged the army and navy and advocated expansionism as he sought Germany 's favor by joining the Triple Alliance which included both Germany and Austria - Hungary in 1882. It remained officially intact until 1915 and prevented hostilities between Italy and Austria, which controlled border regions that Italy claimed.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy emulated the Great Powers in acquiring colonies, especially in the scramble to take control of Africa that took place in the 1870s. Italy was weak in military and economic resources in comparison with Britain, France and Germany, but it proved difficult due to popular resistance and it was unprofitable due to heavy military costs and the lesser economic value of spheres of influence remaining when Italy began to colonize. Britain was eager to block French influence and assisted Italy in gaining territory of the Red Sea.
A number of colonial projects were undertaken by the government. These were done to gain support of Italian nationalists and imperialists, who wanted to rebuild a Roman Empire. Italy had already large settlements in Alexandria, Cairo and Tunis. Italy first attempted to gain colonies through negotiations with other world powers to make colonial concessions, but these negotiations failed. Italy also sent missionaries to uncolonized lands to investigate the potential for Italian colonization. The most promising and realistic of these were parts of Africa. Italian missionaries had already established a foothold at Massawa (in present - day Eritrea) in the 1830s and had entered deep into the Ethiopian Empire.
The beginning of colonialism came in 1885, shortly after the fall of Egyptian rule in Khartoum, when Italy landed soldiers at Massawa in East Africa. In 1888, Italy annexed Massawa by force, creating the colony of Italian Eritrea. The Eritrean ports of Massawa and Assab handled trade with Italy and Ethiopia. The trade was promoted by the low duties paid on Italian trade. Italy exported manufactured products and imported coffee, beeswax and hides.
In 1895, Ethiopia led by Emperor Menelik II abandoned an agreement signed in 1889 to follow Italian foreign policy and Italy used this renunciation as a reason to invade Ethiopia. Ethiopia gained the help of the Russian Empire, whose own interests in East Africa led the government of Nicholas II of Russia to send large amounts of modern weaponry to the Ethiopians to hold back an Italian invasion. In response, Britain decided to back the Italians to challenge Russian influence in Africa and declared that all of Ethiopia was within the sphere of Italian interest. On the verge of war, Italian militarism and nationalism reached a peak, with Italians flocking to the Royal Italian Army, hoping to take part in the upcoming war.
The Italian army failed on the battlefield and were overwhelmed by a huge Ethiopian army at the Battle of Adwa. At that point, the Italian invasion force was forced to retreat into Eritrea. The failed Ethiopian campaign was an international embarrassment to Italy, as it was one of the few major military victories scored by the Africans against an imperial power at this time.
From 2 November 1899 to 7 September 1901, Italy participated as part of the Eight - Nation Alliance forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China. On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin was ceded to the Italy by the Qing Dynasty. On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul.
In 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire and invaded Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica. These provinces together formed what became known as Libya. The war ended only one year later, but the occupation resulted in acts of discrimination against Libyans such as the forced deportation of Libyans to the Tremiti Islands in October 1911. By 1912, one third of these Libyan refugees had died from a lack of food and shelter. The annexation of Libya led nationalists to advocate Italian domination of the Mediterranean Sea by occupying Greece and the Adriatic Sea coastal region of Dalmazia.
In 1892, Giovanni Giolitti became Prime Minister of Italy for his first term. Although his first government quickly collapsed one year later, Giolitti returned in 1903 to lead Italy 's government during a fragmented period that lasted until 1914. Giolitti had spent his earlier life as a civil servant and then took positions within the cabinets of Crispi. Giolitti was the first long - term Italian Prime Minister in many years because he mastered the political concept of trasformismo by manipulating, coercing and bribing officials to his side. In elections during Giolitti 's government voting fraud was common and Giolitti helped improve voting only in well - off, more supportive areas, while attempting to isolate and intimidate poor areas where opposition was strong. Southern Italy was in terrible shape prior to and during Giolitti 's tenure as Prime Minister: four - fifths of southern Italians were illiterate and the dire situation there ranged from problems of large numbers of absentee landlords to rebellion and even starvation. Corruption was such a large problem that Giolitti himself admitted that there were places "where the law does not operate at all ''.
In 1911, Giolitti 's government sent forces to occupy Libya. While the success of the Libyan War improved the status of the nationalists, it did not help Giolitti 's administration as a whole. The government attempted to discourage criticism by speaking about Italy 's strategic achievements and inventiveness of their military in the war: Italy was the first country to use the airship for military purposes and undertook aerial bombing on the Ottoman forces. The war radicalized the Italian Socialist Party: anti-war revolutionaries led by future - Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini called for violence to bring down the government. Giolitti returned as Prime Minister only briefly in 1920, but the era of liberalism was effectively over in Italy.
The 1913 and 1919 elections saw gains made by Socialist, Catholic and nationalist parties at the expense of the traditionally dominant Liberals and Radicals, who were increasingly fractured and weakened as a result.
In the lead - up to World War I, the Kingdom of Italy faced a number of short - term and long - term problems in determining its allies and objectives. Italy 's recent success in occupying Libya as a result of the Italo - Turkish War had sparked tension with its Triple Alliance allies, the German Empire and Austria - Hungary, because both countries had been seeking closer relations with the Ottoman Empire. In Munich, Germans reacted to Italy 's aggression by singing anti-Italian songs. Italy 's relations with France were also in bad shape: France felt betrayed by Italy 's support of Prussia in the Franco - Prussian War, opening the possibility of war erupting between the two countries. Italy 's relations with the United Kingdom had also been impaired by constant Italian demands for more recognition in the international stage following the occupation of Libya and its demands that other nations accept its spheres of influence in Eastern Africa and the Mediterranean Sea.
In the Mediterranean Sea, Italy 's relations with the Kingdom of Greece were aggravated when Italy occupied the Greek - populated Dodecanese Islands, including Rhodes, from 1912 to 1914. These islands had been formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Italy and Greece were also in open rivalry over the desire to occupy Albania. King Victor Emmanuel III himself was uneasy about Italy pursuing distant colonial adventures and said that Italy should prepare to take back Italian - populated land from Austria - Hungary as the "completion of the Risorgimento ''. This idea put Italy at odds with Austria - Hungary.
A major hindrance to Italy 's decision on what to do about the war was the political instability throughout Italy in 1914. After the formation of the government of Prime Minister Antonio Salandra in March 1914, the government attempted to win the support of nationalists and moved to the political right. At the same time, the left became more repulsed by the government after the killing of three anti-militarist demonstrators in June. Many elements of the left including syndicalists, republicans and anarchists protested against this and the Italian Socialist Party declared a general strike in Italy. The protests that ensued became known as "Red Week '' as leftists rioted and various acts of civil disobedience occurred in major cities and small towns such as seizing railway stations, cutting telephone wires and burning tax - registers. However, only two days later the strike was officially called off, though the civil strife continued. Militarist nationalists and anti-militarist leftists fought on the streets until the Italian Royal Army forcefully restored calm after having used thousands of men to put down the various protesting forces. Following the invasion of Serbia by Austria - Hungary in 1914, World War I broke out. Despite Italy 's official alliance to Germany and membership in the Triple Alliance, the Kingdom of Italy initially remained neutral, claiming that the Triple Alliance was only for defensive purposes.
In Italy, society was divided over the war: Italian socialists generally opposed the war and supported pacificism, while nationalists militantly supported the war. Long - time nationalists Gabriele D'Annunzio and Luigi Federzoni and an obscure Marxist journalist and new convert to nationalist sentiment, future Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, demanded that Italy join the war. For nationalists, Italy had to maintain its alliance with the Central Powers in order to gain colonial territories at the expense of France. For the liberals, the war presented Italy a long - awaited opportunity to use an alliance with the Entente to gain certain Italian - populated and other territories from Austria - Hungary, which had long been part of Italian patriotic aims since unification. In 1915, relatives of Italian revolutionary and republican hero Giuseppe Garibaldi died on the battlefield of France, where they had volunteered to fight. Federzoni used the memorial services to declare the importance of Italy joining the war and to warn the monarchy of the consequences of continued disunity in Italy if it did not:
Italy has awaited this since 1866 her truly national war, in order to feel unified at last, renewed by the unanimous action and identical sacrifice of all her sons. Today, while Italy still wavers before the necessity imposed by history, the name of Garibaldi, resanctified by blood, rises again to warn her that she will not be able to defeat the revolution save by fighting and winning her national war. -- Luigi Federzoni, 1915
Mussolini used his new newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia and his strong oratorical skills to urge nationalists and patriotic revolutionary leftists to support Italy 's entry into the war to gain back Italian populated territories from Austria - Hungary, by saying "enough of Libya, and on to Trento and Trieste ''. Mussolini claimed that it was in the interests of socialists to join the war to tear down the aristocratic Hohenzollern dynasty of Germany which he claimed was the enemy of all European workers. Mussolini and other nationalists warned the Italian government that Italy must join the war or face revolution and called for violence against pacifists and neutralists. Left - wing nationalism also erupted in Southern Italy as socialist and nationalist Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida saw joining the war as essential to relieving southern Italy of the rising cost of bread which had caused riots in the south, and advocated a "war of revolution ''.
With nationalist sentiment firmly on the side of reclaiming Italian territories of Austria - Hungary, Italy entered negotiations with the Triple Entente. The negotiations ended successfully in April 1915 when the London Pact was brokered with the Italian government. The pact ensured Italy the right to attain all Italian - populated lands it wanted from Austria - Hungary, as well as concessions in the Balkan Peninsula and suitable compensation for any territory gained by the United Kingdom and France from Germany in Africa. The proposal fulfilled the desires of Italian nationalists and Italian imperialism and was agreed to. Italy joined the Triple Entente in its war against Austria - Hungary.
The reaction in Italy was divided: former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti was furious over Italy 's decision to go to war against its former allies, Germany and Austria - Hungary. Giolitti claimed that Italy would fail in the war, predicting high numbers of mutinies, Austro - Hungarian occupation of even more Italian territory and that the failure would produce a catastrophic rebellion that would destroy the liberal - democratic monarchy and the liberal - democratic secular institutions of the state.
The outset of the campaign against Austria - Hungary looked to initially favor Italy: Austria - Hungary 's army was spread to cover its fronts with Serbia and Russia and Italy had a numerical superiority against the Austro - Hungarian Army. However, this advantage was never fully utilized because Italian military commander Luigi Cadorna insisted on a dangerous frontal assault against Austria - Hungary in an attempt to occupy the Slovenian plateau and Ljubljana. This assault would put the Italian army not far away from Austria - Hungary 's imperial capital, Vienna. After eleven failed offensives with enormous loss of life, the Italian campaign to take Vienna collapsed.
Upon entering the war, geography was also a difficulty for Italy as its border with Austria - Hungary was along mountainous terrain. In May 1915, Italian forces at 400,000 men along the border outnumbered the Austrian and Germans almost precisely four to one. However, the Austrian defenses were strong even though they were undermanned and managed to hold off the Italian offensive. The battles with the Austro - Hungarian Army along the Alpine foothills in the trench warfare there were drawn - out, long engagements with little progress. Italian officers were poorly trained in contrast to the Austro - Hungarian and German armies, Italian artillery was inferior to the Austrian machine guns and the Italian forces had dangerously low supply of ammunition -- this shortage would continually hamper attempts to make advances into Austrian territory. This combined with the constant replacement of officers by Cadorna resulted in few officers gaining the experience necessary to lead military missions. In the first year of the war, poor conditions on the battlefield led to outbreaks of cholera causing a significant number of Italian soldiers to die. Despite these serious problems, Cadorna refused to back down the offensive. Naval battles occurred between the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) and the Austro - Hungarian Navy. Italy 's warships were outclassed by the Austro - Hungarian fleet and the situation was made more dire for Italy in that both the French Navy and the (British) Royal Navy were not sent into the Adriatic Sea. Their respective governments viewed the Adriatic Sea as "far too dangerous to operate in due the concentration of the Austro - Hungarian fleet there ''.
Morale fell among Italian soldiers who lived a tedious life when not on the front lines, as they were forbidden to enter theaters or bars, even when on leave. However, when battles were about to occur alcohol was made freely available to the soldiers in order to reduce tension before the battle. In order to escape the tedium after battles, some groups of soldiers worked to create improvized whorehouses. In order to maintain morale, the Italian army had propaganda lectures of the importance of the war to Italy, especially in order to retrieve Trento and Trieste from Austria - Hungary. Some of these lectures were carried out by popular nationalist war proponents such as Gabriele D'Annunzio. D'Annunzio himself would participate in a number of paramilitary raids on Austrian positions along the Adriatic Sea coastline during the war and temporaly lost his sight after an air raid. Prominent pro-war advocate Benito Mussolini was prevented from giving lecture by the government, most likely because of his revolutionary socialist past.
The Italian government became increasingly aggravated in 1915 with the passive nature of the Serbian army, which had not engaged in a serious offensive against Austria - Hungary for months. The Italian government blamed Serbian military inactiveness for allowing the Austro - Hungarians to muster their armies against Italy. Cadorna suspected that Serbia was attempting to negotiate an end to fighting with Austria - Hungary and addressed this to foreign minister Sidney Sonnino, who himself bitterly claimed that Serbia was an unreliable ally. Relations between Italy and Serbia became so cold that the other Allied nations were forced to abandon the idea of forming a united Balkan front against Austria - Hungary. In negotiations, Sonnino remained prepared to allow Bosnia to join Serbia, but refused to discuss the fate of Dalmazia, which was claimed both by Italy and by Pan-Slavists in Serbia. As Serbia fell to the Austro - Hungarian and German forces in 1915, Cadorna proposed sending 60,000 men to land in Thessaloniki to help the Serbs now in exile in Greece and the Principality of Albania to fight off the opposing forces, but the Italian government 's bitterness to Serbia resulted in the proposal being rejected.
After 1916, the situation for Italy grew steadily worse when the Austro - Hungarian Army managed to push the Italian Army back into Italy as far as Verona and Padova in their Strafexpedition. At the same time, Italy faced a shortage of warships, increased attacks by submarines, soaring freight charges threatening the ability to supply food to soldiers, lack of raw materials and equipment and Italians faced high taxes to pay for the war. Austro - Hungarian and German forces had gone deep into Northern Italian territory. Ffinally in November 1916, Cadorna ended offensive operations and began a defensive approach. In 1917, France, the United Kingdom and the United States offered to send troops to Italy to help it fend off the offensive of the Central Powers, but the Italian government refused as Sonnino did not want Italy to be seen as a client state of the Allies and preferred isolation as the more brave alternative. Italy also wanted to keep Greece out of the war as the Italian government feared that should Greece join the war on the side of the Allies, it would intend to annex Albania, which Italy claimed. Fortunately for Italy, the Venizelist pro-war advocates in Greece failed to succeed in pressuring Constantine I of Greece to bring the country into the conflict and Italian aims on Albania remained unthreatened.
The Russian Empire collapsed in a 1917 Russian Revolution, eventually resulting in the rise of the communist Bolshevik regime of Vladimir Lenin. The resulting marginalization of the Eastern Front allowed for more Austro - Hungarian and German forces to arrive on the front against Italy. Internal dissent against the war grew with increasingly poor economic and social conditions in Italy due to the strain of the war. Much of the profit of the war was being made in the cities, while rural areas were losing income. The number of men available for agricultural work had fallen from 4.8 million to 2.2 million, though through the help of women agricultural production managed to be maintained at 90 % of its pre-war total during the war. Many pacifist and internationalist Italian socialists turned to Bolshevism and advocated negotiations with the workers of Germany and Austria - Hungary to help end the war and bring about Bolshevik revolutions. Avanti!, the newspaper of the Italian Socialist Party, declared: "Let the bourgeoisie fight its own war ''. Leftist women in Northern Italian cities led protests demanding action against the high cost of living and demanding an end to the war. In Milan in May 1917, communist revolutionaries organized and engaged in rioting, calling for an end to the war and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian Army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face communists and anarchists who fought violently until 23 May, when the Army gained control of the city with almost 50 people killed (three of which were Italian soldiers) and over 800 people arrested.
After the Battle of Caporetto in 1917, Italian forces were forced far back into Italian territory and the humiliation led to the arrival of Vittorio Emanuele Orlando as Prime Minister, who managed to solve some of Italy 's wartime problems. Orlando abandoned the previous isolationist approach to the war and increased coordination with the Allies and the use of the convoy system to fend off submarine attack, allowed Italy to be able to end food shortages from February 1918 onward and Italy received more raw materials from the Allies. 1918 also saw the beginning of official repression of enemy aliens and Italian socialists were increasingly repressed by the Italian government. The Italian government was infuriated with the Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, as the advocation of national self - determination meant that Italy would not gain Dalmazia as had been promised in the Treaty of London. In the Parliament of Italy, nationalists condemned Wilson 's fourteen points as betraying the Treaty of London, while socialists claimed that Wilson 's points were valid and claimed the Treaty of London was an offense to the rights of Slavs, Greeks and Albanians. Negotiations between Italy and the Allies, particularly the new Yugoslav delegation (replacing the Serbian delegation), agreed to a trade off between Italy and the new Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was that Dalmazia, despite being claimed by Italy, would be accepted as Yugoslav, while Istria, claimed by Yugoslavia, would be accepted as Italian.
At the Battle of the Piave River, the Italian Army managed to hold off the Austro - Hungarian and German armies. The opposing armies repeatedly failed afterwards in major battles such as Battle of Asiago and the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Italian Army crushed the Austrian Army in the latter battle. Austria - Hungary ended the fighting against Italy with the armistice on 4 November 1918 which ended World War I on this front (one week before the widely understood 11 November armistice on the Western front).
During the war, the Italian Royal Army increased in size from 15,000 men in 1914 to 160,000 men in 1918, with 5 million recruits in total entering service during the war. This came at a terrible cost: by the end of the war, Italy had lost 700,000 soldiers and had a budget deficit of twelve billion lira. Italian society was divided between the majority pacifists who opposed Italian involvement in the war and the minority of pro-war nationalists who had condemned the Italian government for not having immediately gone to war with Austria - Hungary in 1914.
As the war came to an end, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando met with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau and United States President Woodrow Wilson in Versailles to discuss how the borders of Europe should be redefined to help avoid a future European war.
The talks provided little territorial gain to Italy because during the peace talks Wilson promised freedom to all European nationalities to form their own nation states. As a result, the Treaty of Versailles did not assign Dalmazia and Albania to Italy as had been promised in the Treaty of London. Furthermore, the British and French decided to divide the German overseas colonies into mandates of their own, with Italy receiving none of them. Italy also gained no territory from the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, despite a proposal being issued to Italy by the United Kingdom and France during the war, only to see these nations carve up the Ottoman Empire between themselves (also exploting the forces of the Arab Revolt). Despite this, Orlando agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which caused uproar against his government. Civil unrest erupted in Italy between nationalists who supported the war effort and opposed the "mutilated victory '' (as nationalists referred to it) and leftists who were opposed to the war.
Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form the Free State of Fiume in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be called Il Duce ("The Leader '') and he used blackshirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title of Duce and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by the Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of the political spectrum, including Mussolini 's Fascists. D'Annunzio's stirring speeches drew Croat nationalists to his side and also kept contact with the Irish Republican Army and Egyptian nationalists.
Italy annexed territories that included not only ethnically - mixed places, but also exclusively ethnic Slovene and Croat places, especially within the former Austrian Littoral and the former Duchy of Carniola. They included one - third of the entire territory inhabited by Slovenes at the time and one - quarter of the entire Slovene population, who was during the 20 years long period of Italian Fascism (1922 -- 1943) subjected to forced Italianization alongside 25,000 ethnic Germans. According to author Paul N. Hehn, "the treaty left half a million Slavs inside Italy, while only a few hundred Italians in the fledgling Yugoslav (i.e. Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes renamed Yugoslavia in 1929) state ''.
In 1914, Benito Mussolini was forced out of the Italian Socialist Party after calling for Italian intervention against Austria - Hungary. Prior to World War I, Mussolini had opposed military conscription, protested against Italy 's occupation of Libya and was the editor of the Socialist Party 's official newspaper, Avanti!, but over time he simply called for revolution without mentioning class struggle. Mussolini 's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create his own newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. The Allied Powers, eager to draw Italy to the war, helped finance the newspaper. This publication became the official newspaper of the Fascist movement. During the war, Mussolini served in the Army and was wounded once.
Following the end of the war and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and syndicalist veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. The Fascists initially had a platform far more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation, women 's suffrage (partly realized in 1925) and dividing private property held by estates.
On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence, when a group of members from the Fasci di Combattimento attacked the offices of Avanti!. Recognizing the failures of the Fascists ' initial revolutionary and left - leaning policy, Mussolini moved the organization away from the left and turned the revolutionary movement into an electoral movement in 1921 named the Partito Nazionale Fascista (National Fascist Party). The party echoed the nationalist themes of D'Annunzio and rejected parliamentary democracy while still operating within it in order to destroy it. Mussolini changed his original revolutionary policies, such as moving away from anti-clericalism to supporting the Roman Catholic Church and abandoned his public opposition to the monarchy. Support for the Fascists began to grow in 1921 and pro-Fascist army officers began taking arms and vehicles from the army to use in counter-revolutionary attacks on socialists.
In 1920, Giolitti had come back as Prime Minister in an attempt to solve the deadlock. One year later, Giolitti 's government had already become unstable and a growing socialist opposition further endangered his government. Giolitti believed that the Fascists could be toned down and used to protect the state from the socialists. He decided to include Fascists on his electoral list for the 1921 elections. In the elections, the Fascists did not make large gains, but Giolitti 's government failed to gather a large enough coalition to govern and offered the Fascists placements in his government. The Fascists rejected Giolitti 's offers and joined with socialists in bringing down his government. A number of descendants of those who had served Garibaldi 's revolutionaries during unification were won over to Mussolini 's nationalist revolutionary ideals. His advocacy of corporatism and futurism had attracted advocates of the "third way '', but most importantly he had won over politicians like Facta and Giolitti who did not condemn him for his Blackshirts ' mistreatment of socialists.
In October 1922, Mussolini took advantage of a general strike by workers and announced his demands to the government to give the Fascist Party political power or face a coup. With no immediate response, a small number of Fascists began a long trek across Italy to Rome which was known as the "March on Rome '', claiming to Italians that Fascists were intending to restore law and order. Mussolini himself did not participate until the very end of the march, with D'Annunzio being hailed as leader of the march until it was learned that he had been pushed out of a window and severely wounded in a failed assassination attempt, depriving him of the possibility of leading an actual coup d'état orchestrated by an organization founded by himself. Under the leadership of Mussolini, the Fascists demanded Prime Minister Luigi Facta 's resignation and that Mussolini be named Prime Minister. Although the Italian Army was far better armed than the Fascist paramilitaries, the Italian government under King Vittorio Emmanuele III faced a political crisis. The King was forced to decide which of the two rival movements in Italy would form the new government: Mussolini 's Fascists or the anti-royalist Italian Socialist Party, ultimately deciding to endorse the Fascists.
On 28 October 1922, the King invited Mussolini to become Prime Minister, allowing Mussolini and the Fascist Party to pursue their political ambitions as long as they supported the monarchy and its interests. At 39, Mussolini was young compared to other Italian and European leaders. His supporters named him "Il Duce '' ("The Leader ''). A personality cult was developed that portrayed him as the nation 's saviour which was aided by the personal popularity he held with Italians already, which would remain strong until Italy faced continuous military defeats in World War II.
Upon taking power, Mussolini formed a legislative coalition with nationalists, liberals and populists. However, goodwill by the Fascists towards parliamentary democracy faded quickly: Mussolini 's coalition passed the electoral Acerbo Law of 1923, which gave two - thirds of the seats in parliament to the party or coalition that achieved 25 % of the vote. The Fascist Party used violence and intimidation to achieve the 25 % threshold in the 1924 election and became the ruling political party of Italy.
Following the election, Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti was assassinated after calling for an annulment of the elections because of the irregularities. Following the assassination, the Socialists walked out of parliament, allowing Mussolini to pass more authoritarian laws. In 1925, Mussolini accepted responsibility for the Fascist violence in 1924 and promised that dissenters would be dealt with harshly. Before the speech, Blackshirts smashed opposition presses and beat up several of Mussolini 's opponents. This event is considered the onset of undisguised Fascist dictatorship in Italy, though it would be 1928 before the Fascist Party was formally declared the only legal party in the country.
Over the next four years, Mussolini eliminated nearly all checks and balances on his power. In 1926, Mussolini passed a law that declared he was responsible only to the King and made him the sole person able to determine Parliament 's agenda. Local autonomy was swept away and appointed podestas replaced communal mayors and councils. Soon after all other parties were banned in 1928, parliamentary elections were replaced by plebiscites in which the Grand Council nominated a single list of candidates. Mussolini wielding enormous political powers as the effective ruler of Italy. The King was a figurehead and handled ceremonial roles, though he retained the power to dismiss the Prime Minister on the advice of the Grand Council -- which is what happened in 1943.
When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 beginning World War II, Mussolini publicly declared on 24 September 1939 that Italy had the choice of entering the war or to remain neutral which would cause the country to lose its national dignity. Nevertheless, despite his aggressive posture, Mussolini kept Italy out of the conflict for several months. Mussolini told his son in law Count Ciano that he was personally jealous over Hitler 's accomplishments and hoped that Hitler 's prowess would be slowed down by Allied counterattack. Mussolini went so far as to lessen Germany 's successes in Europe by giving advanced notice to Belgium and the Netherlands of an imminent German invasion, of which Germany had informed Italy.
In drawing out war plans, Mussolini and the Fascist regime decided that Italy would aim to annex large portions of Africa and the Middle East to be included in its colonial empire. Hesitance remained from the King and military commander Pietro Badoglio who warned Mussolini that Italy had too few tanks, armoured vehicles and aircraft available to be able to carry out a long - term war and Badoglio told Mussolini "It is suicide '' for Italy to get involved in the European conflict. Mussolini and the Fascist regime took the advice to a degree and waited as France was invaded by Germany before deciding to get involved.
As France collapsed under the German Blitzkrieg, Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940, fulfilling its obligations of the Pact of Steel. Italy hoped to quickly conquer Savoia, Nizza, Corsica and the African colonies of Tunisia and Algeria from the French, but this was quickly stopped when Germany signed an armistice with the French commander Philippe Petain who established Vichy France which retained control over these territories. This decision by Germany angered the Fascist regime.
The one Italian strength that concerned the Allies was the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina), the fourth - largest navy in the world at the time. In November 1940, the British Royal Navy launched a surprise air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto which crippled Italy 's major warships. Although the Italian fleet did not inflict serious damage as was feared, it did keep significant British Commonwealth naval forces in the Mediterranean Sea. This fleet needed to fight the Italian fleet to keep British Commonwealth forces in Egypt and the Middle East from being cut off from Britain. In 1941 on the Italian - controlled island of Kastelorizo, off of the coast of Turkey, Italian forces succeeded in repelling British and Australian forces attempting to occupy the island during Operation Abstention. In December 1941, a covert attack by Italian forces took place in Alexandria, Egypt, in which Italian divers attached explosives to British warships resulting in two British battleships being sunk. This was known as the Raid on Alexandria. In 1942, the Italian navy inflicted a serious blow to a British convoy fleet attempting to reach Malta during Operation Harpoon, sinking multiple British vessels. Over time, the Allied navies inflicted serious damage to the Italian fleet, and ruined Italy 's one advantage to Germany.
Continuing indications of Italy 's subordinate nature to Germany arose during the Greco - Italian War, which was disastrous for the poorly - armed Italian Army. Mussolini had intended the war with Greece to prove to Germany that Italy was no minor power in the alliance, but a capable empire which could hold its own weight. Mussolini boasted to his government that he would even resign from being Italian if anyone found fighting the Greeks to be difficult. Within days of invading Greece, the Greek army pushed the Italian army back into Albania and humiliatingly put Italy on the defensive. Hitler and the German government were frustrated with Italy 's failing campaigns, but so was Mussolini. Mussolini in private angrily accused Italians on the battlefield of becoming "overcome with a crisis of artistic sentimentalism and throwing in the towel ''.
To gain back ground in Greece, Germany reluctantly began a Balkans Campaign alongside Italy which resulted also in the destruction of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1941 and the ceding of Dalmazia to Italy. Mussolini and Hitler compensated Croatian nationalists by endorsing the creation of the Independent State of Croatia under the extreme nationalist Ustaše. In order to receive the support of Italy, the Ustaše agreed to concede the main central portion of Dalmazia as well as various Adriatic Sea islands to Italy, as Dalmazia held a significant number of Italians. The ceding of the Adriatic Sea islands was considered by the Independent State of Croatia to be a minimal loss, as in exchange for those cessions they were allowed to annex all of modern - day Bosnia and Herzegovina, which led to the persecution of the Serb population there. Officially, the Independent State of Croatia was a kingdom and an Italian protectorate, ruled by Italian House of Savoy member Tomislav II of Croatia, but he never personally set foot on Croatian soil and the government was run by Ante Pavelić, the leader of the Ustaše. However, Italy did hold military control across all of Croatia 's coast, which combined with Italian control of Albania and Montenegro gave Italy complete control of the Adriatic Sea, thus completing a key part of the Mare Nostrum policy of the Fascists. The Ustaše movement proved valuable to Italy and Germany as a means to counter Royalist Chetnik guerrillas (although they did work with them because they did not really like the Ustaše movement whom they left up to the Germans) and the communist Yugoslav Partisans under Josip Broz Tito who opposed the occupation of Yugoslavia.
Under Italian army commander Mario Roatta 's watch, the violence against the Slovene civil population in the Province of Ljubljana easily matched that of the Germans with summary executions, hostage - taking and hostage killing, reprisals, internments to Rab and Gonars concentration camps and the burning of houses and whole villages. Roatta issued additional special instructions stating that the repression orders must be "carried out most energetically and without any false compassion ''. According to historians James Walston and Carlo Spartaco Capogeco, the annual mortality rate in the Italian concentration camps was higher than the average mortality rate in Nazi concentration camp Buchenwald (which was 15 %), at least 18 %. On 5 August 1943, Monsignor Joze Srebnic, Bishop of Veglia (Krk island), reported to Pope Pius XII that "witnesses, who took part in the burials, state unequivocally that the number of the dead totals at least 3,500 ''. After the war, Yugoslavia, Greece and Ethiopia requested the extradition of 1,200 Italian war criminals for trial, but they never saw anything like the Nuremberg trials because the British government with the beginning of the Cold War saw in Pietro Badoglio a guarantee of an anti-communist post-war Italy. The repression of memory led to historical revisionism in Italy about the country 's actions during the war. In 1963, anthology "Notte sul'Europa '', a photograph of an internee from Rab concentration camp, was included while claiming to be a photograph of an internee from a German Nazi camp when in fact the internee was a Slovene Janez Mihelčič, born 1885 in Babna Gorica and died at Rab in 1943. In 2003, the Italian media published Silvio Berlusconi 's statement that Mussolini merely "used to send people on vacation ''.
In 1940, Italy invaded Egypt and was soon driven far back into Libya by British Commonwealth forces. The German army sent a detachment to join the Italian army in Libya to save the colony from the British advance. German army units in the Afrika Korps under General Erwin Rommel were the mainstay in the campaign to push the British out of Libya and into central Egypt in 1941 to 1942. The victories in Egypt were almost entirely credited to Rommel 's strategic brilliance. The Italian forces received little media attention in North Africa because of their dependence on the superior weaponry and experience of Rommel 's forces. For a time in 1942, Italy from an official standpoint controlled large amounts of territory along the Mediterranean Sea. With the collapse of Vichy France, Italy gained control of Corsica, Nizza, Savoia and other portions of southwestern France. Italy also oversaw a military occupation over significant sections of southern France, but despite the official territorial achievements, the so - called "Italian Empire '' was a paper tiger by 1942: it was faltering as its economy failed to adapt to the conditions of war and Italian cities were being bombed by the Allies. Also despite Rommel 's advances in 1941 and early 1942, the campaign in Northern Africa began to collapse in late 1942. Complete collapse came in 1943 when German and Italian forces fled Northern Africa to Sicilia.
By 1943, Italy was failing on every front, by January of the year, half of the Italian forces serving on the Eastern Front had been destroyed, the African campaign had collapsed, the Balkans remained unstable and demoralised Italians wanted an end to the war. King Victor Emmanuel III urged Count Ciano to overstep Mussolini to try to begin talks with the Allies. In mid-1943, the Allies commenced an invasion of Sicily in an effort to knock Italy out of the war and establish a foothold in Europe. Allied troops landed in Sicily with little initial opposition from Italian forces. The situation changed as the Allies ran into German forces, who held out for some time before Sicily was taken over by the Allies. The invasion made Mussolini dependent on the German Armed Forces (Wehrmacht) to protect his regime. The Allies steadily advanced through Italy with little opposition from demoralized Italian soldiers, while facing serious opposition from German forces.
By 1943, Mussolini had lost the support of the Italian population for having led a disastrous war effort. To the world, Mussolini was viewed as a "sawdust caesar '' for having led his country to war with ill - equipped and poorly trained armed forces which failed in battle. The embarrassment of Mussolini to Italy led King Victor Emmanuel III and even members of the Fascist Party to desire Mussolini 's removal. The first stage of his ousting took place when Fascist Party 's Grand Council under the direction of Fascist member Dino Grandi voted to remove Mussolini as the party 's leader. Days later on 26 July 1943, Emmanuel III officially removed Mussolini from the post of Prime Minister and replaced him with Marshal Pietro Badoglio. Upon removal, Mussolini was immediately arrested. When the radio brought the unexpected news, Italians assumed the war was practically over. The Fascist organizations that had for two decades pledged their loyalty to Il Duce were silent -- no effort was made by any of them to protest. The new Badoglio government stripped away the final elements of Fascist government by banning the Fascist Party. The Fascists had never controlled the army, but they did have a separately armed militia, which was merged into the army. The main Fascist organs including the Grand Council, the Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State and the Chambers were all disbanded. All local Fascist formations clubs and meetings were shut down. Slowly, the most outspoken Fascists were purged from office.
Italy then signed an armistice with the Allied armed forces and the Kingdom of Italy joined the Allies in their war against Germany. The new Royalist government of Victor Emmanuel III and Marshal Badoglio raised an Italian Co-belligerent Army, an Italian Co-belligerent Navy and an Italian Co-belligerent Air Force. The Badoglio government attempted to establish a non-partisan administration and a number of political parties were allowed to exist again after years of ban under Fascism. These ranged from liberal to communist parties which all were part of the government. Italians celebrated the fall of Mussolini and as more Italian territory was taken by the Allies, the Allies were welcomed as liberators by Italians who opposed the German occupation.
However, Mussolini 's reign in Italy was not over, as a German commando unit led by Otto Skorzeny rescued Mussolini from the mountain hotel where he was being held under arrest. Hitler instructed Mussolini to establish the Italian Social Republic in German - held northern Italy. The Italian Social Republic was a German puppet state. The Fascist state 's armed forces were a combination of Mussolini loyalist Fascists and German armed forces. However Mussolini had little power, Hitler and the German armed forces led the campaign against the Allies and saw little interest in preserving Italy as more than a buffer zone against an Allied invasion of Germany.
Life for Italians under German occupation was hard, especially in Rome. Rome 's citizens by 1943 had grown tired of the war and upon Italy signing an armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943, Rome 's citizens took to the streets chanting "Viva la pace! '' ("Long live the peace!), but within hours German forces raided the city and attacked anti-Fascists, royalists and Jews. Roman citizens were harassed by German soldiers to provide them food and fuel and German authorities would arrest all opposition and many were sent into forced labor. Rome 's citizens upon being liberated reported that during the first week of German occupation of Rome, crimes against Italian citizens took place as German soldiers looted stores and robbed Roman citizens at gunpoint. Martial law was imposed on Rome by German authorities requiring all citizens to obey a curfew forbidding people to be out on the street after 9 p.m. During winter of 1943, Rome 's citizens were denied access to sufficient food, firewood and coal which was taken by German authorities to be given to German soldiers housed in occupied hotels. These actions left Rome 's citizens to live in the harsh cold and on the verge of starvation. German authorities began arresting able - bodied Roman men to be conscripted into forced labour. On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as German forces retreated as the Allies advanced.
Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945 by Communist Italian partisans near the Swiss border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, he was executed for high treason as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the National Liberation Committee. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to Milano, where they were displayed to the public. Days later on 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered.
The government of Badoglio remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as Prime Minister by the 70 - year - old anti-fascist leader Ivanoe Bonomi. In June 1945, Bonomi was in turn replaced by Ferruccio Parri, who in turn gave way to Alcide de Gasperi on 4 December 1945. It was de Gasperi who supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946. He briefly became acting Head of State as well as Prime Minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional President Enrico de Nicola ten days later.
Much like Japan and Germany, the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. Anger flourished as well over Italy 's embarrassment of being occupied by the Germans and then by the Allies.
Even prior to the rise of the Fascists, the monarchy was seen to have performed poorly, with society extremely divided between the wealthy North and poor South. World War I resulted in Italy making few gains and was seen as what fostered the rise of Fascism. These frustrations compacted into a revival of the Italian republican movement.
Following Victor Emmanuel III 's abdication as King in 1946, his son and new King Umberto II was forced to call a referendum to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54 % of the vote and Italy officially became a republic.
The table of results shows some relevant differences in the different parts of Italy. The peninsula seemed to be drastically cut in two areas: the North for the republic (with 66.2 %), the South for the monarchy (with 63.8 %), as if they were two different, respectively homogeneous countries. Some monarchist groups claimed that there was manipulation by northern republicans, socialists and communists. Others argued that Italy was still too chaotic in 1946 to have an accurate referendum. Regardless, to prevent civil war Umberto II was deposed and a new republic was born with bitter resentment by the new government against the House of Savoy. All male members of the Savoy family were barred from entering Italy in 1948, which was only repealed in 2002.
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who did i fought the law and the law won | I Fought the Law - wikipedia
"I Fought the Law '' is a song written by Sonny Curtis of the Crickets and popularized by a cover by the Bobby Fuller Four, which went on to become a top - ten hit for the band in 1966 and was also recorded by the Clash in 1979. The Bobby Fuller Four version of this song was ranked No. 175 on the Rolling Stone list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2004, and the same year was named one of the 500 "Songs that Shaped Rock '' by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
The song was written in 1958 by Sonny Curtis, and recorded in 1959 when he joined the Crickets, taking the place of the late Buddy Holly on guitar. Joe B. Mauldin and Jerry Allison continued their positions on the standup bass and drums, respectively, while Earl Sinks filled the role for vocals. The song was on their 1960 LP, In Style with the Crickets, and the following year appeared as the b - side of their single, "A Sweet Love ''. The song never received any airplay. Milwaukee 's Paul Stefen and the Royal Lancers covered the song in 1962; it provided them with a local hit, but it never made the national charts. In 1964, Sammy Masters recorded his cover of the song. That same year, the song was recorded by Bobby Fuller and his band on his own Exeter label in El Paso, which solidified the band 's popularity in the West Texas area with one of his biggest local hits.
After enjoying regional success in Texas, Bobby Fuller and his band decided to switch to a major label -- Del - Fi Records under Mustang Records -- and they became known as the Bobby Fuller Four. While producing minor hits, the band broke the national top ten when they re-recorded "I Fought the Law '' in 1965 with Bobby Fuller (vocals, guitar), Randy Fuller (backing vocals, bass guitar), Jim Reese (backing vocals, guitar), and DeWayne Quirico (drums).
Just six months after the song made its first appearance on the Billboard Top 100 chart, Fuller was found dead from asphyxiation in his mother 's car in a parking lot near his Los Angeles, California apartment. The Los Angeles Police Department declared the death an apparent suicide, but others believed him to have been murdered. Fuller was 23 years old.
In mid-1978, the Clash were working on their second album, Give ' Em Enough Rope. Singer Joe Strummer and guitarist Mick Jones flew out to San Francisco to record overdubs in September -- October at the Automatt studio. The owner of the Automatt kept his collection of classic jukeboxes distributed around the various rooms of the studio complex. Strummer and Jones listened to the Bobby Fuller version of "I Fought the Law '' for the first time on one of the jukeboxes, and by the time they returned to England, they could perform the song.
Their version first appeared on the EP The Cost of Living in May 1979 in the UK and then later in 1979 was made part of the American edition of the Clash 's eponymous album. This cover version helped gain the Clash their first taste of airplay in the States and is one of the best - known cover versions of the song. The live recording of the song, performed at the Lyceum Theatre, West End, London, on December 28, 1978, features as the last piece of the 1980 film Rude Boy directed by Jack Hazan and David Mingay. The Clash were dressed all in black for that gig, and the song, at that stage, was considered the film 's title song. On July 26, 1979, "I Fought the Law '' was the first single by the band to be released in the United States.
In 1988, CBS Records re-issued the single (catalog number) in CD, 12 '' and 7 '' vinyl formats, with "City of the Dead '' (2: 24) and "1977 '' (1: 40) as its 7 '' B - side. The song is featured as a downloadable track in the music video game series Rock Band.
In 1989 during Operation Just Cause, the US military surrounded the Apostolic Nunciature in Panama while trying to capture Manuel Noriega, the strongman of Panama. US forces blasted loud rock music -- including "I Fought the Law '' by the Clash -- to put pressure on Noriega to give himself up.
In 2012, the Clash 's version of the song was featured in the video game Sleeping Dogs, as part of a karaoke mini-game.
The song appears during the end credits of the 2014 film RoboCop and the 2016 film War on Everyone.
In 1978 country artist Hank Williams Jr. recorded a version of the song that would appear on his 1979 album Family Tradition. Released as the album 's first single, it was a moderate hit and peaked at # 15 on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, giving Williams his first Top 15 single in four years.
The punk band Dead Kennedys put together their own version of "I Fought The Law '' shortly after San Francisco politician Dan White murdered city Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone in 1978. Most of the lyrics were re-written so the song was from White 's point of view; the chorus was changed to "I fought the law, and I won '', with the final line in the final chorus changed to "I am the law, so I won. '' The song portrays White as someone who got away with first - degree premeditated murder and is unrepentant about it and specifically cites his use of the diminished responsibility defense. It also makes use of the reference "Twinkie defense '', where lead singer Jello Biafra sings "Twinkies are the best friend I ever had ''.
Sam Neely 's version of the song went to No. 54 on the Billboard pop charts and no. 61 on the country charts in 1975. Hank Williams Jr. had a No. 15 country hit with the song in 1978 and another country version by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band went to No. 66 in 1992.
Dave Courtney recorded a version for the Scottish pop - punks Mute. Mute 's frontman Jay Burnett wrote new lyrics based on Courtney 's court case. Like the Dead Kennedys ' version, the chorus is changed to "I fought the law and I won ''.
In 1999, Mike Ness of Social Distortion covered the tune on his second solo album, Under the Influences, which peaked at No. 174 on the Billboard 200 (November 27, 1999).
Green Day 's version of the song was used in 2004 for a Pepsi / iTunes commercial that premiered during Super Bowl XXXVIII. The single became a live favorite for the band throughout 2005, including television performances.
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where did the field of fire take place | Battle of Bosworth Field - wikipedia
Decisive Tudor victory
House of Tudor (Lancastrian)
Richard III † John Howard, Duke of Norfolk † Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland (did n't fight) John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln Richard Ratcliffe † Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey (POW)
Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke John de Vere, Earl of Oxford Sir Gilbert Talbot Sir Philibert de Chandée
Thomas, Lord Stanley
The Battle of Bosworth Field (or Battle of Bosworth) was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that raged across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history.
Richard 's reign began in 1483. At the request of his brother Edward IV, Richard was acting as Lord Protector for his son Edward V. Richard had Parliament declare Edward V illegitimate and ineligible for the throne, and took it for himself. Richard lost popularity when the boy and his younger brother disappeared after he incarcerated them in the Tower of London, and his support was further eroded by the popular belief that he was implicated in the death of his wife. Across the English Channel in Brittany, Henry Tudor, a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster, seized on Richard 's difficulties so that he could challenge his claim to the throne. Henry 's first attempt to invade England was frustrated by a storm in 1483, but on his second attempt he arrived unopposed on 7 August 1485 on the southwest coast of Wales. Marching inland, Henry gathered support as he made for London. Richard mustered his troops and intercepted Henry 's army south of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Thomas, Lord Stanley, and Sir William Stanley brought a force to the battlefield, but held back while they decided which side it would be more advantageous to support.
Richard divided his army, which outnumbered Henry 's, into three groups (or "battles ''). One was assigned to the Duke of Norfolk and another to the Earl of Northumberland. Henry kept most of his force together and placed it under the command of the experienced Earl of Oxford. Richard 's vanguard, commanded by Norfolk, attacked but struggled against Oxford 's men, and some of Norfolk 's troops fled the field. Northumberland took no action when signalled to assist his king, so Richard gambled everything on a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry and end the fight. Seeing the king 's knights separated from his army, the Stanleys intervened; Sir William led his men to Henry 's aid, surrounding and killing Richard. After the battle Henry was crowned king below an oak tree in nearby Stoke Golding, now a residential garden.
Henry hired chroniclers to portray his reign favourably; the Battle of Bosworth was popularised to represent the Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age. From the 15th to the 18th centuries the battle was glamorised as a victory of good over evil. The climax of William Shakespeare 's play Richard III provides a focal point for critics in later film adaptations. The exact site of the battle is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data, and memorials have been erected at different locations. In 1974 the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on a site that has since been challenged by several scholars and historians. In October 2009 a team of researchers, who had performed geological surveys and archaeological digs in the area from 2003, suggested a location two miles (3.2 km) southwest of Ambion Hill.
During the 15th century civil war raged across England as the Houses of York and Lancaster fought each other for the English throne. In 1471 the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. The Lancastrian King Henry VI and his only son, Edward of Lancaster, died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury. Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne. The Yorkist king, Edward IV, was in complete control of England. He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule, such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry, naming them traitors and confiscating their lands. The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds forced them to land in Brittany, then a semi-independent duchy, where they were taken into the custody of Duke Francis II. Henry 's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was a great - granddaughter of John of Gaunt, uncle of King Richard II and father of King Henry IV. The Beauforts were originally bastards, but Henry IV legitimised them on the condition that their descendants were not eligible to inherit the throne. Henry Tudor, the only remaining Lancastrian noble with a trace of the royal bloodline, had a weak claim to the throne, and Edward regarded him as "a nobody ''. The Duke of Brittany, however, viewed Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England 's aid in conflicts with France and kept the Tudors under his protection.
Edward IV died 12 years after Tewkesbury on 9 April 1483. His 12 - year - old elder son succeeded him as King Edward V; the younger son, nine - year - old Richard of Shrewsbury, was next in line to the throne. Edward V was too young to rule and a Royal Council was established to rule the country until the king 's coming of age. The royal court was worried when it learned that the Woodvilles, relatives of Edward IV 's widow Elizabeth, were plotting to seize control of the council. Having offended many in their quest for wealth and power, the Woodville family was not popular. To frustrate the Woodvilles ' ambitions, Lord Hastings and other members of the council turned to the new king 's uncle -- Richard, Duke of Gloucester, brother of Edward IV. The courtiers urged Gloucester to assume the role of Protector quickly, as had been previously requested by his now dead brother. On 29 April Gloucester, accompanied by a contingent of guards and Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, took Edward V into custody and arrested several prominent members of the Woodville family. After bringing the young king to London, Gloucester had two of the Woodvilles (the Queen 's brother Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and her younger son by her first marriage Richard Grey) executed, without trial, on charges of treason.
On 13 June Gloucester accused Hastings of plotting with the Woodvilles and had him beheaded. Nine days later Gloucester convinced Parliament to declare the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth illegal, rendering their children illegitimate and disqualifying them from the throne. With his brother 's children out of the way, he was next in the line of succession and was proclaimed King Richard III on 26 June. The timing and extrajudicial nature of the deeds done to obtain the throne for Richard won him no popularity, and rumours that spoke ill of the new king spread throughout England. After they were declared bastards, the two princes were confined in the Tower of London and never seen in public again.
Discontent with Richard 's actions manifested itself in the summer after he took control of the country, as a conspiracy emerged to displace him from the throne. The rebels were mostly loyalists to Edward IV, who saw Richard as a usurper. Their plans were coordinated by a Lancastrian, Henry 's mother Lady Margaret, who was promoting her son as a candidate for the throne. The highest - ranking conspirator was Buckingham. No chronicles tell of the duke 's motive in joining the plot, although historian Charles Ross proposes that Buckingham was trying to distance himself from a king who was becoming increasingly unpopular with the people. Michael Jones and Malcolm Underwood suggest that Margaret deceived Buckingham into thinking the rebels supported him to be king.
The plan was to stage uprisings within a short time in southern and western England, overwhelming Richard 's forces. Buckingham would support the rebels by invading from Wales, while Henry came in by sea. Bad timing and weather wrecked the plot. An uprising in Kent started 10 days prematurely, alerting Richard to muster the royal army and take steps to put down the insurrections. Richard 's spies informed him of Buckingham 's activities, and the king 's men captured and destroyed the bridges across the River Severn. When Buckingham and his army reached the river, they found it swollen and impossible to cross because of a violent storm that broke on 15 October. Buckingham was trapped and had no safe place to retreat; his Welsh enemies seized his home castle after he had set forth with his army. The duke abandoned his plans and fled to Wem, where he was betrayed by his servant and arrested by Richard 's men. On 2 November 1483 he was executed. Henry had attempted a landing on 10 October (or 19 October), but his fleet was scattered by a storm. He reached the coast of England (at either Plymouth or Poole) and a group of soldiers hailed him to come ashore. They were, in fact, Richard 's men, prepared to capture Henry once he set foot on English soil. Henry was not deceived and returned to Brittany, abandoning the invasion. Without Buckingham or Henry, the rebellion was easily crushed by Richard.
The survivors of the failed uprisings fled to Brittany, where they openly supported Henry 's claim to the throne. At Christmas, Henry Tudor swore an oath to marry Edward IV 's daughter, Elizabeth of York, to unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster. Henry 's rising prominence made him a great threat to Richard, and the Yorkist king made several overtures to the Duke of Brittany to surrender the young Lancastrian. Francis refused, holding out for the possibility of better terms from Richard. In mid-1484 Francis was incapacitated by illness and while recuperating, his treasurer Pierre Landais took over the reins of government. Landais reached an agreement with Richard to send back Henry and his uncle in exchange for military and financial aid. John Morton, a bishop of Flanders, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors, who fled to France. The French court allowed them to stay; the Tudors were useful pawns to ensure that Richard 's England did not interfere with French plans to annex Brittany. On 16 March 1485 Richard 's queen, Anne Neville, died, and rumours spread across the country that she was murdered to pave the way for Richard to marry his niece, Elizabeth. The gossip alienated Richard from some of his northern supporters, and upset Henry across the English Channel. The loss of Elizabeth 's hand in marriage could unravel the alliance between Henry 's supporters who were Lancastrians and those who were loyalists to Edward IV. Anxious to secure his bride, Henry recruited mercenaries formerly in French service to supplement his following of exiles and set sail from France on 1 August.
By the 15th century English chivalric ideas of selfless service to the king had been corrupted. Armed forces were mostly raised through musters in individual estates; every able - bodied man had to respond to his lord 's call to arms, and each noble had exclusive authority over his militia. Although a king could raise personal militia from his lands, he could only muster a significantly large army through the support of his nobles. Richard, like his predecessors, had to win over these men by granting gifts and maintaining cordial relationships. Powerful nobles could demand greater incentives to remain on the liege 's side or else they might turn against him. Three groups, each with its own agenda, stood on Bosworth Field: Richard III and his Yorkist army; his challenger, Henry Tudor, who championed the Lancastrian cause; and the fence - sitting Stanleys.
Small and slender, Richard III did not have the robust physique associated with many of his Plantagenet predecessors. However, he enjoyed very rough sports and activities that were considered manly. His performances on the battlefield impressed his brother greatly, and he became Edward 's right - hand man. During the 1480s Richard defended the northern borders of England. In 1482 Edward charged him to lead an army into Scotland with the aim of replacing King James III with the Duke of Albany. Richard 's army broke through the Scottish defences and occupied the capital, Edinburgh, but Albany decided to give up his claim to the throne in return for the post of Lieutenant General of Scotland. As well as obtaining a guarantee that the Scottish government would concede territories and diplomatic benefits to the English crown, Richard 's campaign retook the town of Berwick - upon - Tweed, which the Scots had conquered in 1460. Edward was not satisfied by these gains, which, according to Ross, could have been greater if Richard had been resolute enough to capitalise on the situation while in control of Edinburgh. In her analysis of Richard 's character, Christine Carpenter sees him as a soldier who was more used to taking orders than giving them. However, he was not averse to displaying his militaristic streak; on ascending the throne he made known his desire to lead a crusade against "not only the Turks, but all (his) foes ''.
Richard 's most loyal subject was John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk. The duke had served Richard 's brother for many years and had been one of Edward IV 's closer confidants. He was a military veteran, having fought in the Battle of Towton in 1461 and served as Hastings ' deputy at Calais in 1471. Ross speculates that he may have borne a grudge against Edward for depriving him of a fortune. Norfolk was due to inherit a share of the wealthy Mowbray estate on the death of eight - year - old Anne de Mowbray, the last of her family. However, Edward convinced Parliament to circumvent the law of inheritance and transfer the estate to his younger son, who was married to Anne. Consequently, Howard supported Richard III in deposing Edward 's sons, for which he received the dukedom of Norfolk and his original share of the Mowbray estate.
Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, also supported Richard 's seizure of the throne of England. The Percys were loyal Lancastrians, but Edward IV eventually won the earl 's allegiance. Northumberland had been captured and imprisoned by the Yorkists in 1461, losing his titles and estates; however, Edward released him eight years later and restored his earldom. From that time Northumberland served the Yorkist crown, helping to defend northern England and maintain its peace. Initially the earl had issues with Richard III as Edward groomed his brother to be the leading power of the north. Northumberland was mollified when he was promised he would be the Warden of the East March, a position that was formerly hereditary for the Percys. He served under Richard during the 1482 invasion of Scotland, and the allure of being in a position to dominate the north of England if Richard went south to assume the crown was his likely motivation for supporting Richard 's bid for kingship. However, after becoming king, Richard began moulding his nephew, John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, to manage the north, passing over Northumberland for the position. According to Carpenter, although the earl was amply compensated, he despaired of any possibility of advancement under Richard.
Henry Tudor was unfamiliar with the arts of war and a stranger to the land he was trying to conquer. He spent the first fourteen years of his life in Wales and the next fourteen in Brittany and France. Slender but strong and decisive, Henry lacked a penchant for battle and was not much of a warrior; chroniclers such as Polydore Vergil and ambassadors like Pedro de Ayala found him more interested in commerce and finance. Having not fought in any battles, Henry recruited several experienced veterans on whom he could rely for military advice and the command of his armies. John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, was Henry 's principal military commander. He was adept in the arts of war. At the Battle of Barnet, he commanded the Lancastrian right wing and routed the division opposing him. However, as a result of confusion over identities, Oxford 's group came under friendly fire from the Lancastrian main force and retreated from the field. The earl fled abroad and continued his fight against the Yorkists, raiding shipping and eventually capturing the island fort of St Michael 's Mount in 1473. He surrendered after receiving no aid or reinforcement, but in 1484 escaped from prison and joined Henry 's court in France, bringing along his erstwhile gaoler Sir James Blount. Oxford 's presence raised morale in Henry 's camp and troubled Richard III.
In the early stages of the Wars of the Roses, the Stanleys of Cheshire had been predominantly Lancastrians. Sir William Stanley, however, was a staunch Yorkist supporter, fighting in the Battle of Blore Heath in 1459 and helping Hastings to put down uprisings against Edward IV in 1471. When Richard took the crown, Sir William showed no inclination to turn against the new king, refraining from joining Buckingham 's rebellion, for which he was amply rewarded. Sir William 's elder brother, Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, was not as steadfast. By 1485, he had served three kings, namely Henry VI, Edward IV, and Richard III. Lord Stanley 's skilled political manoeuvrings -- vacillating between opposing sides until it was clear who would be the winner -- gained him high positions; he was Henry 's chamberlain and Edward 's steward. His non-committal stance, until the crucial point of a battle, earned him the loyalty of his men, who felt he would not needlessly send them to their deaths.
Even though Lord Stanley had served as Edward IV 's steward, his relations with the king 's brother, the eventual Richard III, were not cordial. The two had conflicts that erupted into violence around March 1470. Furthermore, having taken Lady Margaret as his second wife in June 1472, Stanley was Henry Tudor 's stepfather, a relationship which did nothing to win him Richard 's favour. Despite these differences, Stanley did not join Buckingham 's revolt in 1483. When Richard executed those conspirators who had been unable to flee England, he spared Lady Margaret. However, he declared her titles forfeit and transferred her estates to Stanley 's name, to be held in trust for the Yorkist crown. Richard 's act of mercy was calculated to reconcile him with Stanley, but it may have been to no avail -- Carpenter has identified a further cause of friction in Richard 's intention to reopen an old land dispute that involved Thomas Stanley and the Harrington family. Edward IV had ruled the case in favour of Stanley in 1473, but Richard planned to overturn his brother 's ruling and give the wealthy estate to the Harringtons. Immediately before the Battle of Bosworth, being wary of Stanley, Richard took his son, Lord Strange, as hostage to discourage him from joining Henry.
Reports of the number of soldiers Henry brought with him vary widely, with different sources giving figures of 1,000, 3,000, 3,600, 4,000 and 5,000 men. This initial force consisted of the English and Welsh exiles who had gathered around Henry, combined with a contingent of mercenaries put at his disposal by Charles VIII of France. The history of one "John Major '' (published in 1521) claims that Charles had granted Henry 5,000 men, of whom 1,000 were Scots, headed by Sir Alexander Bruce. No mention of Scottish soldiers was made by subsequent English historians. After the battle, Bruce was given an annuity of £ 20 by Henry for his "faithful services ''. How many Frenchmen actually sailed is unknown, but the historian Chris Skidmore estimates over half of Henry 's armed fleet. The Crowland Chronicler also recorded that Henry 's troops were "as much French as English ''. Many of these French mercenaries were from the garrison of Philippe de Crevecoeur, Lord of Esquerdes. Commynes recorded that these included "some 3,000 of the most unruly men in Normandy ''.
Henry 's crossing of the English Channel in 1485 was without incident. Thirty ships sailed from Harfleur on 1 August and, with fair winds behind them, landed in his native Wales, at Mill Bay (near Dale) on the north side of Milford Haven on 7 August, easily capturing nearby Dale Castle. His long - awaited arrival had been hailed by contemporary Welsh bards such as Dafydd Ddu and Gruffydd ap Dafydd as the true prince and "the youth of Brittany defeating the Saxons '' in order to bring their country back to glory. Mill Bay had been chosen as it was completely hidden from view and there was no resistance by the cohort of Richard 's men stationed at Dale where Henry and his men spent the first night.
In the morning they marched to Haverfordwest, the county town of Pembrokeshire, 12 miles away and were received "with the utmost goodwill of all ''. Here, the Welshman Arnold Butler (who had met Henry in Brittany) announced that "the whole of Pembrokeshire was prepared to serve him ''. Butler 's closest friend was Rhys ap Thomas. That afternoon, Henry and his troops headed north towards Cardigan and pitched camp "at the fifth milestone towards Cardigan '' where they were joined by Gruffydd Rede with a band of soldiers and John Morgan of Tredegar. The following day, 9 August, they passed through Bwlch - y - gwynt and over the Preseli mountains and to Fagwyr Llwyd south of Cilgwyn.
Richard 's lieutenant in South Wales, Sir Walter Herbert, failed to move against Henry, and two of his officers, Richard Griffith and Evan Morgan, deserted to Henry with their men.
However, the most important defector to Henry in this early stage of the campaign was probably Rhys ap Thomas, who was the leading figure in West Wales. Richard had appointed Rhys Lieutenant in West Wales for his refusal to join Buckingham 's rebellion, asking that he surrender his son Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas as surety, although by some accounts Rhys had managed to evade this condition. However, Henry successfully courted Rhys, offering the lieutenancy of all Wales in exchange for his fealty. Henry marched via Aberystwyth while Rhys followed a more southerly route, recruiting a force of Welshmen en route, variously estimated at 500 or 2,000 men, to swell Henry 's army when they reunited at Cefn Digoll, Welshpool,. By 15 or 16 August, Henry and his men had crossed the English border, making for the town of Shrewsbury.
Since 22 June 1485 Richard had been aware of Henry 's impending invasion, and had ordered his lords to maintain a high level of readiness. News of Henry 's landing reached Richard on 11 August, but it took three to four days for his messengers to notify his lords of their king 's mobilisation. On 16 August, the Yorkist army started to gather; Norfolk set off for Leicester, the assembly point, that night. The city of York, a traditional stronghold of Richard 's family, asked the king for instructions, and receiving a reply three days later sent 80 men to join the king. Simultaneously Northumberland, whose northern territory was the most distant from the capital, had gathered his men and ridden to Leicester.
Although London was his goal, Henry did not move directly towards the city. After resting in Shrewsbury, his forces went eastwards and picked up Sir Gilbert Talbot and other English allies, including deserters from Richard 's forces. Although its size had increased substantially since the landing, Henry 's army was still substantially outnumbered by Richard 's forces. Henry 's pace through Staffordshire was slow, delaying the confrontation with Richard so that he could gather more recruits to his cause. Henry had been communicating on friendly terms with the Stanleys for some time before setting foot in England, and the Stanleys had mobilised their forces on hearing of Henry 's landing. They ranged themselves ahead of Henry 's march through the English countryside, meeting twice in secret with Henry as he moved through Staffordshire. At the second of these, at Atherstone in Warwickshire, they conferred "in what sort to arraign battle with King Richard, whom they heard to be not far off ''. On 21 August, the Stanleys were making camp on the slopes of a hill north of Dadlington, while Henry encamped his army at White Moors to the northwest of their camp.
On 20 August, Richard rode from Nottingham to Leicester, joining Norfolk. He spent the night at the Blue Boar inn (demolished 1836). Northumberland arrived the following day. The royal army proceeded westwards to intercept Henry 's march on London. Passing Sutton Cheney, Richard moved his army towards Ambion Hill -- which he thought would be of tactical value -- and made camp on it. Richard 's sleep was not peaceful and, according to the Croyland Chronicle, in the morning his face was "more livid and ghastly than usual ''.
The Yorkist army, variously estimated at between 7,500 and 12,000 men, deployed on the hilltop along the ridgeline from west to east. Norfolk 's group (or "battle '' in the parlance of the time) of spearmen stood on the right flank, protecting the cannon and about 1,200 archers. Richard 's group, comprising 3,000 infantry, formed the centre. Northumberland 's men guarded the left flank; he had approximately 4,000 men, many of them mounted. Standing on the hilltop, Richard had a wide, unobstructed view of the area. He could see the Stanleys and their 4,000 -- 6,000 men holding positions on and around Dadlington Hill, while to the southwest was Henry 's army.
Henry 's force has been variously estimated at between 5,000 and 8,000 men, his original landing force of exiles and mercenaries having been augmented by the recruits gathered in Wales and the English border counties (in the latter area probably mustered chiefly by the Talbot interest), and by deserters from Richard 's army. Historian John Mackie believes that 1,800 French mercenaries, led by Philibert de Chandée, formed the core of Henry 's army. John Mair, writing thirty - five years after the battle, claimed that this force contained a significant Scottish component, and this claim is accepted by some modern writers, but Mackie reasons that the French would not have released their elite Scottish knights and archers, and concludes that there were probably few Scottish troops in the army, although he accepts the presence of captains like Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny.
In their interpretations of the vague mentions of the battle in the old text, historians placed areas near the foot of Ambion Hill as likely regions where the two armies clashed, and thought up possible scenarios of the engagement. In their recreations of the battle, Henry started by moving his army towards Ambion Hill where Richard and his men stood. As Henry 's army advanced past the marsh at the southwestern foot of the hill, Richard sent a message to Stanley, threatening to execute his son, Lord Strange, if Stanley did not join the attack on Henry immediately. Stanley replied that he had other sons. Incensed, Richard gave the order to behead Strange but his officers temporised, saying that battle was imminent, and it would be more convenient to carry out the execution afterwards. Henry had also sent messengers to Stanley asking him to declare his allegiance. The reply was evasive -- the Stanleys would "naturally '' come, after Henry had given orders to his army and arranged them for battle. Henry had no choice but to confront Richard 's forces alone.
Well aware of his own military inexperience, Henry handed command of his army to Oxford and retired to the rear with his bodyguards. Oxford, seeing the vast line of Richard 's army strung along the ridgeline, decided to keep his men together instead of splitting them into the traditional three battles: vanguard, centre, and rearguard. He ordered the troops to stray no further than 10 feet (3.0 m) from their banners, fearing that they would become enveloped. Individual groups clumped together, forming a single large mass flanked by horsemen on the wings.
The Lancastrians were harassed by Richard 's cannon as they manoeuvred around the marsh, seeking firmer ground. Once Oxford and his men were clear of the marsh, Norfolk 's battle and several contingents of Richard 's group, under the command of Sir Robert Brackenbury, started to advance. Hails of arrows showered both sides as they closed. Oxford 's men proved the steadier in the ensuing hand - to - hand combat; they held their ground and several of Norfolk 's men fled the field. Norfolk lost one his senior officers, Walter Devereux in this early clash.
Recognising that his force was at a disadvantage, Richard signalled for Northumberland to assist but Northumberland 's group showed no signs of movement. Historians, such as Horrox and Pugh, believe Northumberland chose not to aid his king for personal reasons. Ross doubts the aspersions cast on Northumberland 's loyalty, suggesting instead that Ambion Hill 's narrow ridge hindered him from joining the battle. The earl would have had to either go through his allies or execute a wide flanking move -- near impossible to perform given the standard of drill at the time -- to engage Oxford 's men.
At this juncture Richard saw Henry at some distance behind his main force. Seeing this, Richard decided to end the fight quickly by killing the enemy commander. He led a charge of mounted men around the melee and tore into Henry 's group; several accounts state that Richard 's force numbered 800 -- 1000 knights, but Ross says it was more likely that Richard was accompanied only by his household men and closest friends. Richard killed Henry 's standard - bearer Sir William Brandon in the initial charge and unhorsed burly John Cheyne, Edward IV 's former standard - bearer, with a blow to the head from his broken lance. French mercenaries in Henry 's retinue related how the attack had caught them off guard and that Henry sought protection by dismounting and concealing himself among them to present less of a target. Henry made no attempt to engage in combat himself.
Oxford had left a small reserve of pike - equipped men with Henry. They slowed the pace of Richard 's mounted charge and bought Tudor some critical time. The remainder of Henry 's bodyguards surrounded their master and succeeded in keeping him away from the Yorkist king. On seeing Richard embroiled with Henry 's men and separated from his main force, William Stanley made his move. He led his men into the fight at Henry 's side. Outnumbered, Richard 's group was surrounded and gradually pressed back. Richard 's force was driven several hundred yards away from Tudor, near to the edge of a marsh. The king 's horse lost its footing and toppled into it. Richard gathered himself and rallied his dwindling followers, supposedly refusing to retreat: "God forbid that I retreat one step. I will either win the battle as a king, or die as one. '' In the fighting Richard 's banner man -- Sir Percival Thirlwall -- lost his legs but held the Yorkist banner aloft until he was killed. It is likely that James Harrington also died in the charge. The king 's trusted advisor Richard Ratcliffe was also slain.
Polydore Vergil, Henry Tudor 's official historian, recorded that "King Richard, alone, was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies ''. Richard had come within a sword 's length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley 's men and killed. The Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet says that a Welshman struck the death - blow with a halberd while Richard 's horse was stuck in the marshy ground. It was said that the blows were so violent that the king 's helmet was driven into his skull. The contemporary Welsh poet Guto'r Glyn implies the leading Welsh Lancastrian Rhys ap Thomas, or one of his men, killed the king, writing that he "killed the boar, shaved his head ''. The identification in 2013 of King Richard 's body shows that the skeleton had 10 wounds, eight of them to the head, clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet. The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull.
Richard 's forces disintegrated as news of his death spread. Northumberland and his men fled north on seeing the king 's fate, and Norfolk was killed.
After the battle, Richard 's circlet is said to have been found and brought to Henry, who was proclaimed king at the top of Crown Hill, near the village of Stoke Golding. According to Vergil, Henry 's official historian, Lord Stanley found the circlet. Historian Stanley Chrimes and Professor Sydney Anglo dismiss the legend of the circlet 's finding in a hawthorn bush; none of the contemporary sources reported such an event. Ross, however, does not ignore the legend. He argues that the hawthorn bush would not be part of Henry 's coat of arms if it did not have a strong relationship to his ascendance. Baldwin points out that a hawthorn bush motif was already used by the House of Lancaster, and Henry merely added the crown.
In Vergil 's chronicle, 100 of Henry 's men, compared to 1,000 of Richard 's, died in this battle -- a ratio Chrimes believes to be an exaggeration. The bodies of the fallen were brought to St James Church at Dadlington for burial. However, Henry denied any immediate rest for Richard; instead the last Yorkist king 's corpse was stripped naked and strapped across a horse. His body was brought to Leicester and openly exhibited to prove that he was dead. Early accounts suggest that this was in the major Lancastrian collegiate foundation, the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke. After two days, the corpse was interred in a plain tomb, within the church of the Greyfriars. The church was demolished following the friary 's dissolution in 1538, and the location of Richard 's tomb was long uncertain.
On 12 September 2012 archaeologists announced the discovery of a battle - damaged skeleton suspected to be Richard 's in the remains of his burial church in Leicester. On 4 February 2013, it was announced that DNA testing had conclusively identified ("beyond reasonable doubt '') the remains as those of Richard. On Thursday 26 March 2015, these remains were ceremonially buried in Leicester Cathedral. On the following day the new royal tomb of Richard III was unveiled.
Henry dismissed the mercenaries in his force, retaining only a small core of local soldiers to form the "Yeomen of his Garde '', and proceeded to establish his rule of England. Parliament reversed his attainder and recorded Richard 's kingship as illegal, although the Yorkist king 's reign remained officially in the annals of England history. The proclamation of Edward IV 's children as illegitimate was also reversed, restoring Elizabeth 's status to a royal princess. The marriage of Elizabeth, the heiress to the House of York, to Henry, the master of the House of Lancaster, marked the end of the feud between the two houses and the start of the Tudor dynasty. The royal matrimony, however, was delayed until Henry was crowned king and had established his claim on the throne firmly enough to preclude that of Elizabeth and her kin. Henry further convinced Parliament to backdate his reign to the day before the battle, enabling him retrospectively to declare as traitors those who had fought against him at Bosworth Field. Northumberland, who had remained inactive during the battle, was imprisoned but later released and reinstated to pacify the north in Henry 's name. The purge of those who fought for Richard occupied Henry 's first two years of rule, although later he proved prepared to accept those who submitted to him regardless of their former allegiances.
Of his supporters, Henry rewarded the Stanleys the most generously. Aside from making William his chamberlain, he bestowed the earldom of Derby upon Lord Stanley along with grants and offices in other estates. Henry rewarded Oxford by restoring to him the lands and titles confiscated by the Yorkists and appointing him as Constable of the Tower and admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine. For his kin, Henry created Jasper Tudor the Duke of Bedford. He returned to his mother the lands and grants stripped from her by Richard, and proved to be a filial son, granting her a place of honour in the palace and faithfully attending to her throughout his reign. Parliament 's declaration of Margaret as femme sole effectively empowered her; she no longer needed to manage her estates through Stanley. Elton points out that despite his initial largesse, Henry 's supporters at Bosworth would only enjoy his special favour for the short term; in later years, he would instead promote those who best served his interests.
Like the kings before him, Henry faced dissenters. The first open revolt occurred two years after Bosworth Field; Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, who was Edward IV 's nephew. The Earl of Lincoln backed him for the throne and led rebel forces in the name of the House of York. The rebel army fended off several attacks by Northumberland 's forces, before engaging Henry 's army at the Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487. Oxford and Bedford led Henry 's men, including several former supporters of Richard III. Henry won this battle easily, but other malcontents and conspiracies would follow. A rebellion in 1489 started with Northumberland 's murder; military historian Michael C.C. Adams says that the author of a note, which was left next to Northumberland 's body, blamed the earl for Richard 's death.
Contemporary accounts of the Battle of Bosworth can be found in four main sources, one of which is the English Croyland Chronicle, written by a senior Yorkist chronicler who relied on second - hand information from nobles and soldiers. The other accounts were written by foreigners -- Vergil, Jean Molinet, and Diego de Valera. Whereas Molinet was sympathetic to Richard, Vergil was in Henry 's service and drew information from the king and his subjects to portray them in a good light. Diego de Valera, whose information Ross regards as unreliable, compiled his work from letters of Spanish merchants. However, other historians have used Valera 's work to deduce possibly valuable insights not readily evident in other sources. Ross finds the poem, The Ballad of Bosworth Field, a useful source to ascertain certain details of the battle. The multitude of different accounts, mostly based on second - or third - hand information, has proved an obstacle to historians as they try to reconstruct the battle. Their common complaint is that, except for its outcome, very few details of the battle are found in the chronicles. According to historian Michael Hicks, the Battle of Bosworth is one of the worst - recorded clashes of the Wars of the Roses.
Henry tried to present his victory as a new beginning for the country; he hired chroniclers to portray his reign as a "modern age '' with its dawn in 1485. Hicks states that the works of Vergil and the blind historian Bernard André, promoted by subsequent Tudor administrations, became the authoritative sources for writers for the next four hundred years. As such, Tudor literature paints a flattering picture of Henry 's reign, depicting the Battle of Bosworth as the final clash of the civil war and downplaying the subsequent uprisings. For England the Middle Ages ended in 1485, and English Heritage claims that other than William the Conqueror 's successful invasion of 1066, no other year holds more significance in English history. By portraying Richard as a hunchbacked tyrant who usurped the throne by killing his nephews, the Tudor historians attached a sense of myth to the battle: it became an epic clash between good and evil with a satisfying moral outcome. According to Reader Colin Burrow, André was so overwhelmed by the historic significance of the battle that he represented it with a blank page in his Henry VII (1502). For Professor Peter Saccio, the battle was indeed a unique clash in the annals of English history, because "the victory was determined, not by those who fought, but by those who delayed fighting until they were sure of being on the winning side. ''
Historians such as Adams and Horrox believe that Richard lost the battle not for any mythic reasons, but because of morale and loyalty problems in his army. Most of the common soldiers found it difficult to fight for a liege whom they distrusted, and some lords believed that their situation might improve if Richard was dethroned. According to Adams, against such duplicities Richard 's desperate charge was the only knightly behaviour on the field. As fellow historian Michael Bennet puts it, the attack was "the swan - song of (mediaeval) English chivalry ''. Adams believes this view was shared at the time by the printer William Caxton, who enjoyed sponsorship from Edward IV and Richard III. Nine days after the battle, Caxton published Thomas Malory 's story about chivalry and death by betrayal -- Le Morte d'Arthur -- seemingly as a response to the circumstances of Richard 's death.
Elton does not believe Bosworth Field has any true significance, pointing out that the 20th - century English public largely ignored the battle until its quincentennial celebration. In his view, the dearth of specific information about the battle -- no - one even knows exactly where it took place -- demonstrates its insignificance to English society. Elton considers the battle as just one part of Henry 's struggles to establish his reign, underscoring his point by noting that the young king had to spend ten more years pacifying factions and rebellions to secure his throne.
Mackie asserts that, in hindsight, Bosworth Field is notable as the decisive battle that established a dynasty which would rule unchallenged over England for more than a hundred years. Mackie notes that contemporary historians of that time, wary of the three royal successions during the long Wars of the Roses, considered Bosworth Field just another in a lengthy series of such battles. It was through the works and efforts of Francis Bacon and his successors that the public started to believe the battle had decided their futures by bringing about "the fall of a tyrant ''.
William Shakespeare gives prominence to the Battle of Bosworth in his play, Richard III. It is the "one big battle ''; no other fighting scene distracts the audience from this action, represented by a one - on - one sword fight between Henry Tudor and Richard III. Shakespeare uses their duel to bring a climactic end to the play and the Wars of the Roses; he also uses it to champion morality, portraying the "unequivocal triumph of good over evil ''. Richard, the villainous lead character, has been built up in the battles of Shakespeare 's earlier play, Henry VI, Part 3, as a "formidable swordsman and a courageous military leader '' -- in contrast to the dastardly means by which he becomes king in Richard III. Although the Battle of Bosworth has only five sentences to direct it, three scenes and more than four hundred lines precede the action, developing the background and motivations for the characters in anticipation of the battle.
Shakespeare 's account of the battle was mostly based on chroniclers Edward Hall 's and Raphael Holinshed 's dramatic versions of history, which were sourced from Vergil 's chronicle. However, Shakespeare 's attitude towards Richard was shaped by scholar Thomas More, whose writings displayed extreme bias against the Yorkist king. The result of these influences is a script that vilifies the king, and Shakespeare had few qualms about departing from history to incite drama. Margaret of Anjou died in 1482, but Shakespeare had her speak to Richard 's mother before the battle to foreshadow Richard 's fate and fulfill the prophecy she had given in Henry VI. Shakespeare exaggerated the cause of Richard 's restless night before the battle, imagining it as a haunting by the ghosts of those whom the king had murdered, including Buckingham. Richard is portrayed as suffering a pang of conscience, but as he speaks he regains his confidence and asserts that he will be evil, if such needed to retain his crown.
The fight between the two armies is simulated by rowdy noises made off - stage (alarums or alarms) while actors walk on - stage, deliver their lines, and exit. To build anticipation for the duel, Shakespeare requests more alarums after Richard 's councillor, William Catesby, announces that the king is "(enacting) more wonders than a man ''. Richard punctuates his entrance with the classic line, "A horse, a horse! My kingdom for a horse! '' He refuses to withdraw, continuing to seek to slay Henry 's doubles until he has killed his nemesis. There is no documentary evidence that Henry had five decoys at Bosworth Field; the idea was Shakespeare 's invention. He drew inspiration from Henry IV 's use of them at the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403) to amplify the perception of Richard 's courage on the battlefield. Similarly, the single combat between Henry and Richard is Shakespeare 's creation. The True Tragedy of Richard III, by an unknown playwright, earlier than Shakespeare 's, has no signs of staging such an encounter: its stage directions give no hint of visible combat.
Despite the dramatic licences taken, Shakespeare 's version of the Battle of Bosworth was the model of the event for English textbooks for many years during the 18th and 19th centuries. This glamorised version of history, promulgated in books and paintings and played out on stages across the country, perturbed humorist Gilbert Abbott à Beckett. He voiced his criticism in the form of a poem, equating the romantic view of the battle to watching a "fifth - rate production of Richard III '': shabbily costumed actors fight the Battle of Bosworth on - stage while those with lesser roles lounge at the back, showing no interest in the proceedings.
In Laurence Olivier 's 1955 film adaptation of Richard III, the Battle of Bosworth is represented not by a single duel but a general melee that became the film 's most recognised scene and a regular screening at Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre. The film depicts the clash between the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies on an open field, focusing on individual characters amidst the savagery of hand - to - hand fighting, and received accolades for the realism portrayed. One reviewer for The Manchester Guardian newspaper, however, was not impressed, finding the number of combatants too sparse for the wide plains and a lack of subtlety in Richard 's death scene. The means by which Richard is shown to prepare his army for the battle also earned acclaim. As Richard speaks to his men and draws his plans in the sand using his sword, his units appear on - screen, arraying themselves according to the lines that Richard had drawn. Intimately woven together, the combination of pictorial and narrative elements effectively turns Richard into a storyteller, who acts out the plot he has constructed. Shakespearian critic Herbert Coursen extends that imagery: Richard sets himself up as a creator of men, but dies amongst the savagery of his creations. Coursen finds the depiction a contrast to that of Henry V and his "band of brothers ''.
The adaptation of the setting for Richard III to a 1930s fascist England in Ian McKellen 's 1995 film, however, did not sit well with historians. Adams posits that the original Shakespearian setting for Richard 's fate at Bosworth teaches the moral of facing one 's fate, no matter how unjust it is, "nobly and with dignity ''. By overshadowing the dramatic teaching with special effects, McKellen 's film reduces its version of the battle to a pyrotechnic spectacle about the death of a one - dimensional villain. Coursen agrees that, in this version, the battle and Richard 's end are trite and underwhelming.
Officially the site of the battle is deemed by Leicestershire County Council to be in the vicinity of the town of Market Bosworth. The council engaged historian Daniel Williams to research the battle, and in 1974 his findings were used to build the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and the presentation it houses. Williams 's interpretation, however, has since been questioned. Sparked by the battle 's quincentenary celebration in 1985, a dispute among historians has led many to suspect the accuracy of Williams 's theory. In particular, geological surveys conducted from 2003 to 2009 by the Battlefields Trust, a charitable organisation that protects and studies old English battlefields, show that the southern and eastern flanks of Ambion Hill were solid ground in the 15th century, contrary to Williams 's claim that it was a large area of marshland. Landscape archaeologist Glenn Foard, leader of the survey, said the collected soil samples and finds of medieval military equipment suggest that the battle took place two miles (3.2 km) southwest of Ambion Hill (52 ° 34 ′ 41 '' N 1 ° 26 ′ 02 '' W), contrary to the popular belief that it was fought near the foot of the hill.
The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England (popularly referred to as "English Heritage '') argues that the battle was named after Market Bosworth because the town was the nearest significant settlement to the battlefield in the 15th century. As explored by Professor Philip Morgan, a battle might initially not be named specifically at all. As time passes, writers of administrative and historical records find it necessary to identify a notable battle, ascribing it a name that is usually toponymical in nature and sourced from combatants or observers. This official name becomes accepted by society and future generations without question. Early records associated the Battle of Bosworth with "Brownehethe '', "bellum Miravallenses '', "Sandeford '' and "Dadlyngton field ''. The earliest record, a municipal memorandum of 23 August 1485 from York, locates the battle "on the field of Redemore ''. This is corroborated by a 1485 -- 86 letter that mentions "Redesmore '' as its site. According to historian Peter Foss, records did not associate the battle with "Bosworth '' until 1510.
Foss is named by English Heritage as the principal advocate for "Redemore '' as the battle site. He suggests the name is derived from "Hreod Mor '', an Anglo - Saxon phrase that means "reedy marshland ''. Basing his opinion on 13th - and 16th - century church records, he believes "Redemore '' was an area of wetland that lay between Ambion Hill and the village of Dadlington, and was close to the Fenn Lanes, a Roman road running east to west across the region. Foard believes this road to be the most probable route that both armies took to reach the battlefield. Williams dismisses the notion of "Redmore '' as a specific location, saying that the term refers to a large area of reddish soil; Foss argues that Williams 's sources are local stories and flawed interpretations of records. Moreover, he proposes that Williams was influenced by William Hutton 's 1788 The Battle of Bosworth - Field, which Foss blames for introducing the notion that the battle was fought west of Ambion Hill on the north side of the River Sence. Hutton, as Foss suggests, misinterpreted a passage from his source, Raphael Holinshed 's 1577 Chronicle. Holinshed wrote, "King Richard pitched his field on a hill called Anne Beame, refreshed his soldiers and took his rest. '' Foss believes that Hutton mistook "field '' to mean "field of battle '', thus creating the idea that the fight took place on Anne Beame (Ambion) Hill. To "(pitch) his field '', as Foss clarifies, was a period expression for setting up a camp.
Foss brings further evidence for his "Redemore '' theory by quoting Edward Hall 's 1550 Chronicle. Hall stated that Richard 's army stepped onto a plain after breaking camp the next day. Furthermore, historian William Burton, author of Description of Leicestershire (1622), wrote that the battle was "fought in a large, flat, plaine, and spacious ground, three miles (5 km) distant from (Bosworth), between the Towne of Shenton, Sutton (Cheney), Dadlington and Stoke (Golding) ''. In Foss 's opinion both sources are describing an area of flat ground north of Dadlington.
English Heritage, responsible for managing England 's historic sites, used both theories to designate the site for Bosworth Field. Without preference for either theory, they constructed a single continuous battlefield boundary that encompasses the locations proposed by both Williams and Foss. The region has experienced extensive changes over the years, starting after the battle. Holinshed stated in his chronicle that he found firm ground where he expected the marsh to be, and Burton confirmed that by the end of the 16th century, areas of the battlefield were enclosed and had been improved to make them agriculturally productive. Trees were planted on the south side of Ambion Hill, forming Ambion Wood. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Ashby Canal carved through the land west and south - west of Ambion Hill. Winding alongside the canal at a distance, the Ashby and Nuneaton Joint Railway crossed the area on an embankment. The changes to the landscape were so extensive that when Hutton revisited the region in 1807 after an earlier 1788 visit, he could not readily find his way around.
Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on Ambion Hill, near Richard 's Well. According to legend, Richard III drank from one of the several springs in the region on the day of the battle. In 1788, a local pointed out one of the springs to Hutton as the one mentioned in the legend. A stone structure was later built over the location. The inscription on the well reads:
"Near this spot, on August 22nd 1485, at the age of 32, King Richard III fell fighting gallantly in defence of his realm & his crown against the usurper Henry Tudor.
The Cairn was erected by Dr. Samuel Parr in 1813 to mark the well from which the king is said to have drunk during the battle.
It is maintained by the Fellowship of the White Boar. ''
Northwest of Ambion Hill, just across the northern tributary of the Sence, a flag and memorial stone mark Richard 's Field. Erected in 1973, the site was selected on the basis of Williams 's theory. St James 's Church at Dadlington is the only structure in the area that is reliably associated with the Battle of Bosworth; the bodies of those killed in the battle were buried there.
The very extensive survey carried out (2005 -- 2009) by the Battlefields Trust headed by Glenn Foard led eventually to the discovery of the real location of the core battlefield. This lies about a kilometer further west than the location suggested by Peter Foss. It is in what was at the time of the battle an area of marginal land at the meeting of several township boundaries. There was a cluster of field names suggesting the presence of marshland and heath. Thirty four lead round shot were discovered as a result of systematic metal detecting (more than the total found previously on all other C15th European battlefields), as well as other significant finds, including a small silver gilt badge depicting a boar. Experts believe that the boar badge could indicate the actual site of Richard III 's death, since this high - status badge depicting his personal emblem, was probably worn by a member of his close retinue.
A new interpretation of the battle now integrates the historic accounts with the battlefield finds and landscape history. The new site lies either side of the Fenn Lanes Roman road, close to Fenn Lane Farm and is some three kilometers to the southwest of Ambion Hill.
Based on the round shot scatter, the likely size of Richard III 's army, and the topography, Glenn Foard and Anne Curry think that Richard may have lined up his forces on a slight ridge which lies just east of Fox Covert Lane and behind a postulated medieval marsh. Richard 's vanguard commanded by the Duke of Norfolk was on the right (north) side of Richard 's battle line, with the Earl of Northumberland on Richard 's left (south) side.
Tudor 's forces approached along the line of the Roman road and lined up to the west of the present day Fenn Lane Farm, having marched from the vicinity of Merevale in Warwickshire. The Stanleys were positioned on the south side of the battlefield, on rising ground towards Stoke Golding and Dadlington. The Earl of Oxford turned north to avoid the marsh (and possibly Richard 's guns). This manoeuvre put the marsh on Oxford 's right. He moved to attack Norfolk 's vanguard. Norfolk was subsequently killed.
Northumberland failed to engage, possibly due to the presence of the Stanleys, whose intentions were unclear, or due to the position of the marsh (or for both reasons). With his situation deteriorating, Richard decided to launch an attack against Henry Tudor, which almost succeeded, but the king 's horse became stuck in the marsh, and he was killed. Fen Hole (where the boar badge was found) is believed to be a residue of the marsh. When Richard began his charge, Sir William Stanley intervened from the vicinity of Stoke Golding. It was here, on what came to be known as Crown Hill (the closest elevated ground to the fighting), that Lord Stanley crowned Henry Tudor after Richard was killed.
The windmill close to which the Duke of Norfolk is said to have died (according to the ballad "Lady Bessy '') was Dadlington windmill. This has disappeared but is known to have stood at the time of the battle, in the vicinity of Apple Orchard Farm and North Farm, Dadlington. A small cluster of significant finds was made in this area, including a gold livery badge depicting an eagle. The windmill lay between the core battlefield and Richard 's camp on Ambion Hill and the rout of Norfolk 's vanguard was in this direction. This also accounts for the large number of dead in Dadlington parish, leading to the setting up of the battle chantry there.
Historic England have re-defined the boundaries of the registered Bosworth Battlefield to incorporate the newly identified site. There are hopes that public access to the site may be possible in the future.
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Coordinates: 52 ° 35 ′ 28 '' N 1 ° 24 ′ 37 '' W / 52.59111 ° N 1.41028 ° W / 52.59111; - 1.41028
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what information was coded in the message from the arecibo telescope in 1974 | Arecibo message - wikipedia
The Arecibo message is a 1974 interstellar radio message carrying basic information about humanity and Earth sent to globular star cluster M13 in the hope that extraterrestrial intelligence might receive and decipher it. The message was broadcast into space a single time via frequency modulated radio waves at a ceremony to mark the remodeling of the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico on 16 November 1974. The message was aimed at the current location of M13 some 25,000 light years away because M13 was a large and close collection of stars that was available in the sky at the time and place of the ceremony. The message consisted of 1,679 binary digits, approximately 210 bytes, transmitted at a frequency of 2,380 MHz and modulated by shifting the frequency by 10 Hz, with a power of 450 kW. The "ones '' and "zeros '' were transmitted by frequency shifting at the rate of 10 bits per second. The total broadcast was less than three minutes.
The number 1,679 was chosen because it is a semiprime (the product of two prime numbers), to be arranged rectangularly as 73 rows by 23 columns. The alternative arrangement, 23 rows by 73 columns, produces jumbled nonsense (as do all other X / Y formats). The message forms the image shown on the right, or its inverse, when translated into graphics, characters, and spaces.
Dr. Frank Drake, then at Cornell University and creator of the Drake equation, wrote the message with help from Carl Sagan, among others. The message consists of seven parts that encode the following (from the top down):
Since it will take nearly 25,000 years for the message to reach its intended destination (and an additional 25,000 years for any reply), the Arecibo message is viewed as a demonstration of human technological achievement, rather than a real attempt to enter into a conversation with extraterrestrials. In fact, the core of M13, to which the message was aimed, will no longer be in that location when the message arrives. However, as the proper motion of M13 is small, the message will still arrive near the center of the cluster. According to the Cornell News press release of November 12, 1999, the real purpose of the message was not to make contact but to demonstrate the capabilities of newly installed equipment.
The numbers from 1 to 10 appear in binary format (the bottom row marks the beginning of each number).
Even assuming that recipients would recognize binary, the encoding of the numbers may not be immediately obvious because of the way they have been written. To read the first seven digits, ignore the bottom row, and read them as three binary digits from top to bottom, with the top digit being the most significant. The readings for 8, 9 and 10 are a little different, as they have been given an additional column next to the first (to the right in the image). This is intended to show that numbers too large to fit in a single column can be written in several contiguous ones, where the additional columns do not have the least - significant - digit marker.
The numbers 1, 6, 7, 8, and 15 appear. These are the atomic numbers of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and phosphorus (P), the components of DNA.
The nucleotides are described as sequences of the five atoms that appear on the preceding line. Each sequence represents the molecular formula of the nucleotide as incorporated into DNA (as opposed to the free form of the nucleotide).
For example, deoxyribose (C H O in DNA, C H O when free), the nucleotide in the top left in the image, is read as:
i.e., 7 atoms of hydrogen, 5 atoms of carbon, 0 atoms of nitrogen, 1 atom of oxygen, and 0 atoms of phosphorus.
DNA double helix; the vertical bar represents the number of nucleotides. The value depicted is around 4.3 billion, which was believed to be the case in 1974 when the message was transmitted. It is currently thought that there are about 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.
The element in the center represents a human. The element on the left (in the image) indicates the average height of an adult male: 1.764 m (5 ft 9.4 in). This corresponds to the horizontally written binary 14 multiplied by the wavelength of the message (126 mm). The element on the right depicts the size of human population in 1974, around 4.3 billion. In this case, the number is oriented in the data horizontally rather than vertically. The least - significant - digit marker is in the upper left in the image, with bits going to the right and more significant digits below.
The solar system, showing the Sun and the planets in the order of their position from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. (Pluto has since been reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union, but it was still considered a planet at the time the message was transmitted.)
The Earth is the third planet from the Sun; its graphic is shifted up to identify it as the planet from which the signal was sent. Additionally, the human figure is shown just above the Earth graphic.
In addition to showing position, the graphic provides a general, not - to - scale size reference of each planet and the Sun.
The last part represents the Arecibo radio telescope with its diameter: 2,430 multiplied by the wavelength gives 306.18 m (1,004 ft 6 in). In this case, the number is oriented horizontally, with the least - significant - digit marker to the lower right in the image. The part of the image that looks like a letter "M '' is there to demonstrate to the reader of the message that the curved line is a paraboloid mirror.
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multicystic dysplastic kidney vs polycystic kidney disease usmle | Multicystic dysplastic kidney - wikipedia
Multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK) is a condition that results from the malformation of the kidney during fetal development. The kidney consists of irregular cysts of varying sizes. Multicystic dysplastic kidney is a common type of renal cystic disease, and it is a cause of an abdominal mass in infants.
When a diagnosis of multicystic kidney is made in utero by ultrasound, the disease is found to be bilateral in many cases. Those with bilateral disease often have other severe deformities or polysystemic malformation syndromes. In bilateral cases, the newborn has the classic characteristic of Potter 's syndrome.
The bilateral condition is incompatible with survival, as the contralateral system frequently is abnormal as well. Contralateral ureteropelvic junction obstruction is found in 3 % to 12 % of infants with multicystic kidney and contralateral vesicoureteral reflux is seen even more often, in 18 % to 43 % of infants. Because the high incidence of reflux, voiding cystourethrography usually has been considered advisable in all newborns with a multicystic kidney.
The cause of multicystic dysplastic kidney can be attributed to genetics. Renal dysplasia can be a consequence of a genetic syndrome, which in turn may affect the digestive tract, nervous system, or other areas of the urinary tract. If the mother had been taking certain prescription drugs such as those for hypertension, this may be a precipitating factor as well.
The mechanism of multicystic dysplastic kidney is a result of an abnormal induction of metanephric mesenchyme. This could be a result of a formation difficulty of the mesonephric duct. Some mutations in genes associated with renal dysplasia (in syndromes) have been determined. The mutations in question occur at EYA1 or SIX1 genes (branchio - oto - renal syndrome). The PAX2 gene is also thought to play a role in MCDK.
The contralateral kidney often undergoes hypertrophy. This is believed to be a compensatory mechanism to the non-functional MCDK. About 90 % of patients with an MCDK will have contralateral hypertrophy into adulthood. The impact of contralateral hypertrophy on long - term renal outcomes is unknown.
MCDK is usually diagnosed by ultrasound examination before birth. Mean age at the time of antenatal diagnosis is about 28 weeks A microscopic analysis of urine in individuals with probable multicystic dysplastic kidney should be done. One meta - analysis demonstrated that unilateral MCDK occurs more frequently in males and the greater percentage of MCKD occur on the left side of the body.
MCDK is not treatable. However, the patient is observed periodically for the first few years during which ultrasounds are generally taken to ensure the healthy kidney is functioning properly and that the unhealthy kidney is not causing adverse effects. In severe cases MCDK can lead to neonatal fatality (in bilateral cases), however in unilateral cases the prognosis might be better (it would be dependent on associated anomalies).
In regard to the epidemiology of multicystic dysplasia kidney, the incidence of MCDK is estimated to be 1 in every 4,000 live births, making it rare in terms of the general population.
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most of the former countries of the ussr are which color on the map | Soviet Union - Wikipedia
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, Russian: СССР), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple equal national Soviet republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one - party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. The Russian nation had constitutionally equal status among the many nations of the union but exerted de facto dominance in various respects. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Alma - Ata and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin 's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin committed the state 's ideology to Marxism -- Leninism (which he created) and initiated a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. During this period of totalitarian rule, political paranoia fermented; the late - 1930s Great Purge removed Stalin 's opponents within and outside of the party via arbitrary arrests and persecutions of many people. Suppression of political critics, forced labor and famines were carried out by Stalin 's government; in 1933, a major famine struck Soviet Ukraine, causing the deaths of over 7 million people.
Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany turned to attack to the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the USSR; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR 's republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev 's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high - profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation -- formerly the Russian SFSR -- assumed the Soviet Union 's rights and obligations and is recognized as the primary legal successor of the Soviet Union. In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance. ''
The word "Soviet '' is derived from a Russian word meaning council, assembly, advice, harmony, concord, and all ultimately deriving from the Proto - Slavic verbal stem of * vět - iti "to inform '', related to Slavic "věst '' ("news ''), English "wise '', the root in "ad - vis - or '' (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten '' (to know; cf. "wetenschap '' = science). The word "sovietnik '' means councillor.
A number of organizations in Russian history were called "council '' (Russian: сове́т). For example, in the Russian Empire, the State Council, which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.
During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation - states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union, which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (Russian: Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии, Soyuz Sovetskikh Respublik Yevropy i Azii). Stalin initially resisted the proposal, but ultimately accepted it, although -- with Lenin 's agreement -- he changed the name of the newly proposed state to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, although all the republics began as Socialist Soviet and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics the word "Council / Conciliar '' in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "Soviet '' -- and never in others, e.g., Ukraine.
The names of the Soviet Union are as follows in several languages of its 15 constituent republics:
In some cases, due to the length of its name, the state was referred to as the "Soviet Union '' or the "USSR '' especially when used in the Western media. It was also informally called "Russia '' (and its citizens "Russians ''), though that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics.
With an area of 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 sq mi), the Soviet Union was the world 's largest country, a status that is retained by the Russian Federation. Covering a sixth of Earth 's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America. The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country 's area, and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) east to west across 11 time zones, and over 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains.
The Soviet Union had the world 's longest border, like Russia, measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), or 1 ⁄ circumferences of Earth. Two - thirds of it was a coastline. Across the Bering Strait was the United States. The Soviet Union bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991.
The Soviet Union 's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajikistan, at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). The Soviet Union also included most of the world 's largest lake, the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal, the world 's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia.
The last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the February Revolution, due in part to the strain of fighting in World War I, which lacked public support. A short - lived Russian Provisional Government took power, to be overthrown in the October Revolution (N.S. 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin.
The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasian Soviet republics, each ruled by local Bolshevik parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, the term "Soviet Russia '' -- strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic -- was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.
Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the Decembrist revolt of 1825. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament -- the State Duma -- was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities.
A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia 's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.
At the same time, workers ' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets '', sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk.
A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds ' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established Republic of Finland, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Latvia, and the Republic of Lithuania.
On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.
On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the British Empire. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.
An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10 to 15 - year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional power stations, including ten large hydroelectric power plants, and numerous electric - powered large industrial enterprises. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five - Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931.
From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one - party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the economic policy of "War communism '' during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.
The stated purpose of the one - party state was to ensure that capitalist exploitation would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of democratic centralism would be most effective in representing the people 's will in a practical manner. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin 's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika '' consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.
On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers ' and Peasants ' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union and, by the end of the 1920s, established totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Grigory Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.
In 1928, Stalin introduced the First Five - Year Plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example '' policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.
Famines ensued, causing millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin 's Great Purge resulted in the execution or detainment of many "Old Bolsheviks '' who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, in 1937 and 1938, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years that averages to over one thousand executions a day. According to historian Geoffrey Hosking, "... excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10 -- 11 million. '' Although historian Timothy D. Snyder claims that archival evidence suggests a maximum excess mortality of nine million during the entire Stalin era. Yet despite the turmoil of the mid-to - late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before World War II.
Under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, there was a "government - sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism '' conducted by Communists. The communist regime targeted religions based on State interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the official structures and mass media and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. As for the Russian Orthodox Church, Soviet authorities sought to control it and, in times of national crisis, to exploit it for the regime 's own purposes; but their ultimate goal was to eliminate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941 only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence prior to World War I.
The early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the West and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to formally recognize Stalin 's Communist government and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two nations. In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.
In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new Soviet Constitution. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who on this occasion was described by Pravda as a "genius of the new world, the wisest man of the epoch, the great leader of communism. '' By contrast, Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have viewed the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.
The late 1930s saw a shift towards the Axis powers. In 1939, almost a year after the United Kingdom and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the USSR dealt with the Nazis as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact and the German -- Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The nonaggression pact made possible Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland. In late November of the same year, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border 25 kilometres (16 mi) back from Leningrad, Joseph Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland.
In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.
Although it has been debated whether the Soviet Union intended to invade Germany once it was strong enough, Germany itself broke the treaty and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, starting what was known in the USSR as the "Great Patriotic War ''. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow, aided by an unusually harsh winter. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to the Germans from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80 % of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.
The same year, the USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan - controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.
The Soviet Union suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941 -- 42. During the war, the Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the Soviet Union had official relations with practically every nation by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.
The Soviet Union maintained its status as one of the world 's two superpowers for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.
During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe, while turning them into satellite states, binding them in a military alliance (the Warsaw Pact) in 1955, and an economic organization (The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon) from 1949 to 1991, the latter a counterpart to the European Economic Community. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union 's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly using mostly proxies.
Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the power struggle by the mid-1950s. He shortly afterward denounced Stalin 's use of repression in 1956 and proceeded to ease Stalin 's repressive controls over party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.
Because Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders (in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1940), the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in Hungary and Poland in 1956.
In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR 's rapprochement with the West and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev 's revisionism led to the Sino -- Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist -- Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR.
During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexey Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966 and the first moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.
Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw '', a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the Soviet Union. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing living standards to rise dramatically while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well.
Khrushchev 's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the United States to remove enemy nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.
The Era of Stagnation was a period of negative economic, political, and social effects in the Soviet Union, which began during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.
Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.
In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion along with the earlier invasions of Eastern European states by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which claimed the right of the Soviet Union to violate the sovereignty of any country that attempted to replace Marxism -- Leninism with capitalism.
Brezhnev presided over a period of détente with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.
In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev 's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev 's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill '', with an aging and ossified top political leadership.
Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union 's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in Beyond Oil that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so the USSR 's hard currency reserves became depleted.
Brezhnev 's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short - lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev.
Gorbachev made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called perestroika. His policy of glasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship.
Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its nine - year war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s, he refused military support to the governments of the Soviet Union 's satellite states, which paved the way for Revolutions of 1989. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East Germany and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet - controlled regions came down.
In the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two - thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws ''.
In 1989, the Russian SFSR, which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People 's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia 's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR 's laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.
A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those nine republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics.
The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup -- an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev 's reforms and reassert the central government 's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev 's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania 's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterward the Party 's activities were indefinitely suspended -- effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.
The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December, all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December, when Ukraine, the second most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine 's secession ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale.
On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma - Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.
The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. The Soviet Army originally remained under overall CIS command, but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union 's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the Soviet Union.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union was followed by a severe economic contraction and catastrophic fall in living standards in post-Soviet states including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, and income inequality, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988 / 1989 and 1993 / 1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42 % increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994.
The analysis of the succession of states with respect to the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal continuator state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.
There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognized post-Soviet states, but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno - Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.
There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the ultimate policymaker in the country.
At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. The Central Committee in turn voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 -- 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the USSR. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.
The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state largely through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin in 1941 -- 1953 and Khrushchev in 1958 -- 1964 were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.
In practice, however, the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.
The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets and Central Executive Committee) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, the powers and functions of the Supreme Soviet were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five - Year Plans and the Soviet government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People 's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union - wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.
The state security police (the KGB and its predecessor agencies) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Stalinist terror, but after the death of Stalin, the state security police was brought under strict party control. Under Yuri Andropov, KGB chairman in 1967 -- 1982 and General Secretary from 1982 to 1984, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party - state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
The Union constitutions, which were promulgated in 1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Joseph Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev 's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.
Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People 's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full - time parliament, much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.
Tensions grew between the union - wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and Communist Party hardliners. On 19 -- 21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged an abortive coup attempt. Following the failed coup, the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition ''. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.
The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People 's Court) and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defense attorney collaborate to establish the truth.
Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federal states, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of the Russia 's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of the Ukraine and Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).
While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by the ethnic Russians to such an extent that for most of the Soviet Union 's existence, it was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia. '' While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and geography), most powerful, and most highly developed. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the Soviet Union 's federal structure was "window dressing '' for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the Soviet Union were usually called "Russians, '' not "Soviets, '' since "everyone knew who really ran the show. ''
The Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a planned economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate the circulation of money, as well as private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse caused by the war, Lenin replaced War Communism with the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalising free trade and private ownership of smaller businesses. The economy quickly recovered.
Following a lengthy debate among the members of Politburo over the course of economic development, by 1928 -- 1929, upon gaining control of the country, Joseph Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which greatly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. Preparation for war was one of the main driving forces behind industrialization, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalistic world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. During the war, the Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation and required extensive reconstruction.
By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self - sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a very small share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. Still the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the Soviet Union became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.
From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five - year plans. In practice, however, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ad hoc intervention by superiors. All key economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were normally denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. Final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice the actual prices were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (between producer factories etc.) were widespread.
A number of basic services were state - funded, such as education and healthcare. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defense were assigned higher priority than the production of consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited choice. Under command economy, consumers had almost no influence over production, so the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up alongside the planned one at low levels, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. Legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.
Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy experienced comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of increase in capital was only surpassed by Japan).
Overall, between 1960 and 1989, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income of Soviet Union in 1989 should have been twice as high as it was considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to low productivity of capital in the Soviet Union. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living actually declined as a result of Stalin 's despotism, and while there was a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation.
In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev tried to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of perestroika. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises, but did not yet allow it to be replaced by market incentives, ultimately resulting in a sharp decline in production output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and property was still largely state - owned until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. For most of the period after World War II up to its collapse, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world by GDP (PPP), and was 3rd in the world during the middle of the 1980s to 1989, though in per capita terms the Soviet GDP was behind that of the First World countries. When compared to countries who had a similar GDP per capita to the Soviet Union in 1928, the Soviets experienced significant growth.
In 1990, the Soviet Union had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing them in the "high '' category of human development. They had the third highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the twenty - fifth highest in the world out of one hundred - thirty countries in total.
The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6 percent. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40 percent of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR 's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2 -- 2.5 percent during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country 's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World (pre-Gorbachev era).
In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of 82,000 kilometres (51,000 mi) for crude oil and another 206,500 kilometres (128,300 mi) for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum - based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.
The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world 's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin 's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40 % of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5 % who received such a degree in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world 's best - trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.
Project Socrates, under the Reagan administration, determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the Soviet Union was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology, while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, in addition, the Soviet Union 's technology - based planning was executed in a centralized, government - centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. It was this significant lack of flexibility that was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.
Transport was a key component of the nation 's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to bad maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.
Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burden from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early - to - mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.
Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision - making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.
The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.
Excess deaths over the course of World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941 -- 5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million. ''
The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well -- from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post -- World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement - level fertility.
The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late - 1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late - 1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.
Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People 's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. At the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. People who were literate were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Joseph Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to Soviet reforms in education. In the aftermath of the Great Patriotic War, the country 's educational system expanded dramatically. This expansion had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all Soviet children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the work force had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.
The country 's system of education was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the U.S.
The Soviet Union was a very ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority were Russians (50.78 %), followed by Ukrainians (15.45 %) and Uzbeks (5.84 %).
All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child 's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians shared close cultural ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.
Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941
Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1926 census)
Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1979 census)
Map showing the distribution of Muslims within the Soviet Union in 1979
In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice ''. The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People 's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, this at the time being a revolutionary concept. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the healthcare system of the Soviet Union was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed however, from Brezhnev 's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev 's tenure as leader, the Soviet health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such Soviet successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system 's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered.
After the socialist revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s, when the life expectancy in the Soviet Union surpassed that of the United States. It remained stable during most years, although in the 1970s, it went down slightly, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on this. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was highest, while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union. The USSR had several centers of excellence, such as the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex, founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon Svyatoslav Fyodorov.
The Soviet government headed by Vladimir Lenin gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was very successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, that language would attain "official language '' status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the Soviet government retreated from this policy, most notable under Stalin 's regime, where education was discontinued in languages which were not widespread enough. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During the Great Patriotic War, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.
As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union 's many languages, Russian de facto functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication '' (Russian: язык межнационального общения), but only assumed the de jure status as the official national language in 1990.
Christianity and Islam had the greatest number of adherents among the Soviet state 's religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia 's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the Soviet Union 's largest Christian denomination. About 90 percent of the Soviet Union 's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias concentrated in Azerbaijan. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations.
Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.
In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services '' was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.
The 1918 Council of People 's Commissars decree establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all (places) where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately. '' Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929, a half - decade into Stalin 's rule, included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90 percent of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.
Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past with most Soviet Christians, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during the Soviet war with Nazi Germany. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union, churches were reopened, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the Soviet Union even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.
The Soviet establishment under General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev 's leadership clashed with the churches in 1958 -- 1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.
Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the Soviet government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20 percent of the Soviet population as "active religious believers. ''
The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR 's 69 - year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918 -- 1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, for example Nikolay Gumilyov (shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime) and Yevgeny Zamyatin (banned).
The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director Sergei Eisenstein 's best work dates from this period.
Later, during Stalin 's rule, Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government - imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, for example Mikhail Bulgakov 's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.
Following the Khrushchev Thaw of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed characterized by conformist public life and intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms were again permissible, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as samizdat, developed during this late period. In architecture the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin 's epoch.
In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev 's policies of perestroika and glasnost significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the Soviet Union in the media & press.
The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.
A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner... who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists ' Games ''.
A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike 's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping '' occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.
Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union 's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country 's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union 's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
1918 -- 1924 Turkestan 1918 -- 1941 Volga German 1919 -- 1990 Bashkir 1920 -- 1925 Kirghiz 1920 -- 1990 Tatar 1921 -- 1990 Adjar 1921 -- 1945 Crimean 1921 -- 1991 Dagestan 1921 -- 1924 Mountain
1921 -- 1990 Nakhchivan 1922 -- 1991 Yakut 1923 -- 1990 Buryat 1923 -- 1940 Karelian 1924 -- 1940 Moldavian 1924 -- 1929 Tajik 1925 -- 1992 Chuvash 1925 -- 1936 Kazak 1926 -- 1936 Kirghiz
1931 -- 1991 Abkhaz 1932 -- 1992 Karakalpak 1934 -- 1990 Mordovian 1934 -- 1990 Udmurt 1935 -- 1943 Kalmyk 1936 -- 1944 Chechen - Ingush 1936 -- 1944 Kabardino - Balkar 1936 -- 1990 Komi 1936 -- 1990 Mari
1936 -- 1990 North Ossetian 1944 -- 1957 Kabardin 1956 -- 1991 Karelian 1957 -- 1990 Chechen - Ingush 1957 -- 1991 Kabardino - Balkar 1958 -- 1990 Kalmyk 1961 -- 1992 Tuva 1990 -- 1991 Gorno - Altai 1991 -- 1992 Crimean
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where did luke cage get his powers from | Luke Cage - wikipedia
Luke Cage is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Luke Cage first appeared in Luke Cage, Hero for Hire # 1 (June 1972) and was created by Roy Thomas, Archie Goodwin and John Romita Sr. He was the first black superhero to be featured as the protagonist and title character of a comic book.
Created during the height of the Blaxploitation genre, Luke Cage is an ex-convict imprisoned for a crime he did not commit, who gains the powers of superhuman strength and unbreakable skin after being subjected voluntarily to an experimental procedure. Once freed, Cage becomes a "hero for hire '' and teams up with fellow superhero Iron Fist as part of the duo, Power Man and Iron Fist. He later marries the super-powered private investigator Jessica Jones, with whom he has a daughter. In 2005, writer Brian Michael Bendis added Luke Cage to the lineup of the New Avengers, and he has since appeared in various Avengers titles, and became the leader of a group of reformed supervillains called the Thunderbolts.
Actor Mike Colter played the character in the first season of Jessica Jones, a live - action television series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and headlined his own series, which premiered in September 2016 on Netflix along with a second season which released in June 2018. Colter also reprised his role in the miniseries The Defenders which premiered in August 2017.
Luke Cage was created by Roy Thomas, Archie Goodwin and John Romita, Sr. shortly after blaxploitation films emerged as a popular new genre. He debuted in his own series, with the cover trademark Luke Cage, Hero for Hire and the copyrighted title Hero for Hire. The series initially was written by Goodwin and pencilled by George Tuska. The character was the first black superhero to star in his own comic - book series, which was retitled with the cover trademark Luke Cage, Power Man and the trademarked title Power Man with issue # 17. Cage 's adventures were set in a grungier, more crime - dominated New York City than that inhabited by other Marvel superheroes of the time.
As blaxploitation 's popularity faded, Cage was paired with the superhero Iron Fist, whose popularity was based on the declining martial arts film genre, in an effort to save both characters from cancellation. The series ' copyrighted title remained Power Man, though with issue # 50 (April 1978) the trademarked cover title became Power Man and Iron Fist, retained through the series ' cancellation with issue # 125 (Sept. 1986). The series ' final writer, James Owsley, attempted to shed Cage 's blaxploitation roots by giving him a larger vocabulary and reducing usage of his catchphrase, "Sweet Christmas! ''
In 1992, Cage was relaunched in a new series simply titled Cage, set primarily in Chicago. The revived series updated the character, with Cage symbolically destroying his original costume on the cover of the first issue. The series, written by Marc McLaurin, ran 20 issues. Cage received exposure in other books at the time, including his own serial in the anthology series Marvel Comics Presents. In the aftermath of the "Onslaught '' and "Heroes Reborn '' companywide storylines, Cage was included in the series Heroes for Hire, written by John Ostrander, which lasted 19 issues.
Subsequently, Cage was featured in the Brian Michael Bendis -- written series Alias, Secret War, The Pulse, Daredevil, and New Avengers.
In 2010, Cage became a regular character in Thunderbolts, starting with issue # 144, and continued as leader of the team when the title transitioned into Dark Avengers beginning with issue # 175. Cage also reappeared as a regular character in the second volume of the New Avengers series.
Born Carl Lucas and raised in New York City 's Harlem neighborhood, he spends his youth in a gang called the Rivals. With his friend Willis Stryker, he fights the rival gang the Diablos and commits petty crimes, often on the behalf of deformed mobster Sonny "Hammer '' Caputo. In and out of juvenile homes throughout his teens, Lucas dreams of becoming a major New York racketeer until he finally realizes how his actions are hurting his family. He seeks to better himself as an adult by finding legitimate employment. Meanwhile, Stryker rises through the ranks of crime, but the two men remain friends. When Stryker 's activities anger the Maggia crime syndicate, he is badly beaten in a mob hit, saved only by Lucas 's intervention. When Stryker 's girlfriend, Reva Connors, breaks up with him in fear of his violent work, she seeks solace with Lucas. Stryker is convinced that Lucas is responsible for the breakup, so he plants heroin in Lucas 's apartment and tips off the police. Lucas is arrested and sent to prison where contact with his family is sparse due to the resentment of his brother James Jr., who intercepts Lucas 's letters to their father James and eventually leads each to believe the other is dead.
Lucas is consumed by rage over Stryker 's betrayal and his father 's supposed death, engaging in frequent brawls and escape attempts. Eventually transferred to Seagate Prison off the coast of Georgia, he becomes the favorite target of racist corrections officer Albert "Billy Bob '' Rackham, whose sadistic brutality ultimately leads to a demotion that he blames on Lucas. Research scientist Dr. Noah Burstein recruits Lucas as a volunteer for a cellular regeneration experiment based on a variant of the Super-Soldier process he had previously used to empower Warhawk. Burstein immerses Lucas in an electrical field conducted by an organic chemical compound; then he leaves Lucas unattended, Rackham alters the experiment 's controls, hoping to maim or kill Lucas. Lucas ' treatment is accelerated past its intended limits, inducing body - wide enhancements that give him superhuman strength and durability. He uses his new power to escape Seagate and makes his way back to New York, where a chance encounter with criminals inspires him to use his new powers for profit.
Adopting the alias Luke Cage and donning a distinctive costume, he launches a career as a Hero for Hire, helping anyone who can meet his price. He soon establishes an office above Times Square 's Gem Theater, where he befriends film student D.W. Griffith. Burstein, aware of his friend 's innocence, also relocates to New York and opens a medical clinic, assisted by Dr. Claire Temple, whom Cage begins dating. Although Cage is content to battle strictly conventional criminals, he soon learns that New York is hardly the place to do so. Stryker himself has become a Maggia agent known as Diamondback and dies battling Cage. Subsequent opponents included Gideon Mace, an embittered veteran seeking a U.S. takeover; Chemistro (Curtis Carr), whose Alchemy Gun is a weapon later used by others, including his brother after Curtis reformed; and Discus, Stiletto, Shades, and Comanche, all criminals with ties to Cage 's prison days who face him repeatedly over the years.
Although Cage has little in common with most of New York 's other superhumans, an ill - conceived attempt to collect a fee from a reneging Doctor Doom leads him to befriend the Fantastic Four. Via a later retcon, Cage also befriends Jessica Jones, a young woman whose superhuman strength and unconventional style match his own. During a mission in which Cage and Iron Man track down Orville Smythe, who had duped him into stealing an experimental starsuit from Stark International, Cage follows the example of his new peers and takes the codename of Power Man. Cage battles a rogue Erik Josten for the use of the Power Man name, winning the right.
Shortly afterward, Luke Cage begins associating with the loose - knit super-team the Defenders, alongside whom he battles the Wrecking Crew and the Sons of the Serpent. Called to assist the Defenders against the Plantman, Cage begins to complain that his participation in their group is interfering with his paying work. Wealthy Defenders member Nighthawk solves this problem by placing Power Man on retainer, giving Luke a steady paycheck for his Defenders activities. For some time thereafter, Power Man serves as a core member of the Defenders. Together, they defeat minor threats including the Eel and the Porcupine, and major menaces such as the Headmen, Nebulon, Egghead 's Emissaries of Evil, and the Red Rajah; but Cage feels out of place in the often - bizarre exploits of the Defenders and eventually resigns.
Having obtained proof of Cage 's innocence in his original drug charges, the criminal Bushmaster abducts Burstein and Temple, using their safety and the hope of acquittal to blackmail Cage into abducting detective Misty Knight, who humiliated Bushmaster in an earlier encounter. Cage 's efforts lead to a fight with Knight 's boyfriend, the martial artist Iron Fist, who had spent most of his life in the extra-dimensional city of K'un - L'un and was unfamiliar with Earth society. Upon learning of Cage 's situation, Iron Fist and Knight help him defeat Bushmaster and rescue his friends. Cleared of criminal charges, Power Man legally changes his name to "Lucas Cage ''. He briefly works for Misty Knight and Colleen Wing 's detective agency, Nightwing Restorations, but soon elects to join Iron Fist in a two - man team, Heroes for Hire, founded by attorney Jeryn Hogarth and staffed by administrative wunderkind Jennie Royce. Although the streetwise Power Man and the unworldly Iron Fist seem to have little in common, they soon become the best of friends. Cage 's relationship with Claire Temple proves less durable, and he instead begins dating model Harmony Young.
Power Man and Iron Fist achieve great success with Heroes for Hire, earning an international reputation and fighting a wide variety of criminals. Their partnership 's downfall begins when the mysterious government agency S.M.I.L.E. manipulates Power Man and Iron Fist into the employment of Consolidated Conglomerates, Inc., which eventually frames Cage for the apparent murder of Iron Fist, causing Cage to become a fugitive.
A fugitive again, Cage breaks contact with his New York friends and relocates to Chicago, but, with Hogarth 's help, he is cleared of criminal charges when Iron Fist turns up alive. Cage discovers that Iron Fist had been replaced by a doppelganger of the plantlike H'ylthri race, K'un - Lun 's ancient enemies during his treatment. This doppelganger 's existence and destruction at the hands of the Super-Skrull are part of a bizarre scheme engineered by Iron Fist 's enemy, Master Khan.
Wanting a new start after his murder charge is dropped, Cage abandons his Power Man guise and begins operating out of Chicago as the plainclothes Luke Cage, Hero for Hire; he makes arrangements with the Chicago Spectator for exclusive reports of his adventures and frequently works with detective Dakota North. On his first mission in Chicago, he assists the Punisher in battling drug dealers. Cage attracts the interest of the refined assassin Hardcore, an employee of Cruz Bushmaster, son of the villain whose defeat cleared Cage 's name the first time. Cage learns that Cruz, following in his father 's extortion footsteps, has abducted Noah Burstein 's wife Emma to force the scientist to recreate the process that had empowered Cage. Cruz undergoes the procedure himself, but the elder Bushmaster drains the power from his son, reversing his near - catatonia and declaring himself the Power Master. Cage teams with Iron Fist to thwart their plans, freeing the Bursteins while the Bushmasters apparently perish. Cage 's power is augmented further by exposure to the Power Man virus.
While Cage tries to locate his surviving family members with the aid of Dakota North, his brother keeps moving his father around to keep Cage away from them. James, Jr., is eventually recruited by the criminal Corporation, whose power - enhancing scientist Doctor Karl Malus mutates him into the superhuman Coldfire. As Coldfire, James, Jr., hopes to be a match for his brother, whom he regards as a threat. Though James, Jr. works with the Corporation quite willingly, Malus has James, Sr. held hostage as extra insurance of Coldfire 's cooperation. When Cage learns the Corporation is holding his family, he invades their headquarters and battles Coldfire. The brothers ultimately join forces to rescue their father from Malus, and Coldfire sacrifices himself to destroy the Corporation 's headquarters.
A few months later, Cage investigates the murder of Harmony Young and fights her killer, the demon Darklove, alongside Ghost Rider. The mystic Doctor Druid recruits Cage to serve in his Secret Defenders against the sorcerer Malachi. Cage returns to New York and, deciding his heart is no longer in superheroics, becomes co-owner of the Gem Theater with his friend D.W. Griffith. Even an invitation from Iron Fist to join a new and expanded Heroes for Hire fails to interest him; yet when the Master of the World tries to recruit Cage as a spy within Iron Fist 's team, destroying Cage 's theater in the process, a curious Cage plays along. Cage joins Heroes for Hire and serves with them for some time while reporting to the Master. Cage begins to sympathize with the more benevolent aspects of the Master 's goals, but in the end, Cage can neither betray Iron Fist nor reconcile himself to the tremendous loss of life the Master 's plans of conquest will entail, and he helps Heroes for Hire destroy the Master of the World 's plans. Cage remains with the group thereafter, and dates a fellow member, the She - Hulk. When the Stark - Fujikawa Corporation buys out Heroes for Hire, Cage and Ant - Man are fired because of their prison records, and the rest of the team quits in protest.
Cage, bitten by the hero bug once more, continues to share adventures with Iron Fist and other heroes. Briefly resuming his Power Man identity, he is hired by Moon Knight to join an unnamed team of street - level New York vigilantes, but mere days after he joins, the group dissolves following clashes with the forces of Tombstone and Fu Manchu. Deciding that a return to basics is in order, he re-establishes his Hero for Hire activities, intervening in a gang war between Tombstone, Sonny "Hammer '' Caputo, and Clifford "Clifto '' Townsend, and soon learns that, despite his international fame, he is almost forgotten on the streets where he originally made his reputation. He invests his money in a bar and sets about ridding his immediate neighborhood of criminal elements, deciding that the business of world - saving is best left to others.
After a sexual encounter with a drunken Jessica Jones, now a private investigator, Cage 's life is briefly thrown into disarray by Jones 's reaction to the incident. The two make peace while working as bodyguards for Matt Murdock. Cage extends emotional support to Jones when she is forced to revisit past abuses by the villainous Purple Man, and Cage 's feelings for her grow. After Jones reveals that she is pregnant from their tryst, she and Cage move in together. Soon afterward, Jones becomes a superhuman consultant with the Daily Bugle. After she is attacked by the Green Goblin during a Bugle investigation, Cage, helped by Spider - Man, deliberately attacks Norman Osborn in order to provoke him into revealing he is the Goblin.
Months afterwards, Cage is present at the breakout at the supervillain prison ' The Raft ' and becomes a founding member of the re-formed Avengers. Luke and Jessica Jones then have a daughter, whom they named Danielle, in honor of Danny Rand. Soon thereafter, he and Jessica are married. He also meets the Black Panther (revealed to be one of Luke 's personal heroes), joining him and several other superhumans of African descent on a mission against vampires in New Orleans.
After the Superhuman Registration Act is enacted, Cage refuses to register, comparing the act to Jim Crow laws. He sends Jessica and his newborn daughter away to Canada where they can be safe, though he himself refuses to leave. S.H.I.E.L.D. forces come to arrest Cage. He fights his way to safety with the help of Captain America, the Falcon, and Iron Fist (posing as Daredevil), and joins Captain America 's "Secret Avengers ''. He fights alongside them in opposition to the act until Captain America surrenders to U.S. authorities.
Cage does not comply with the amnesty offered to the Secret Avengers, going underground and reforming the New Avengers alongside Spider - Man, Wolverine, Iron Fist, and Spider - Woman. Luke assumes leadership of the New Avengers after the assassination of Captain America, with the team now operating underground and provided with secure accommodation by Doctor Strange.
Following a Skrull invasion, Captain America (James "Bucky '' Barnes) organizes a meeting with the New Avengers at his home, offering it as a base of operations. Cage is offered the role as leader of the New Avengers, but turns it down, giving the role to Ronin.
Following the Siege of Asgard, Steve Rogers appoints Luke Cage leader of the Thunderbolts program. Soon after, he begins to recruit new Thunderbolts, a balanced mix of former and older members, personally inducting the Ghost, Moonstone, the Juggernaut and Crossbones, with MACH - V, Fixer and Songbird 's cooperation, and using the Man - Thing 's powers for long - distance transportation.
To convince Cage to rejoin the Avengers, Steve Rogers and Tony Stark sell the newly renovated mansion to Luke Cage for a dollar, allowing him freedom to recruit his own Avengers team and operate without directly taking orders from Rogers, though Rogers insists on having Victoria Hand join them as a liaison. Cage and his team are forced to assist Doctor Strange, Daimon Hellstrom, and Brother Voodoo in thwarting an attempt by Agamotto - the original owner of the Eye of Agamotto - to destroy existence, culminating in the apparent death of Brother Voodoo. Although initially against the idea of being paid for being on the team, Cage is convinced to accept the offer.
Following his imprisonment on Utopia, he decides, following a conversation with Daredevil, to resign from his Avenger duties to ensure the security of his wife and child. After the X-Men are defeated, Cage, Jessica, Squirrel Girl, and Iron Fist resign from the Avengers. In volume 2 of The Mighty Avengers, Luke Cage wears a costume reminiscent of his yellow Bronze Age outfit, with a yellow top and blue jeans.
During the series The Superior Spider - Man, Cage assembles an incarnation of the Mighty Avengers, and officially declares the new assembled group to be Avengers.
As part of the "All - New, All - Different Marvel, '' Luke Cage and Iron Fist come into conflict with Jennifer Royce when she has been corrupted by an ancient African artifact.
During the "Civil War II '' storyline, Luke Cage hears about the talents of Ulysses Cain and the fight over him. After thinking this through, Luke tells Iron Fist that he is sitting this fight out.
During the "Secret Empire '' storyline, Luke Cage became a member of the Defenders alongside Daredevil, Iron Fist, and Jessica Jones. They alongside Cloak and Dagger, Doctor Strange, and Spider - Woman fought the Army of Evil during Hydra 's rise to power where they were defeated by Nitro. Luke Cage and those with him were trapped in the Darkforce dome by Blackout when his powers were enhanced by Baron Helmut Zemo using the Darkhold.
During the "Hunt for Wolverine '' storyline, Luke Cage and Jessica Jones assist Iron Man and Spider - Man find Wolverine when his body has gone missing from his unmarked grave. When the four of them arrive undercover at a submarine in international waters upon hearing that a genetic material will be auctioned off, Luke and Jessica are shocked to find that the genetic material that will be auctioned off belongs to their daughter Danielle. When Mister Sinister crashes the auction and attacks the unidentified seller claiming that he stole the DNA of Wolverine from him, the attack causes a hole in the submarine as Jessica Jones uses Luke Cage 's body to help plug it up. After Mister Sinister is defeated with the help of X-23 and the seller Declan Foy is question, Luke Cage is given a special Iron Man armor as part of their attack on Mister Sinister 's base on the Kerguelen Islands. After the database was destroyed and the mission was over, Luke and Jessica head home with Tony Stark, Peter Parker, and X-23 where Iron Fist had been babysitting Danielle Cage. After a talk with X-23, Tony informs Luke and Jessica that the destroyed database reveals that one of the X-Men members is not a mutant and there is a genetically - altered sleeper agent among them.
Luke Cage possesses superhuman strength and stamina, and has extremely - dense skin and muscle tissue, which render him highly resistant to physical injury. Cage possesses these abilities as a result of a cellular regeneration experiment which fortified the various tissues of his body. His skin can resist high - caliber bullets, puncture wounds, corrosives, biological attacks, and extreme temperatures and pressures without sustaining damage. A second exposure to said experiments further enhanced his strength and durability.
The same experiment which granted him his great strength and durability has also given him a faster - than - normal recovery time from injury.
Luke Cage is an exceptional street fighter and was a gifted athlete before receiving superhuman abilities. He has also studied martial arts under Iron Fist 's instruction, learning how to couple leverage with his strength in order to increase his combat effectiveness against more powerful opponents.
He owns a jacket that is as durable as his skin, having been exposed to the "Power Man '' treatment during his second exposure.
In the alternate future of Earth X, most of humanity has gained superpowers, but it still needs policing. An older Luke Cage is a cop, complete with uniform, and he recruits Peter Parker.
In this reality Luke Cage is Power Fist, a mix between the 616 versions of Luke Cage / Power Man and his friend Iron Fist. He is also this reality 's leader of the Avengers. He leads them to eradicate the Vi - Locks and his life is saved by Sunfire when she is stuck on his world. He later moves to Quentin Quire 's reality to replace one of his selves who had died when he should n't have.
After gaining his powers, Luke forms a crime syndicate in Hell 's Kitchen, which he later turns into a Human Resistance Movement and recruits several human heroes to his side, including Cloak, who looks up to Luke as a father figure. He is the first person that Layla Miller comes to ' awaken ' from the House of M reality and joins the force that takes down Magneto and his children in Genosha.
In the Marvel Noir universe, former criminal Luke Cage uses his bulletproof reputation to clean up his life and neighborhood after a stay in prison.
Luke Cage, dressed in his original disco shirt outfit, is a member of the Avengers and one of the first heroes to become infected by the alien virus, ultimately infected by the zombified Sentry, along with the other Avengers. He also encounters Ash Williams not long after being infected. He is among the few heroes who manages to eat the Silver Surfer, and receives cosmic powers by doing so. At the end of the Marvel Zombies miniseries, he helps to devour Galactus and becomes a member of "The Galacti '' (along with Iron Man, Spider - Man, Giant Man, Wolverine, and the Hulk), who travel across the universe devouring all life on planets, however Galactus 's energy bolts hit the lower half of Cage 's body. Next, the Marvel Zombies attack a Skrull planet, only to encounter the Fantastic Four - consisting of Black Panther, Storm, the Thing and the Human Torch. It pleases the zombies so much that they attempt to capture the Fantastic Four and try to transport back to their fully populated reality, but the FF manage to escape.
Luke Cage also has a role in Marvel Zombies 2, joining Spider - Man in fighting against the other Galactus as he realizes that their hunger has faded over time. His lost arm is replaced by a transplanted arm from an unknown being (possibly alien) and his lost lower half is also replaced with a cybernetic one. At the series conclusion, he is transported to another universe which also gets taken by the infection. Cage fights to defeat the hungry zombies of this reality, leading the converted Shi'ar against Earth, but is defeated and killed by the prime zombies of the new world.
A different version of Power Man appears in the Ultimate Marvel universe as a member of the Defenders, although he is never referred to as "Luke Cage ''. In this universe, the Defenders consist of several people who want to be superheroes but have no useful superpowers, and appear to be more interested in the celebrity aspect of being heroes than actually doing anything heroic. This version originally never had any powers. However, in Ultimate Comics: New Ultimates, he and the Defenders all appear with powers, given to them by Loki.
Luke Cage was ranked as the 34th greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked Luke Cage as the 72nd greatest comic book hero of all time stating that "Cage embodies much of what we love about Marvel 's heroes '', and 15th in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers '' in 2012.
In her analysis of the comics, Sharon Packer M.D. made connections between Cage 's origin story and historical events taking place in the time of the comics ' publication. Carl Lucas uses his newfound power to crash through the prison 's cement barricades, he symbolically breaks through barriers that were once closed to him, similar to other black people of his era. Luke Cage 's story has a distinct connection to unethical medical experiments; his comics presumably enhanced awareness of the Tuskegee syphilis experiments that made New York Times headlines in the very same month and year that Luke Cage debuted. Dr. Altman published a book on self - experimentation ethics, one of many texts discussing ethical breaches in medical experiments at that time, meaning that the Luke Cage stories likely picked up on the rhetoric on prison experiments during that time and tapped into opprobrium about ethics. Since his comics were released at the same time that the news broke about the Tuskegee syphilis experiments on black men in Alabama, an event which caused public outrage and swayed public opinion against non-consenting or coercive human experimentation, it can be inferred that Luke Cage 's story influenced some of the aforementioned public opinion.
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where does the term third world come from | Third World - wikipedia
In present - day English, the Third World is "the developing countries of Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa ''. Third world countries in Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa include Russia, Albania, Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Argentina, South Africa, and Armenia. The term usually suggests poverty and low level of industrial development and thus it is the opposite of the term developed nations. This usage is considered by some to be offensive.
The term Third World was formulated in 1952 by French economic historian Alfred Sauvy to mean countries that were neither part of the West nor of the Iron Curtain. Thus the term originally had a political meaning as it arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Communist Bloc. The United States, Canada, Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, Western European nations and their allies represented the First World, while the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and their allies represented the Second World. This terminology provided a way of broadly categorizing the nations of the Earth into three groups based on political and politically - related economic divisions.
The Third World was normally seen to include many countries with colonial pasts in Africa, Latin America, Oceania, Asia, and Europe. It was also sometimes taken as synonymous with countries in the Non-Aligned Movement. In the dependency theory of thinkers like Raúl Prebisch, Walter Rodney, Theotonio dos Santos, and Andre Gunder Frank, the Third World has also been connected to the world economic division as "periphery '' countries in the world system that is dominated by the "core '' countries.
Due to the complex history of evolving meanings and contexts, there is no clear or agreed - upon definition of the Third World. Some countries in the Communist Bloc, such as Cuba, were often regarded as "Third World ''. Because many Third World countries were extremely poor, and non-industrialized, it became a stereotype to refer to poor countries as "third world countries '', yet the "Third World '' term is also often taken to include newly industrialized countries like Brazil, South Africa, Russia, China excluding Hong Kong, and India now more commonly referred to as part of BRICS. Historically, some European countries were non-aligned and a few of these were and are very prosperous, including Austria, Sweden, Finland, and Switzerland.
The term Third World is still largely used interchangeably with the least developed countries, the Global South and developing countries.
French demographer, anthropologist and historian Alfred Sauvy, in an article published in the French magazine L'Observateur, August 14, 1952, coined the term Third World (French: Tiers Monde), referring to countries that were unaligned with either the Communist Soviet bloc or the Capitalist NATO bloc during the Cold War. His usage was a reference to the Third Estate, the commoners of France who, before and during the French Revolution, opposed the clergy and nobles, who composed the First Estate and Second Estate, respectively. Sauvy wrote, "This third world ignored, exploited, despised like the third estate also wants to be something. '' He conveyed the concept of political non-alignment with either the capitalist or communist bloc.
The "Three Worlds Theory '' developed by Mao Zedong is different from the Western theory of the Three Worlds or Third World. For example, in the Western theory, China and India belong respectively to the second and third worlds, but in Mao 's theory both China and India are part of the Third World which he defined as consisting of exploited nations.
Third Worldism is a political movement that argues for the unity of third - world nations against first - world influence and the principle of non-interference in other countries ' domestic affairs. Groups most notable for expressing and exercising this idea are the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Group of 77 which provide a base for relations and diplomacy between not just the third - world countries, but between the third - world and the first and second worlds. The notion has been criticized as providing a fig leaf for human - rights violations and political repression by dictatorships.
Most Third World countries are former colonies. Having gained independence, many of these countries, especially smaller ones, were faced with the challenges of nation - and institution - building on their own for the first time. Due to this common background, many of these nations were "developing '' in economic terms for most of the 20th century, and many still are. This term, used today, generally denotes countries that have not developed to the same levels as OECD countries, and are thus in the process of developing.
In the 1980s, economist Peter Bauer offered a competing definition for the term "Third World ''. He claimed that the attachment of Third World status to a particular country was not based on any stable economic or political criteria, and was a mostly arbitrary process. The large diversity of countries considered part of the Third World -- from Indonesia to Afghanistan -- ranged widely from economically primitive to economically advanced and from politically non-aligned to Soviet - or Western - leaning. An argument could also be made for how parts of the U.S. are more like the Third World.
The only characteristic that Bauer found common in all Third World countries was that their governments "demand and receive Western aid, '' the giving of which he strongly opposed. Thus, the aggregate term "Third World '' was challenged as misleading even during the Cold War period, because it had no consistent or collective identity among the countries it supposedly encompassed.
During the Cold War, unaligned countries of the Third World were seen as potential allies by both the First and Second World. Therefore, the United States and the Soviet Union went to great lengths to establish connections in these countries by offering economic and military support to gain strategically located alliances (e.g., United States in Vietnam or Soviet Union in Cuba). By the end of the Cold War, many Third World countries had adopted capitalist or communist economic models and continued to receive support from the side they had chosen. Throughout the Cold War and beyond, the countries of the Third World have been the priority recipients of Western foreign aid and the focus of economic development through mainstream theories such as modernization theory and dependency theory.
By the end of the 1960s, the idea of the Third World came to represent countries in Africa, Europe, Asia and Latin America that were considered underdeveloped by rich countries like the USA and Japan based on a variety of characteristics (low economic development, low life expectancy, high rates of poverty and disease, etc.). These countries became the targets for aid and support from governments, NGOs and individuals from wealthier nations. One popular model, known as Rostow 's stages of growth, argued that development took place in 5 stages (Traditional Society; Pre-conditions for Take - off; Take - off; Drive to Maturity; Age of High Mass Consumption). W.W. Rostow argued that Take - off was the critical stage that the Third World was missing or struggling with. Thus, foreign aid was needed to help kick - start industrialization and economic growth in these countries.
However, despite decades of receiving aid and experiencing different development models (which have had very little success), many Third World countries ' economies are still dependent on developed countries, and are deep in debt. There is now a growing debate about why Third World countries remain impoverished and underdeveloped after all this time. Many argue that current methods of aid are not working and are calling for reducing foreign aid (and therefore dependency) and utilizing different economic theories than the traditional mainstream theories from the West. Historically, development and aid have not accomplished the goals they were meant to, and currently the global gap between the rich and poor is greater than ever, though not everybody agrees with this.
Some scholars argue the problem of development amongst many third world states through socioeconomic perspectives which study how individuals form organizations among each other for all kinds of goals, such as economic matters. Scholars like North and Weingast claim that modern states are composed of natural states and open access order states whereby open access order states have more positive development than natural states, because in these states, legally binding institutions (rules of the game, customs) allow individuals to freely form impersonal organizations that can attract a large group of people who work or compete with each other economically. The more competition, the more wealth and growth is created. Examples of open access states are many Western countries like America and Germany.
In contrast, a natural state (which compromises much of the third world) consists of political elites who try to protect their special privileges by restricting access to the ability to form organizations amongst individuals. These elites must rely on personal communication and the threat of violence to both maintain order and recruit "desirables '' into the organizations. Such a set - up not only weakens good governance (as leaders are less accountable) but also leads to weak institutions, where peace is not always assured, as those in control of the means to inflict violence simply restrain themselves out of trust or loyalty, and can easily resort to violence, as has happened in the past (e.g., Biafra against the rest of Nigeria, Bangladesh against the rest of Pakistan).
Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been focused in Third World countries (which often have higher birth rates than developed countries). As populations expand in poorer countries, rural people are flocking to cities in an extensive urban migration that is resulting in the creation of massive shanty towns and slums.
Many times there is a clear distinction between First and Third Worlds. When talking about the Global North and the Global South, the majority of the time the two go hand in hand. People refer to the two as "Third World / South '' and "First World / North '' because the Global North is more affluent and developed, whereas the Global South is less developed and often poorer. To counter this mode of thought, some scholars began proposing the idea of a change in world dynamics that began in the late 1980s, and termed it the Great Convergence. As Jack A. Goldstone and his colleagues put it, "in the twentieth century, the Great Divergence peaked before the First World War and continued until the early 1970s, then, after two decades of indeterminate fluctuations, in the late 1980s it was replaced by the Great Convergence as the majority of Third World countries reached economic growth rates significantly higher than those in most First World countries ''.
Others have observed a return to Cold War - era alignments (MacKinnon, 2007; Lucas, 2008), this time with substantial changes between 1990 -- 2015 in geography, the world economy and relationship dynamics between current and emerging world powers; not necessarily redefining the classic meaning of First, Second, and Third World terms, but rather which countries belong to them by way of association to which world power or coalition of countries -- such as G7, the European Union, OECD; G20, OPEC, BRICS, ASEAN; the African Union, and the Eurasian Union.
Notes
Further reading
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what day does grey's anatomy air in america | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
This season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season also marked the last appearance for Martin Henderson as a series regular.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
The season picks up right where it left off after the fire in the previous season finale. Grey - Sloan takes on a new, improved appearance after it is repaired of the damages from the fire. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) finds herself in another love triangle with Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson) and his long - lost fiancée, Megan Hunt (Abigail Spencer), though she encourages Riggs to resume his relationship with Megan over her. Meredith performs a ground - breaking surgery on Megan, landing her a Harper Avery Award. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) fiddle with the idea of a relationship after Jackson and April Kepner (Sarah Drew) decide to live apart.
Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) returns to Seattle to assist with Megan 's reappearance and notices the tension in Owen and Amelia 's relationship. With the help of DeLuca 's sister, visiting doctor Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) discovers she has a brain tumor that has been impairing her judgment for the last 10 years. After it is removed by her former professor Tom Koracick (Greg Germann), Amelia and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) decide to end their marriage. Meanwhile, after Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) reveals to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) that he tracked down her husband, Alex and Jo reconcile their relationship, with Jo declaring that she will divorce Paul (Matthew Morrison).
A new class of interns is introduced, one of which has a history with Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Ben Warren (Jason George) joins the Fire Academy but has trouble telling his wife, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) threatens to pull funding from Grey - Sloan and fires Bailey as Chief, but he soon after passes away, reinstating Bailey in the position. After Eliza Minnick (Marika Domińczyk) is fired from Grey - Sloan, she ghosts Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), who subsequently begins dating Carina. Their relationship is short - lived, however, as Arizona inadvertently ends it while preparing for Sofia to return home from New York. Carina begins a sexual relationship with the newly single Owen.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here, Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw will return for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver is set to reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life, and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith has to pretend to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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what is it called when great britain refused to enforce colonial trade laws | Townshend Acts - wikipedia
The Townshend Acts were a series of British acts passed beginning in 1767 and relating to the British American colonies in North America. The acts are named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the program. Historians vary slightly as to which acts they include under the heading "Townshend Acts '', but five acts are often mentioned: The Revenue Act of 1776 the Indemnity Act (1776), the Commissioners of Customs Act (1767), the Vice Admiralty Court Act (1777), and the New York Restraining Act (1776.). The purpose of the Townshend Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they would remain loyal to Great Britain, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The Townshend Acts (1767) were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770.
As a result of widespread protest in the American colonies, Parliament began to partially repeal the Townshend duties. Most of the new taxes were repealed, but the tax on tea was retained. The British government continued in its attempt to tax the colonists without their consent and the American Revolution followed.
Following the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), the British Empire was deep in debt. To help pay some of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the British Parliament decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America. Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts, Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire. But with the Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved.
The Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament but the British government retorted they had "virtual representation, '' a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following the Sugar Act, became a major point of contention following Parliament 's passage of the 1765 Stamp Act. The Stamp Act proved to be wildly unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year, along with the lack of substantial revenue being raised.
Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was an issue more fundamental than taxation and representation: the question of the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. Parliament provided its answer to this question when it repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 by simultaneously passing the Declaratory Act, which proclaimed that Parliament could legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''.
The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes simply known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act of 1767. This act represented the Chatham ministry 's new approach for generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. The British government had gotten the impression that because the colonists had objected to the Stamp Act on the grounds that it was a direct (or "internal '') tax, colonists would therefore accept indirect (or "external '') taxes, such as taxes on imports. With this in mind, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were only allowed to buy from Great Britain.
The colonists ' objection to "internal '' taxes did not mean that they would accept "external '' taxes; the colonial position was that any tax laid by Parliament for the purpose of raising revenue was unconstitutional. "Townshend 's mistaken belief that Americans regarded internal taxes as unconstitutional and external taxes constitutional '', wrote historian John Phillip Reid, "was of vital importance in the history of events leading to the Revolution. '' The Townshend Revenue Act received the royal assent on 29 June 1767. There was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. "Never could a fateful measure have had a more quiet passage '', wrote historian Peter Thomas.
The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act of 1767, which was intended to make the tea of the British East India Company more competitive with smuggled Dutch tea. The Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to the colonies. This tax cut in England would be partially offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies. The Revenue Act also reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance, or general search warrants, which gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods.
The original stated purpose of the Townshend duties was to raise a revenue to help pay the cost of maintaining an army in North America. Townshend changed the purpose of the tax plan, however, and instead decided to use the revenue to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. Previously, the colonial assemblies had paid these salaries, but Parliament hoped to take the "power of the purse '' away from the colonies. According to historian John C. Miller, "Townshend ingeniously sought to take money from Americans by means of parliamentary taxation and to employ it against their liberties by making colonial governors and judges independent of the assemblies. ''
Some members of Parliament objected because Townshend 's plan was expected to generate only £ 40,000 in yearly revenue, but he explained that once the precedent for taxing the colonists had been firmly established, the programme could gradually be expanded until the colonies paid for themselves. According to historian Peter Thomas, Townshend 's "aims were political rather than financial ''.
To better collect the new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act of 1767 established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs. The Board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in the colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver M. Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board. ''
The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues:
Historian Edmund Morgan says:
Historian Doug Krehbiel argues:
Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act of 1768. Although often included in discussions of the Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present, and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston. One purpose of the vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries, was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers, since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations.
Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York Provincial Assembly, which had refused to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act because its members saw the act 's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act, which according to historian Robert Chaffin was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts '', suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to the Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature.
Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now. '' The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to the programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on September 4, 1767.
The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania '', which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there was no difference between "internal '' and "external '' taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low, since this would set a dangerous precedent.
Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters '' to James Otis of Massachusetts, informing Otis that "whenever the Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay ''. The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of the Massachusetts Circular Letter, other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament 's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania.
In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard, instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind the Circular Letter. By a vote of 92 to 17, the House refused to comply, and Bernard promptly dissolved the legislature.
Merchants in the colonies, some of them smugglers, organized economic boycotts to put pressure on their British counterparts to work for repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston merchants organized the first non-importation agreement, which called for merchants to suspend importation of certain British goods effective 1 January 1769. Merchants in other colonial ports, including New York City and Philadelphia, eventually joined the boycott. In Virginia, the non-importation effort was organized by George Washington and George Mason. When the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a resolution stating that Parliament had no right to tax Virginians without their consent, Governor Lord Botetourt dissolved the assembly. The members met at Raleigh Tavern and adopted a boycott agreement known as the "Association ''.
The non-importation movement was not as effective as promoters had hoped. British exports to the colonies declined by 38 percent in 1769, but there were many merchants who did not participate in the boycott. The boycott movement began to fail by 1770, and came to an end in 1771.
The newly created American Customs Board was seated in Boston, and so it was there that the Board concentrated on strictly enforcing the Townshend Acts. The acts were so unpopular in Boston that the Customs Board requested naval and military assistance. Commodore Samuel Hood complied by sending the fifty - gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768.
On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized the Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice-admiralty court, but the charges were eventually dropped.
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed Governor Bernard to try to find evidence of treason in Boston. Parliament had determined that the Treason Act 1543 was still in force, which would allow Bostonians to be transported to England to stand trial for treason. Bernard could find no one who was willing to provide reliable evidence, however, and so there were no treason trials. The possibility that American colonists might be arrested and sent to England for trial produced alarm and outrage in the colonies.
Even before the Liberty riot, Hillsborough had decided to send troops to Boston. On 8 June 1768, he instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston '', although he conceded that this might lead to "consequences not easily foreseen ''. Hillsborough suggested that Gage might send one regiment to Boston, but the Liberty incident convinced officials that more than one regiment would be needed.
People in Massachusetts learned in September 1768 that troops were on the way. Samuel Adams organized an emergency, extralegal convention of towns and passed resolutions against the imminent occupation of Boston, but on 1 October 1768, the first of four regiments of the British Army began disembarking in Boston, and the Customs Commissioners returned to town. The "Journal of Occurrences '', an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers during the military occupation of Boston, apparently with some exaggeration. Tensions rose after Christopher Seider, a Boston teenager, was killed by a customs employee on 22 February 1770. Although British soldiers were not involved in that incident, resentment against the occupation escalated in the days that followed, resulting in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of 5 March 1770. After the incident, the troops were withdrawn to Castle William.
On the 5th of March 1770 -- the same day as the Boston Massacre although news travelled slowly at the time, and neither side of the Atlantic were aware of this coincidence -- Lord North, the new Prime Minister, presented a motion in the House of Commons that called for partial repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. Although some in Parliament advocated a complete repeal of the act, North disagreed, arguing that the tea duty should be retained to assert "the right of taxing the Americans ''. After debate, the Repeal Act received the Royal Assent on 12 April 1770.
Historian Robert Chaffin argued that little had actually changed:
It would be inaccurate to claim that a major part of the Townshend Acts had been repealed. The revenue - producing tea levy, the American Board of Customs and, most important, the principle of making governors and magistrates independent all remained. In fact, the modification of the Townshend Duties Act was scarcely any change at all.
The Townshend duty on tea was retained when the 1773 Tea Act was passed, which allowed the East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies. The Boston Tea Party soon followed, which set the stage for the American Revolution.
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who has the highest number of goals in football | List of men 's footballers with 500 or more goals - wikipedia
In top - level football, 27 players have scored 500 or more goals over the course of their career, according to research by the Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation. Only players who were active in top division football for all or most of their careers are considered. The ranking below takes into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions.
Unverified data is excluded from players ' data; goal and match totals may be higher. Players in bold are currently active; data is accurate as of 30 May 2018.
Source: Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation
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which of the following is not a missile tested in indian missile programme | Integrated Guided missile Development programme - wikipedia
The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was an Indian Ministry of Defence programme for the research and development of the comprehensive range of missiles. The programme was managed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Ordnance Factories Board in partnership with other Indian government political organisations. The project started in 1982 -- 83 with popular political support from the successive governments and bestowed under the leadership of Abdul Kalam who oversaw its ending in 2008 after these strategic missiles were successfully developed.
On 8 January 2008, the DRDO formally announced the successful completion of the IGMDP. It added that the strategic integrated guided missile programme was completed with its design objectives achieved since most of the missiles in the programme had been developed and inducted by the Indian armed forces.
By the start of the 1980s, the DRDL had developed competence and expertise in the fields of propulsion, navigation and manufacture of aerospace materials based on the Soviet rocketry technologies. Thus, India 's political leadership, which included Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Defence Minister R. Venkataraman, V.S. Arunachalam (Political Advisor to the Defence Minister), decided that all these technologies should be consolidated.
This led to the birth of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme with Dr. Abdul Kalam, who had previously been the project director for the SLV - 3 programme at ISRO, was inducted as the DRDL Director in 1983 to conceive and lead it. While the scientists proposed the development of each missile consecutively, the Defence Minister R. Venkataraman asked them to reconsider and develop all the missiles simultaneously. Thus, four projects, to be pursued concurrently, were born under the IGMDP:
The Agni missile was initially conceived in the IGMDP as a technology demonstrator project in the form of a re-entry vehicle, and was later upgraded to a ballistic missile with different ranges. As part of this program, the Interim Test Range at Balasore in Orissa was also developed for missile testing.
After India test - fired the first Prithvi missile in 1988, and the Agni missile in 1989, the Missile Technology Control Regime (then an informal grouping established in 1987 by Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States) decided to restrict access to any technology that would help India in its missile development program. To counter the MTCR, the IGMDP team formed a consortium of DRDO laboratories, industries and academic institutions to build these sub-systems, components and materials. Though this slowed down the progress of the program, India successfully developed indigenously all the restricted components denied to it by the MTCR.
The Prithvi missile (from Sanskrit पृथ्वी pṛthvī "Earth '') is a family of tactical surface - to - surface short - range ballistic missiles (SRBM) and is India 's first indigenously developed ballistic missile. Development of the Prithvi began in 1983, and it was first test - fired on 25 February 1988 from Sriharikota, SHAR Centre, Pottisreeramulu Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh. It has a range of up to 150 to 300 km. The land variant is called Prithvi while the naval operational variant of Prithvi I and Prithvi II class missiles are code named Dhanush (meaning Bow). Both variants are used for surface targets.
The Prithvi is said to have its propulsion technology derived from the Soviet SA - 2 surface - to - air missile. Variants make use of either liquid or both liquid and solid fuels. Developed as a battlefield missile, it could carry a nuclear warhead in its role as a tactical nuclear weapon.
The initial project framework of the IGMDP envisioned the Prithvi missile as a short - range ballistic missile with variants for the Indian Army, Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy. Over the years the Prithvi missile specifications have undergone a number of changes. The Prithvi I class of missiles were inducted into the Indian Army in 1994, and it is reported that Prithvi I missiles are being withdrawn from service, being replaced with Prahar missiles. Prithvi II missiles were inducted in 1996. Prithvi III class has a longer - range of 350 km, and was successfully test fired in 2004.
A technology demonstrator for re-entry technology called Agni was added to IGMDP as Prithvi was unable to be converted to a longer ranged missile. The first flight of Agni with re-entry technology took place in 1989. The re-entry system used resins and carbon fibres in its construction and was able to withstand a temperature of upto 3000 ° C. The technologies developed in this project were eventually used in the Agni series of missiles.
Trishul (Sanskrit: त्रिशूल, meaning trident) is the name of a short range surface - to - air missile developed by India as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. It has a range of 12 km and is fitted with a 5.5 kg warhead. Designed to be used against low - level (sea skimming) targets at short range, the system has been developed to defend naval vessels against missiles and also as a short - range surface - to - air missile on land. According to reports, the range of the missile is 12 km and is fitted with a 15 kg warhead. The weight of the missile is 130 kg. The length of the missile is 3.1 m. India officially shut down the project on 27 February 2008. In 2003, Defence Minister George Fernandes had indicated that the Trishul missile had been de-linked from user service and would be continued as a technology demonstrator.
Akash (Sanskrit: आकाश meaning Sky) is a medium - range surface - to - air missile developed as part of India 's Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme to achieve self - sufficiency in the area of surface - to - air missiles. It is the most expensive missile project ever undertaken by the Union government in the 20th century. Development costs skyrocketed to almost US $ 120 million, which is far more than other similar systems.
Akash is a medium - range surface - to - air missile with an intercept range of 30 km. It has a launch weight of 720 kg, a diameter of 35 cm and a length of 5.8 metres. Akash flies at supersonic speed, reaching around Mach 2.5. It can reach an altitude of 18 km. A digital proximity fuse is coupled with a 55 kg pre-fragmented warhead, while the safety arming and detonation mechanism enables a controlled detonation sequence. A self - destruct device is also integrated. It is propelled by a solid fuelled booster stage. The missile has a terminal guidance system capable of working through electronic countermeasures. The entire Akash SAM system allows for attacking multiple targets (up to 4 per battery). The Akash missile 's use of ramjet propulsion system allows it to maintain its speed without deceleration, unlike the Patriot missiles. The missile is supported by a multi-target and multi-function phased array fire control radar called the ' Rajendra ' with a range of about 80 km in search, and 60 km in terms of engagement.
The missile is completely guided by the radar, without any active guidance of its own. This allows it greater capability against jamming as the aircraft self - protection jammer would have to work against the high - power Rajendra, and the aircraft being attacked is not alerted by any terminal seeker on the Akash itself.
Design of the missile is similar to that of the SA - 6, with four long tube ramjet inlet ducts mounted mid-body between wings. For pitch / yaw control four clipped triangular moving wings are mounted on mid-body. For roll control four inline clipped delta fins with ailerons are mounted before the tail. However, internal schema shows a completely modernised layout, including an onboard computer with special optimised trajectories, and an all - digital proximity fuse.
The Akash system meant for the Army uses the T - 72 tank chassis for its launcher and radar vehicles. The Rajendra derivative for the Army is called the Battery Level Radar - III. The Air Force version uses an Ashok Leyland truck platform to tow the missile launcher, while the Radar is on a BMP - 2 chassis and is called the Battery Level Radar - II. In either case, the launchers carry three ready - to - fire Akash missiles each. The launchers are automated, autonomous and networked to a command post and the guidance radar. They are slewable in azimuth and elevation. The Akash system can be deployed by rail, road or air.
The first test flight of Akash missile was conducted in 1990, with development flights up to March 1997.
The IAF has initiated the process to induct the Akash surface - to - air missiles developed as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme. The Multiple target handling capability of Akash weapon system was demonstrated by live firing in a C4I environment during the trials. Two Akash missiles intercepted two fast moving targets in simultaneous engagement mode in 2005 itself. The Akash System 's 3 - D central acquisition radar (3 - D car) group mode performance was then fully established.
In December 2007 Indian Air Force completed user trials for the Akash missile system. The trials, which were spread over ten days, were successful, and the missile hit its target on all five occasions. Before the ten - day trial at Chandipur, the Akash system 's ECCM Evaluation tests were carried out at Gwalior Air force base while mobility trials for the system vehicles were carried out at Pokhran. The IAF had evolved the user Trial Directive to verify the Akash 's consistency in engaging targets. The following trials were conducted: Against low - flying near - range target, long - range high - altitude target, crossing and approaching target and ripple firing of two missiles from the same launcher against a low - altitude receding target. Following this, the IAF declared that it would initiate the induction of 2 squadrons strength (each squadron with 2 batteries) of this missile system, to begin with. Once deliveries are complete, further orders would be placed to replace retiring SA - 3 GOA (Pechora) SAM systems. In February 2010, the Indian Air Force ordered six more squadrons of the Akash system, taking orders to eight of the type. The Indian Army is also expected to order the Akash system.
Nag (Sanskrit: नाग meaning cobra) is India 's third generation "Fire - and - forget '' anti-tank missile. It is an all weather, top attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 km.
The missile uses an 8 kg tandem HEAT warhead capable of defeating modern armour including ERA (Explosive Reactive Armour) and composite armour. Nag uses Imaging Infra - Red (IIR) guidance with day and night capability. Mode of launch for the IIR seeker is LOBL (Lock on Before Launch). Nag can be mounted on an infantry vehicle; a helicopter launched version will also be available with integration work being carried out with the HAL Dhruv.
Separate versions for the Army and the Air Force are being developed. For the Army, the missiles will be carried by specialist carrier vehicles (NAMICA - Nag Missile Carrier) equipped with a thermographic camera for target acquisition. NAMICA is a modified BMP - 2 IFV licence produced as "Sarath '' in India. The carriers are capable of carrying four ready - to - fire missiles in the observation / launch platform which can be elevated with more missiles available for reload within the carrier. For the Air Force, a nose - mounted thermal imaging system has been developed for guiding the missile 's trajectory "Helina ''. The missile has a complete fiberglass structure and weighs around 42 kg.
Nag was test fired for the 45th time on 19 March 2005 from the Test Range at Ahmednagar (Maharashtra), signalling the completion of the developmental phase. It will now enter production phase, subject to user trials and acceptance by the Indian Army.
Further versions of the missile may make use of an all - weather Milli Metric Wave (MMW) seeker as an additional option. This seeker has reportedly been developed and efforts are on to integrate it into the missile.
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who is the director of every child is special | Taare Zameen Par - wikipedia
Taare Zameen Par (titled Like Stars on Earth internationally) is a 2007 Indian drama film produced and directed by Aamir Khan. The film explores the life and imagination of Ishaan, an 8 - year - old dyslexic child. Although he excels in art, his poor academic performance leads his parents to send him to a boarding school. Ishaan 's new art teacher suspects that he is dyslexic and helps him to overcome his disability. Darsheel Safary stars as 8 - year - old Ishaan, and Khan plays his art teacher. Creative director and writer Amole Gupte initially developed the idea with his wife Deepa Bhatia, who served as the film 's editor. Shankar -- Ehsaan -- Loy composed the film 's score, and Prasoon Joshi wrote the lyrics for many of the songs. Principal photography took place in Mumbai and in Panchgani 's New Era High School, and some of the school 's students make appearances.
The film made its theatrical debut in India on 21 December 2007, and UTV Home Entertainment released a DVD for Indian audiences in 2008. Disney 's later release of the international edition DVD marked the first purchase of distribution rights for an Indian film by a global company.
Taare Zameen Par has received numerous awards, including the Filmfare Award for Best Film for 2008 and the 2008 National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare. It was India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film, but did not progress to the short - list.
Eight - year old Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi dislikes school and fails every test or exam. He finds all subjects difficult, and is belittled and berated by his teachers and classmates. However, Ishaan 's internal world is full of wonders that he is unable to convey to others, magical lands filled with colour and animated animals. He is also an artist whose talent is unrecognised.
Ishaan 's father, Nandkishore Awasthi, is a successful executive who expects his children to excel. Ishaan 's mother, housewife Maya Awasthi, is frustrated by her inability to educate her son. Ishaan 's elder brother, Yohaan, is an exemplary scholar and athlete, which Ishaan is frequently reminded of.
After receiving a particularly poor academic report, Ishaan 's parents send him to a boarding school. There he sinks into a state of fear and depression, despite being befriended by Rajan Damodharan, a physically disabled boy and one of the top students in the class. He even contemplates suicide by climbing up the fence in a terrace, which Rajan manages to save him from.
Ishaan 's situation changes when a new art teacher, Ram Shankar Nikumbh, joins the school 's faculty. An instructor at the Tulips School for young children with developmental disabilities, Nikumbh 's teaching style is markedly different from that of his strict predecessor, and he quickly observes that Ishaan is unhappy and contributes little to class activities. He reviews Ishaan 's work and concludes that his academic shortcomings are indicative of dyslexia.
On his day off, Nikumbh sets off to Mumbai, to visit Ishaan 's parents. Nikumbh is surprised to learn that Ishaan is passionate about painting, and shows great talent in art. Nikumbh then asks Awasthi as to why he sent Ishaan to a boarding school. Awasthi replies that Ishaan was an ill - mannered boy and was a poor student. Nikumbh shows Ishaan 's mother her son 's notebooks and gives an analysis of the script. Nikumbh deduces that Ishaan has severe difficulty in understanding letters and words. Awasthi tries to dismiss it as a mere excuse for Ishaan 's laziness. Nikumbh demonstrates what Ishaan experiences every day at school. He states that Ishaan has dyslexia as well as he may be having other conditions, which make him a difficult child.
Still unsatisfied with Nikumbh 's interpretation, Awasthi bluntly dismisses Ishaan 's disability as mental retardation, which frustrates Nikumbh, who criticises Awasthi for his crude and inaccurate explanation of Ishaan 's condition. Nikumbh argues that Ishaan is an above - average child whose condition suppresses his artistic and mental talent, leading Awasthi to feel regret for his treatment of Ishaan.
Nikumbh returns, and subsequently brings up the topic of dyslexia in class, and offers a list of famous people who were dyslexic. Later, Nikumbh reveals to Ishaan, that he too is a dyslexic and faced problems similar to Ishaan. Nikumbh then visits the school 's principal and obtains his permission to become Ishaan 's tutor. He attempts to improve Ishaan 's reading and writing by using remedial techniques developed by dyslexia specialists; Ishaan soon develops an interest in language and mathematics, and his grades improve.
Towards the end of the school year, Nikumbh organises an art fair for the staff and students. The competition is judged by artist Lalita Lajmi. Ishaan, with his strikingly creative style, is declared the winner and Nikumbh, who paints Ishaan 's portrait, the runner - up. The principal announces that Nikumbh has been hired as the school 's permanent art teacher. When Ishaan 's parents meet his teachers on the last day of school they are left speechless by the transformation they see in him. Overcome with emotion, Ishaan 's father thanks Nikumbh. As Ishaan gets into the car to leave with his parents for summer vacations, he turns around and runs toward Nikumbh, who gives him a hug and tells him to return next year.
The husband and wife team of Amole Gupte and Deepa Bhatia developed the story that would eventually become Taare Zameen Par as a way of understanding why some children can not conform to a conventional educational system. Their initial work began as a short story that evolved into a screenplay over seven years. Deepa Bhatia later stated in an interview with The Hindu that her original inspiration was not dyslexia but rather the childhood of Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, who performed poorly in school. Her goal was thus to explore the story of "a child who did not fit into the school stream. '' She referenced a specific moment in Kurosawa 's biography where he began to excel after meeting an attentive art teacher, and noted that this scene "became the inspiration for how a teacher could transform the life of a student ''.
In developing the character of a young boy based on Kurosawa, Bhatia and Gupte explored some possible reasons why he failed in school. Their research led them to groups such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association and Parents for a Better Curriculum for the Child (PACE). Dyslexia eventually became the central topic and theme of the film. The pair worked with dyslexic children to research and develop the screenplay, basing characters and situations on their observations. Bhatia and Gupte carefully concealed the children 's identities in the final version of the script.
-- Aamir Khan
Khan and Gupte first met in college. Khan has said that he admired Gupte 's abilities as an actor, writer, and painter. Three years before the film 's release Gupte brought Khan to the project as a producer and actor. Gupte himself was to direct, but the first week 's dailies were a great disappointment to Khan, who "lost faith in Amol and his capability of translating on screen what he had so beautifully written on paper ''. Khan was on the verge of withdrawing his participation in the film because of these "creative differences '', but Gupte kept him onboard by stepping down as director. Contrary to Khan 's claim, Gupte lashed out saying that after the wrap - up party, Khan announced that he was the director of the film, despite Gupte acting as director. Had it been necessary to hire a third party, production would have been postponed for 6 -- 8 months as the new director prepared for the film. Keen to keep Safary as Ishaan -- the actor might have aged too much for the part had production been delayed -- Khan took over the role of director. Taare Zameen Par was Khan 's first experience in the dual role of actor and director. He has admitted that the transition was challenging, stating that while he had always wanted to direct a film, it was unknown territory for him. Gupte remained on set, "guiding (Khan) and, at times, even correcting (him) ''.
Initially the film was to retain the short story 's title of "High Jump '', because of Ishaan 's inability to achieve the high jump in gym class. This subplot -- filmed but later cut -- tied into the original ending for the movie. In this rendition, a "ghost image '' separates from Ishaan after the art competition and runs to the sports field; the film would end on a freeze frame of Ishaan successfully making the leap. Khan, however, was unhappy with that proposed ending and convinced Gupte to rewrite it.
With the working title no longer relevant, Khan, Gupte, and Bhatia discussed several alternatives, eventually deciding on Taare Zameen Par. Possible translations of this title include Stars on the Ground and Stars on Earth. According to Khan:
Taare Zameen Par is a film about children and it is a film which celebrates the abilities of children. Taare Zameen Par is a title which denotes that aspect. It is a title with a very positive feel to it. All the kids are special and wonderful. They are like stars on earth. This particular aspect gave birth to the title.
Principal photography for the film took place in India over five months. Khan spent his first two days as director blocking the first scene to be filmed -- Ishaan returning home from school and putting away his recently collected fish -- and becoming comfortable with his new responsibilities. Believing that the audience should not be aware of the camera, he chose a simple shooting style for the film that involved relatively little camera movement.
At the same time, Khan also made use of illusory camera tricks. For example, the opening scene of Ishaan collecting fish outside his school was shot on location and at Film City. Shots focusing on Ishaan took place at the former, while those involving the gutter terrarium were filmed at a water tank at the latter. The tank 's water often became murky because the mud would rise to the top, forcing production to constantly empty and refill it. Due to this hindrance, the scene took eight hours to film. The film 's next sequence involved Ishaan playing with two dogs. To compensate for the "absolutely petrified '' Safary, most joint shots used a body double, though other portions integrated close - up shots of the actor. Ishaan 's nightmare -- he becomes separated from his mother at a train station and she departs on a train while he is trapped in a crowd -- was filmed in Mumbai on a permanent railway - station set. To work around the train set piece 's immobility, production placed the camera on a moving trolley to create the illusion of a departing train. For the sequences related from the mother 's point of view -- shot from behind the actress -- Chopra stood on a trolley next to a recreated section of the train 's door.
All the school sequences were filmed on location. The production team searched for a Mumbai school with an "oppressive '' feel to establish the "heaviness of being in a metropolitan school '', and eventually chose St. Xavier 's School. As the school is situated along a main road filming took place on weekends, to minimise the background noise, but an early scene in which Ishaan is sent out of the classroom was filmed on the day of the Mumbai Marathon. The production staff placed acrylic sheets invisible to the naked eye on the classroom windows to mask the sounds of nearby crowds and helicopters. New Era High School served as Ishaan 's boarding school. The change of setting was a "breath of fresh air '' for the production crew, who moved from Ishaan 's small house in Mysore Colony, Chembur to the "vast, beautiful environs '' of Panchgani.
Production relied on stock footage for the brief scene of a bird feeding its babies. Khan carefully selected a clip to his liking, but learned three weeks before the film 's release that the footage was not available in the proper format. With three days to replace it or else risk delaying the release, Khan made do with what he could find. He says that he "cringes '' every time he sees it.
Real schoolchildren participated throughout the movie 's filming. Khan credited them with the film 's success, and was reportedly very popular with them. Furthermore, Khan placed a high priority on the day - to - day needs of his child actors, and went to great lengths to attend to them. The production staff made sure that the students were never idle, and always kept them occupied outside of filming. New Era Faculty Coordinator Douglas Lee thought the experience not only helped the children to learn patience and cooperation, but also gave them a better understanding of how they should behave towards children like Ishaan who have problems in school. Because filming at New Era High School occurred during the winter holiday, those portraying Ishaan 's classmates gave up their vacation to participate. To fill out the campus background, students from nearby schools were also brought in. A total of 1,500 children were used for wide - shots of the film 's art - fair climax; medium shots only required 400 students.
New to acting, the children often made errors such as staring into the camera, and Khan resorted to unorthodox methods to work around their rookie mistakes. For example, an early scene in the film featured a school assembly; Khan wanted the students to act naturally and to ignore the principal 's speech, but recognised that this would be a difficult feat with cameras present. First Assistant Director Sunil Pandey spoke continuously in an attempt to "bore the hell out of (them) '', and they eventually lost interest in the filming and behaved normally. A later scene involved Nikumbh enlightening his class about famous people who suffer from dyslexia, and the children 's responses to his speech were the last portion to be filmed. Having already spent 3 -- 4 days hearing the dialogue the children 's reactions were "jaded ''. Khan opted to film them while he recited a tale, and manipulated his storytelling to achieve the varying spontaneous reactions. The following scene had the children playing around a nearby pond. Horrified when he learned that the water was 15 feet (4.6 m) deep, Khan recruited four lifeguards in case a child fell in.
Khan found it important that the audience connect the film to real children, and had Pandey travel throughout India filming documentary - style footage of children from all walks of life. Those visuals were integrated into the end credits.
While claymation has been used in Indian television commercials, the film 's title sequence -- a representation of Ishaan 's imagination -- marked its first instance in a Bollywood film. Khan gave claymation artist Dhimant Vyas free rein over the various elements. The storyboarding took one and a half months and the shooting required 15 days. The "3 into 9 '' sequence, in which Ishaan delves into his imagination to solve a math problem, was originally conceived as a 3D animation. Halfway through its creation, however, Khan felt it was not turning out as he had envisioned it. Khan scrapped the project and hired Vaibhav Kumaresh, who hand - drew the scene as a 2D animation.
Artist Samir Mondal composed Ishaan and Nikumbh 's art - fair watercolour paintings. He held a workshop with the schoolchildren, and incorporated elements from their artwork into Ishaan 's. Mondal also instructed Khan on a painter 's typical mannerisms and movements. Gupte created the rest of Ishaan 's artwork and Assistant Art Director Veer Nanavati drew Ishaan 's flipbook. The art department 's designs for Ishaan 's school notebooks disappointed Khan, who had familiarised himself with dyslexic writing. Using his left hand, Khan instead wrote it himself.
The musical sequence of "Jame Raho '' establishes the characters of the four members of Ishaan 's family; for example, the father is hardworking and responsible, and Yohaan is an "ideal son '' who does all the right things. A robotic style of music overlaps most of the sequence -- this is mirrored by the machine - like morning routines of the mother, father, and Yohaan -- but changes for Ishaan 's portion to imply that he is different from the rest. This concept is furthered by speed ramping and having the camera sway with the music to create a distinct style. The twilight scenes of "Maa '' were a particular issue for the production crew. Because the specific lighting only lasted ten to fifteen minutes a day, the scenes took nearly ten evenings to film. Production at one time considered having a child singing, but ultimately deemed it too over the top and felt it would connect to more people if sung by an adult. Shankar initially performed the song as a sample -- they planned to replace him with another singer -- but production eventually decided that his rendition was best.
Ishaan 's truancy scene -- he leaves school one day after realising that his mother has not signed his failed math test -- originally coincided with the song "Kholo Kholo, '' but Khan did not believe it worked well for the situation. In his opinion, the accompanying song should focus on what a child wants -- to be free -- and be told from the first - person perspective instead of "Kholo Kholo '' 's second person. When Khan took over as director, he opted to use "Mera Jahan '' -- a song written by Gupte -- and moved "Kholo Kholo '' to the art fair. Viewers of test screenings were divided over the truancy scene. Half thoroughly enjoyed it but the rest complained that it was too long, did not make sense, and merely showed "touristy '' visuals of Mumbai. Khan nevertheless kept the scene, because he "connected deeply '' with it and felt that it established Ishaan 's world.
Shiamak Davar choreographed the dance sequence of "Bum Bum Bole, '' and was given free rein over its design. He had intended to use 40 students from his dance school, but Khan did not want trained dancers. Davar gave the children certain cues and a general idea of what to do, but left the style and final product up to them to avoid a choreographed appearance. Time constraints meant that while Khan was busy filming "Bum Bum Bole, '' Ram Madhvani took over as director for "Bheja Kum ''. The latter sequence, containing a "fun - filled '' song of rhythmic dialogue, allowed the audience to perceive how Ishaan sees the world and written languages. It was intended to represent "a young boy 's worst nightmare, in terms of... the worst thing that he can think of ''; Madhvani based the visual concept on his son 's fear of "creepy - crawlies '' such as cockroaches, dragonflies, and lizards. Tata Elxsi 's Visual Computing Labs made the creatures out of the English alphabet and numbers, although Khan insisted they include the Hindi alphabet as not all the audience would be familiar with English. The chalkboard writing 's transformation into a snake was included to surprise the audience and "end the song on a high note. ''
In writing the song "Taare Zameen Par, '' lyricist Prasoon Joshi followed the theme of "however much you talk about children, it 's not enough. '' Every line throughout the song describes children, and only one repeats: "Kho Naa Jaaye Yeh / Taare Zameen Par '' ("Let us not lose these / Little stars on earth ''). The song is mostly set to the annual day performance by the developmentally disabled children of Tulips School. Actual students from Tulips School and Saraswati Mandir participated, and were filmed over a period of five days. The sequence originally featured numerous dance performances, but was trimmed down when test audiences found it too long. A song accompanying the scene in which Ishaan 's mother is watching home videos of her son was also cut, and replaced with background music after test audiences expressed their opposition to yet another song.
Timing and other aspects are usually planned when scoring a film, but Khan chose to take a more improvised approach. Instead of using a studio, he and the trio Shankar -- Ehsaan -- Loy recorded it at Khan 's home in Panchgani, to clear their heads and not be in the mindset of the city. As they watched the film, Khan pointed out when he wanted music to begin and of what type. Ehsaan Noorani noted that this strategy allowed the score to have a "spontaneity to it. ''
Different styles of background music were used to convey certain things. For example, a guitar is played when Ishaan is tense or upset, sometimes with discordant notes. The music of the opening scene -- the recurring "Ishaan 's Theme, '' which represents the character 's peace of mind -- overpowers the background noise to show that Ishaan is lost in his own world; the noise becomes louder after he snaps back to reality. But the scene in which Nikumbh explains dyslexia to Ishaan 's family took the opposite approach. Silent at first, the music is slowly introduced as the father begins to understand his son 's dilemma. The almost seven - minute long scene scarcely used any background music, to slow the pace and make it seem more realistic.
Taare Zameen Par was released worldwide on 21 December 2007, although countries such as Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Fiji opened it on 20 December. It debuted in India with 425 prints, although revenue - sharing issues between the film 's distributors and theatre owners caused some slight delays. The movie grossed ₹ 150 million (US $2.2 million) domestically within the first three days. Its theatre occupancy in Mumbai dropped to 58 percent during its third week, but climbed back to 62 percent the following week -- this brought the total to ₹ 770 million (US $11 million) -- after the Maharashtra government granted the film exemption from the entertainment tax. Anticipating further tax exemption in other states, world distributor PVR Pictures circulated 200 more prints of the film. The film completed its domestic run with $19,779,215. To reach more audiences, the film was later dubbed in the regional languages of Tamil and Telugu. Both were scheduled for release on 12 September 2008, the former under the title Vaalu Nakshatram. It grossed $1,223,869 in the US by its seventh week, and £ 351,303 in the UK by its ninth week. Reports regarding the film 's worldwide gross have conflicted, with sources citing ₹ 889.7 million (US $13 million), ₹ 1.07 billion (US $16 million), ₹ 1.31 billion (US $19 million), and ₹ 1.35 billion (US $20 million).
In response to Khan 's support for the Narmada Bachao Andolan and his criticism of Chief Minister Narendra Modi, approximately 50 activists of the Sardar Patel Group conducted protests outside of PVR and INOX theatres in Vadodara, Gujarat. The group also issued statements to all the multiplexes of Gujarat, suggesting that the film not be screened unless Khan apologised for his comments. The INOX cinema eventually boycotted the film; INOX Operations Manager Pushpendra Singh Rathod stated that "INOX is with Gujarat, and not isolated from it ''.
The International Dyslexia Association screened Taare Zameen Par on 29 October 2008 in Seattle, Washington. Khan noted in his official blog that there were about 200 people in the audience and that he was "curious to see the response of a non-Indian audience to what we had made. '' He felt some concern that Taare Zameen Par was shown in a conference room rather than a cinema hall and was projected as a DVD rather than as a film. He said that the showing concluded to an "absolutely thunderous standing ovation '' which "overwhelmed '' him and that he "saw the tears streaming down the cheeks of the audience. '' Khan also noted that the reaction to the film "was exactly as it had been with audiences back home in India ''.
Taare Zameen Par received positive reviews from critics. Subhash K. Jha suggests that the film is "a work of art, a water painting where the colors drip into our hearts, which could easily have fallen into the motions of over-sentimentality. Aamir Khan holds back where he could easily resort to an extravagant display of drama and emotions. '' Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN argued that the true power of the film lies in its "remarkable, rooted, rock - solid script which provides the landscape for such an emotionally engaging, heart - warming experience. '' Manish Gajjar from the BBC stated that the film "touches your heart and moves you deeply with its sterling performances. (It is) a film full of substance! '' Jaspreet Pandohar, also of BBC, posited that Taare Zameen Par is a "far cry from the formulaic masala flicks churned out by the Bollywood machine, '' and is "an inspirational story that is as emotive as it is entertaining; this is a little twinkling star of a movie. '' Furthermore, Aprajita Anil of Screen gave the film four stars and stated, "Taare Zameen Par can not be missed. Because it is different. Because it is delightful. Because it would make everyone think. Because it would help everyone grow. Because very rarely do performances get so gripping. And of course because the ' perfectionist ' actor has shaped into a ' perfectionist ' director. '' In addition, filmmaker Anurag Kashyap stated that, "Taare Zameen Par took me back to my hostel days. If you take away the dyslexia, it seems like my story. The film affected me so deeply that I was almost left speechless. After watching the film, I was asked how I liked Taare Zameen Par. I could not talk as I was deeply overwhelmed. ''
However, there were some criticisms. Jha 's only objection to the film was Nikumbh 's "sanctimonious lecture '' to Ishaan 's "rather theatrically - played '' father. Jha found this a jarring "deviation from the delectable delicacy '' of the film 's tone. Although she applauded the film overall and recommended "a mandatory viewing for all schools and all parents '', Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India believed the second half was "a bit repetitive, '' the script needed "taut editing, '' and Ishaan 's trauma "(seemed) a shade too prolonged and the treatment simplistic. '' Despite commending the "great performances '' and excellent directing, Gautaman Bhaskaran of The Hollywood Reporter, too, suggested that the movie "suffers from a weak script. '' Likewise, Derek Kelly of Variety criticised it for what he described as its "touchy - feely - ness '' attention to "a special needs kid 's plight. '' Kelly also disliked the film for being "so resolutely caring... and devoid of real drama and interesting characters '' that "it should have ' approved by the Dyslexia Assn. ' stamped on the posters. ''
In his article "Taare Zameen Par and dyslexic savants '' featured in the Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, Ambar Chakravarty noted the general accuracy of Ishaan 's dyslexia. Though Chakravarty was puzzled by Ishaan 's trouble in simple arithmetic -- a trait of dyscalculia rather than dyslexia -- he reasoned it was meant to "enhance the image of (Ishaan 's) helplessness and disability ''. Labeling Ishaan an example of "dyslexic savant syndrome '', he especially praised the growth of Ishaan 's artistic talents after receiving help and support from Nikumbh, and deemed it the "most important (and joyous) neurocognitive phenomenon '' of the film. This improvement highlights cosmetic neurology, a "major and therapeutically important issue '' in cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology.
Likewise, in their article "Wake up call from ' Stars on the Ground ' '' for the Indian Journal of Psychiatry, T.S. Sathyanarayana Rao and V.S.T. Krishna wrote that the film "deserves to be vastly appreciated as an earnest endeavor to portray with sensitivity and empathetically diagnose a malady in human life ''. They also felt it blended "modern professional knowledge '' with a "humane approach '' in working with a dyslexic child. However, the authors believed the film expands beyond disabilities and explores the "present age where everyone is in a restless hurry ''. The pair wrote, "This film raises serious questions on mental health perspectives. We seem to be heading to a state of mass scale mindlessness even as children are being pushed to ' perform '. Are we seriously getting engrossed in the race of ' achievement ' and blissfully becoming numb to the crux of life i.e., experiencing meaningful living in a broader frame rather than merely existing? '' The film depicts how "threats and coercion are not capable of unearthing rich human potentialities deeply embedded in children '', and that teachers should instead map their strengths and weakness. With this in mind, the author felt that Khan "dexterously drives home the precise point that our first priority ought to be getting to know the child before making any efforts to fill them with knowledge and abilities ''. Overall, the pair found a "naive oversimplification '' in the film. With India "only recently waking to recognizing the reality and tragedy of learning disability '', however, they "easily (forgave the film 's fault) under artistic license ''.
The film raised awareness of the issue of dyslexia, and prompted more open discussions among parents, schools, activists, and policymakers. Anjuli Bawa, a parent - activist and founder of Action Dyslexia Delhi, said that the number of parents who visit her office increased tenfold in the months following the film 's release. Many began taking a more proactive approach by contacting her after noticing problems, rather than using her as a last resort. Gupte himself received "many painful letters and phone calls '' from Indian parents. He noted, "Fathers weep on the phone and say they saw the film and realized that they have been wrong in the way they treated their children. This is catharsis. ''
These reactions have also brought about a change in policies. The film, only ten days after its debut, influenced the Central Board of Secondary Education to provide extra time to special children -- including the visually impaired, physically challenged and dyslexic -- during exams. In 2008, Mumbai 's civic body also opened 12 classrooms for autistic students. In Chandigarh, the education administration started a course to educate teachers on how to deal with children with learning disabilities.
The film has had a similarly positive response in Greater China, where the film was not officially released yet has a large online cult following due to Aamir Khan 's popularity in the region after the success of 3 Idiots (2009). The film has been well received by Chinese audiences for how it tackles issues such as education and dyslexia, and is one of the highest - rated films on popular Chinese film site Douban, along with two other Aamir Khan films, 3 Idiots and Dangal (2016).
Among its many awards, Taare Zameen Par won the Filmfare Best Film Award for 2008, as well as the National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare. Khan 's directorial role and Safary 's performance were recognized at the 2008 Zee Cine Awards, 2008 Filmfare Awards, and 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards.
Taare Zameen Par was initially acclaimed as India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film, but after it failed to progress to the short list, a debate began in the Indian media as to why Indian films never win Academy Awards. Speculation for the reasons behind Taare Zameen Par 's failed bid included Rediff.com 's Arthur J. Pai 's observation that it lacked mainstream media attention; AMPAS jury member Krishna Shah criticised its length and abundance of songs.
-- American film critic Lisa Tsering in The Hollywood Reporter.
Khan claimed that he was "not surprised '' that Taare Zameen Par was not included in the Academy Award shortlist, and argued, "I do n't make films for awards. I make films for the audience. The audience, for which I have made the film, really loved it and the audiences outside India have also loved it. What I am trying to say is that film has been well loved across the globe and that for me it is extremely heartening and something that I give very high value to. ''
The Indian news media also frequently compared Taare Zameen Par 's nomination failure with the British film Slumdog Millionaire 's multiple Academy Award nominations and wins, and noted that other Indian films in the past were overlooked. Film critic Rajeev Masand argued that it is difficult to compare the two films and noted that Slumdog Millionaire was being marketed in a way that Indian films such as Taare Zameen Par could not compete with. In this context, Slumdog Millionaire actor Mahesh Manjrekar stated, "I 'm sad that Aamir 's Taare Zameen Par did n't make it to the final round of the Oscars. I thought it to be way better than Slumdog (Millionaire)..., without taking away anything from Boyle and the kids. But, Indian movies are underestimated there. ''
UTV Home Entertainment released the film on DVD in India on 25 July 2008. It was launched at Darsheel Safary 's school, Green Lawns High School, in Mumbai. Aamir Khan, Tisca Chopra, Vipin Sharma, Sachet Engineer, and the rest of the cast and crew were present. In his speech, Khan stated, "Darsheel is a very happy child, full of life and vibrant. I am sure it 's because of the way his parents and teachers have treated him. I must say Darsheel 's principal Mrs. Bajaj has been extremely supportive and encouraging. The true test of any school is how happy the kids are and by the looks of it, the children here seem really happy. ''
Walt Disney Company Home Entertainment, which acquired 33 percent of UTV Software Communications, bought the DVD rights for distribution in North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia for ₹ 70 million (US $1.0 million). This marked "the first time an international studio has bought the video rights of an Indian film. '' Retitling it Like Stars on Earth, Disney released the film in Region 2 on 26 October 2009, in Region 1 on 12 January 2010, and in Region 4 on 29 March 2010. A three - disc set, the Disney version features the original Hindi audio soundtrack with English subtitles or another dubbed in English, as well as bonus material such as audio commentary, deleted scenes, and the musical soundtrack.
The soundtrack for Taare Zameen Par was released on 4 November 2007 under the label T - Series. The music is mainly composed by Shankar - Ehsaan - Loy, with lyrics by Prasoon Joshi. However, "Mera Jahan '' was scored by Shailendra Barve and written by Gupte, with the latter also composing "Ishaan 's Theme. '' Joshi received the National Film Award for Best Lyrics, and Shankar Mahadevan won the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer for "Maa. ''
Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama praised the variety of genres present in the soundtrack and the lack of remixes. He gave it an overall rating of 3.5 out of 5 stars, calling it a "zero compromise album '' that "stays true to the film 's spirit ''. Planet Bollywood 's Atta Khan rated it 9 out of 10, noting that the soundtrack "unquestionably lives up to all expectations ''. He felt that it maintained an "all round polished nature '' and "is destined to become a classic ''. Although he, too, enjoyed the musical variety, he believed the composers overused the guitar and synthesizers. Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the soundtrack a score of 3 out of 5, commenting, "Taare Zameen Par is n't your regular soundtrack about fluttering hearts and sleepless nights. What makes these delicate and whimsical creations special is their underlying innocence. '' According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 11, 00,000 units sold, this film 's soundtrack album was the year 's thirteenth highest - selling.
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who played marty in christmas with the kranks | Christmas with the Kranks - wikipedia
Christmas with the Kranks is a 2004 American Christmas comedy film based on the 2001 novel Skipping Christmas by John Grisham. It was directed by Joe Roth and written and produced by Chris Columbus.
It stars Tim Allen and Jamie Lee Curtis as a couple who decide to skip Christmas one year since their daughter is away, much to the chagrin of their neighbors. This was Tom Poston 's final film before his death in 2007.
After Riverside, Illinois couple Luther (Tim Allen) and Nora Krank (Jamie Lee Curtis) see their daughter, Blair (Julie Gonzalo), depart for a Peace Corps assignment in Peru on the Sunday following Thanksgiving, empty nest syndrome sets in. Luther calculates the couple spent $6,132 during the previous year 's holiday season and, not looking forward to celebrating Christmas without their daughter, he suggests they invest the money usually spent on decorations, gifts, and entertainment and treat themselves to a ten - day Caribbean cruise instead. Skeptical at first, Nora finally agrees under the condition that they still give a donation to the church and Children 's Hospital. Luther tries to refuse but finally agrees and they begin planning the trip.
The Kranks are amazed to discover they are considered pariahs as a result of their decision. Luther 's co-workers think he has become Ebenezer Scrooge when he gives all his employees letters that state about his Christmas boycott, local stationer Aubie is distressed to lose the couple 's order for their engraved greeting cards and Christmas Eve party invitations, the Boy Scout troop is upset and angered when the Kranks refuse to purchase one of their Christmas trees to help the scouts make enough money for a camporee, and the police are stunned to discover they wo n't be buying this year 's calendar from them. Most vocal in their objections are neighbors Vic Frohmeyer (Dan Aykroyd) and Walt Scheel (M. Emmet Walsh). Vic, who 's the unelected leader of the street, organizes a campaign to force the Kranks to decorate their home so Hemlock Street wo n't lose the coveted award for best decorations. Vic has political and bureaucratic connections in Chicago. Walt does n't seem to like Luther, so his efforts are primarily personal. However, it is revealed that Walt 's wife Bev is suffering from cancer, perhaps dampening his holiday spirits. Children picket, led by Vic 's son Spike (Erik Per Sullivan), neighbors constantly call, and Christmas carolers try to revive the Kranks ' holiday spirit by singing on their lawn, which Luther stops by freezing his front lawn. Even the newspaper gets into the act by publishing a front page story complete with a photograph of the unlit Krank house and states that the Kranks ' street has lost the prize and won sixth place because of how Luther and Nora refused to decorate their house. Still, Luther and Nora continue to stand their ground.
The two are in the process of packing on Christmas Eve morning when they receive a call from Blair, who announces she 's at Miami International Airport, en route home with her Peruvian fiancé as a surprise for her parents. She 's anxious to introduce Enrique to her family 's holiday traditions, and when she asks if they 're having their usual party that night, a panicked Nora says yes. Comic chaos ensues as the couple finds themselves trying to decorate the house and coordinate a party with only twelve hours to spare before their daughter and future son - in - law arrive.
While Nora scrambles to find food, especially Blair 's favorite honey glazed ham, Luther goes to buy a tree from the Boy Scouts but they only have one worthless non-green tree left since their sales went big and rapid. Luther decides to give a donation by giving them money but taking the tree in the process; he then rejects it by throwing it in his backyard. While Spike leads a picket at the Kranks ', Luther arranges to borrow the tree of neighbor Wes Trogdon who is going away for a week with his kids and wife to close relatives being given the warning that he is not to break one ornament or damage it. Luther and Spike try to transport it across the street on Spike 's Radio Flyer wagon, only for the neighbors to confuse this to be Luther stealing the family 's Christmas tree and end up being called for the police to arrest him for theft. Spike comes to Luther 's rescue by showing the neighbors and officers that Luther has Trogdon 's keys and thus was given permission to borrow the tree. Nora comes home enraged at Luther for making the borrowed Christmas tree a "Disaster '' and how she had to buy "Smoked Trout '' to replace the honey ham (which was crushed by a truck). Once it is established why Luther is trying frantically to decorate his home, the neighbors, led by Vic, come out full force to help him and Nora ready it for Blair. Blair calls to say she landed from Miami; despite this, she is sent by a police transport to their house thus leaving her still unaware of the chaos.
After subtly giving everybody, including Blair and Enrique, an un-thankful and non-friendly toast, Luther tries to convince Nora to accept the cruise when she confronts him for the toast, but she refuses, disgusted that he is n't happy Blair is home. Having a change of heart, Luther sadly slips out of the house and goes across the street to the Scheel home. Bev 's cancer, once in remission, has returned and, knowing this may be their last holiday together, Luther insists they take the cruise in place of him and Nora, going so far as to offer to take care of their hated cat, Muffles, so they can go. At first Walt and Bev decline, but ultimately decide to accept his generosity; as a result, Luther, whose holiday spirit has been renewed, realizes skipping Christmas was n't as good an idea as he had originally thought.
Joe Roth knew about John Grisham 's Skipping Christmas before it was even published in 2001. He was asked by Grisham to read the book in galley form, assuming he could direct a movie based on it. Roth recalls: "It turns out he was right. Even while I was reading it, all I could think was that this would make a great Christmas movie. It had humor, it had wonderful characters and it had heart. '' It was a huge change for him as he, who previously directed thrillers, would now do work for a film lighter in tone and style. With the rights of the book received and the May 2000 founding of Revolution Studios, he stated that "as a start - up company, there was a great deal of work to do in order to get up and running. ''
Later, filmmaker Chris Columbus, who also bought the rights to Skipping Christmas and had written a screenplay, called Roth about directing the adaption. As Roth explains: "Naturally, I thought he was going to direct it. But he said, ' No, you should direct it. ' It turns out I was getting ready to direct another project. But when I read Chris 's script, I knew I had to at least try to direct it. I promised myself that if I could get the right cast in place, I would do it. '' Producer Michael Barnathan said, "Joe read the script on a Sunday, bought it on Monday, decided he wanted to direct it on Tuesday and by Friday had cast Tim (Allen) and Jamie Lee (Curtis). The following Monday morning we started pre-production. ''
Christmas with the Kranks takes place mostly in the Kranks 's neighborhood of Hemlock Street in Riverside, a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, over the course of four weeks from Thanksgiving to Christmas Eve. Production designer Garreth Stover originally looked for locations with the right weather conditions and suburban ambience for Hemlock Street, as described specifically in Columbus 's script of the film. He was scouting from the metropolitan area of Chicago to Minnesota, but due to the extreme conditions of this part of the United States at the time, the filmmakers felt it was better to set up the neighborhood in an empty location instead of finding one.
When looking for a place to build the set 15 weeks before filming began, Stover chose a parking lot of a former Boeing aircraft factory in Downey, California, about 15 miles away from downtown Los Angeles and in the midst of Downey Studios. The rest of the first three weeks were spent on designing the houses with assistance from construction coordinator David Elliott. In the next 12 weeks, hundreds of carpenters, plasterers and painters working built had built what would become the largest exterior set ever for a movie, being more than 700 feet long and including 16 houses. What Stover called "the core five '' were the houses of the Kranks, the Frohmeyers, the Scheels, the Beckers and Trogdons, which he claimed had "full ground floors that are dressed and you can see into. '' He also said that the second floor of the Kranks ' was built on a soundstage. Producer Michael Barnathan claimed that the set would later be available for other movies, TV series and commercials to use. However, due to health complaints from the locals over toxix residues from factory period and lack of profit, the studio closed in 2012 and was razed to build a mall.
Susie DeSanto handled the costume design of Christmas with the Kranks. According to DeSanto, "I was looking for a project that was really textural, and maybe a bit nostalgic. I saw Christmas With the Kranks like a Christmas card, a beautiful Christmas memory of how we wish the holiday to be. So a lot of the fabrics I chose were not so much high - tech bright colors, but wools, plaids and mixing patterns. Joe (Roth) was specific about what he wanted, but within that, he allowed me a great deal of freedom to express myself. ''
DeSanto viewed that all the characters in Christmas with the Kranks would wear dresses that are supposed to serve as their "accents '' rather than overtly defining them. Luther Krank is seen wearing the same - colored shirt and suit at work all the time, and according to DeSanto, this "tells that Luther 's a punch - the - clock kind of guy, so the whole idea of skipping Christmas and going off on a tropical vacation is completely averse to anything he 's ever done. '' She described Nora as "tasteful and kind of folksy, a middle - American woman approaching middle age. In our first meeting, Jamie Lee Curtis was totally prepared. She wanted to look like a real Midwestern woman who lives in the suburbs of Chicago and is as obsessed with Christmas as everyone around her. Nora dresses for the seasons and I found out by speaking to people at Marshall Field 's in Chicago that the Christmas sweater is a big deal. And Jamie wears it so well. '' As for Vic Frohmeyer, she saw him as "a sort of commander - in - chief of the neighborhood, so I wanted something with a bit of a military flair. Since he 's also a college professor, we cut the pattern from a general 's jacket and made it professorial by using a vintage tweed mixed with corduroy. ''
The soundtrack features many holiday standards, including "Jingle Bell Rock '' by Brenda Lee; "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' by Billy May & His Orchestra with vocal by Alvin Stoller; "I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus '' by Eddie Dunstedter; "White Christmas '' by Dean Martin; "Frosty the Snowman '' by Steve Van Zandt; "Blue Christmas '' by Elvis Presley; and "The Christmas Song '' by Ella Fitzgerald.
The film received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 5 % based on 123 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reading, "A mirthless movie as fresh as last year 's fruit cake, Christmas with the Kranks is a coarse, garish comedy that promotes conformity. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 22 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Christmas with the Kranks was released on DVD and VHS on March 8, 2005.
The film was a box office success. On its opening weekend, it earned $21,570,867 on 3,393 screens, ranking # 3 behind National Treasure and The Incredibles. It eventually grossed $96,572,480 worldwide.
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the monastic life typically revolves around the reading of | Christian monasticism - wikipedia
Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament, but not mandated as an institution in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of Saint Augustine, Anthony the Great, St Pachomius, the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict,) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek monachos "monk '', itself from monos meaning "alone ''.
Monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the original monks nearby. Quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, "By creating an alternate social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions... '' Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community (cenobites), or in seclusion (recluses).
The basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. The object of this is to achieve a life whose ideal is different from and largely at variance with that pursued by the majority of humanity, and the method adopted, no matter what its precise details may be, is always self - abnegation or organized asceticism. Monastic life is distinct from the "religious orders '' such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, and the more recent religious congregations. The latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc., which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state.
Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the respective church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Church, or the Lutheran Church). Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like - minded Christians. Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types (a) the eremitical or secluded, (b) the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first and St. Pachomius of the second. The monastic life is based on Jesus 's amen to "be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect '' (Matthew 5: 48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia, a book of monastic writings. Their manner of self - renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity and obedience.
Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century "... new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, '' because monasteries had declined.
First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism. Early Christian monasticism drew its inspiration from the examples of the Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist, who both lived alone in the desert, and above all from the story of Jesus ' time in solitary struggle with Satan in the desert, before his public ministry. The Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah.
From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesus 's 40 days in the desert. They have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century. There were also individual ascetics, known as the "devout '', who usually lived not in the deserts but on the edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union with God.
Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The word ' eremitic ' comes from the Greek word eremos which means desert. This name was given because of St. Anthony of the Desert, or St. Anthony of Egypt, who left civilization behind to live on a solitary Egyptian mountain in the third century. Though he was probably not the first Christian hermit, he is recognized as such as he was the first known one.
Paul the Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd Century Anthony of Egypt (252 - 356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit - like ''.
An early form of "proto - monasticism '' appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the "Sons of the covenant '' movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers.
Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchoress. This began because there were women who wanted to live the solitary lifestyle but were not able to live alone in the wild. Thus they would go to the Bishop for permission who would then perform the rite of enclosure. After this was completed the anchoress would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to be passed in and people to come seek advice. The most well known anchoress was Julian of Norwich who was born in England in 1342.
While the earliest Desert Fathers lived as hermits, they were rarely completely isolated, but often lived in proximity to one another, and soon loose - knit communities began to form in such places as the Desert of Nitria and the Desert of Skete. Saint Macarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia (founded in 328.) These monks were anchorites, following the monastic ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays and Sundays only.
In 346 St Pachomius established in Egypt the first cenobitic Christian monastery. At Tabenna in Upper Egypt, sometime around 323 AD, Pachomius decided to mold his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin,) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. The intention was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like Saint Anthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "community - based ''. In Catholic theology, this community - based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by the word for "Father; '' - in Syriac, Abba; in English, "Abbot ''.
Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. St Pachomius introduced a monastic Rule of cenobitic life, giving everyone the same food and attire. The monks of the monastery fulfilled the obediences assigned them for the common good of the monastery. Among the various obediences was copying books. St Pachomius considered that an obedience fulfilled with zeal was greater than fasting or prayer.
A Pachomian monastery was a collection of buildings surrounded by a wall. The monks were distributed in houses, each house containing about forty monks. There would be thirty to forty houses in a monastery. There was an abbot over each monastery, and provosts with subordinate officials over each house. The monks were divided into houses according to the work they were employed in: thus there would be a house for carpenters, a house for agriculturists, and so forth. But other principles of division seem to have been employed, e.g., there was a house for the Greeks. On Saturdays and Sundays all the monks assembled in the church for Mass; on other days the Office and other spiritual exercises were celebrated in the houses.
From a secular point of view, a monastery was an industrial community in which almost every kind of trade was practised. This, of course, involved much buying and selling, so the monks had ships of their own on the Nile, which conveyed their agricultural produce and manufactured goods to the market and brought back what the monasteries required. From the spiritual point of view, the Pachomian monk was a religious living under a rule.
The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one count by the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially in the Thebaid. From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire.
In 370 Basil the Great, monastic founder in Cappadocia, became bishop of Caesarea and wrote principles of ascetic life. Eastern monastic teachings were brought to the western church by Saint John Cassian (ca. 360 -- ca. 435). As a young adult, he and his friend Germanus entered a monastery in Palestine but then journeyed to Egypt to visit the eremitic groups in Nitria. Many years later, Cassian founded a monastery of monks and probably also one of nuns near Marseilles. He wrote two long works, the Institutes and Conferences. In these books he not only transmitted his Egyptian experience but also gave Christian monasticism a profound evangelical and theological basis.
At the time of his conversion in Milan in the years 386 - 387, Augustine was aware of the life of Saint Anthony in the desert of Egypt. Upon his return to Africa as a Christian in the year 388, however, Augustine and a few Christian friends founded at Thagaste a lay community. They became cenobites in the countryside rather than in the desert.
Saint Benedict (c. 480 -- 547 AD) lived for many years as a hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. He was asked to be head over several monks who wished to change to the monastic style of Pachomius by living in community. Between the years 530 and 560, he wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict as a guideline for monks living in community.
Scholars such as Lester K. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church brought about by Constantine 's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation of Christianity into the main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response a new form of dedication was developed. The long - term "martyrdom '' of the ascetic replaced the violent physical martyrdom of the persecutions.
Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West, so there are no formal Monastic Rules (Regulae); rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There is also no division between the "active '' and "contemplative '' life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects.
Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, there exist three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, and the skete. The skete is a very small community, often of two or three (Matthew 18: 20), under the direction of an Elder. They pray privately for most of the week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days for communal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobitic monasticism.
Even before Saint Anthony the Great (the "father of monasticism '') went out into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to ascetic discipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with the teachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in the East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings (apophthegmata) and acts (praxeis) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well.
Among these earliest recorded accounts was the Paradise, by Palladius of Galatia, Bishop of Helenopolis (also known as the Lausiac History, after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (whose Life of Saint Anthony the Great set the pattern for monastic hagiography), Saint Jerome, and other anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of great importance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius, the father of cenobiticism, and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism.
Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great, a man from a professional family who was educated in Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens. Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits in Palestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under the guidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil 's ascetical writings set forth standards for well - disciplined community life and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility.
Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monastic life (the Lesser Asketikon the Greater Asketikon the Morals, etc.) which, while not "Rules '' in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of the importance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidance -- and even discipline -- of a strong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West.
Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Saint Catherine 's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c. 600), a work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent.
At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries '' on the Holy Mountain, an actual "monastic republic '' wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu, the Philokalia was compiled.
As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm. Saint Gregory Palamas, bishop of Thessalonica, an experienced Athonite monk, defended Orthodox spirituality against the attacks of Barlaam of Calabria, and left numerous important works on the spiritual life.
Christian monasticism was and continued to be a lay condition -- monks depended on a local parish church for the sacraments. However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples, that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot or other members ordained. A priest - monk is sometimes called a hieromonk. In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy, when a bishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates, being good sources of men who were spiritually mature and generally possessing the other qualities desired in a bishop. Eventually, among the Orthodox Churches it became established by canon law that all bishops must be monks.
Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, Republic of Macedonia, Russia, Romania, Serbia, the Holy Land, and elsewhere in the Orthodox world, the Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remaining the spiritual center of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox Church. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred, and many previously empty or destroyed monastic communities have been reopened.
Monasticism continues to be very influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Sacred Canons, all Bishops must be monks (not merely celibate), and feast days to Glorified monastic saints are an important part of the liturgical tradition of the church. Fasting, Hesychasm, and the pursuit of the spiritual life are strongly encouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity.
There are also three levels of monks: The Rassophore, the Stavrophore, and the Schema - Monk (or Schema - Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days of monasticism, there was only one level -- the Great Schema -- and even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored the development of three distinct levels.
When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest and ask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days the Hegumen may at his discretion clothe the candidate as a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he (or she) would simply be given the Podraznik, belt and skoufos.
After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassophore monk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek: Rason). A monk (or nun) may remain in this grade all the rest of his life, if he so chooses. But the Rite of Tonsure for the Rassophore refers to the grade as that of the "Beginner '', so it is intended that the monk will advance on to the next level. The Rassophore is also given a klobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassophores will be given a prayer rope at their tonsure.
The next rank, Stavrophore, is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The title Stavrophore means "cross-bearer '', because when Tonsured into this grade the monastic is given a cross to wear at all times. This cross is called a Paramand -- a wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with the Instruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus '' (Galatians 6: 17). The Paramand is so called because it is worn under the Mantle (Greek: Mandyas; Church Slavonic: Mantya), which is a long cape which completely covers the monk from neck to foot. Among the Russians, Stavrophores are also informally referred to as "mantle monks ''. At his Tonsure, a Stavrophore is given a wooden hand cross and a lit candle, as well as a prayer rope.
The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos; Church Slavonic: Schimnik). Attaining the level of Schema monk is much more common among the Greeks than it is among the Russians, for whom it is normally reserved to hermits, or to very advanced monastics. The Schema monk or Schema nun wears the same habit as the Rassophore, but to it is added the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav), a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders and coming down to the knees (or lower) in front and in back. This garment is roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic orders, but it is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments of the Passion (see illustration, above). The Klobuk worn by a Schema monk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. the Klobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in which case it is referred to as a koukoulion. The skufia worn by a Schema monk is also more intricately embroidered.
The religious habit worn by Orthodox monastics is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nuns wear an additional veil, called an apostolnik.
The central and unifying feature of Orthodox monasticism is Hesychasm, the practice of silence, and the concentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer. All ascetic practices and monastic humility is guided towards preparing the heart for theoria or the "divine vision '' that comes from the union of the soul with God. It should be noted, however, that such union is not accomplished by any human activity. All an ascetic can do is prepare the ground; it is for God to cause the seed to grow and bear fruit.
The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about A.D. 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of the "Vita Antonii '' some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few -- such as St. Jerome, Rufinus, Paula, Eustochium and the two Melanias -- actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy.
The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours, who after serving in the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan, then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutiers on the opposite bank of the Loire River, a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut of wood, and round it his disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and huts. His monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. The type of life was simply the Antonian monachism of Egypt.
Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo - Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually - proven monks could live in isolation. Lérins became, in time, a center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles.
John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near Marseilles, one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian 's Institutes, which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences, a collection of spiritual reflections.
It seems that the first Celtic monasteries were merely settlements where the Christians lived together -- priests and laity, men, women, and children alike -- as a kind of religious clan. According to James F. Kenney, every important church was a monastic establishment, with a small walled village of monks and nuns living under ecclesiastical discipline, and ministering to the people of the surrounding area. Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world. Illtud, David, Gildas, and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th - century Britain.
According to Thomas O'Loughlin, "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of the period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community. '' The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe was often a path to the position of abbot. Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices.
Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by an rigorous asceticism and a love for learning.
Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom ''.
Women 's communities were normally much smaller and poorer. The nuns had to do everything themselves, unless they had a couple of tenant - farmers to supply food, or pious who made donations. They spun and wove, kept their huts clean, milked their cows, and made their own meals, which could be meager.
Around 397, Ninian, a Briton probably from the area south of the Firth of Clyde, dedicated his church at Whithorn to St. Martin of Tours. According to Bede, Ninian evangelized the southern Picts.
Kentigern was an apostle of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde in the late 6th century, and the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow. Due to anti-Christian sentiment he re-located for a time to Wales, where he established a monastery at St. Asaph 's. Here he divided the monks into three groups. The unlettered were assigned to the duty of agriculture, the care of cattle, and the other necessary duties outside the monastery. He assigned 300 to duties within the cloister of the monastery, such as doing the ordinary work, and preparing food, and building workshops. The remaining monks, who were lettered, he appointed to the celebration of Divine service in church by day and by night.
Cadoc founded Llancarfan in the latter part of the fifth century. He received the religious habit from an Irish monk, St. Tathai, superior of a small community near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church, and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags ''. There he also established a college and a hospital. His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.
Illtyd spent the first part of his religious life as a disciple of Cadoc at Llancarfan. He founded the monastery at Llanilltyd Fawr. One of his students was Paul Aurelian, a key figure in Cornish monasticism. Gildas the Wise was also a student at Llanilltyd Fawr, as was Samson of Dol. Samson founded a monastery in an abandoned Roman fort near the river Severn and lived for a time the life of a hermit in a nearby cave before going to Brittany.
St David established his monastery on a promontory on the western sea, well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. His establishment became known for its austerity and holiness, more than as a centre of learning, although when King Alfred sought a scholar for his court, he summoned Asser of St David 's. Contemporary with David were Teilo, Cadoc, Padarn, Beuno and Tysilio among them.
Many early medieval settlements in the region were occupied by hermitage chapels which are often dedicated to St Michael as the conventional slayer of pagan demons, as at St Michael 's Mount.
The earliest monastic settlements in Ireland emerged at the end of the fifth century. It was from Illtud and his colleagues that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Enda of Aran is called the "patriarch of Irish monasticism ''. A warrior prince of Oriel, upon the death of his betrothed he decided to study for the priesthood. He first joined St Ailbe at Emly, before travelling to Ninian 's Candida Casa in Scotland, where he was ordained. About 484 he established the first Irish monastery at Killeaney on Aran Mor. Finnian of Clonard is said to have studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in Glamorganshire. Finnian of Moville studied under Colman of Dromore and Mochae of Noendrum, before he too went to Candida Casa.
Ireland was a rural society of chieftains living in the countryside. As in Wales, if a clan chieftain accepted Christianity so did those he ruled. Commonly Irish monasteries were established by grants of land to an abbot or abbess who came from a local noble family. The monastery became the spiritual focus of the tribe or kin group. Successive abbots and abbesses were members of the founder 's family, a policy which kept the monastic lands under the jurisdiction of the family (and corresponded to Irish legal tradition, which only allowed the transfer of land within a family). In Ireland, the abbot was often called "coarb '', a term designating the heir of successor of the founder.
The abbots of the principal monasteries -- such as Clonard, Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Swords, etc. -- were of the highest rank and held in the greatest esteem. They wielded great power and had vast influence. The abbot usually was only a presbyter, but in the large monasteries there were one or more resident bishops who conferred orders and discharged the other functions of a bishop. The abbot was superior of the house, and all were subject to him.
The Irish rule was rigorous. It was more or less a copy of the French rule, as the French was a copy of the Thebaid. The daily routine of monastic life was prayer, study, and manual labor. With regard to food the rule was very strict. Only one meal a day, at 3 o'clock p.m., was allowed, except on Sundays and Feast days. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast days, except the interval between Easter and Whit Sunday. The food allowed was barley bread, milk, fish, and eggs. Flesh meat was not allowed except on great feasts.
In Ireland a distinctive form of penance developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well. Penance was considered therapeutic rather than punitive. Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials '', designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin. According to Thomas Pollock Oakley, the penitential guides first developed in Wales, probably at St. David 's, and spread by missions to Ireland.
Irish monasticism maintained the model of a monastic community while, like John Cassian, marking the contemplative life of the hermit as the highest form of monasticism. Saints ' lives frequently tell of monks (and abbots) departing some distance from the monastery to live in isolation from the community. Irish monastic rules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes.
Irish monks needed to learn Latin, the language of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular, with an enthusiasm that their contemporaries on the continent lacked. Subjects taught included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, arithmetic, chronology, the Holy Places, hymns, sermons, natural science, history and especially the interpretation of Sacred Scripture. In 544 St Ciarán founded a monastery at Clonmacnoise, which became one of the most important centres of learning and religious life in Ireland. Contrary to common practice, the title of abbot -- which included the title "Comarba of Saint Ciarán '' -- at the community was not hereditary, which reflected the humble origins of its founder. In 557 St Brendan founded a monastery at Clonfert.
By the end of the seventh century, Irish monastic schools were attracting students from England and from Europe.
The achievements of insular art, in illuminated manuscripts like the Book of Kells, high crosses, and metalwork like the Ardagh Chalice, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art. The manuscripts were produced by and for monasteries, and evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops.
The monastery of Saint Brigit, at Kildare was a double monastery, with both men and women ruled by the Abbess, a pattern found in other monastic foundations.
Irish monasticism spread widely, first to Scotland and Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy. Columba and his followers established monasteries at Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at Iona, an island north - west of Scotland, and at Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at the request of King Oswald of Northumbria. Abbots of Iona were normally appointed from the founders kin, with an abbot often naming hhis successor.
Columbanus, an abbot from a Leinster noble family, traveled to Gaul in the late 6th century with twelve companions. Columbanus and his followers spread the Irish model of monastic institutions to the continent. A whole series of new monastic foundations under Irish influence sprang up, starting with Columbanus 's foundations of Luxeuil and Fontaine - lès - Luxeuil and, sponsored by the Frankish King Childebert II. After Childebert 's death Columbanus traveled east to Metz, where Theudebert II allowed him to establish a new monastery among the semi-pagan Alemanni in what is now Switzerland. One of Columbanus 's followers founded the monastery of St. Gall on the shores of Lake Constance, while Columbanus continued onward across the Alps to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. There King Agilulf and his wife Theodolinda granted Columbanus land in the mountains between Genoa and Milan, where he established the monastery of Bobbio. From about 698 until the reign of Charlemagne in the 770s, the Hiberno - Scottish efforts in the Frankish Empire were continued by the Anglo - Saxon mission. The rule of St. Columbanus, which was originally followed in most of these monasteries, was eventually superseded by that of St. Benedict.
Benedict of Nursia is the most influential of Western monks and is called "the father of western monasticism ''. He was educated in Rome but soon sought the life of a hermit in a cave at Subiaco, outside the city. He then attracted followers with whom he founded the monastery of Monte Cassino around 520, between Rome and Naples. He established the Rule, adapting in part the earlier anonymous Rule of the Master (Regula magistri), which was written somewhere south of Rome around 500, and defined the activities of the monastery, its officers, and their responsibilities. By the ninth century, largely under the inspiration of the Emperor Charlemagne, Benedict 's Rule became the basic guide for Western monasticism.
While the Celtic monasteries had a stronger connection to the semi-eremitical tradition of Egypt via Lérins and Tours, Benedict and his followers were more influenced by the cenobitism of St Pachomius and Basil the Great. Early Benedictine monasteries were relatively small and consisted of an oratory, refectory, dormitory, scriptorium, guest accommodation and out - buildings, a group of often quite separate rooms more reminiscent of a decent sized Roman villa than a large medieval abbey. A monastery of about a dozen monks would have been normal during this period.
Medieval monastic life consisted of prayer, reading, and manual labor. Prayer was a monk 's first priority. Apart from prayer, monks performed a variety of tasks, such as preparing medicine, lettering, reading, and others. Also, these monks would work in the gardens and on the land. They might also spend time in the Cloister, a covered colonnade around a courtyard, where they would pray or read. Some monasteries held a scriptorium where monks would write or copy books. When the monks wrote, they used very neat handwriting and would draw illustrations in the books. As a part of their unique writing style, they decorated the first letter of each paragraph.
The efficiency of Benedict 's cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made them very productive. The monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge. Vikings started attacking Irish monasteries famous for learning in 793. One monk wrote about how he did not mind the bad weather one evening because it kept the Vikings from coming: "Bitter is the wind tonight, it tosses the ocean 's white hair, I need not fear -- as on a night of calm sea -- the fierce raiders from Lochlann. ''
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the growing pressure of monarchies and the nation states undermined the wealth and power of the orders. Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the Protestant reformation many monasteries in Northern Europe were shut down and their assets seized.
Many distinct monastic orders developed within Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Monastic communities in the West, broadly speaking, are organized into orders and congregations guided by a particular religious rule, such as the Rule of St Augustine or especially Rule of St Benedict. Eastern Orthodoxy does not have a system of orders per se, though some of the Eastern Catholic Churches do.
After the foundation of the Lutheran Churches, some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as Amelungsborn Abbey near Negenborn and Loccum Abbey in Rehburg - Loccum) and convents (such as Ebstorf Abbey near the town of Uelzen and Bursfelde Abbey in Bursfelde) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith.
Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries. Since the 19th century there have been a renewal in the monastic life among Protestants. There are many present - day Lutherans who practice the monastic teaching of the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1947 Mother Basilea Schlink and Mother Martyria founded the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, in Darmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots.
In 1948 Bavarian Lutheran pastor Walter Hümmer and his wife Hanna founded the Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz.
In other Lutheran traditions "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ '' was established at St. Augustine 's House in Oxford, Michigan, in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur 's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there are 2 permanent professed members and 2 long - term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (Östanbäck monastery) and in Germany the (Priory of St. Wigbert). In Germany, Communität Casteller Ring is a Lutheran Benedictine community for women. In 2011, an Augustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine (Societas Sacerdotalis Sancti Augustini) was established by the Anglo - Lutheran Catholic Church. It follows the Rule of St. Augustine, its headquarters is at Christ Lutheran Church ALCC. Kent Island, Maryland, and Fr. Jens Bargmann, Ph. D., is the Grand Prior.
In Lutheran Sweden, religious life for women had been established already in 1954, when Sister Marianne Nordström made her profession through contacts with The Order of the Holy Paraclete and Mother Margaret Cope (1886 -- 1961) at St Hilda 's Priory, Whitby, Yorkshire.
In England, John Wycliffe, organized the Lollard Preacher Order (the "Poor Priests '') to promote his views, many of which resounded with those held by the later Protestant Reformers.
Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end with Dissolution of the Monasteries during the reign of King Henry VIII. The property and lands of the monasteries were confiscated and either retained by the king or sold to catholic landowners or given to loyal protestant nobility. Monks and nuns were pensioned off and retired or some were forced to either flee for the continent or to abandon their vocations. For around 300 years, there were no monastic communities within any of the Anglican churches.
Shortly after the Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring catholic faith and practice to the Church of England (see Anglo - Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglican priest John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford in the 1840s while he was vicar of Church of St Mary and St Nicholas, Littlemore. From then forward, there have been many communities of monks, friars, sisters, and nuns established within the Anglican Communion. In 1848, Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. In October 1850 the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, printing press and soup kitchen. From the 1840s and throughout the following one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India and the Pacific.
Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so - called "mixed life '', a combination of a life of contemplative prayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of Roman Catholicism. Like Roman Catholic religious, Anglican religious also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religious communities live together under a common rule, reciting the Divine Office and celebrating the Eucharist daily.
In the early 20th century when the Anglo - Catholic movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in the United Kingdom and the United States. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in religious communities around the world. While vocations remain few in some areas, Anglican religious communities are experiencing exponential growth in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.
Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of R.A. Torrey, founded Jesus Abbey as a missionary community in Korea. It has some links with the Episcopal Church and holds an Evangelical doctrine.
In February 2001, the United Methodist Church organized the Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery. It is a Methodist - Benedictine residential double monastery in Collegeville, Minnesota. Besides monastic orders, the Order of Saint Luke is a dispersed religious order within Methodism.
The Community of the Sisterhood Emmanuel was founded in 1973 in Makak - in the Centre Province by Mother Marie, one of the first female Pastors of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. In 1975 she moved the community to the present site - at Agyati in Bafut. It has 10 finally consecrated Sisters, four in simple vows and a handful of others in formation. The Sisters are trained in strong collaboration with the sister Institutes of the Catholic Church. They say that one of their charisms is ecumenism. The Sisterhood Emmanuel is the only Presbyterian Monastery in Cameroon.
The Shakers, who are also known as the "Shaking Quakers '', have been characterized as a "Protestant monastic order providing refuge and otherworldly compensation ''. They practice a celibate and communal lifestyle, pacifism, and their model of equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s. They are also known for their simple living, architecture, and furniture. Sincere newcomers are invited to become Shakers:
If someone wants to become a Shaker, and the Shakers assent, the would - be member can move into the dwelling house. If the novices, as they are called, stay a week, they sign an articles of agreement, which protects the colony from being sued for lost wages. After a year, the Shakers will take a vote whether to allow the novice in, but it takes another four years to be granted full Shaker status in sharing in the colony 's finances and administrative and worship decisions.
Currently, there are two remaining Shakers, Brother Arnold Hadd and Sister June Carpenter, though they hope that others will join them at the only remaining Shaker community, the Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village.
Christian monasticism is experiencing renewal in the form of several new foundations with an ' inter-Christian ' vision for their respective communities.
In 1944 Roger Schütz, a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church, founded a small religious brotherhood in France which became known as the Taizé Community. Although he was partly inspired by the hope of reviving monasticism in the Protestant tradition, the brotherhood was interdenominational, accepting Roman Catholic brothers, and is thus an ecumenical rather than a specifically Protestant community.
The Order of Ecumenical Franciscans is a religious order of men and women devoted to following the examples of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Clare of Assisi in their life and understanding of the Christian gospel: sharing a love for creation and those who have been marginalized. It includes members of many different denominations, including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and a range of Protestant traditions. The Order understands its charism to include not only ecumenical efforts and the traditional emphases of the Franciscans in general, but also to help to develop relationships between the various Franciscan orders.
Additional expressions of ecumenical monasticism can be seen in the Bose Monastic Community and communities of the New Monasticism movement arising from Protestant Evangelicalism.
In 1999 an independent Protestant order was founded named The Knights of Prayer Monastic Order. The community maintains several monks in its Portland, Oregon, cloister and has an international network of associated lay people. It is not affiliated with any particular congregation.
In traditional Catholic societies, monastic communities often took charge of social services such as education and healthcare. The legacy of monasteries outside remains an important current in modern society. Max Weber compared the closeted and Puritan societies of the English Dissenters, who sparked much of the industrial revolution, to monastic orders. Many Utopian thinkers (starting with Thomas More) felt inspired by the common life of monks to apply it to the whole society (an example is the phalanstère). Modern universities have also attempted to emulate Christian monasticism. Even in the Americas, universities are built in the gothic style of twelfth century monasteries. Communal meals, dormitory residences, elaborate rituals and dress all borrow heavily from the monastic tradition. Today monasticism remains an important part of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican faiths.
The capitulary of 789 reads: "Let every monastery and every abbey have its school, in which boys may be taught the Psalms, the system of musical notation, singing, arithmetic and grammar ''. There can be no doubt that by boys are meant not only the candidates for the monastery and the wards (generally the children of nobles) committed to the care of the monks, but also the children of the village or country district around the monastery, for whom there was usually an external school attached to groups of monastic buildings.
In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their scriptoria. A prospective monk first learned grammar, logic, and oratory. Later, he would take up mathematics, astronomy, and music. The students would use a stylus on wax. Later, when their handwriting improved, they would be given ink and parchment. Eventually, many of those schools became universities. Monks in scriptoria copied texts of Greece and Rome, as well as religious texts, and kept these manuscripts from being lost during the tumultuous Middle Ages.
Monastic pharmacies stored and studied medicaments. Some of the works that the monks copied were by medical writers, and reading and copying these works helped create a store of medical knowledge. Monasteries had infirmaries to treat the monks, travelers, the poor, old, weak and sick. In 2005, archeologists uncovered waste at Soutra Aisle which helped scientists figure out how people in the Middle Ages treated certain diseases, such as scurvy; because of the vitamin C in watercress, patients would eat it to stop their teeth from falling out. The same archeological group discovered hemlock, a known pain killer, in the drains of the hospital.
Monasteries also aided in the development of agricultural techniques. The requirement of wine for the Mass led to the development of wine culture, as shown in the discovery of the méthode champenoise by Dom Perignon. Several liquors like Bénédictine and the Trappist beers were also developed in monasteries. Even today many monasteries and convents are locally renowned for their cooking specialties.
The consequence of this centralisation of knowledge was that they initially controlled both public administration and education, where the trivium led through the quadrivium to theology. Christian monks cultivated the arts as a way of praising God. Gregorian chant and miniatures are examples of the practical application of quadrivium subjects.
The status of monks as apart from secular life (at least theoretically) also served a social function. Dethroned Visigothic kings were tonsured and sent to a monastery so that they could not claim the crown back. Monasteries became a place for second sons to live in celibacy so that the family inheritance went to the first son; in exchange the families donated to the monasteries. Few cities lacked both a St Giles house for lepers outside the walls and a Magdalene house for prostitutes and other women of notoriety within the walls, and some orders were favored by monarchs and rich families to keep and educate their maiden daughters before arranged marriage.
The monasteries also provided refuge to those like Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who retired to Yuste in his late years, and his son Philip II of Spain, who was functionally as close to a monastic as his regal responsibilities permitted.
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why do we call pure capitalism a price system | Price system - wikipedia
In economics, a price system is a component of any economic system that uses prices expressed in any form of money for the valuation and distribution of goods and services and the factors of production. Except for possible remote and primitive communities, all modern societies use price systems to allocate resources, although price systems are not used exclusively for all resource allocation decisions.
A price system may be either a fixed price system where prices are administered by a government body, or it may be a free price system where prices are left to float "freely '' as determined by supply and demand uninhibited by regulations. A mixed price system involves a combination of both administered and unregulated prices.
Price systems have been around as long as there has been money.
The price system has evolved into the system of global capitalism that is present in the early 21st century. The Soviet Union and other Communist states with a centralized planned economy maintained controlled price systems. Whether the ruble or the dollar is used in the economic system, the criterion of a price system is the use of money as an arbiter and usual final arbiter of whether a thing is done or not. In other words, few things are done without consideration for the monetary costs and the potential making of a profit in a price system.
The American economist Thorstein Veblen wrote a seminal tract on the development of the term as discussed in this article: The Engineers and the Price System. Its chapter VI, A Memorandum on a Practicable Soviet of Technicians discusses the possibility of socialist revolution in the United States comparable to that then occurring in Russia (the Soviets had not yet at that time become a state (USSR formed in 1922)).
The original conception of socialism involved the substitution of money as a unit of calculation and monetary prices as a whole with calculation in kind (or valuation based on natural units), with business and financial decisions replaced by engineering and technical criteria for managing the economy. Fundamentally, this meant that socialism would operate under different economic dynamics than those of capitalism and the price system.
In the 1930s, the economists Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner developed a comprehensive model of a socialist economy that utilized a price system and money for the allocation of capital goods. In contrast to a free - market price system, "socialist '' prices would be set by a planning board to equal the marginal cost of production to achieve neoclassical Pareto efficiency. Because this model of socialism relied upon money and administered prices as opposed to non-monetary calculation in physical magnitudes, it was labelled "market socialism ''. In effect, Oskar Lange conceded that calculations in a socialist system would have to be performed in value terms with a functioning price system rather than using purely natural or engineering criteria as in the classic concept of socialism.
Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek argued that a free price system allowed economic coordination via the price signals that changing prices send, which is regarded as one of his most significant and influential contributions to economics.
In "The Use of Knowledge in Society '', he wrote, "The price system is just one of those formations which man has learned to use (though he is still very far from having learned to make the best use of it) after he had stumbled upon it without understanding it. Through it not only a division of labor but also a coördinated utilization of resources based on an equally divided knowledge has become possible. The people who like to deride any suggestion that this may be so usually distort the argument by insinuating that it asserts that by some miracle just that sort of system has spontaneously grown up which is best suited to modern civilization. It is the other way round: man has been able to develop that division of labor on which our civilization is based because he happened to stumble upon a method which made it possible. Had he not done so, he might still have developed some other, altogether different, type of civilization, something like the "state '' of the termite ants, or some other altogether unimaginable type. ' "(1)
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when does the school year start in israel | Education in Israel - wikipedia
Education in Israel refers to the comprehensive education system of Israel. The education system consists of three tiers: primary education (grades 1 - 6, approx. ages 6 -- 12), middle school (grades 7 - 9, approx. ages 12 -- 15) and high school (grades 10 - 12, approx. ages 15 -- 18). Compulsory education takes place from kindergarten through to 12th grade. The school year begins on September 1, ending for elementary school pupils on 30 June, and for middle school and high school pupils on 20 June.
Education in Israel is highly valued in the national culture with its historical values dating back to Ancient Israel as education was viewed as one of the fundamental blocks of Ancient Israelite life and civilization. Israeli culture views higher education as the key to higher mobility and socioeconomic status in Israeli society. For millennia medieval European antisemitism often forbade the Jews from owning land and farming, which limited their career choices for making a decent living. This forced many Jews to place a much higher premium on education allowing them to seek alternative career options that involved entrepreneurial and white - collar professional pursuits such as merchant trading, science, medicine, law, accountancy, and moneylending as these professions required higher levels of verbal, mathematical, and scientific literacy. The emphasis of education within Israeli society has its modern roots at least since the Jewish diaspora from the Renaissance and Enlightenment Movement all the way to the roots of Zionism in the 1880s. Jewish communities in the Levant were the first to introduce compulsory education for which the organized community, not less than the parents, was responsible for the education of the next generation. With contemporary Jewish culture 's strong emphasis, promotion of scholarship and learning and the strong propensity to promote cultivation of intellectual pursuits as well as the nation 's high university educational attainment rate exemplifies how highly Israeli society values higher education.
Israel 's populace is well educated and Israeli society highly values education. Education is a core value in Jewish culture and in Israeli society at large with many Israeli parents sacrificing their own personal comforts and financial resources to provide their children with the highest standards of education possible. Much of the Israeli Jewish population seek education as a passport to a decent job and a middle class paycheck in the country 's competitive high - tech economy. Jewish parents especially mothers take great responsibility to inculcate the value of education in their children at a young age. Striving for high academic achievement and educational success is stressed in many modern Jewish Israeli households as parents make sure that their children are well educated adequately in order to gain the necessary technological skills needed for employment success to compete in Israel 's modern high - tech job market. Israelis see competency with in demand job skills such as literacy in math and science as especially necessary for employment success in Israel 's competitive 21st - century high - tech economy. Israel 's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46 %) hold post-secondary degrees. This figure has remained stable in their already high levels of educational attainment over recent generations. Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world. In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage. Maariv described the Christian Arabs sectors as "the most successful in education system '', since Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other religion in Israel. Israeli children from Russian - speaking families have a higher bagrut pass rate at high - school level. Although amongst immigrant children born in the Former Soviet Union, the bagrut pass rate is highest amongst those families from European FSU states at 62.6 %, and lower amongst those from Central Asian and Caucasian FSU states. In 2014, 61.5 % of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.
As the Israeli economy is largely scientific and technological based, the labor market demands people who have achieved some form of higher education, particularly related to science and engineering in order to gain a competitive edge when searching for employment. In 2012, the country ranked second among OECD countries (tied with Japan and after Canada) for the percentage of 25 to 64 - year - olds that have attained tertiary education with 46 percent compared with the OECD average of 32 percent. In addition, nearly twice as many Israelis aged 55 -- 64 held a higher education degree compared to other OECD countries, with 47 percent holding an academic degree compared with the OECD average of 25 %. It ranks fifth among OECD countries for the total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP. In 2011, the country spent 7.3 % of its GDP on all levels of education, comparatively more than the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development average of 6.3 % and as a result has fostered an education system that helped transform the country and rapidly grow its economy over the past 70 years.
The Israeli education system has been praised for various reasons, including its high quality and its major role in spurring Israel 's economic development and technological boom. Many international business leaders and organizations such as Microsoft founder Bill Gates and the technology giant IBM have praised Israel for its high quality of education in helping spur Israel 's economic development.
Israeli schools are divided into four different tracks: state - secular (Mamlachti), state - religious (Mamlachti dati), independent religious (חרדי Haredi or חינוך עצמאי Ḥinuch Atzmai), and Arab. There are also private schools which reflect the philosophies of specific groups of parents (Democratic Schools), or that are based on the curriculum of a foreign country (e.g., The American International School in Israel). The majority of Israeli children attend state schools. State - religious schools, catering to youngsters from the Orthodox sector (mainly Religious Zionist / Modern Orthodox), offer intensive Jewish studies programs, and emphasize tradition and observance. The Chinuch Atzmai schools focus almost entirely on Torah study and offer very little in terms of secular subjects. Schools in the Arab sector teach in Arabic, and offer a curriculum that emphasizes Arab history, religion, and culture.
The proportions of pupils attending schools in the Haredi and Arab sectors are increasing; according to a demographic study published in 2009, Haredim and Arabs together will amount to 60 % of Israel 's elementary school population by 2030. Haredim and Arab citizens are underrepresented in both the Israel Defense Forces and the workforce, since both groups are exempt from the otherwise compulsory military service, and in many Haredi sects men choose to focus only on religious studies throughout their life and rely financially on support from co-religionists, the State, etc.
The Haredim 's lack of mainstream education, and consequent low participation in the workforce, are regarded by many in Israel as a social problem. The Council for Higher Education announced in 2012 that it was investing NIS 180 million over the following five years to establish appropriate frameworks for the education of Haredim, focusing on specific professions. Israel 's Ministry of Education 's statistics from 2014 show that only about 22 percent of Haredi students take matriculation exams, since Orthodox yeshivot mostly ignore core subjects. About 8 percent of Haredi students pass the exam. Miriam Ben - Peretz, professor emeritus of education at the University of Haifa, and winner of the 2006 Israel Prize notes: "More and more Israeli students do n't have any foundation of knowledge, any basics -- not in math, not in English, not in general... things have to change. '' Some Israelis who have been educated in Haredi yeshivas have established Leaving for Change (LFC), an organization seeking to sue the government for alleged failure to enforce Israel 's law for compulsory education.
In 1984, the first integrated schools which had both Jewish and Arab students coexisting in a classroom were built by the residents of Neve Shalom -- Wāħat as - Salām, a cooperative village founded by Arab and Jewish citizens of Israel. Today, this school receives some support from the state. Two more integrated schools were opened in Jerusalem and Galilee (Galil Jewish - Arab School) in 1997 by Hand in Hand: Center for Jewish Arab Education in Israel. As of 2010, there were five integrated schools in Israel, including Neve Shalom.
The Israeli Pupils ' Rights Law of 2000 prohibits discrimination of students for sectarian reasons in admission to or expulsion from an educational institution, in establishment of separate educational curricula or holding of separate classes in the same educational institution, and addresses rights and obligations of pupils. The law was fully supported by the Israeli Student and Youth Council However, discrimination still exists: in 2005, the municipality of Lod refused to allow a three - year - old Arab child to register in a Jewish kindergarten.
High schools in Israel prepare students for the Israeli matriculation exams (bagrut). These are exams covering various academic disciplines, which are studied in units (yehidot limud) of one to five on an ascending scale of difficulty. Students with a passing mark on the mandatory matriculation subjects (Hebrew language, English language, mathematics, scripture, history, state studies and literature), who have been tested on at least 21 units, and passed at least one 5 - unit exam, receive a full matriculation certificate. In 2006 / 7, 74.4 % of Israeli 12th graders took the bagrut exams while only 46.3 % were eligible for a matriculation certificate. In the Arab and Druze sectors, the figures were 35.6 % and 43.7 % respectively.
A Bagrut certificate and Bagrut scores often determine acceptance into elite military units, admission to academic institutions, and job prospects.
Below is a table illustrating the percentage of matriculation certificate recipients in Israel 's largest cities, according to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (graduation year of 2002).
The Adva Center, a social issues think tank in Israel, says that about 15 % of the matriculation certificates issued do not qualify the recipient for admission to Israel 's universities.
Christian Arabs tend to have had the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinations, both in comparison to the Muslims and the Druze and in comparison to all students in the Jewish education system.
After secondary education, students are generally conscripted into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), but may request a postponement of the conscription date to study at a pre-service Mechina, undertake a voluntary service year, or study in a college or university. Those who study in a university at this stage generally do so under a program called atuda, where the tuition for their bachelor 's degree is paid for by the army. They are however obliged to sign a contract with the army extending their service by 2 -- 3 years.
Universities generally require a certain amount of bagrut matriculation units (as well as a certain grade average) and a good grade in the Psychometric Entrance Test, which is similar in many respects to the American SAT. The Open University of Israel accepts all applicants regardless of their academic history, though it still maintains high academic standards. All of Israel 's nine public universities, and some of its colleges, are subsidized by the government, and students pay only a small part of the actual cost of tuition. Students who completed military service are entitled to a 90 % discount on their first - year tuition fees. Further financial assistance is provided by student loans, grants, and scholarships approved by the Ministry of Education.
The Psychometric Entrance Test (colloquially known in Hebrew simply as "psychometry '' - psixometri, פסיכומטרי) is a standardized test used as a higher education admission exam. The PET covers three areas: quantitative reasoning, verbal reasoning and the English language. It is administered by the Israeli National Institute for Testing and Evaluation (NITE) and is heavily weighed for university admissions. The test may be taken in Hebrew, Arabic, Russian, French, Spanish, or combined Hebrew / English.
According to the OECD, the median age Israeli students complete their first degree is slightly above 27.
According to the Webometrics ranking, six of Israel 's universities place in the top 100 schools of Asia. Four universities place in the top 150 in the world according to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities, and three are in the Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings (i.e. amongst the "Top 200 World Universities ''). Of note, the prestigious NYU, which enrolls the largest number of Jewish students of any public or private university in the United States, and is ranked in the top 34 globally in all major publications of university rankings, has a campus in Tel Aviv.
In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 of the top world universities in science and engineering - related subjects, according to the QS World University Rankings: mathematics (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion); physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science); chemistry (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion); computer science (TAU, Hebrew University, Weizmann Institute of Science, BIU and Technion); engineering (Technion); life sciences (Hebrew University).
In the social sciences, TAU and the Hebrew University rank in the top 100, and these universities are also ranked in the top 100 for economics; Israel is ranked 23rd on RePEc 's Country and State Ranking for economics.
In 2010, Hebrew University reached 57th place in the global ranking list published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China.
Despite strong post-secondary rankings, Israel spends less per student than countries like Norway and Mexico.
Some officials have criticized the claim that the strong test scores prove Israel is a highly educated country, pointing out that scores from standardized tests exclude haredi and special education students, and thus are not an accurate reflection. Israeli teachers must contend with large classes, low wages and low morale. Despite this, Israel ranks second among OECD countries (tied with Japan and just after Canada) for the percentage of 25 - to 64 - year - olds that have achieved tertiary education: 46 % compared with an OECD average of 32 %. Inequality is a problem reflected in Israel 's performance on international tests. In the latest Pisa exams, in which half a million students from 65 countries participated, Israel ranked 33 in reading achievement and 40th in mathematics and science. Only Taiwan had larger gaps in the performance between the best and worst students.
Israel is a signatory of the Convention against Discrimination in Education, and ratified it in 1961. The convention has the status of law in Israeli courts.
Israel operates an Arab education system for the Israeli - Arab minority, teaching Arab students, in Arabic, about their history and culture. However, there have been claims that the Jewish education system gets more resources. According to the Follow - Up Committee for Arab Education, the Israeli government spends an average of $192 per year on each Arab student, and $1,100 per Jewish student. It also notes that drop - out rate for Israeli Arab citizens is twice as high as that of their Jewish counterparts (12 percent versus 6 percent). The same group also noted that in 2005, there was a 5,000 - classroom shortage in the Arab sector.
In 1999, in attempt to close the gap between Arab and Jewish education sectors, the Israeli education minister, Yossi Sarid, announced an affirmative action policy, promising that Arabs would be granted 25 % of the education budget, more than their proportional share in the population (18 %). He also added that the ministry would support the creations of an Arab academic college.
In 2001, a Human Rights Watch report stated that students in government - run Arab schools received inferior education due to fewer teachers, inadequate school construction, and lack of libraries and recreational space. Jewish schools were found to be better equipped, some offering film editing studios and theater rooms. In 2009, Sorel Cahan of Hebrew University 's School of Education claimed that the average per - student budget allocation for students with special needs at Arab junior high schools was five times lower.
In 2007, the Israeli Education Ministry announced a plan to increase funding for schools in Arab communities. According to a ministry official, "At the end of the process, a lot of money will be directed toward schools with students from families with low education and income levels, mainly in the Arab sector. '' The Education Ministry prepared a five - year plan to close the gaps and raise the number of students eligible for high school matriculation.
A 2009 report showed that obstacles to Arab students participating in higher education resulted in over 5,000 moving to study in nearby Jordan. The Association for Civil Rights in Israel and various scholars have criticized wide disparities in education access between Jewish Israelis and Arab Israelis, and underfunding of Arab schools.
The Ministry of Education announced in April 2010 that the suggested curriculum for the coming school year would not include civics, democratic values, or Jewish - Arab coexistence, and focus more on Zionist and Jewish values.
In 2010, the number of computer science teachers in the Arab sector rose by 50 %. The Arab sector also saw a rise of 165 % in instructors teaching technology classes and a 171 % increase in the number teaching mathematics. The number of physics teachers in Arab schools grew by 25 %, those teaching chemistry by 44 % and in biology by 81.7 %.
According to a 2012 report by the Higher Arab Monitoring Committee, there is a shortage of 6,100 classrooms and 4,000 teachers in Arab communities.
Christian Arabs tend to have had the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinations, both in comparison to the Muslims and the Druze, and in comparison to all students in the Jewish education system. Arab Christians were also the vanguard in terms of eligibility for higher education, and they have attained a bachelor 's degree and academic degree more than the median Israeli population. The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was also higher among the Christian Arab students, compared with all the students from other sectors. The percentage of Arab Christian women who are higher education students is higher than other sectors.
The dropout rate in grades 8 - 12 is higher for males than females. In 2011, the dropout rate declined, but was still higher among males, with 4.5 % of male and 1.7 % of female students dropping out of school. In addition, the passing rate of high school matriculation exams stood at 62 % for females and 51 % for males. The rate of women studying in universities and colleges is also higher; in 2011 - 2012, 56.7 % of students at academic institutions were female. In 2012, women were also 59.3 % of candidates for Master 's degree programs and 52.4 % for doctorate programs.
However, 81 % of Israeli professors are men. In addition, fields such as engineering, electricity, physics, mathematics, computer science, and natural sciences are overwhelmingly male - dominated, though there are a large number of women in certain fields of engineering, such as biomedical, industrial, and environmental engineering. Women tend to study more in human and social sciences, such as education and occupational therapy.
Over the years, government budget cuts have taken their toll. Israel was amongst the top - ranked nations in international rankings for science and mathematics performance in the 1960s, but dropped to 33 out of 41 nations in the 2002 survey. Wages for Israeli teachers are low compared to other industrialized countries, especially due to the small amount of frontal teaching hours with respect to other developed countries (the salary per hour is similar to that of the OECD standards), according to a survey of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. The government - appointed Dovrat Commission, led by Shlomo Dovrat, concluded in 2004, that the key to improving Israeli education is not more money but better - quality teaching. The recommendations included a reform giving school principals the right to fire teachers of poor quality, and reward better ones with higher pay. These moves have been blocked by Israel 's teachers ' unions, which have paralyzed schools with a series of long strikes, mostly blocking the proposed reforms.
According to a paper by Nurit Peled - Elhanan, a professor of language and education at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, textbooks in Israel promote a negative image of Arabs. The Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace, a schoolbook monitoring organization, disputed this finding, calling her claim heavily politicized and distorted.
In a report published in 2000, the Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace stated that in textbooks of both the general state - run network and the religious state - run network, there was a genuine effort to remove stereotypes and to build a foundation for coexistence and mutual respect.
According to a 2011 report by the Arab Cultural Association, Arabic textbooks provided to third to ninth grade students in Israeli schools were found to contain many mistakes. The report was based on a study of textbooks in all subjects. Dr. George Mansour, who examined the history textbooks, said they ignored the presence of Arab - Palestinians in Israel and minimized Arab culture.
Israeli schools and universities have been subject to repeated strikes over the years by faculty, and, occasionally, by students. The 2007 Israeli student strike started in April 2007 in protest at the government decision to increase tuition fees and the failure to implement the 2001 Winograd Committee recommendation that they be reduced by 25 %. After three weeks, the universities threatened that all students who failed to return to their studies would have to retake the semester. Student leaders rejected a compromise which would have exempted students from the fee rises. Some students started a hunger strike. The strike ended on May 14 after student leaders accepted the implementation of the Shochat reforms. Middle and secondary school teachers were on strike for a month and a half. Their demands included an 8.5 % pay raise, reducing class sizes to a maximum of 30 students, and increasing the length of the school day. The school year was extended until July 10, 2008 for all schools that participated in the strike.
Each year, municipalities may receive an award for outstanding education initiatives and accomplishments. The 2012 Education Prize of the Israeli Ministry of Education and Culture was awarded to the municipalities of Ariel, Ashdod, Yokneam, Ma'aleh Adumim, Safed and Kiryat Bialik. The educational networks of these cities were cited for their unique projects, effectiveness of immigrant absorption, student empowerment, educational leadership, top - quality teaching, encouragement of entrepreneurship and innovation, and promoting excellence in a diverse school population.
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arc length of a portion of a circle | Circular segment - wikipedia
In geometry, a circular segment (symbol: ⌓) is a region of a circle which is "cut off '' from the rest of the circle by a secant or a chord. More formally, a circular segment is a region of two - dimensional space that is bounded by an arc (of less than 180 °) of a circle and by the chord connecting the endpoints of the arc.
Let R be the radius of the circle, θ the central angle in radians, α is the central angle in degrees, c the chord length, s the arc length, h the sagitta (height) of the segment, and d the height of the triangular portion.
The radius is
The radius in terms of h and c can be derived above by using the Intersecting Chords Theorem, where 2R (the diameter) and c are perpendicularly intersecting chords.
The arc length is
The arc length in terms of arcsin can be derived above by considering an inscribed angle that subtends the same arc, and one side of the angle is a diameter. The angle thus inscribed is θ / 2 and is part of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is the diameter. This is also useful in deriving other inverse trigonometric forms below.
With further aid of half - angle formulae and pythagorean identities, the chord length is
The sagitta is
The angle is
The area A of the circular segment is equal to the area of the circular sector minus the area of the triangular portion
with the central angle in radians, or
with the central angle in degrees.
The area formula can be used in calculating the volume of a partially - filled cylindrical tank.
In the design of windows or doors with rounded tops, c and h may be the only known values and can be used to calculate R for the draftsman 's compass setting.
One can reconstruct the full dimensions of a complete circular object from fragments by measuring the arc length and the chord length of the fragment.
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ships can transit between the atlantic and pacific oceans using the | Panama Canal - wikipedia
The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panamá) is an artificial 82 km (51 mi) waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 34 m (110 ft) wide. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began commercial operation on June 26, 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo.
France began work on the canal in 1881, but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15, 1914. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduced the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan.
Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos -- Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American -- Panamanian control, in 1999, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government - owned Panama Canal Authority.
Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal / Universal Measurement System (PC / UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes 11.38 hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world.
The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates back to 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ordered a survey for a route through the Americas that would ease the voyage for ships traveling between Spain and Peru. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese.
In 1668, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne speculated in his encyclopaedic endeavour Pseudodoxia Epidemica - "some Isthmus have been eat through by the Sea, and others cut by the spade: And if policy would permit, that of Panama in America were most worthy the attempt: it being but few miles over, and would open a shorter cut unto the East Indies and China ''.
In 1788, Thomas Jefferson suggested that the Spanish should create it since it would be a less treacherous route than going around the southern tip of South America, which tropical ocean currents would naturally widen thereafter. During an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction.
Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other trade links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill - fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort and it was abandoned in April 1700.
Numerous canals were built in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The success of the Erie Canal in the United States and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America led to a surge of American interest in building an inter-oceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with Gran Colombia (present - day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama), hoping to gain a concession for the building of a canal. Jealous of their newly obtained independence and fearing that they would be dominated by an American presence, the president Simón Bolívar and new granadans officials declined American offers. The new nation was politically unstable, and Panama rebelled several times during the 19th century.
Another effort was made in 1843. According to the New York Daily Tribune, August 24, 1843, a contract was entered into by Barings of London and the Republic of New Granada for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien (Isthmus of Panama). They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor. It was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal (and / or a railroad) across Mexico 's Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either.
In 1846, the Mallarino -- Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the US and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855. This overland link became a vital piece of Western Hemisphere infrastructure, greatly facilitating trade and largely determining the later canal route.
An all - water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal solution, and in 1855 William Kennish, a Manx - born engineer working for the United States government, surveyed the isthmus and issued a report on a route for a proposed Panama Canal. His report was published as a book entitled The Practicability and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
In 1877, Armand Reclus, an officer with the French Navy, and Lucien Napoléon Bonaparte Wyse, both engineers, surveyed the route and published a French proposal for a canal. French success in building the Suez Canal, while a lengthy project, encouraged planning for one to cross the isthmus.
The first attempt to construct a canal through what was then Colombia 's province of Panama began on January 1, 1881. The project was inspired by the diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was able to raise considerable finance in France as a result of the huge profits generated by his successful construction of the Suez Canal. Although the Panama Canal would eventually have to be only 40 percent as long as the Suez Canal, it would prove to be far more of an engineering challenge due to the tropical rain forests, climate, the need for canal locks, and the lack of any ancient route to follow.
De Lesseps wanted a sea - level canal (like the Suez), but he only visited the site a few times, during the dry season which lasts only four months of the year. His men were totally unprepared for the rainy season, during which the Chagres River, where the canal started, became a raging torrent, rising up to 10 m (35 ft). The dense jungle was alive with venomous snakes, insects, and spiders, but the worst aspect was the yellow fever and malaria (and other tropical diseases) which killed thousands of workers; by 1884, the death rate was over 200 per month. Public health measures were ineffective because the role of the mosquito as a disease vector was then unknown. Conditions were downplayed in France to avoid recruitment problems, but the high mortality rate made it difficult to maintain an experienced workforce.
Workers had to continually widen the main cut through the mountain at Culebra and reduce the angles of the slopes to minimize landslides into the canal. Steam shovels were used in the construction of the canal, purchased from Bay City Industrial Works, a business owned by William L. Clements in Bay City, Michigan. Other mechanical and electrical equipment was limited in capabilities, and steel equipment rusted rapidly in the climate.
In France, de Lesseps kept the investment and supply of workers flowing long after it was obvious that the targets were not being met, but eventually the money ran out. The French effort went bankrupt in 1889 after reportedly spending US $287,000,000 and losing an estimated 22,000 lives to disease and accidents, wiping out the savings of 800,000 investors. Work was suspended on May 15, and in the ensuing scandal, known as the Panama affair, some of those deemed responsible were prosecuted, including Gustave Eiffel. De Lesseps and his son Charles were found guilty of misappropriation of funds and sentenced to five years ' imprisonment, though this was later overturned, and the father, at 88, was never imprisoned.
In 1894, a second French company, the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, was created to take over the project. A minimal workforce of a few thousand people was employed primarily to comply with the terms of the Colombian Panama Canal concession, to run the Panama Railroad, and to maintain the existing excavation and equipment in salable condition. The company sought a buyer for these assets, with an asking price of US $109,000,000. In the meantime, they continued with enough activity to maintain their franchise. Phillipe Bunau - Varilla, the French manager of the New Panama Canal Company, eventually managed to persuade de Lesseps that a lock - and - lake canal was more realistic than a sea - level canal.
At this time, the President and the Senate of the United States were interested in establishing a canal across the isthmus, with some favoring a canal across Nicaragua and others advocating the purchase of the French interests in Panama. Bunau - Varilla, who was seeking American involvement, asked for $100 million, but accepted $40 million in the face of the Nicaraguan option. In June 1902, the US Senate voted in favor of pursuing the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained, in the Spooner Act.
On January 22, 1903, the Hay -- Herrán Treaty was signed by United States Secretary of State John M. Hay and Colombian Chargé Dr. Tomás Herrán. For $10 million and an annual payment, it would have granted the United States a renewable lease in perpetuity from Colombia on the land proposed for the canal. The treaty was ratified by the US Senate on March 14, 1903, but the Senate of Colombia did not ratify it. Bunau - Varilla told President Theodore Roosevelt and Hay of a possible revolt by Panamanian rebels who aimed to separate from Colombia, and hoped that the United States would support the rebels with US troops and money. Roosevelt changed tactics, based in part on the Mallarino -- Bidlack Treaty of 1846, and actively supported the separation of Panama from Colombia and, shortly after recognizing Panama, signed a treaty with the new Panamanian government under similar terms to the Hay -- Herrán Treaty.
On November 2, 1903, US warships blocked sea lanes for possible Colombian troop movements en route to put down the rebellion. Panama declared independence on November 3, 1903. The United States quickly recognized the new nation. On November 6, 1903, Philippe Bunau - Varilla, as Panama 's ambassador to the United States, signed the Hay -- Bunau - Varilla Treaty, granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses. This is sometimes misinterpreted as the "99 - year lease '' because of misleading wording included in article 22 of the agreement. Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country 's new national sovereignty. This would later become a contentious diplomatic issue among Colombia, Panama, and the United States.
President Roosevelt famously stated, "I took the Isthmus, started the canal and then left Congress not to debate the canal, but to debate me. '' Several parties in the United States called this an act of war on Colombia: The New York Times called the support given by the United States to Bunau - Varilla an "act of sordid conquest. '' The New York Evening Post called it a "vulgar and mercenary venture. '' It is often cited as the classic example of US gunboat diplomacy in Latin America, and the best illustration of what Roosevelt meant by the old African adage, "Speak softly and carry a big stick (and) you will go far. '' After the revolution in 1903, the Republic of Panama became a US protectorate until 1939.
Thus in 1904, the United States purchased the French equipment and excavations, including the Panama Railroad, for US $40 million, of which $30 million related to excavations completed, primarily in the Gaillard Cut (then called the Culebra Cut), valued at about $1.00 per cubic yard. The United States also paid the new country of Panama $10 million and a $250,000 payment each following year.
In 1921, Colombia and the United States entered into the Thomson -- Urrutia Treaty, in which the United States agreed to pay Colombia $25 million: $5 million upon ratification, and four - $5 million annual payments, and grant Colombia special privileges in the Canal Zone. In return, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation.
The US formally took control of the canal property on May 4, 1904, inheriting from the French a depleted workforce and a vast jumble of buildings, infrastructure, and equipment, much of it in poor condition. A US government commission, the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC), was established to oversee construction and was given control of the Panama Canal Zone, over which the United States exercised sovereignty. The commission reported directly to Secretary of War William Howard Taft and was directed to avoid the inefficiency and corruption that had plagued the French 15 years earlier.
On May 6, 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed John Findley Wallace, formerly chief engineer and finally general manager of the Illinois Central Railroad, as chief engineer of the Panama Canal Project. Overwhelmed by the disease - plagued country and forced to use often dilapidated French infrastructure and equipment, as well as being frustrated by the overly bureaucratic ICC, Wallace resigned abruptly in June 1905. He was succeeded by John Frank Stevens, a self - educated engineer who had built the Great Northern Railroad. Stevens was not a member of the ICC; he increasingly viewed its bureaucracy as a serious hindrance, bypassing the commission and sending requests and demands directly to the Roosevelt administration in Washington, DC.
One of Stevens ' first achievements in Panama was in building and rebuilding the housing, cafeterias, hotels, water systems, repair shops, warehouses, and other infrastructure needed by the thousands of incoming workers. Stevens began the recruitment effort to entice thousands of workers from the United States and other areas to come to the Canal Zone to work, and tried to provide accommodation in which the incoming workers could work and live in reasonable safety and comfort. He also re-established and enlarged the railway that was to prove crucial in transporting millions of tons of soil from the cut through the mountains to the dam across the Chagres River.
Colonel William C. Gorgas had been appointed chief sanitation officer of the canal construction project in 1904. Gorgas implemented a range of measures to minimize the spread of deadly diseases, particularly yellow fever and malaria, which had recently been shown to be mosquito - borne following the work of Dr. Carlos Finlay and Dr. Walter Reed. Investment was made in extensive sanitation projects, including city water systems, fumigation of buildings, spraying of insect - breeding areas with oil and larvicide, installation of mosquito netting and window screens, and elimination of stagnant water. Despite opposition from the commission (one member said his ideas were barmy), Gorgas persisted, and when Stevens arrived, he threw his weight behind the project. After two years of extensive work, the mosquito - spread diseases were nearly eliminated. Nevertheless, even with all this effort, about 5,600 workers died of disease and accidents during the US construction phase of the canal.
In 1905, a US engineering panel was commissioned to review the canal design, which still had not been finalized. It recommended to President Roosevelt a sea - level canal, as had been attempted by the French. However, in 1906 Stevens, who had seen the Chagres in full flood, was summoned to Washington and declared a sea - level approach to be "an entirely untenable proposition ''. He argued in favor of a canal using a lock system to raise and lower ships from a large reservoir 85 ft (26 m) above sea level. This would create both the largest dam (Gatun Dam) and the largest man - made lake (Gatun Lake) in the world at that time. The water to refill the locks would be taken from Gatun Lake by opening and closing enormous gates and valves and letting gravity propel the water from the lake. Gatun Lake would connect to the Pacific through the mountains at the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut. Stevens successfully convinced Roosevelt of the necessity and feasibility of the alternative scheme.
The construction of a canal with locks required the excavation of more than 170,000,000 cu yd (130,000,000 m) of material over and above the 30,000,000 cu yd (23,000,000 m) excavated by the French. As quickly as possible, the Americans replaced or upgraded the old, unusable French equipment with new construction equipment that was designed for a much larger and faster scale of work. About 102 new large, railroad - mounted steam shovels were purchased from the Marion Power Shovel Company and brought from the United States. These were joined by enormous steam - powered cranes, giant hydraulic rock crushers, concrete mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills, nearly all of which were manufactured by new, extensive machine - building technology developed and built in the United States. The railroad also had to be comprehensively upgraded with heavy - duty, double - tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate new rolling stock. In many places, the new Gatun Lake flooded over the original rail line, and a new line had to be constructed above Gatun Lake 's waterline.
In 1907, Stevens resigned as chief engineer. His replacement, appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt, was US Army Major George Washington Goethals of the US Army Corps of Engineers (soon to be promoted to lieutenant colonel and later to general), a strong, United States Military Academy -- trained leader and civil engineer with experience of canals (unlike Stevens). Goethals directed the work in Panama to a successful conclusion in 1914, two years ahead of the target date of June 10, 1916.
Goethals divided the engineering and excavation work into three divisions: Atlantic, Central, and Pacific. The Atlantic Division, under Major William L. Sibert, was responsible for construction of the massive breakwater at the entrance to Limon Bay, the Gatun locks, and their 31⁄2 mi (5.6 km) approach channel, and the immense Gatun Dam. The Pacific Division, under Sydney B. Williamson (the only civilian member of this high - level team), was similarly responsible for the Pacific 3 mi (4.8 km) breakwater in Panama Bay, the approach channel to the locks, and the Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks and their associated dams and reservoirs.
The Central Division, under Major David du Bose Gaillard of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, was assigned one of the most difficult parts: excavating the Culebra Cut through the continental divide to connect Gatun Lake to the Pacific Panama Canal locks.
On October 10, 1913, President Woodrow Wilson sent a signal from the White House by telegraph which triggered the explosion that destroyed the Gamboa Dike. This flooded the Culebra Cut, thereby joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Alexandre La Valley (a floating crane built by Lobnitz & Company, and launched in 1887) was the first self - propelled vessel to transit the canal from ocean to ocean. This vessel crossed the canal from the Atlantic in stages during construction, finally reaching the Pacific on January 7, 1914. SS Cristobal (a cargo and passenger ship built by Maryland Steel, and launched in 1902 as SS Tremont) was the first ship to transit the canal from ocean to ocean on August 3, 1914.
The construction of the canal was completed in 1914, 401 years after Panama was first crossed by Vasco Núñez de Balboa. The United States spent almost $500,000,000 (roughly equivalent to $9,169,650,000 now) to finish the project. This was by far the largest American engineering project to date. The canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914, with the passage of the cargo ship SS Ancon.
The opening of Panama Canal in 1914 caused a severe drop in traffic along Chilean ports due to shifts in the maritime trade routes.
Throughout this time, Ernest "Red '' Hallen was hired by the Isthmian Canal Commission to document the progress of the work.
By the 1930s, water supply became an issue for the canal, prompting construction of the Madden Dam across the Chagres River above Gatun Lake. Completed in 1935, the dam created Madden Lake (later Alajeula Lake), which provides additional water storage for the canal. In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks large enough to carry the larger warships that the United States was building at the time and planned to continue building. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the new approach channels, but the project was cancelled after World War II.
After World War II, US control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious; relations between Panama and the United States became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing - in of the zone and an increased military presence there. Demands for the United States to hand over the canal to Panama increased after the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the United States used financial and diplomatic pressure to force France and the UK to abandon their attempt to retake control of the Suez Canal, previously nationalized by the Nasser regime in Egypt. Unrest culminated in riots on Martyr 's Day, January 9, 1964, when about 20 Panamanians and 3 -- 5 US soldiers were killed.
A decade later, in 1974, negotiations toward a settlement began and resulted in the Torrijos -- Carter Treaties. On September 7, 1977, the treaty was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos, de facto leader of Panama. This mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama.
Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25 - year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canal 's Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong -- based shipping interest owned by Li Ka - shing.
While globally the Atlantic Ocean is east of the isthmus and the Pacific is west, the general direction of the canal passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific is from northwest to southeast, because of the shape of the isthmus at the point the canal occupies. The Bridge of the Americas (Spanish: Puente de las Américas) at the Pacific side is about a third of a degree east of the Colón end on the Atlantic side. Still, in formal nautical communications, the simplified directions "southbound '' and "northbound '' are used.
The canal consists of artificial lakes, several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of locks. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American era as Madden Lake), acts as a reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific is:
Thus, the total length of the canal is 50 miles.
Artificially created in 1913 by damming the Chagres River, Gatun Lake is an essential part of the Panama Canal, providing the millions of liters of water necessary to operate the Panama Canal locks each time a ship passes through. At the time it was formed, Gatun Lake was the largest human - made lake in the world. The impassable rainforest around the lake has been the best defense of the Panama Canal. Today these areas remain practically unscathed by human interference and are one of the few accessible areas where various native Central American animal and plant species can be observed undisturbed in their natural habitat.
The largest island on Gatun Lake is Barro Colorado Island. It was established for scientific study when the lake was formed, and is operated by the Smithsonian Institution. Many important scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Gatun Lake covers about 470 square kilometres (180 sq mi), a vast tropical ecological zone and part of the Atlantic Forest Corridor. Ecotourism on the lake has become an industry for Panamanians.
Gatun Lake also provides drinking water for Panama City and Colón. Fishing is one of the primary recreational pursuits on Gatun Lake. Non-native peacock bass were introduced by accident to Gatun Lake around 1967 by a local businessman, and have since flourished to become the dominant angling game fish in Gatun Lake. Locally called Sargento and believed to be the species Cichla pleiozona, these peacock bass originate from the Amazon, Rio Negro, and Orinoco river basins, where they are considered a premier game fish.
The size of the locks determines the maximum size ship that can pass through. Because of the importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximum size allowed. These are known as Panamax vessels. A Panamax cargo ship typically has a deadweight tonnage (DWT) of 65,000 -- 80,000 tonnes, but its actual cargo is restricted to about 52,500 tonnes because of the 12.6 m (41.2 ft) draft restrictions within the canal. The longest ship ever to transit the canal was the San Juan Prospector (now Marcona Prospector), an ore - bulk - oil carrier that is 296.57 m (973 ft) long with a beam of 32.31 m (106 ft).
Initially the locks at Gatun were designed to be 28.5 m (94 ft) wide. In 1908, the United States Navy requested that an increased width of at least 36 m (118 ft) to allow the passage of US naval ships. Eventually a compromise was made and the locks were built 33.53 m (110.0 ft) wide. Each lock is 320 m (1,050 ft) long, with the walls ranging in thickness from 15 m (49 ft) at the base to 3 m (9.8 ft) at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatun is 18 m (59 ft) thick and over 24 m (79 ft) high. The steel lock gates measure an average of 2 m (6.6 ft) thick, 19.5 m (64 ft) wide, and 20 m (66 ft) high. It is the size of the locks, specifically the Pedro Miguel Locks, along with the height of the Bridge of the Americas at Balboa, that determine the Panamax metric and limit the size of ships that may use the canal.
The 2006 third set of locks project has created larger locks, allowing bigger ships to transit through deeper and wider channels. The allowed dimensions of ships using these locks increased by 25 percent in length, 51 percent in beam, and 26 percent in draft, as defined by New Panamax metrics.
As with a toll road, vessels transiting the canal must pay tolls. Tolls for the canal are set by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo.
For container ships, the toll is assessed on the ship 's capacity expressed in twenty - foot equivalent units (TEUs), one TEU being the size of a standard intermodal shipping container. Effective April 1, 2016, this toll went from US $74 per loaded container to $60 per TEU capacity plus $30 per loaded container for a potential $90 per TEU when the ship is full. A Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400 TEU. The toll is calculated differently for passenger ships and for container ships carrying no cargo ("in ballast ''). As of April 1, 2016, the ballast rate is US $60, down from US $65.60 per TEU.
Passenger vessels in excess of 30,000 tons (PC / UMS), known popularly as cruise ships, pay a rate based on the number of berths, that is, the number of passengers that can be accommodated in permanent beds. The per - berth charge since April 1, 2016 is $111 for unoccupied berths and $138 for occupied berths in the Panamax locks. Started in 2007, this fee has greatly increased the tolls for such ships. Passenger vessels of less than 30,000 tons or less than 33 tons per passenger are charged according to the same per - ton schedule as are freighters. Almost all major cruise ships have more than 33 tons per passenger; the rule of thumb for cruise line comfort is generally given as a minimum of 40 tons per passenger.
Most other types of vessel pay a toll per PC / UMS net ton, in which one "ton '' is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.83 m). (The calculation of tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of fiscal year 2016, this toll is US $5.25 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, US $5.14 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US $5.06 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, reduced tolls are charged for freight ships "in ballast '', $4.19, $4.12, $4.05 respectively.
On 1 April 2016, a more complicated toll system was introduced, having the neopanamax locks at a higher rate in some cases, natural gas transport as a new separate category and other changes. As of October 1, 2017, there are modified tolls and categories of tolls in effect. Small (less than 125 ft) vessels up to 583 PC / UMS net tons when carrying passengers or cargo, or up to 735 PC / UMS net tons when in ballast, or up to 1,048 fully loaded displacement tons, are assessed minimum tolls based upon their length overall, according to the following table (as of 29 April 2015):
Morgan Adams of Los Angeles, California, holds the distinction of paying the first toll received by the United States Government for the use of the Panama Canal by a pleasure boat. His boat Lasata passed through the Zone on August 14, 1914. The crossing occurred during a 6,000 - mile sea voyage from Jacksonville, Florida, to Los Angeles in 1914.
The most expensive regular toll for canal passage to date was charged on April 14, 2010 to the cruise ship Norwegian Pearl, which paid US $375,600. The average toll is around US $54,000. The highest fee for priority passage charged through the Transit Slot Auction System was US $220,300, paid on August 24, 2006, by the Panamax tanker Erikoussa, bypassing a 90 - ship queue waiting for the end of maintenance work on the Gatun Locks, and thus avoiding a seven - day delay. The normal fee would have been just US $13,430.
The lowest toll ever paid was 36 cents (equivalent to $5.13 in 2017), by American Richard Halliburton who swam the Panama Canal in 1928.
In the 100 + years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Even though world shipping -- and the size of ships themselves -- has changed markedly since the canal was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargo than ever before, with fewer overhead costs. Nevertheless, the canal faces a number of potential concerns.
Opponents to the 1977 Torrijos - Carter Treaties feared that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the US withdrawal from the Panama Canal Zone; however, this has been proven not to be the case. Capitalizing on practices developed during the American administration, canal operations are improving under Panamanian control. Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency; according to the ACP, since 2000, it has ranged between 20 and 30 hours. The accident rate has also not changed appreciably in the past decade, varying between 10 and 30 accidents each year from about 14,000 total annual transits. An official accident is one in which a formal investigation is requested and conducted.
Increasing volumes of imports from Asia, which previously landed on US West Coast ports, are now passing through the canal to the American East Coast. The total number of ocean - going transits increased from 11,725 in 2003 to 13,233 in 2007, falling to 12,855 in 2009. (The canal 's fiscal year runs from October through September.) This has been coupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of Panamax vessels passing through the canal, so that the total tonnage carried rose from 227.9 million PC / UMS tons in fiscal year 1999 to a then record high of 312.9 million tons in 2007, and falling to 299.1 million tons in 2009. Tonnage for fiscal 2013, 2014 and 2015 was 320.6, 326.8 and 340.8 million PC / UMS tons carried on 13,660, 13,481 and 13,874 transits respectively. The Panama Canal Authority (ACP) has invested nearly US $1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20 percent. The ACP cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on passing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances to the canal. This is supported by new equipment, such as a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the tug boat fleet by 20 percent. In addition, improvements have been made to the canal 's operating machinery, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than 16 km (10 mi) of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal.
In December 2010, record - breaking rains caused a 17 - hour closure of the canal; this was the first closure since the United States invasion of Panama in 1989. The rains also caused an access road to the Centenario Bridge to collapse.
The canal is currently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year; as noted above, canal traffic in 2015 reached 340.8 million tons of shipping.
To improve capacity, a number of improvements have been made to the current canal system. These improvements aim to maximize the possible use of current locking system:
These improvements enlarged the capacity from 300 million PCUMS (2008) to 340 PCUMS (2012). It should be noted that these improvements were started before the new locks project, and are complementary to it.
Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls have risen as ships have become larger, some critics have suggested that the Suez Canal is now a viable alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the US East Coast. The Panama Canal, however, continues to serve more than 144 of the world 's trade routes and the majority of canal traffic comes from the "all - water route '' from Asia to the US East and Gulf Coasts.
On June 15, 2013, Nicaragua awarded the Hong Kong - based HKND Group a 50 - year concession to develop a canal through the country.
The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to speculation that the Northwest Passage or Arctic Bridge may become viable for commercial shipping at some point in the future. This route would save 9,300 km (5,800 mi) on the route from Asia to Europe compared with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some traffic to that route. However, such a route is beset by unresolved territorial issues and would still hold significant problems owing to ice.
Gatun Lake is filled with rainwater, and the lake accumulates excess water during wet months. The water is lost to the oceans at a rate of 101,000 m (26,700,000 US gal; 22,200,000 imp gal) per downward lock cycle. Since a ship will have to go upward to Gatun Lake first and then descend, a single passing will cost double the amount; but the same waterflow cycle can be used for another ship passing in the opposite direction. The ship 's submerged volume is not relevant to this amount of water. During the dry season, when there is less rainfall, there is also a shortfall of water in Gatun Lake.
As a signatory to the United Nations Global Compact and member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the ACP has developed an environmentally and socially sustainable program for expansion, which protects the aquatic and terrestrial resources of the canal watershed. The expansion guarantees the availability and quality of water resources by using water - saving basins at each new lock. These water - saving basins diminish water loss and preserve freshwater resources along the waterway by reusing water from the basins into the locks. Each lock chamber has three water - saving basins, which reuse 60 percent of the water in each transit. There are a total of nine basins for each of the two lock complexes, and a total of 18 basins for the entire project.
The mean sea level at the Pacific side is about 20 cm (8 in) higher than that of the Atlantic side due to differences in ocean conditions such as water densities and weather.
As demand is rising for efficient global shipping of goods, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature of world shipping for the foreseeable future. However, changes in shipping patterns -- particularly the increasing numbers of larger - than - Panamax ships -- necessitated changes to the canal for it to retain a significant market share. In 2006 it was anticipated that by 2011, 37 percent of the world 's container ships would be too large for the present canal, and hence a failure to expand would result in a significant loss of market share. The maximum sustainable capacity of the original canal, given some relatively minor improvement work, was estimated at 340 million PC / UMS tons per year; it was anticipated that this capacity would be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50 percent of transiting vessels were already using the full width of the locks.
An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, to allow for a greater number of transits and the ability to handle larger ships, had been under consideration for some time, was approved by the government of Panama, The cost was estimated at US $5.25 billion, and the expansion allowed to double the canal 's capacity, allowing more traffic and the passage of longer and wider Post-Panamax ships. The proposal to expand the canal was approved in a national referendum by about 80 percent on October 22, 2006. The canal expansion was built between 2007 and 2016, though completion was originally expected by the end of 2014.
The expansion plan had two new flights of locks built parallel to, and operated in addition to, the old locks: one east of the existing Gatun locks, and one southwest of the Miraflores locks, each supported by approach channels. Each flight ascends from sea level directly to the level of Gatun Lake; the existing two - stage ascent at Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks was not replicated. The new lock chambers feature sliding gates, doubled for safety, and are 427 m (1,400 ft) long, 55 m (180 ft) wide, and 18.3 m (60 ft) deep. This allows the transit of vessels with a beam of up to 49 m (160 ft), an overall length of up to 366 m (1,200 ft) and a draft of up to 15 m (49 ft), equivalent to a container ship carrying around 12,000 containers, each 6.1 m (20 ft) in length (TEU).
The new locks are supported by new approach channels, including a 6.2 km (3.9 mi) channel at Miraflores from the locks to the Gaillard Cut, skirting Miraflores Lake. Each of these channels are 218 m (720 ft) wide, which will require post-Panamax vessels to navigate the channels in one direction at a time. The Gaillard Cut and the channel through Gatun Lake were widened to at least 280 m (920 ft) on the straight portions and at least 366 m (1,200 ft) on the bends. The maximum level of Gatun Lake was raised from 26.7 m (88 ft) to 27.1 m (89 ft).
Each flight of locks is accompanied by nine water reutilization basins (three per lock chamber), each basin being about 70 m (230 ft) wide, 430 m (1,400 ft) long and 5.50 m (18 ft) deep. These gravity - fed basins allow 60 percent of the water used in each transit to be reused; the new locks consequently use 7 percent less water per transit than each of the existing lock lanes. The deepening of Gatun Lake and the raising of its maximum water level also provide capacity for significantly more water storage. These measures are intended to allow the expanded canal to operate without constructing new reservoirs.
The estimated cost of the project is US $5.25 billion. The project was designed to allow for an anticipated growth in traffic from 280 million PC / UMS tons in 2005 to nearly 510 million PC / UMS tons in 2025. The expanded canal will have a maximum sustainable capacity of about 600 million PC / UMS tons per year. Tolls will continue to be calculated based on vessel tonnage, and in some cases depend on the locks used.
An article in the February 2007 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine described the plans for the canal expansion, focusing on the engineering aspects of the expansion project. There is also a follow - up article in the February 2010 issue of Popular Mechanics.
On September 3, 2007, thousands of Panamanians stood across from Paraíso Hill in Panama to witness a huge initial explosion and launch of the Expansion Program. The first phase of the project was the dry excavations of the 218 meters (715 feet) wide trench connecting the Gaillard Cut with the Pacific coast, removing 47 million cubic meters of earth and rock. By June 2012, a 30 m reinforced concrete monolith had been completed, the first of 46 such monoliths which will line the new Pacific - side lock walls. By early July 2012, however, it was announced that the canal expansion project had fallen six months behind schedule, leading expectations for the expansion to open in April 2015 rather than October 2014, as originally planned. By September 2014, the new gates were projected to be open for transit at the "beginning of 2016. ''
It was announced in July 2009 that the Belgian dredging company Jan De Nul, together with a consortium of contractors consisting of the Spanish Sacyr Vallehermoso, the Italian Impregilo, and the Panamanian company Grupo Cusa, had been awarded the contract to build the six new locks for US $3.1 billion, which was one billion less than the next highest competing bid due to having a concrete budget 71 percent smaller than that of the next bidder and allotted roughly 25 percent less for steel to reinforce that concrete. The contract resulted in $100 million in dredging works over the next few years for the Belgian company and a great deal of work for its construction division. The design of the locks is a carbon copy of the Berendrecht Lock, which is 68 m wide and 500 m long, making it the largest lock in the world. Completed in 1989 by the Port of Antwerp, which De Nul helped build, the company still has engineers and specialists who were part of that project.
In January 2014, a contract dispute threatened the progress of the project. There was a delay of less than two months however, with work by the consortium members reaching goals by June 2014.
In June 2015, flooding of the new locks began: first on the Atlantic side, then on the Pacific; by then, the canal 's re-inauguration was slated for April 2016. On March 23, 2016, the expansion inauguration was set for June 26, 2016.
The new locks opened for commercial traffic on 26 June 2016, and the first ship to cross the canal using the third set of locks was a modern New Panamax vessel, the Chinese - owned container ship Cosco Shipping Panama. The original locks, now over 100 years old, allow engineers greater access for maintenance, and are projected to continue operating indefinitely.
The total cost is unknown since the expansion 's contractors are seeking at least an addition US $3.4 billion from the canal authority due to excess expenses.
China is investigating a proposal to construct a 220 km (137 mi) railway between Colombia 's Pacific and Caribbean coasts.
On July 7, 2014, Wang Jing, chairman of the HK Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Co. Ltd. (HKND Group) advised that a route for Nicaragua 's proposed canal had been approved. The construction work was projected by HKND to begin in 2014 and take 5 years., although there has been little progress whilst a series of environmental impact assessments are being made. The Nicaraguan parliament has approved plans for the 280 km (174 mi) canal through Nicaragua, and according to the deal, the company will be responsible for operating and maintaining the canal for a 50 - year period. The government of Nicaragua hopes this will boost the economy; the opposition is concerned with its environmental impact. According to the independent impact assessment by British firm ERM, some 30,000 local residents will be displaced by the canal, although opposition leaders and Amnesty International claim the figure will be in the hundreds of thousands. Supporters and the environmental impact study claim there will be net environmental benefits, but critics argue that nearly a million acres of delicate ecosystems will be destroyed by the time construction is completed.
Individuals, companies, and governments have explored the possibility of constructing deep water ports and rail links connecting coasts as a "dry canal '' in Guatemala, Costa Rica, and El Salvador / Honduras. However, plans to construct these sea - rail - sea links have yet to materialize.
During the last one hundred years, the Panama Canal Authority has appointed a few "Panama Canal Honorary Pilots ''. The most recent of these were Commodore Ronald Warwick, a former Master of the Cunard Liners SS Queen Elizabeth 2 and RMS Queen Mary 2, who has traversed the Canal more than 50 times, and Captain Raffaele Minotauro, an Unlimited Master Senior Grade, of the former Italian governmental navigation company known as the "Italian Line ''. This service can be requested from the Panama canal authority at any time who will consider each request.
Coordinates: 9 ° 04 ′ 48 '' N 79 ° 40 ′ 48 '' W / 9.08000 ° N 79.68000 ° W / 9.08000; - 79.68000
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when us dropped bomb on hiroshima and nagasaki | Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - wikipedia
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During the final stage of World War II, the United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings killed 129,000 -- 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of warfare.
In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a very costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. As the Allies turned their full attention to the Pacific War, the Japanese faced the same fate. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction ''. The Japanese rejected the ultimatum and the war continued.
By August 1945, the Allies ' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, one of its B - 29s dropped a Little Boy uranium gun - type bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a Fat Man plutonium implosion - type bomb was dropped by another B - 29 on Nagasaki. The bombs immediately devastated their targets. Over the next two to four months, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 -- 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 -- 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. Large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition, for many months afterward. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.
Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war. On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The ethical and legal justification for the bombings is still debated to this day.
In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all - time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. America 's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war - weary, and demanding that long - serving servicemen be sent home.
In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5: 1 in the Philippines to 2: 1 on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945, 94 % were killed; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedented large number.
As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan 's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan 's twenty - five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.
Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.
A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives '': poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long - ranged Boeing B - 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India - based B - 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber 's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.
Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B - 29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B - 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China - based B - 29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so - called high - altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.
Hansell 's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low - level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale.
Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on March 9 -- 10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B - 29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's "paper cities ''. By mid-June, Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire - bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were devastating.
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B - 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had 1,156,000 US barrels (137,800,000 l) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 604,000 US barrels (72,000,000 l) had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein - Szilard letter. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium - 235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water.
The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory, with the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber. Little Boy was a gun - type fission weapon that used uranium - 235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion - type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington.
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite '' rather than a "bombardment '' unit. Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat - ready.
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B - 29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel - injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible - pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C - 54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs ''.
In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.
The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura, the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target. ''
The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value. ''
Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:
... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier.
On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan 's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance.
In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that:
It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all - too - long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war.
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use. '' Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.
Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air - dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.
For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 % destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area - bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots ''.
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer - led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was July 27, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was July 30. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' Hiroshima was not listed.
Under the Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference, as this also required British concurrence.
Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read:
That day, Truman noted in his diary that:
This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare can not drop that terrible bomb on the old capital (Kyoto) or the new (Tokyo). He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one.
The July 16 success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland ''. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.
On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence ''). The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.
At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson.
The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium - 235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on July 26. The target insert followed by air on July 30, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B - 29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight.
The first plutonium core, along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C - 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high - explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B - 29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2.
At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.
Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks. These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945.
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B - 29 Enola Gay, named after Tibbets ' mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours ' flight time from Japan. Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B - 29s. The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, which carried instrumentation, and a then - nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, which served as the photography aircraft.
After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05: 55 at 9,200 feet (2,800 m), and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet (9,470 m). Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B - 29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B - 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.
During the night of August 5 -- 6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all - clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00: 05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary. '' The all - clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07: 09.
At 08: 09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08: 15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium - 235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet (9,400 m) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet (580 m) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.
Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 800 ft (240 m) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic. It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ), ± 2 kt. The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 % of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km).
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw '', Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe - inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' ''. He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack - ack fire ''.
People on the ground reported a pika (ピカ) -- a brilliant flash of light -- followed by a don (ドン) -- a loud booming sound. Some 70,000 -- 80,000 people, or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 were injured. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed. U.S. surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged.
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel, and was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective. The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective. The intense fires started gutted everything in a 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) radius.
The air raid warning had been cleared at 07: 31, and many people were outside, going about their activities. Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 meters (560 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter) at the time of the attack. He died in 1982, aged 84. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground - zero at the time of the attack.
Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured -- most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library.
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 900 yards (820 m) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 kilometers (62 mi) away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near - total destruction. ''
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Wu, who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.
After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, "We may be grateful to Providence '' that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had "spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history -- and won ''. Truman then warned Japan: "If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. '' This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies.
The 50,000 - watt standard wave station on Saipan, the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb. Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government 's commitment to ignore the Allies ' demands and fight on.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace.
On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by a nuclear weapon. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging "there would be more destruction but the war would go on ''. American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages.
Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so.
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force, and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar.
Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm (2.8 in) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries.
In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old - fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber - framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki.
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five - day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F - 31, F - 32, and F - 33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F - 33 was expended testing the components and F - 31 was designated for the August 9 mission.
At 03: 49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney 's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B - 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B - 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged.
During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 l; 530 imp gal) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group 's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B - 29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying 40 - mile (64 km) dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink for forty minutes. Before leaving the rendezvous point, Sweeney consulted Ashworth, who was in charge of the bomb. As commander of the aircraft, Sweeney made the decision to proceed to the primary, the city of Kokura.
After exceeding the original departure time limit by nearly a half - hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B - 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yahata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses around Kokura, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.
After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, Bockscar and The Great Artiste headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied - occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth agreed with Sweeney 's suggestion that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured. At about 07: 50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the "all clear '' signal was given at 08: 30. When only two B - 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10: 53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given.
A few minutes later at 11: 00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the letter.
At 11: 01, a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 5 kg (11 lb) of plutonium, was dropped over the city 's industrial valley. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft (503 ± 10 m), above a tennis court, halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt (87.9 ± 8.4 TJ). Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe.
Bockscar flew on to Okinawa, arriving with only sufficient fuel for a single approach. Sweeney tried repeatedly to contact the control tower for landing clearance, but received no answer. He could see heavy air traffic landing and taking off from Yontan Airfield. Firing off every flare on board to alert the field to his emergency landing, the Bockscar came in fast, landing at 140 miles per hour (230 km / h) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour (190 km / h). The number two engine died from fuel starvation as he began the final approach. Touching down on only three engines midway down the landing strip, Bockscar bounced up into the air again for about 25 feet (7.6 m) before slamming back down hard. The heavy B - 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B - 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. Its reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90 - degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion before the plane came to a stop.
Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its "Victor '' number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d 's B - 29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89.
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including "mobilized '' students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000 -- 22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000. At least 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from their injuries. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies.
Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty - six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.
The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley.
As in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated the city 's medical facilities. A makeshift hospital was established at the Shinkozen Primary School, which served as the main medical centre. The trains were still running, and evacuated many victims to hospitals in nearby towns. A medical team from a naval hospital reached the city in the evening, and fire - fighting brigades from the neighboring towns assisted in fighting the fires. Takashi Nagai was a doctor working in the radiology department of Nagasaki Medical College Hospital. He received a serious injury that severed his right temporal artery, but joined the rest of the surviving medical staff in treating bombing victims.
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that "the next bomb... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August. '' Marshall endorsed the memo with the hand - written comment, "It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President '', something Truman had requested that day. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs "as made ready ''. There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall, and Marshall suggested to Stimson that the remaining cities on the target list be spared attack with atomic bombs.
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped.
Until August 9, Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. The full cabinet met on 14: 30 on August 9, and spent most of the day debating surrender. Anami conceded that victory was unlikely, but argued in favour of continuing the war nonetheless. The meeting ended at 17: 30, with no decision having been reached. Suzuki went to the palace to report on the outcome of meeting, where he met with Kōichi Kido, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan. Kido informed him that the emperor had agreed to hold an imperial conference, and gave a strong indication that the emperor would consent to surrender on condition that kokutai be preserved. A second cabinet meeting was held at 18: 00. Only four ministers supported Anami 's position of adhering to the four conditions, but since cabinet decisions had to be unanimous, no decision was reached before it ended at 22: 00.
Calling an imperial conference required the signatures of the prime minister and the two service chiefs, but the Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu had already obtained signatures from Toyoda and General Yoshijirō Umezu in advance, and he reneged on his promise to inform them if a meeting was to be held. The meeting commenced at 23: 50. No consensus had emerged by 02: 00, but the emperor gave his "sacred decision '', authorizing the Foreign Minister, Shigenori Tōgō, to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler. ''
On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, "Of course. '' As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings, and did not explicitly mention the Soviets as a factor for surrender:
Despite the best that has been done by every one -- the gallant fighting of military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people, the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers.
In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' delivered on August 17, however, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender.
On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi, and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs, and on August 21, they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. Leslie Nakashima filed the first personal account of the scene to appear in American newspapers. A version of his August 27 UPI article appeared in The New York Times on August 31. Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the bombing, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2. His Morse code dispatch, "The Atomic Plague '', was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945. Nakashima 's and Burchett 's reports were the first public reports to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout -- radiation burns and radiation poisoning. Burchett 's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military, who accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda, and suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News. Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account published one week earlier.
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the effects of the bombings in early 1946. The film crew shot 90,000 ft (27,000 m) of film, resulting in a three - hour documentary titled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned - out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified "secret '' for the next 22 years.
Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, but the Hiroshima - based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, in its first issue published on March 10, 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing.
The book Hiroshima, written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. It narrated the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974, a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977, and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire.
The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists, whom the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon "would be possible for another twenty years ''; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said "I think it 's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part '', but Heisenberg replied, "One could equally well say ' That 's the quickest way of ending the war ' ''. Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing "such an inhumane weapon ''; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, "we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us ''.
Hahn told the others, "Once I wanted to suggest that all uranium should be sunk to the bottom of the ocean ''. The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the Dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end, calling the use of atomic weapons "an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre ''. Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (23 %) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud). During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers.
Frequent estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (39 % of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28 % of the population) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20 -- 30 days. The most well known of which being Midori Naka, some 650 meters from the hypocenter at Hiroshima, who would travel to Tokyo and then with her death on August 24, 1945 was to be the first death officially certified as a result of radiation poisoning, or as it was referred to by many, "Atomic bomb disease ''. It was unappreciated at the time but the average radiation dose that will kill approximately 50 % of adults, the LD50, was approximately halved, that is, smaller doses were made more lethal, when the individual experienced concurrent blast or burn polytraumatic injuries. Conventional skin injuries that cover a large area frequently result in bacterial infection; the risk of sepsis and death is increased when a usually non-lethal radiation dose moderately suppresses the white blood cell count.
In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1956, the ABCC published The Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The ABCC became the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), on April 1, 1975. A binational organization run by both the United States and Japan, the RERF is still in operation today.
As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation - induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5 + years and Leukemia some 2 + which peaks around 6 -- 8 years later. Dr Jarrett Foley published the first major reports on the significant increased incidence of the latter among survivors, almost all cases of leukemia over the following 50 years were in people exposed to more than 1 Gy. In a strictly dependent manner dependent on their distance from the hypocenter, in the 1987 Life Span Study, conducted by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation, a statistical excess of 507 cancers, of undefined lethality, were observed in 79,972 hibakusha who had still been living between 1958 -- 1987 and who took part in the study. As the epidemiology study continues with time, the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46 % of leukemia deaths which may include Sadako Sasaki and 11 % of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, were likely due to radiation from the bombs or some other post-attack city effects, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study.
While during the preimplantation period, that is 1 -- 10 days following conception, interuterine radiation exposure of "at least 0.2 Gy '' can cause complications of implantation and death of the human embryo. The number of miscarriages caused by the radiation from the bombings, during this radiosensitive period, is not known.
One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located 18 mi (29 km) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. James V. Neel led the study which found that the overall number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later.
While The National Academy of Sciences raised the possibility that Neel 's procedure did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure which could bias the results. Overall, a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima when the cities were taken as wholes, in terms of distance from the hypocenters however, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, were approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size.
In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were significantly common among the survivors, or inherited in the children of survivors.
Despite the small sample size of 1600 to 1800 persons who came forth as prenatally exposed at the time of the bombings, that were both within a close proximity to the two hypocenters, to survive the In utero absorption of a substantial dose of radiation and then the malnourished post-attack environment, data from this cohort does support the increased risk of severe mental retardation (SMR), that was observed in some 30 individuals, with SMR being a common outcome of the aforementioned microencephaly. While a lack of statistical data, with just 30 individuals out of 1800, prevents a definitive determination of a threshold point, the data collected suggests a threshold interuterine or fetal dose for SMR, at the most radiosensitive period of cognitive development, when there is the largest number of undifferentiated neural cells (8 to 15 weeks post-conception) to begin at a threshold dose of approximately "0.09 '' to "0.15 '' Gy, with the risk then linearly increasing to a 43 % rate of SMR when exposed to a fetal dose of 1 Gy at any point during these weeks of rapid Neurogenesis.
However either side of this radiosensitive age, none of the prenatally exposed to the bombings at an age less than 8 weeks, that is prior to synaptogenesis or at a gestational age more than 26 weeks "were observed to be mentally retarded '', with the condition therefore being isolated to those solely of 8 -- 26 weeks of age and who absorbed more than approximately "0.09 '' to "0.15 '' Gy of prompt radiation energy.
Examination of the prenatally exposed in terms of IQ performance and school records, determined the beginning of a statistically significant reduction in both, when exposed to greater than 0.1 to 0.5 Gray, during the same gestational period of 8 -- 25 weeks. However outside this period, at less than 8 weeks and greater than 26 after conception, "there is no evidence of a radiation - related effect on scholastic performance. ''
The reporting of doses in terms of absorbed energy in units of (Gy and rad) rather than the use of the biologically significant, biologically weighted Sievert, in both the SMR and cognitive performance data is typical. The reported threshold dose variance between the two cities, is suggested to be a manifestation of the difference between X-ray and neutron absorption, with Little Boy emitting substantially more neutron flux, whereas the Baratol that surrounded the core of Fat Man, filtered or shifted the absorbed neutron - radiation profile, so that the dose of radiation energy received in Nagasaki, is mostly that from exposure to x-rays / gamma rays, in contrast to the environment within 1500 meters of the hypocenter at Hiroshima, were instead the in - utero dose more depended on the absorption of neutrons, which have a higher biological effect per unit of energy absorbed. From the Radiation dose reconstruction work, which were also informed by the 1962 BREN Tower - Japanese city analog, the estimated dosimetry at Hiroshima still has the largest uncertainty as the Little Boy - bomb design was never tested before deployment or afterward, therefore the estimated radiation profile absorbed by individuals at Hiroshima had required greater reliance on calculations than the Japanese soil, concrete and roof - tile measurements which began to reach accurate levels and thereby inform researchers, in the 1990s.
Many other investigations into cognitive outcomes, such as Schizophrenia as a result of prenatal exposure, have been conducted with "no statistically significant linear relationship seen '', there is a suggestion that in the most extremely exposed, those who survived within a kilometer or so of the hypocenters, a trend emerges akin to that seen in SMR, though the sample size is too small to determine with any significance.
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha (被爆 者, Japanese pronunciation: (çibakɯ̥ɕa)), a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion - affected people ''. The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2018, 154,859 were still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2018, the memorials record the names of almost 495,000 hibakusha; 314,118 in Hiroshima and 179,226 in Nagasaki.
If they discuss their background, Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of fear based discrimination and exclusion when it comes to prospects of marriage or work due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness or that the low doses that the majority received were less than a routine diagnostic x-ray, much of the public however persist with the belief that the Hibakusha carry some hereditary or even contagious disease. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects / congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of the nuclear weapons used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or indeed has been found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy. The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that could conceive, who were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities / birth defects than the rate which is observed in the Japanese average. A study of the long - term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 -- 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms.
Perhaps as many as 200 people from Hiroshima sought refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion - affected people), nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before the bombing, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer.
During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000 -- 8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500 -- 2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them in Japan. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits.
Hiroshima was subsequently struck by Typhoon Ida on September 17, 1945. More than half the bridges were destroyed, and the roads and railroads were damaged, further devastating the city. The population increased from 83,000 soon after the bombing to 146,000 in February 1946. The city was rebuilt after the war, with help from the national government through the Hiroshima Peace Memorial City Construction Law passed in 1949. It provided financial assistance for reconstruction, along with land donated that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb 's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda, built in 1966 by Nipponzan - Myōhōji.
Nagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided until 1946. The focus on redevelopment was the replacement of war industries with foreign trade, shipbuilding and fishing. This was formally declared when the Nagasaki International Culture City Reconstruction Law was passed in May 1949. New temples were built, as well as new churches owing to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a torii at Sannō Shrine, and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, which was opened in the mid-1990s.
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender, and the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the United States ' justification for them have been the subject of scholarly and popular debate. On one hand, it has been argued, that the bombings caused the Japanese surrender, thereby preventing casualties that an invasion of Japan would have involved. Stimson talked of saving one million casualties. The naval blockade might have starved the Japanese into submission without an invasion, but this would also have resulted in many more Japanese deaths. It has also been pointed out that the conventional bombing of Japan caused just as much destruction as the atomic bombs, if not more so. Indeed, Operation Meetinghouse, known as the Great Tokyo Air Raid in Japan, was the single most devastating air raid of the war, with a higher death toll than either of the two atomic bombings.
Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa argued that the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan "played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation ''. A view among critics of the bombings, that was popularized by American historian Gar Alperovitz in 1965, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War. Although not accepted by mainstream historians, this became the position in Japanese school history textbooks.
Those who oppose the bombings, give other reasons for their view; among them: a belief, that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes, that they constituted state terrorism, and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people.
Like the way it began, the manner in which World War II ended cast a long shadow over international relations for decades to come. By June 30, 1946, there were components for only nine atomic bombs in the US arsenal, all Fat Man devices identical to the one used in the bombing of Nagasaki. The nuclear weapons were handmade devices, and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly, safety, reliability and storage before they were ready for production. There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended, but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy had decried the use of the atomic bombs as adopting "an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages '', but in October 1947, he reported a military requirement for 400 bombs.
The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb, a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons. By 1986, the United States would have 23,317 nuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union had 40,159. By 2017, nine nations had nuclear weapons, but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in February 1970, but it still sheltered under the American nuclear umbrella. American nuclear weapons were stored on Okinawa, and sometimes in Japan itself, albeit in contravention of agreements between the two nations. Lacking the resources to fight the Soviet Union using conventional forces, the Western Alliance came to depend on the use of nuclear weapons to defend itself during the Cold War, a policy that became known in the 1950s as the New Look. In the decades after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States would threaten to use its nuclear weapons many times.
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when does dale die on the walking dead | Dale Horvath - wikipedia
Dale Horvath is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Jeffrey DeMunn in the American television series of the same name. The character 's death in the latter half of the second season of the show marks a significant departure from the comics, where Dale survived much longer. In both media, he is shown to be the group 's primary moral center.
Prior to the outbreak, Dale worked as a salesman, and was married for 20 years to a woman named Irma. Following their individual retirements, the two had begun to travel the world together in Dale 's newly purchased RV. During the initial stages of the apocalypse, Dale lost her to the zombie outbreak.
Dale is first introduced as one of the survivors located in the camp where Lori and Carl Grimes are staying, on the outskirts of Atlanta, and his RV becomes the camp RV. At first Dale seems pleasant but reveals to Rick that he is suspicious of Shane, and he suspects that something is going on between Lori and Shane, which Rick ignores, under the impression that Dale is just being superstitious. Later, he saves Donna from being bitten by a roamer by beheading the zombie, and revealing that even beheading zombies does not fully kill them. Later one night during dinner, Dale reveals that, during his trip to Atlanta for safety, he had picked up the sisters Andrea and Amy. The discussion is interrupted when zombies attack the camp, which results in Amy 's death. Andrea begins grieving for her and Dale provides comfort. After Shane 's death, Dale reveals that he knew all along that something was wrong, and that he was one of the few prior to Rick 's arrival who wanted to relocate. Shane had refused and Dale only followed because Shane was "the law ''.
After burying Shane, the survivors set off in Dale 's RV away from Atlanta, in an attempt to find somewhere safe. On the way, they run across Tyreese and his family while trying to move a car off the road for the RV to pass. The next night, Lori reveals to the camp that she is pregnant, which alarms Dale, who suspects the child may be Shane 's, only to be quieted by Rick who suspects the same, but does not want to think that way at that moment. After this, they once again set off and end up at an estate that appears to be secure and safe, and spend the night. During the night, Donna stumbles upon Dale and Andrea having sex. The survivors remain on the move until Otis accidentally shoots Carl, and they end up on Hershel 's farm, under the impression they are able to stay indefinitely. During their stay, Dale attempts to convince Andrea that he has accepted his wife 's death and wants to devote his time to her from here on out.
After the group is forced off the farm, they discover a prison. After the group secures the prison, Dale is assigned to various tasks, from patrolling the area to working on repairing the fences. He begins to think that Andrea will not love him due to his age, but she reassures him that she will always want to be with him. Dale patches up both Andrea and Rick after minor incidents, reassuring Andrea that even if she is scarred, she will look pretty. Later, Dale begins to fear that someone else might discover the prison and try to take it from them, and begins to contemplate whether to stay, or leave; Andrea states that she will go where he goes. Dale begins to swap his old camper outfit for prison overalls like the other survivors, and assists Rick in searching blocks, eventually discovering the prison generator. Dale later begins to watch over everybody, including Allen 's children, Ben and Billy, while their father is in a coma. After witnessing various dramatic situations unfold within the group, Dale forms a leadership committee with Tyreese and Hershel. The committee disempowers Rick due to his poor leadership. Dale and Andrea eventually become adoptive parents of Donna and Allen 's orphaned children, twins Billy and Ben.
Eventually, Lori goes into labor. To keep the generator going, Dale and Billy set out into the car park in order to refuel the generator. During this task, Dale is bitten by a zombie and is only narrowly rescued by the arrival of the raid party, which quickly takes Dale back into the prison in order to amputate his leg so that he does not become a zombie. The leg is amputated correctly and Dale is saved. As peace and stability return to the prison, Dale begins to suspect that Andrea is falling for Tyreese, due to his youthful age and the ability to use his right leg. Dale 's missing leg is replaced by a wooden peg, thanks to Andrea and Tyreese; after asking Tyreese to leave them be, Dale informs Andrea that she does not need to be with him anymore and that she may be with Tyreese. She assures Dale that she will always love him. Later that day, the peace ends with the arrival of the Governor and the townsmen of Woodbury. Dale and Andrea swear to protect the twins, no matter what. During the attack, Dale nurses a wounded Andrea and makes the decision to temporarily move out of the prison, accompanied by Glenn and Maggie, in order to protect Billy and Ben.
Dale, Andrea, Maggie, Glenn, Sophia and the twins relocate to Hershel 's farm, where Dale intends to live out the rest of his life in peace. His distrust of Rick is at its peak. The arrival of three strangers, Abraham, Rosita and Eugene, prompts him to follow them in hopes of reaching Washington, DC. Unfortunately, tragedy strikes once again when Ben murders Billy and Carl shoots Ben in retaliation. Distracted by the pain, Dale lets his guard down during a zombie attack and is bitten. He hides his wound to protect Andrea from further pain. When night falls, he leaves the van and disappears into the forest, only to be abducted by the mysterious Hunters. When Dale awakens, Chris introduces himself and tells Dale that they were eating him piece by piece. However, Dale has the last laugh, as he is already infected and hopes to spread the disease to the hunters. Furious, the hunters beat him up and try to induce vomiting. They then leave Dale 's unconscious body in front of Gabriel 's church to use him as bait.
Dale is carried into the church by the other survivors, and is laid down in a bed. While dying in bed, Dale explains his reason for hiding his bite to Andrea, and makes his peace with Rick, thanking him. Dale admits that while it 's easy for the group to blame Rick for many of the deaths that occurred, they also have to credit him for being alive as well. Later that night, Dale passes away and Andrea shoots him in the head to prevent him from turning. Later as the survivors burn his corpse in front of the church, Rick thinks back on Dale fondly and admits that maybe Dale was the strongest of them all for holding on to his humanity until the end.
Dale 's death leaves a significant impact on Andrea, as she often wears Dale 's hat in remembrance of him. The grief she carries leads her at one point to contemplate talking to the hat in an attempt to reach him in the afterlife, however she realizes his presence is not with her and opts against it. Her continued grief eventually sends her into the arms of Rick.
Dale (always depicted wearing a fisherman 's bucket hat) had planned to spend his retirement traveling the country with his wife Irma in their RV, but she died from cancer before they were able to. Traveling on his own, he comes across Andrea and Amy during the outbreak and takes them in. Over time, he, Andrea, and Amy bond, and he finds their friendship invaluable in getting past the grief he has over Irma 's death. Throughout the first season, Dale is shown to be a self - sufficient man, ever watchful of the changing dynamics among the survivors and is particularly protective of Andrea and Amy. He also provides the group with a variety of modern conveniences to make their situation more bearable.
Dale first appears in the series premiere "Days Gone Bye '', where he is shown with Amy in the camp of survivors outside Atlanta, hearing Rick 's calls over the radio but it does not get through and Dale insists Shane try but they are unable to reach him. Lori insists they put up signs to warn people away from Atlanta to prevent them going into the city, as it is overrun, and Dale supports this but Shane rejects it. In the episode "Guts '', Dale keeps watch on the camp from the roof of his RV, and watches Carl while Lori scavenges for food, and later receives T - Dog 's radio call from the rest of the group in Atlanta. In the episode "Tell It to the Frogs '', Dale greets Rick and the others when they return to camp, and helps Glenn strip a car he had stolen. In the episode "Vatos '', while on lookout Dale notices Jim inexplicably digging holes on the hillside and becomes concerned, bringing Shane, Lori, and others to talk to him. Jim can not explain why he is digging but says it was because of a dream he had. Later, the campground is attacked by walkers, and Amy is among the camp members killed. Jim then recalls his dream and why he dug the holes -- to bury their dead. In the episode "Wildfire '', Daryl and Dale want to kill Jim after they learn he was bitten in the attack, but Rick stops them. Dale attempts to comfort Andrea after her sister 's death by telling her how much having the two of them to take care of meant to him. Dale later witnesses Shane 's temptation to kill Rick over Lori 's affection but says nothing to the others. The group decides to travel to the CDC, and when Dale 's RV breaks down along the way, Jim is left behind at his request. In the episode "TS - 19 '', they find relative stability at the CDC for a brief time before the building is revealed to be connected to a timer, which will detonate the building. Dale is willing to stay behind with Andrea and die with her when she refuses to leave, but she is convinced at the last second to save both of their lives.
In the second season premiere "What Lies Ahead '', Dale is greatly concerned about Andrea 's well - being following her suicide attempt, refusing to give her back her gun. At the same time, he is deeply invested in the search for Carol 's daughter, Sophia, as evidenced by his lying to the group about the RV being broken (so that searching for her would be their primary focus). In the episode "Bloodletting '', Dale believes that T - Dog has contracted a blood infection from a wound he received they search for antibiotics; Daryl eventually brings some antibiotics to them that Merle had in his stash of drugs. In the episode "Save the Last One '', Andrea proves to Dale that her suicidal tendencies have diminished, and he returns her gun. In the episode "Cherokee Rose '', Dale and the rest of the group arrive at Hershel 's farm, and set up camp there. He helps the group try to retrieve a walker from a well, but the plan backfires. In the episode "Chupacabra '', Andrea confuses Daryl for a walker, and shoots and injures him despite warnings from Dale. In the episode "Secrets '', Dale 's distrust of Shane begins to grow as he notices Shane 's increasingly reckless behavior and dangerous influence he is putting on the group (most notably Andrea). Dale confronts Shane, but he threatens Dale. In the episode "Pretty Much Dead Already '', Dale tries to hide the group 's weapons, but Shane finds him in the swamp and retrieves them despite Dale 's bluff to shoot Shane. Returning to the farm with the guns, Shane opens the barn that Hershel was hiding walkers in, and gets the rest of the group to shoot all the walkers. In the episode "Nebraska '', Dale keeps an eye on Shane, and warns Lori about his suspicions that Shane killed Otis. In the episode "Triggerfinger '', Dale tells Andrea that he feels Shane is dangerous but she does not believe him. In the episode "Judge, Jury, Executioner '', Dale puts his issues with Shane aside when it comes to dealing with the fate of an outsider. Despite efforts to keep the group from murdering the outsider, he is outvoted and disgusted with the group 's "survival of the fittest '' mindset. Rick later changes his mind and chooses to spare the boy, but Dale never lives to learn this. During the night, he paces around the farm only to be ambushed and disemboweled by a walker Carl earlier encountered. In great pain and mortally wounded, he is shot in the head by Daryl as a mercy killing - an action Dale seems to approve of, as he raises his head to Daryl 's gun. Dale is buried in the episode "Better Angels '' and, at his funeral, Rick vows to honor him by heeding his words and retaining the group 's humanity.
Jeffrey DeMunn stars as Dale beginning in the first season of The Walking Dead. DeMunn had appeared in nearly all of Frank Darabont 's films by the time he was selected as a member of the cast. Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club in his review of "Guts '', notes that Dale 's RV "forms the center of the group 's activities ''. Pierce notes in his review of "Tell It to the Frogs '' that at the camp, "the level of tension is obvious; only Dale is anything like a voice of wisdom, while little things like the brightness of a fire can set off a confrontation that never rises to the level of shouting, but has murder underneath it. '' John Serba of The Grand Rapids Press in his review for "Vatos '' called Dale 's "profound speech '' at the campfire, about the importance of why he keeps track of time, paraphrasing Faulkner, one of the most memorable parts of the episode. In his review of "Wildfire '', Leonard Pierce talks about the scene where Dale sees Shane pointing his rifle at Rick, commenting that "how much Dale sees, and how much he loses trust in him because of it, is an ugly unsettled question. '' Pierce, in his review for the first season finale "TS - 19 '', commented that "I suppose you could argue that the relationship between Dale and Andrea deepened as well, but it was so quick that it seemed a little perfunctory. '' Alan Sepinwall of HitFix described the performances of Jeffrey DeMunn and Laurie Holden as "great '' during the scene where Dale found a way to convince Andrea not to give up and die. However, he did note that while Dale stayed for Andrea, "no such effort was made by anyone else for Jacqui, who never really got any character development and was there mainly so someone from the group could die with Jenner ''.
Frank Darabont, who left the show before season 2, had originally planned for the second season premiere to include a flashback depicting how Dale met Andrea and Amy. Hank Stuever of The Washington Post, in his review of the second season premiere "What Lies Ahead '', cites Dale 's delay in telling the group that he has fixed the RV 's radiator to keep them focused on finding Sophia as an example of what is the core of the show: "the world is destroyed, and each episode seems as if it 's avoiding the inevitable demise of everyone ''. Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club called the reveal that Dale was faking work on the RV "great, because it 's a twist that fits well with his character, and also makes him more likable ''. Handlen considered the scene with Andrea confronting Dale about his actions back at the CDC "a good, meaty scene for both of them. Andrea still wishes she 'd been allowed to die, and Dale (who is probably the show 's best character at this point) refuses to let anyone die if he can help it. It 's an argument that does n't tell us which side to pick, and it gives Andrea some strong arguments, arguments that are going to continue to be issues for every character in the show: Is it really worth it to stay alive in this kind of Hell? '' Scott Meslow from The Atlantic in his review of "Bloodletting '' complained about the "irritating, repetitive confrontation '' between Andrea and Dale over Dale 's refusal to let Andrea commit suicide: "The two characters argued and argued, saying the same things -- '' I saved your life '' versus "it was my choice to make '' -- in four or five different ways. '' Meanwhile, Catherine Gee of The Daily Telegraph welcomed the introduction of Hershel, the "new old and wise chap Hershal (the vet) to rival our existing old and wise chap Dale ''. The Baltimore Sun journalist Andrew Conrad commented in his review of "Save the Last One '' that the relationship between Dale and Andrea "continues to play out like that of an overbearing father and his icy teenage daughter ''. In his review of "Cherokee Rose '', Conrad identifies the "best hug '' as occurring when Rick reunites with Dale, calling it "The Babe Ruth of hugs ''. Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly pointed out a flaw in Dale 's reasoning that the group needed to remove the zombie from the well without contaminating the water: "I 'm not sure how a couple months of bloated pustular ichor - seeping zombie flesh would n't have contaminated the water, but I suppose you can just boil that out. ''
Robert Kirkman commented on Shane possibly being involved in two love triangles as of "Secrets '', saying "The relationship between Dale and Andrea has n't really quite blossomed just yet, like it did in the comic book series. But there are certainly hints there that that may be something on the horizon. So, yeah, if you 've got a relationship, Shane would like to screw it up! '' Critics applauded the growing relationship between Andrea and Shane, as well as Dale 's confrontation with Shane. Despite describing them as an "unlikely pairing '', Scott Meslow of The Atlantic asserted that it was superior to the storyline between Andrea and Dale. "There 's something to be said for the occasional post-apocalyptic tryst, which allows two characters who 've experienced almost nothing but misery to have, even for a moment, something that resembles joy, '' he articulated. Meslow retorted that it was wise to underplay the tryst between Shane and Andrea, which he predicted would not lead to anything serious. Writing for Cinema Blend, Nick Venable wrote: "Dale 's lack of personality traits, beyond being the wise sage who gets in everyone 's business, makes him an unpredictable foe in my book, and could be as interesting as Shane 's violent selfishness. '' Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy avouched that Shane continued to be an interesting character; "Just as we were beginning to like him again, he murdered Otis in cold blood. And it seems like his downward spiral is set to continue -- he 's threatening poor Dale and embarking on an ill - advised affair with Andrea. ''
Robert Kirkman responded to criticism that Dale 's plan to hide all the guns in "Pretty Much Dead Already '' was a terrible plan: "Nobody 's perfect! And, look, it 's very important in this world to show people making mistakes. Dale had the best of intentions and was trying to make a tough situation go away to a certain extent. But, yeah, not the wisest move. '' Kirkman also commented more on Dale 's relationship with Andrea: "It 's a very nuanced relationship that we 'll be exploring a lot in the coming episodes. He is fatherly toward her but he 's being somewhat overbearing at times and it has pushed her away. She also has to recognize the different things he 's gone through and what 's informing those decisions and whether or not they will reconcile remains to be seen. '' Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club commented in his review of the episode that "the Dale / Shane conflict is heightened in order to drive the episode 's final moments. It does n't matter that Dale does n't have enough confirmation for his suspicions to freak out to the degree he freaks out, or that the result of his apparent over-reaction is to make him look like the dangerous one, instead of Shane. What matters to the writers is getting the scene in place, justified or not. '' New York 's Starlee Kine wondered "what the hell is Dale is talking about when he asks Shane, "Do you think these are going to keep us safe? '' It 's not like he caught his mom smoking and is hiding her cigarette stash for her own good. '' HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall concluded that "no good was going to come of hiding all their guns in a remote part of the swamp. In this case, he 's lucky Shane happened to be following him. '' Time journalist Nate Rawlings commented that "Dale went from wise old statesman to nosy kook and now folds like a cheap suit when Shane demands the guns back. '' Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times added that "had he shot Shane, he likely would have prevented the massacre at the farm ''. Writing for The Grand Rapids Press, John Serba opined that the "Dale - Shane uncomfortableness '' was "just pointless mucking about ''.
Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy complimented Bernthal 's performance in "Nebraska '', while Josh Wigler of MTV celebrated his scene with DeMunn. Wigler summated: "Jon Bernthal and Jeffrey DeMunn are very likely the finest actors on The Walking Dead, and their increasingly tense interactions have been a highlight in recent episodes. ' Nebraska ' was no exception, with Shane giving Dale an earful about ' Barnageddon ' and why he did what he had to do. '' Zack Handlen writing for The A.V. Club commented in his review of "Triggerfinger '' that "Dale was doing well for a while, but now he 's on this quest to get Shane kicked out of the group, and that 's all he has anymore ''.
This episode "Judge, Jury, Executioner '' addresses the death of Dale, who is attacked and ripped open by a walker. Since writer Robert Kirkman felt that Dale epitomized a character of morality and humanity, much of "Judge, Jury, Executioner '' explores themes related to the declining morality of individuals during a catastrophic event. Kirkman proclaimed that Dale 's death was a momentous occasion, ultimately marking a turning point for future development of The Walking Dead. "Dale 's character has been the heart and soul of the show, '' he iterated. "He 's definitely the moral compass. He 's the guy that, more so than anyone, has been warning people to be careful how you let this world change you and monitoring what lengths people are going to survive. His loss is going to mean a great deal for all the characters in the show and is definitely going to represent a turn to a darker space. His death means a lot. '' Kirkman added that it was difficult to release DeMunn from the cast. He stated: "It 's heartbreaking to lose Jeffrey DeMunn. He 's really given us a lot, these last two seasons on the show. It 's been amazing to work with him and get to know him and he 's an awesome dude and we 're definitely going to miss him. ''
In the comic book series, Dale survives much longer, and he enters into a sexual relationship with Andrea. Kirkman asserted that it was necessary for writers to distance the development of Dale 's television character from that in the comic: "I have talked many times how much I like the difference between the comics and the show. There are going to be big plot lines that we may not necessarily get to, like the romance between Dale and Andrea. If you think you really want to read that story line, that 's available in the comics, and I highly recommend you pick those up. The show is always going to be a different animal and the decision to kill Dale off was a big one and it was n't one that was made lightly. ''
Dale 's death was adulated by commentators, who affirmed that it was a gruesome and emotional scene. Scott Meslow of The Atlantic suggested that because of his death, The Walking Dead embraced a more dark and sinister philosophy. He asserted, "Taken broadly, his death marks the death of a certain morality on the show, and the embrace of a philosophy that 's something crueler and darker. Dale, unlike any of the other survivors, maintained his humanity to the very end of his waking life -- but even he could n't choose not to come back as something amoral and inhuman. In a world that seems utterly incapable of getting better, it 's a none - too - reassuring sign that things will almost certainly get worse. '' Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times echoed synonymous thoughts: "It 's left to Daryl to shoot the man to end his suffering, which is profoundly too bad. Without Dale to raise all those nagging concerns about doing what 's right, zombie apocalypse or no zombie apocalypse, I fear for the future of this walker - infested world. '' Zack Handlen and Calgary Herald 's Kimberly Potts thought that it was among the shocking moments in the series, while Wetpaint 's Molly Friedman expressed that she was "riveted by the awesome attack (...) and filled with sadness, as the original gang watched their friend die a slow and painful death ''.
Handlen remarked: "It 's a shocking scene, partially for its straight - forward gore, and partially for the astonished, uncomprehending expression on Dale 's face. (...) This, right here, is the kind of sequence the show needs. There 's too little sense of danger right now. '' Verne Gay of Newsday described the sequence as "violent '', and ultimately summated that DeMunn 's absence will be felt as the show progresses. However, Cyriaque Lamar of io9 professed that the writers should have written off Dale in a more respectable way; "That was n't the way to off the show 's most annoyingly sane character. Dale 's redeeming quality was his ability to guilt everybody into paying lip service to rule of law; his weakness was his naïveté. Having an escaping Randall kill him would 've offered some poetic symmetry. I 'm not going to miss this character, but he deserved a better send - off. '' Time journalist Nate Rawlings drew allusions from Dale 's attack to the episode title, commenting that "when the lone zombie we see in this episode tears open Dale 's stomach, spilling the contents of his body onto the cold ground, we 're reminded that the walkers are the judges, they 're the jury, and this particular one was a most brutal executioner. '' Although he was shocked by the sequence, Eric Goldman of IGN assailed the earlier development of Dale in the episode, opining that he was obnoxious. Handlen felt that the character development of Carl Grimes was more stable that similar developments in the episode; "Using Carl to both resolve the episode 's plot, and making him semi-responsible for Dale 's death, has a satisfying neatness, and serves as a reminder that for all their talk, Rick and the group have no idea what impact their choices will make. '' Josh Jackson of Paste commented on Carl 's reaction to the death of Dale, saying that despite a gradual change to a dark nature, he "realizes (...) that he 's still very much a kid ''.
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how many games did chris paul start during his rookie season | Chris Paul - wikipedia
Christopher Emmanuel Paul (born May 6, 1985) is an American professional basketball player for the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He has won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, an NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award, two Olympic gold medals, and led the NBA in assists four times and steals six times, being the all - time NBA leader in the latter category. He has also been selected to nine NBA All - Star teams, eight All - NBA teams, and nine NBA All - Defensive teams.
Paul was a McDonald 's All - American in high school. He attended Wake Forest University for two years of college basketball, where he helped the Demon Deacons achieve their first - ever number one ranking. He was selected fourth overall in the 2005 NBA draft by the New Orleans Hornets, where he developed into one of the league 's premier players, finishing second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting in 2008. During the 2011 offseason, Paul was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers, only for the transaction to be controversially voided by the NBA. Later that summer, he was dealt to the Los Angeles Clippers instead. Behind Paul 's playmaking, the Clippers developed a reputation for their fast - paced offense and spectacular alley - oop dunks, earning them the nickname "Lob City ''. In 2017, he was traded to the Rockets.
Off the court, Paul has served as the National Basketball Players Association president since August 2013. One of the highest - paid athletes in the world, he holds endorsement deals with companies such as Nike and State Farm.
Paul was born on May 6, 1985 in Winston - Salem, North Carolina to Charles Edward Paul and Robin Jones. He has an older brother named Charles "C.J. '' Paul. A former athlete himself, Charles Sr. taught his sons basketball and football and coached them in various youth leagues throughout their childhoods. Growing up, the Paul brothers spent their summers working at a service station owned by their grandfather Nathanial Jones, to whom Paul attributes many life lessons, and describes as his "best friend ''. One of Paul 's uncles is a police officer.
Paul attended West Forsyth High School in Clemmons, North Carolina. During his freshman and sophomore seasons, he played on the junior varsity team. For his junior year, he averaged 25 points, 5.3 assists, and 4.4 steals per game, helping West Forsyth reach the state semifinals. Over the ensuing summer, he led the Winston - Salem - based Kappa Magic to the National U-17 AAU title, earning tournament MVP honors in the process. During his senior season, Paul received national attention for scoring 61 points in a game; his 61 - year - old grandfather was slain earlier in the year and Paul honored him by scoring one point for each year of his life. Paul finished the season with averages of 30.8 points, 5.9 rebounds, 9.5 assists, and 6 steals per game, leading West Forsyth to a 27 -- 3 record and the Class 4A Eastern Regional finals. He was then named a McDonald 's All - American, first - team Parade All - American, and North Carolina 's Mr. Basketball by The Charlotte Observer.
As a freshman at Wake Forest University, Paul averaged 14.8 points, 5.9 assists, and 2.7 steals per game, setting school freshman records for three - point percentage, free throws, free throw percentage, assists, and steals in the process. Behind his play, the Demon Deacons qualified for the NCAA Tournament, losing in the Sweet Sixteen to St. Joseph 's. At the conclusion of the season, Paul was named ACC Rookie of the Year and Third Team All - ACC.
For two weeks early in Paul 's sophomore season, Wake Forest was ranked number one in the nation for the first time in school history. In the final game of the year, Paul punched NC State guard Julius Hodge in the groin and received a one - game suspension for the ACC Tournament, an incident that marred Paul 's image for a short time. The Demon Deacons again qualified for the NCAA Tournament but suffered a second round upset at the hands of West Virginia. With final averages of 15.3 points, 4.5 rebounds, 6.6 assists, and 2.4 steals per game, Paul was eventually named First Team Consensus All - America, and with a 3.21 grade point average (GPA), he was also named to ESPN 's Academic All - America Team. On April 15, 2005, he announced he would be hiring an agent and turning professional. On March 2, 2011, Wake Forest retired his jersey.
Paul was selected fourth overall in the 2005 NBA draft by the New Orleans Hornets. Due to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, the Hornets played most of their games in Oklahoma City that year. Paul finished the season leading all rookies in points, assists, steals, and double - doubles, and became only the second rookie in NBA history to lead the league in total steals. With final averages of 16.1 points, 5.1 rebounds, 7.8 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named NBA Rookie of the Year, falling just one vote shy of winning the award unanimously. The only other rookie to receive a first place vote was Deron Williams, with whom Paul enjoyed a brief rivalry early in their careers.
At the 2007 All - Star Weekend, Paul set new Rookie Challenge records with 17 assists and 9 steals. For his sophomore season, he increased his scoring and passing averages to 17.3 points and 8.9 assists per game, but played in only 64 games due to injury.
Paul was selected to his first NBA All - Star Game in 2007 -- 08, playing in front of his home fans in New Orleans. Behind his leadership, the Hornets were near the top of the Western Conference standings all year, temporarily occupying first place on March 17 following a win against the Chicago Bulls. New Orleans finished the season with a franchise - record 56 wins and the second seed in the West. Paul led the NBA with 11.6 assists and 2.7 steals per game to go along with 21.1 points per game, finishing second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting and being named to his first All - NBA and All - Defensive teams. In his playoff debut, he scored 35 points against the Dallas Mavericks. In Game 2, he set a franchise playoff record with 17 assists. The Hornets defeated the Mavericks in five games, with Paul registering 24 points, 11 rebounds, and 15 assists in the final game. New Orleans were eliminated in the next round by the San Antonio Spurs.
Prior to the start of the 2008 -- 09 season, Paul signed a contract extension with the Hornets worth $68 million. On December 17, 2008, he set the NBA record for consecutive games with a steal at 106. On several occasions, he came within a few steals of recording a quadruple - double, including a 27 - point, 10 rebound, 15 assist, and 7 steal game against the Philadelphia 76ers on January 26, 2009. His final averages were 22.8 points, 5.5 rebounds, 11 assists, and 2.8 steals per game. Despite Paul 's individual accomplishments, New Orleans ' record fell from the year before and they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Denver Nuggets.
After a slow start to the 2009 -- 10 season, the Hornets fired coach Byron Scott. Paul stirred up controversy when he announced his displeasure with the move, commenting that team management should have "consulted with me and asked how I felt before it happened. '' In early February, 2010, Paul tore cartilage in his left knee and was sidelined for over a month by surgery, forcing him to miss the All - Star Game. In total, he played in only 45 games and his averages dropped to 18.7 points, 3.8 rebounds, 10.7 assists, and 2.1 steals per game. Without Paul, the Hornets struggled, missing the playoffs.
In 2010 -- 11, Paul had another injury scare on March 6, 2011, suffering a concussion after colliding with Cavaliers guard Ramon Sessions and being carried off the court in a stretcher. He returned two games later, registering 33 points and 15 assists against the Sacramento Kings. With Paul playing a full season, the Hornets qualified for the playoffs and were matched up with the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers in the first round. Paul had a "historically great '' performance in the series, contributing 33 points, 14 assists, and 4 steals in Game 1 and 27 points, 13 rebounds, and 15 assists in Game 4. His final averages were 22 points, 6.7 rebounds, 11.5 assists, and 1.8 steals per game on 54.5 percent shooting. New Orleans were eliminated in six games, and ownership, fearing that Paul would leave the franchise via free agency, began actively pursuing a trade that would provide the team equitable compensation in return for his services.
On December 8, 2011, the Hornets agreed to a three - team trade sending Paul to the Los Angeles Lakers. The NBA, who owned the team at the time, nullified the deal, with commissioner David Stern claiming New Orleans would be better off keeping Paul. The teams involved in the trade attempted to lobby the league to reverse its ruling and reconstruct the deal to no avail. On December 12, the Hornets agreed to a trade sending Paul to the Los Angeles Clippers, but the deal broke down after the NBA added additional demands to the original terms. Two days later, the teams finally made the trade, sending Paul and two future second round draft picks to the Clippers for Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, Al - Farouq Aminu, and the Minnesota Timberwolves ' unprotected first round pick in the 2012 draft. Upon the deal 's completion, Paul announced that he would opt into the final year of his contract and remain in Los Angeles for at least two more seasons.
Paul 's arrival to Los Angeles rejuvenated the Clippers franchise, with teammate Blake Griffin later commenting, "It put us on the map. '' Early in Paul 's debut season, the team developed a reputation for their fast paced offense and spectacular alley - oop dunks, usually from Paul to Griffin or DeAndre Jordan, earning them the nickname "Lob City ''. Paul finished the year averaging 19.8 points, 9.1 assists, and 2.5 steals per game, becoming the first Clipper to be named to the All - NBA First Team since the franchise moved to Los Angeles in the 1980s. Behind his play and the emergence of Griffin as an All - NBA performer, Los Angeles qualified for the playoffs, losing to the San Antonio Spurs in the Conference Semifinals.
At the 2013 All - Star Game, Paul led the West to victory with a 20 - point and 15 assist performance, earning his first NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award. He finished the season averaging 16.9 points, 9.7 assists, and 2.4 steals per game, helping the Clippers to a franchise - record 56 wins. Seeded fourth in the West entering the playoffs, Los Angeles were defeated in the first round by the Memphis Grizzlies. Shortly after their early postseason exit, the Clippers announced they would not renew coach Vinny Del Negro 's contract and rumors arose of Paul forcing Del Negro out. Los Angeles later denied any player involvement in the coaching decision.
Prior to the start of the 2013 -- 14 season, Paul re-signed with the Clippers for five years on a contract worth approximately $107 million. Despite a shoulder injury that sidelined him for over a month, Los Angeles set another new franchise record for wins with 57. His final averages were 19.1 points, 10.7 assists, and 2.5 steals per game. In Game 1 of the second round of the playoffs, he hit a career postseason - high eight three - pointers to help the Clippers take an early series lead over the Oklahoma City Thunder. In Game 5 and with the series tied 2 -- 2, he made a string of late mistakes leading to an eventual Thunder victory, later commenting, "It 's me... Everything that happened at the end is on me. '' Oklahoma City eventually eliminated Los Angeles in six games.
In 2014 -- 15, Paul played in all 82 games for the first time in his career, averaging 19.1 points and a league - high 10.2 assists per game. In Game 7 of the first round of the playoffs, he hit a go - ahead shot with a second left to lift the Clippers over the Spurs despite a hamstring injury. The injury forced him to miss the first two games of the next series versus the Houston Rockets, and Los Angeles eventually lost in seven games despite holding a 3 -- 1 series lead. The defeat marked ten consecutive seasons and seven consecutive playoff appearances without a Conference Finals appearance for Paul.
In January of the 2015 -- 16 season, Paul led the Clippers on a ten - game winning streak despite missing Griffin and Jordan at various points due to injury. For the third straight year, he finished the season with averages of over 19 points, 10 assists, and 2 steals per game. To begin the postseason, the Clippers drew a matchup with the Portland Trail Blazers, taking a 2 -- 1 lead to start the series. In Game 4, Paul broke his hand and was ruled out indefinitely. Without Paul, as well as Griffin, who also injured himself in Game 4, Los Angeles eventually lost the series in six games.
In 2016 -- 17, Paul missed 21 regular season games due to rest or injury, and averaged 18.1 points, 9.2 assists, and 5 rebounds in just over 31 minutes per game. At season 's end, Paul was not rewarded with an All - NBA honor, marking just the second time he failed to make an All - NBA team since 2008 and the first time in his six years as a Clipper. In the playoffs, Los Angeles was eliminated after their first round series against the Utah Jazz, with Paul averaging 25.3 points, 9.9 assists, 5 rebounds per game over seven games.
On June 28, 2017, Paul was traded to the Houston Rockets in exchange for Patrick Beverley, Sam Dekker, Montrezl Harrell, Darrun Hilliard, DeAndre Liggins, Lou Williams, Kyle Wiltjer, a future first round pick, and cash considerations. In his debut for the Rockets in their season opener on October 17, 2017, Paul had four points on 2 - for - 9 shooting in a 122 -- 121 win over the Golden State Warriors. Paul sat on the bench down the stretch while the Rockets made their final push, and it was later revealed he was playing through a knee injury. He subsequently missed the next 14 games before returning to the lineup on November 16. He had 11 points and 10 assists in his first game back, helping the Rockets score 90 points in the first half en route to a 142 -- 116 win over the Phoenix Suns; Paul saw 21 minutes of action and sat out most of the fourth quarter. The Rockets made 61 percent of their first - half shots to get the second-most points in a first half in NBA history. On November 27, he had a season - high 14 assists in a 117 -- 103 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On December 7, he had a near triple - double with 18 points, 13 assists and nine rebounds in a 112 -- 101 win over the Utah Jazz. On December 13, he recorded a season - high 31 points, 11 assists and seven rebounds in a 108 -- 96 win over the Charlotte Hornets. Two days later, he had 28 points, eight assists and seven steals to lead the Rockets to their 12th straight victory, a 124 -- 109 win over the San Antonio Spurs. Paul became the first player in NBA history to post 28 points, eight assists and seven steals in a game against the Spurs. In the previous 10 years, that stat line had been achieved just 10 times -- six of those 10 recorded by Paul. He was subsequently named Western Conference Player of the Week for games played from Monday, December 11 through Sunday, December 17. It was his 13th career Player of the Week honor and his first since January 2016. On December 31, Paul scored 15 of his 28 points in overtime as the Rockets snapped a five - game skid with a 148 -- 142 double - overtime win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On January 10, he took 29 shots and finished with a season - high 37 points in a 121 -- 112 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. On January 18 against the Minnesota Timberwolves, Paul earned his 1,958 th steal, passing Derek Harper to move into 13th place on the NBA 's career steals list. Two days later, he recorded 33 points, 11 rebounds, seven assists and three steals in a 116 -- 108 win over the Golden State Warriors. On January 26, he scored a season - high 38 points in a 115 -- 113 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 3, he recorded 22 points and 11 assists in a 120 -- 88 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. During the game, Paul passed Andre Miller (8,624) for ninth place on the career assists list. On February 23, in a 120 -- 102 win over the Timberwolves, Paul passed Allen Iverson for 12th on the NBA 's career steals list with 1,984.
Paul made his debut for the United States national team at the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan. He finished the competition with a tournament - high 44 assists, helping Team USA win the bronze medal. At the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, he played a key role off the bench, scoring 13 points in a gold medal game victory against Spain. Team USA finished the competition with a perfect 8 -- 0 record. Paul was promoted to the starting point guard position for the 2012 Olympics in London, averaging 8.2 points, 5.1 assists, and 1.6 steals per game en route to another gold medal and undefeated tournament.
Standing 6 feet tall (1.83 m) and weighing 175 pounds (79 kg), Paul plays point guard exclusively. His career averages are 18.7 points, 4.4 rebounds, 9.9 assists, and 2.3 steals per game. He has earned All - NBA honors eight times (2008 -- 09, 2011 -- 16), All - Defensive honors eight times (2008 -- 09, 2011 -- 16), and led the NBA in steals six times (2008 -- 09, 2011 -- 14) and in assists four times (2008 -- 09, 2014 -- 2015). In 2013, he was ranked the third - best player in the league by ESPN and Sports Illustrated. In his 2014 NBA preview, ESPN 's Kevin Pelton called Paul the league 's best point guard, adding, "a title he 's held throughout his career when healthy ''.
Paul prefers playing in the half court versus playing up - tempo. He creates scoring opportunities by constantly changing speeds; upon beating his defender one - on - one or shedding him in the pick - and - roll, he will often slow down and box him out, denying him from regaining front side position and forcing the defense to help at all times. His ability to penetrate deep into the paint leads to easy shots for his teammates, and in 2013 he was second in the league in assisted three pointers. As a playmaker, he is noted for his consistently high assist - to - turnover ratio, averaging just 2.4 turnovers per game over his career. A deft midrange shooter, he is especially proficient from the right elbow, leading the league in shooting percentage from that area in 2015. On defense, he aggravates opponents with active hands and high effort, and has been ranked as one of the best perimeter defenders in the NBA.
Paul married his college sweetheart, Jada Crawley, on September 10, 2011. Together they have two children, Christopher Emmanuel Paul, Jr. (born May 23, 2009) and Camryn Alexis Paul (born August 16, 2012). The family resides in a Mediterranean - style mansion in Bel Air, which Paul bought from Avril Lavigne for $8.5 million in 2012. On November 11, 2011, Paul appeared with his family on Family Feud.
Paul is a Christian and attends church every Sunday whenever possible. In one interview, Paul commented, "I am so thankful that my parents raised me and C.J. to depend on God 's guidance and our faith in Him, and to always be thankful for what we receive. '' He enjoys bowling and owns a franchise in the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) League called L.A.X. He has hosted and participated in numerous celebrity and youth bowling events as the head of the CP3 Foundation, which benefits programs in Louisiana affected by Hurricane Katrina, as well as charities in Winston - Salem.
Paul 's brother, C.J., played college basketball at Hampton University and University of South Carolina Upstate. In 2004, they played against each other when Wake Forest had a preseason exhibition with USC - Upstate. C.J. now works as Chris 's personal manager. Paul is close friends with footballer Reggie Bush; the two lived in the One River Place complex in the New Orleans Central Business District while Bush was playing for the Saints. They also shared a personal chef.
In 2014, Forbes ranked Paul as one of the highest - paid athletes in the world with $24.2 million in earnings including $5.5 million in endorsements. Some of the companies he does business with are Nike and State Farm. He was the cover athlete for the video game NBA 2K8.
Paul was selected president of the National Basketball Players Association on August 21, 2013 after having served on the executive committee for four years. He was a key figure in the banning of Clippers owner Donald Sterling from the NBA following racist remarks Sterling made in 2014. In one interview, Paul mentioned a possible boycott if Sterling continued to own the team. Paul played a significant role in the election of Michele Roberts as the Executive Director of the Players Association, giving a strong recommendation to the executive committee responsible for filling the position.
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whats the age limit to join the air force | Civil Air Patrol - wikipedia
Powered: Cessna 172, Cessna 182, Cessna 206, MT - 7 - 235, de Havilland L - 20, GippsAero GA8
The Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is a congressionally chartered, federally supported non-profit corporation that serves as the official civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force (USAF). CAP is a volunteer organization with an aviation - minded membership that includes people from all backgrounds, lifestyles, and occupations. It performs three congressionally assigned key missions: emergency services, which includes search and rescue (by air and ground) and disaster relief operations; aerospace education for youth and the general public; and cadet programs for teenage youth. In addition, CAP has recently been tasked with homeland security and courier service missions. CAP also performs non-auxiliary missions for various governmental and private agencies, such as local law enforcement and the American Red Cross. The program is established as an organization by Title 10 of the United States Code and its purposes defined by Title 36.
Membership in the organization consists of cadets ranging from 12 to just under 21 years of age, and senior members 18 years of age and up. These two groups each have the opportunity to participate in a wide variety of pursuits; the cadet program contributes to the development of the former group with a structured syllabus and an organization based upon United States Air Force ranks and pay grades, while the older members serve as instructors, supervisors, and operators. All members wear uniforms while performing their duties.
Nationwide, CAP is a major operator of single - engine general aviation aircraft, used in the execution of its various missions, including orientation flights for cadets and the provision of significant emergency services capabilities. Because of these extensive flying opportunities, many CAP members become licensed pilots.
The hierarchical and military auxiliary organization is headed by the National Headquarters (with authority over the national organization) followed by eight regional commands and 52 wings (each of the 50 states plus Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico). Each wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons that comprise the basic operational unit of the organization.
The Civil Air Patrol was conceived in the late 1930s by aviation advocate Gill Robb Wilson, who foresaw general aviation 's potential to supplement America 's military operations. With the help of New York Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia, in his capacity as then - Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, CAP was created with Administrative Order 9, signed by LaGuardia on 1 December 1941 and published 8 December 1941. The Civil Air Patrol had 90 days to prove themselves to Congress. Major General John F. Curry was appointed as the first national commander. Texas oilman David Harold Byrd was a co-founder of CAP.
During World War II, CAP was seen as a way to use America 's civilian aviation resources to aid the war effort instead of grounding them. The organization assumed many missions including anti-submarine patrol and warfare, border patrols, and courier services. During World War II CAP 's coastal patrol flew 24 million miles, found 173 enemy U-boats, attacked 57, hit 10 and sank two, dropping a total of 83 bombs and depth charges throughout the conflict. By the end of the war, 64 CAP members had lost their lives in the line of duty.
After the end of World War II, CAP became the civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force, and its incorporating charter declared that it would never again be involved in direct combat activities, but would be of a benevolent nature. The "supervisory '' USAF organization overseeing CAP has changed several times. This has included the former Continental Air Command in 1959, the former Headquarters Command, USAF in 1968, to the Air University (AU) in 1976. Following Air University 's reassignment as a subordinate command to the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) in 1993, USAF oversight of CAP has flowed from AETC at the 4 - star level, to AU at the 3 - star level, to AU 's Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development at the 1 - star level, to a subordinate unit of 1st Air Force at the 3 - star level with Civil Air Patrol - U.S. Air Force as a stand - alone unit lead at the Colonel (O - 6) level. Since its incorporation charter, CAP has maintained its relationship with the USAF, and has continued its three congressionally mandated missions.
During the 113th United States Congress, both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives voted to pass a bill that would award the Congressional Gold Medal to the World War II members of the Civil Air Patrol. The medal would be presented "in recognition of their military service and exemplary record during World War II. ''
Civil Air Patrol has five congressionally mandated missions:
The organization condenses these mandates into three core missions, which Civil Air Patrol was chartered with by Congress in 1946: aerospace education, cadet programs and emergency services.
Civil Air Patrol covers several emergency services areas. The principal categories include search and rescue missions, disaster relief, humanitarian services, and United States Air Force support. Other services, such as homeland security and actions against drug - trafficking operations, are becoming increasingly important.
The Civil Air Patrol is well known for its search activities in conjunction with search and rescue (SAR) operations. CAP is involved with approximately three quarters of all aerial inland SAR missions directed by the United States Air Force Rescue Coordination Center at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. Outside of the continental United States, CAP directly supports the Joint Rescue Coordination Centers in Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. CAP is credited with saving an average of 100 lives per year.
CAP is active in disaster relief operations, especially in areas such as Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana that are frequently struck by hurricanes as well as Oklahoma and Texas which are frequented by large, damaging tornadoes. CAP aircrews and ground personnel provide transportation for cargo and officials, aerial imagery to aid emergency managers in assessing damage, and donations of personnel and equipment to local, state and federal disaster relief organizations during times of need. In 2004, several hurricanes hit the southeast coast of the United States, with Florida being the worst damaged; CAP was instrumental in providing help to affected areas.
The Civil Air Patrol conducts humanitarian service missions, usually in support of the Red Cross. CAP aircrews transport time - sensitive medical materials, including blood and human tissue, when other means of transportation (such as ambulances) are not practical or possible. Following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City when all general aviation was grounded, one of the first planes to fly over the World Trade Center site was a CAP aircraft taking photographs.
CAP performs several missions that are not combat - related in support of the United States Air Force, including damage assessment, transportation of officials, communications support and low - altitude route surveys. The CAP fleet is used in training exercises to prepare USAF pilots to intercept enemy aircraft over the Continental United States. Civil Air Patrol aircraft are flown into restricted airspace, where United States Air Force pilots may practice high - speed intercepts.
The Civil Air Patrol also provides non-emergency assistance to the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Drug Enforcement Administration, and United States Forest Service in the War on Drugs. In 2005, CAP flew over 12,000 hours in support of this mission and led these agencies to the confiscation of illegal substances valued at over US $ 400 million. Civil Air Patrol makes extensive use of the Airborne Real - time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance system, mounted on the Gippsland GA8 Airvan. The system is able to evaluate spectral signatures given off by certain objects, allowing the system to identify, for example, a possible marijuana crop.
As a humanitarian service organization, CAP assists federal, state and local agencies in preparing for and responding to homeland security needs. The Red Cross, Salvation Army and other civilian agencies frequently request Civil Air Patrol aircraft to transport vital supplies including medical technicians, medication, and other vital supplies. They often rely on CAP to provide airlift and communications for disaster relief operations. CAP also assists the United States Coast Guard and Coast Guard Auxiliary.
The Aerospace Education Program provides aviation related education and educational activities for members, including formal, graded courses about all aspects of aviation including flight physics, dynamics, history, and application. Courses covering the space program, and new technologies and advances in aviation and space exploration, are also available. There are several programs for CAP pilots to improve their flying skills and earn Federal Aviation Administration ratings.
The Cadet Program has a mandatory aerospace education program; in order to progress, a cadet must take a number of courses and tests relating to aviation. Cadets also have educational opportunities through museum tours, National Cadet Special Activities, military and civilian orientation rides, and guest speakers.
Senior members may study aerospace through the Senior Member Professional Development Program. CAP encourages its senior members to learn about aviation and its history, although this is not mandatory. Those who complete the Aerospace Education Program for Senior Members may earn the Charles E. "Chuck '' Yeager Aerospace Education Award.
Through outreach programs, including the External Aerospace Education program, CAP helps school teachers integrate aviation and aerospace into the classroom by providing seminars, course materials and through sponsorship of the National Congress on Aviation and Space Education. Members also provide their communities with resources for better management of airports and other aviation - related facilities, and promote the benefits of such facilities. The organization also works with other groups, such as the Boy Scouts of America, the Girl Scouts of America and 4 - H to fulfill the education goal set down in the organization 's Congressional charter -- to "encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities. ''
As of 28 August 2017, CAP had 57,331 members -- 33,254 senior members and 24,077 cadets -- in over 1,600 local units in all fifty states, Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico and at numerous overseas United States Air Force installations. CAP members are civilians and are not paid by the United States government for their service. Rather, members are responsible for paying annual membership fees, and must pay for their own uniforms and other related expenses.
Senior membership is open to all U.S. citizens, and resident aliens aged 18 and over who are able to pass an FBI background check. There is no upper age limit, nor membership restrictions for physical disabilities, due to the number of different tasks which members may be called on to perform. Cadet membership is open to those aged between 12 and 18 who maintain satisfactory progress in school, as determined by the cadet 's unit commander; upon their 18th birthday, cadets may become senior members or remain in the Cadet Program until they are 21.
The Civil Air Patrol motto, to which all members ascribe, is "Semper Vigilans '', Latin for "Always Vigilant ''. All CAP members are also obligated by their service to the organization to abide by its core values: integrity, respect, excellence, and volunteer service.
Senior members are members who joined CAP for the first time past the age of 18, or who are former cadets who transferred to the senior member program, which must happen by the cadet 's 21st birthday. Senior members who have not yet turned 21 years are eligible for flight officer grades, which include flight officer, technical flight officer, and senior flight officer. There is no mandatory retirement age for CAP members, and there are no physical requirements for joining. Members may enter retired status after twenty years of service. The only physical requirements an officer must follow are the grooming and weight standards required of members who wear the United States Air Force - style uniforms (these do not apply to members who choose to wear those uniform designs unique to Civil Air Patrol).
Officer grades up to lieutenant colonel reflect progression in training and organizational seniority, rather than command authority. Because of this, it is not uncommon for senior members commanding groups and squadrons to have members of superior grades serving under them. Current, retired and former members of the United States Armed Forces may be promoted directly to the CAP grade equivalent to their military grade, although some choose to follow the same standards as non-prior - service members. Except for a few exceptional cases, senior members are only promoted to the grade of CAP colonel upon appointment as a Region Commander, responsible for overseeing multiple states, or Wing Commander, responsible for the administration of CAP units across an entire state. Former military enlisted personnel may choose to retain their grade as senior members, with grades E-5 (CAP Staff Sergeant) through E-9 (CAP Chief Master Sergeant) available. Former CAP National Commander, Maj Gen Carr, unveiled plans to restructure the CAP NCO program to allow individuals to ' enlist ' as an NCO and progress through a specific professional development program. According to an AF.mil article on the subject, "The current design of the NCO corps in the CAP only allows former active - duty NCOs to be a part of the corps, with no upgrade training for promotion within the ranks. The newly signed corps structure will mirror the Air Force NCO force structure with an established process to promote and develop NCOs. ''. Maj. Gen. Carr 's plan did not follow through but in November 2016, a new NCO Professional Development program was implemented allowing NCO 's to promote as you would in the officer ranks, furthering the ability of the CAP NCO corp.
Senior members are provided with an optional Senior Member Professional Development program and are encouraged to progress within it. The professional development program consists of five levels, corresponding with grades from second lieutenant to lieutenant colonel. Each level of development has components of leadership training, corporate familiarization and aerospace education, as well as professional development within chosen "Specialty Tracks ''. There are many Specialty Tracks and they are designed both to support the organization and to provide opportunities for senior members to take advantage of skills they have from their private lives. Available Specialty Tracks include Logistics, Communications, Cadet Programs, Public Affairs, Legal, Administration, Emergency Services, Finance, and many more. Additionally senior members with specific civilian professional qualifications may be awarded grade on the basis of their professional qualifications. Examples include FAA Certified Flight Instructors, Certified Ground Instructors, attorneys, medical professionals, Certified Public Accountants, clergy, and licensed educators or administrators who are often promoted directly to first lieutenant or captain.
Senior Member Professional Development Awards recognize those members who have dedicated themselves to leadership and personal development in the CAP. These awards include:
The Civil Air Patrol 's cadet program is a traditional military - style cadet program, and is one of the three main missions of the Civil Air Patrol. CAP cadets wear modified versions of United States Air Force uniforms, hold rank and grade, and practice military customs and courtesies. They are required to maintain physical fitness standards, and are tested on their knowledge of leadership and aerospace subjects at each promotion opportunity.
The current CAP Cadet Program was designed by John V. "Jack '' Sorenson who held the position of Civil Air Patrol 's Director of Aerospace Education in the 1960s. This program is composed of four phases (Learning, Leadership, Command, and Executive) each of which is divided into several achievements. Achievements generally correspond to grade promotions, while phases are tied to levels of responsibility. The Cadet Program operates at a local unit (squadron) level with weekly meetings and weekend activities, but also has national and wing - sponsored events, including week - long and multi-week summer activities and camps.
As cadets progress through the program, they are given additional responsibility for scheduling, teaching, guiding and commanding the other cadets in their units. They also assist their senior staff in executing the Cadet Program. It is not unusual for a cadet officer to command an encampment of hundreds of junior Cadets. Cadets are given many opportunities to lead and to follow; they may hold leadership positions at squadron and wing activities, and are often involved in planning these activities. Cadets may complete paperwork, command other cadets, and teach at weekly meetings and at weekend and summer events. The U.S. Congress stated in the Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 that CAP and similar programs "provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces, including significant public relations benefits ''.
Cadets have a rank structure similar to the United States Air Force enlisted and officer grades, excluding those of general officers. A cadet starts as a cadet airman basic, and is promoted as he or she completes each achievement. Unlike the regular armed forces, where it is possible to enter as either directly as a commissioned following completion of some form of officer training (service academy, college ROTC, or OCS / OTS, etc.), or enlist and eventually advance to non-commissioned officer or petty officer status, a CAP cadet must be promoted through every CAP cadet enlisted grade in order to achieve the rank of CAP cadet second lieutenant. To complete an achievement, a cadet must pass a physical fitness test as well as two written tests, one for leadership and one for aerospace education. The only exceptions to this rule are the promotions to cadet airman and cadet staff sergeant, which have no aerospace test. For some achievements, an additional test of drill proficiency is required. In the new promotion system, effective as of 2010, there is a drill test for all CAP cadet enlisted grades.
The milestones in the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program are the Wright brothers Award, the General Billy Mitchell Award, the Amelia Earhart Award, the General Ira C. Eaker Award and the General Carl A. Spaatz Award. As of April 2017, 2,103 Spaatz Awards had been earned since the first was awarded to Cadet Douglas Roach in 1964. Cadet Roach went on to a United States Air Force career and later became a pilot in the Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team.
Each milestone award in the Civil Air Patrol confers upon a cadet various benefits. Upon earning the Mitchell Award and the grade of cadet second lieutenant, a cadet is eligible for promotion the rank of airman first class (E-3) upon enlistment in the United States Air Force. A cadet earning the Earhart Award and being promoted to C / Capt and, if age 17 or older, may be selected to attend the International Air Cadet Exchange.
According to the CAP Knowledgebase website, the percentages for cadets receiving the milestone awards are estimated to be as follows:
Accelerated promotions are available for CAP cadets who are also enrolled in Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps units.
Cadets that transfer to the senior member side between the ages of 18 and 20 receive the grade of flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Mitchell), technical flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Earhart) or senior flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Spaatz). If the cadet waits until their 21st birthday, at which point they are required to transfer to the senior member program, they are eligible for the grade of second lieutenant (if the highest cadet award was the Mitchell), first lieutenant (if the highest cadet award was the Earhart), or captain (if the highest cadet award was the Spaatz).
Cadets under the age of 18 are eligible for ten orientation flights in Civil Air Patrol aircraft, including five glider and airplane flights. Glider flights can be replaced by "powered '' flights at the discretion of the Wing Commander, depending on the availability of the aircraft. Cadets over 18 years of age can still participate in military orientation flights, and some CAP wings have flight academies where cadets can learn to fly. The United States Air Force and United States Army also frequently schedule orientation flights for CAP cadets in transport aircraft such as the KC - 135 Stratotanker, KC - 10 Extender, C - 130 Hercules and the C - 17 Globemaster III or, in the case of the Army, UH - 60 Black Hawk and CH - 47 Chinook helicopters.
The Civil Air Patrol 's core cadet activity is the summer encampment. Typically a seven to ten day event, cadets are put into an intense, military - structured environment with emphasis on physically and mentally demanding tasks, in addition to required classes and activities. These classes include aerospace education, United States Air Force organization, cadet programs, and drug demand reduction. Activities include the classroom courses, physical training, leadership development, and drill & ceremonies. Encampments are usually held at the wing (state) level and, when available are usually at military installations, preferably active United States Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command or Air National Guard installations, with military support.
The Region Cadet Leadership Schools (RCLS) provide training to increase knowledge, skills, and attitudes as they pertain to leadership and management. To be eligible to attend, cadets must be serving in, or preparing to enter, cadet leadership positions within their squadron. RCLSs are conducted at region level, or at wing level with region approval. The RCLS programs are more or less modeled on USAFA upper classmen programs, the college Air Force ROTC Professional Officer Course (POC) and latter stages of OTS. One variation on this theme are CAP Cadet Non-Commissioned Officer Schools and Academies, which are cadet NCO schools designed to teach basic leadership and principles to cadet leaders during their earlier duty positions in the cadet program.
Cadets ascribe to the following oath during their membership:
One requirement for promotion in the Cadet Program is the ability to recite this oath, verbatim, from memory.
While CAP is chartered by Congress and is the auxiliary of the Air Force, it is not an operating reserve component under the United States Air Force or the federal government. As stated by 10 U.S.C. § 9442, the Secretary of the Air Force may use the services of the Civil Air Patrol to fulfill the non-combat programs and missions of the Department of the Air Force. Additionally, the Civil Air Patrol shall be deemed to be an instrumentality of the United States with respect to any act or omission of the Civil Air Patrol, including any member of the Civil Air Patrol, in carrying out a mission assigned by the Secretary of the Air Force.
Civil Air Patrol members are not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and do not have command or authority over any members of the United States military. Similarly, military officers have no command authority over CAP members. As part of recognition of CAP 's service to the USAF, however, senior members in the grade of second lieutenant and above are allowed to wear "U.S. '' collar insignia as an official part of their dress blue uniform. All CAP members are required to render military courtesies to all members of the US military and those of friendly foreign nations; however, as CAP officers are not commissioned by the President of the United States, military personnel are not required to render military courtesies to CAP personnel, though this can be done as a courtesy. CAP members are expected to render military courtesies to one another, though the implementation of this varies widely.
Although CAP retains the title "United States Air Force Auxiliary '', 10 U.S.C. § 9442 clarifies that this auxiliary status is only applicable when CAP members and resources are on a United States Air Force - assigned mission with an Air Force - assigned mission number. When CAP resources are engaged in a USAF mission they are reimbursed by the Air Force for communications expenses, fuel and oil, and a share of aircraft maintenance expenses. In addition, CAP members are covered by the Federal Employees Compensation Act (FECA) in the event of injury while participating in the mission. At all other times, such as when aiding civilian authorities, the CAP remains and acts as a private, non-profit corporation.
The USAF 's Air Combat Command (ACC), through 1st Air Force, is the parent command of CAP. In October 2002, the USAF announced plans to move CAP "operational '' mission activities from the Air Force 's operations directorate (HAF / A3) to the Air Force 's newly created homeland security directorate
In an announcement on 28 August 2015 by Gen. Mark Welsh, Air Force Chief of Staff, the Civil Air Patrol is included in the U.S. Air Force 's definition of the "total force ''. To accomplish this, the USAF updated Doctrine Volume 2, Leadership, to expand the descriptions of total force and "Airmen '' to consist of regular, Guard, Reserve, civilian and auxiliary members. Part of that Total Force inclusion was a realignment in the responsible command which moved Civil Air Patrol - U.S. Air Force (CAP - USAF) from Air Education and Training Command through the Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accession and Citizen Development at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, to Air Combat Command through 1st Air Force. This change took place on 24 June 2016.
The Civil Air Patrol 's uniforms provide a distinctive and standard set of uniform items intended to provide a positive public image, build morale, and enhance the professionalism of the organization 's membership.
CAP members wear uniforms similar to the U.S. Air Force 's uniforms worn with distinctive emblems, insignia and badges to identify them as CAP members; these are categorized as "USAF - style uniforms ''. USAF - style uniforms may be worn by all cadets under age 18, and by cadets over age 18 and senior members who meet height and weight standards set by CAP 's uniform manual. In addition, CAP has a series of what are categorized as "Corporate - style uniforms '' which may be worn by all senior members, and also by those cadets over age 18 who do not meet height and weight standards set for the USAF - style uniform.
Uniforms are categorized in CAP 's uniform manual by the environment in which the uniform is to be worn or the work to be accomplished.
These uniform types are composed of:
The Civil Air Patrol operates and maintains fixed - wing aircraft, training gliders, ground vehicles, and a national radio communications network.
The Civil Air Patrol owns and operates a fleet not to exceed 550 single - engine aircraft, predominantly Cessna 172 Skyhawk and Cessna 182 Skylane aircraft. The aircraft are in a phased refurbishment program which began in 2008, replacing engines, interior, avionics, and paint at a lower cost than new purchases.
In 2003, the Australian designed and built eight - seat GippsAero GA8 Airvan was added to the corporate fleet. Sixteen of the Civil Air Patrol 's fleet of 18 Airvans carry the Airborne Real - time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) system, which can be used to search for aircraft wreckage based on its spectral signature. Other aircraft types include the Cessna 206 and the Maule MT - 235. CAP also has a number of gliders, such as the LET L - 23 Super Blaník, the Schleicher ASK 21 and the Schweizer SGS 2 - 33, used mainly for cadet orientation flights.
In addition to CAP 's own corporate fleet, many member - owned aircraft are made available for official tasking by CAP 's volunteers should the need arise. Aircraft on search missions are generally crewed by at least three qualified aircrew members: a Mission Pilot, responsible for the safe flying of the aircraft; a Mission Observer, responsible for navigation, communications and coordination of the mission as well as ground observation; and a Mission Scanner who is responsible for looking for crash sites and damage clues. Additionally, the mission scanner may double as a satellite digital imaging system (SDIS) operator. Larger aircraft may have additional scanners aboard, providing greater visual coverage. Because of the additional ARCHER equipment, the crew of a Civil Air Patrol GA8 Airvan may also include an operator of the ARCHER system, depending upon the requirements of the mission and the capabilities of the aircraft.
CAP owns over 1,000 vehicles (mostly vans for carrying personnel) and assigns them to units for use in the organization 's missions. Members who use their own vehicles are reimbursed for fuel, oil and communications costs during a USAF - assigned emergency services mission.
CAP operates a national radio network of HF (SSB) and VHF (FM) radio repeaters. There are over 500 of these repeaters strategically located across the United States. Radio communications are now facilitated under NTIA specifications, to which Civil Air Patrol directorates have applied even more stringent standards. CAP 's radio network is designed for use during a national or regional emergency when existing telephone and Internet communications infrastructure is not available. Outside of such emergencies, most of CAP 's internal communications are conducted on the Internet. CAP frequencies and specific repeater locations are designated by the Department of Defense as Unclassified -- For Official Use Only information, and as such may only be released to those individuals who have a recognized "need - to - know. ''
Some aircraft in the CAP fleet are equipped with the SDIS. This system allows CAP to send back real - time images of a disaster or crash site to anyone with an e-mail address, allowing the mission coordinators to make more informed decisions. There are approximately 100 federally funded SDIS systems strategically located across the United States, with more than 20 additional systems funded by state and local governments.
The ARCHER imaging system, mounted aboard the GA8 Airvan, uses visible and near - infrared light to examine the surface of the Earth and find suspected crash sites, evaluate areas affected by disasters, or examine foliage from an airborne perspective in order to flag possible marijuana plantations. Both the SDIS and ARCHER systems were used to great success in the response to Hurricane Katrina; ARCHER may be used in coordination with the SDIS system.
A hand - held radio direction finder, most commonly the L - Tronics Little L - Per, is used by ground teams to search for downed aircraft. The ground teams carry equipment on their person that they use while in the field. This equipment includes flashlights, signal mirrors, tactical vests, safety vests, and food that will last them at least 24 hours. The equipment carried by ground teams varies much by the mission at hand. Urban direction finding (UDF) missions necessitate only a small kit of gear. But intensive mountain search and rescue can require packs that provide for up to 72 hours of operational supplies and tool for the location, rescue and extraction of lost or crashed parties. This gear includes the above, plus additional water, meals, and survival gear. Although a standardized list is provided by the national command, many teams modify the list to match the needs of the mission.
The Civil Air Patrol is organized along a military model, with a streamlined and strictly hierarchical chain of command. There are several distinct echelons in this structure: National Headquarters, regions, wings, and squadrons or flights. An additional group echelon may be used that is placed between the wing and the squadrons / flights, at the wing commander 's discretion.
The Civil Air Patrol is headed by a national commander, currently Major General Joseph Vazquez. The organization is governed by a board of governors, established by federal law in 2001 and consisting of 11 members: four Civil Air Patrol members (currently the national commander, national vice commander, and two members - at - large appointed by the CAP National Executive Committee), four United States Air Force representatives appointed by the Secretary of the Air Force, and three members from the aviation community jointly appointed by the CAP national commander and the Secretary of the Air Force. The board of governors generally meets two or three times annually and primarily provides strategic vision and guidance to the volunteer leadership and corporate staff. The volunteer leadership consists of the national commander and his staff, comprising a Vice Commander, Chief of Staff, National Legal Officer, National comptroller, the Chief of the CAP Chaplain Service, and the CAP Inspector General. The national commander holds the grade of CAP major general; the national vice commander holds the grade of CAP brigadier general. The rest of the national commander 's staff hold the grade of CAP colonel.
CAP National Headquarters is located at Maxwell Air Force Base outside Montgomery, Alabama. The headquarters employs a professional staff of over 100 and is led by the CAP Executive Director (analogous to a corporate chief operating officer), who reports to the board of governors. The national headquarters staff provides program management for the organization and membership support for the 1,700 + volunteer field units across the country.
Below the national headquarters level there are eight geographic regions and a handful of overseas squadrons at various military installations worldwide. Each region, commanded by a CAP colonel, encompasses several statewide organizations referred to as wings. The eight regions are the Northeast, Middle East, Southeast, Great Lakes, Southwest, North Central, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific Regions.
The CAP units in each of the fifty states, and Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia, are coordinated by the CAP wing for that state; each wing has a commander who is a CAP colonel and the sole corporate officer for each state. Each wing commander oversees a wing headquarters staff made up of experienced volunteer members. Larger wings may have an optional subordinate echelon of groups, at the discretion of the wing commander. Each Group encompasses at least five squadrons or flights.
Local units are called squadrons. A squadron is broken into flights. Squadrons are the main functioning body of Civil Air Patrol. Civil Air Patrol squadrons are designated as either cadet, senior, or composite squadrons. A CAP composite squadron consists of both cadets and senior members, who may be involved in any of the three missions of Civil Air Patrol. Composite squadrons have two deputy commanders to assist the squadron commander: a Deputy Commander for Seniors and a Deputy Commander for Cadets. A senior squadron includes only senior members, who participate in the emergency services or aerospace education missions of Civil Air Patrol. A cadet squadron is largely made up of cadets, with a small number of senior members as necessary for supervision of cadets and the proper execution of the cadet program. Overseas squadrons operate independently of this structure, reporting directly to the National Headquarters.
A CAP flight is a semi-independent unit that is used mainly as a stepping - stone for a new unit until they are large enough to be designated a squadron. Due to their transitory nature, there are very few flights within the CAP structure at any one time. A flight will be assigned to a squadron "parent '', and it is the job of the flight and squadron commanders to work together to build the flight into a full and independent squadron. Flights are also used as temporary units within a squadron. These flights are dismissed after the activity or meeting they were created for. A flight within a squadron is assigned a letter, so a flight could be designated "Charlie Flight, Thunderbolt Squadron '', for example. In larger squadrons, flights are permanent subunits and cadets are assigned to them.
Headquarters Civil Air Patrol - U.S. Air Force (CAP - USAF) is an active duty unit that operates under the joint jurisdiction of CAP National Headquarters and the USAF Air Combat Command, 1st Air Force. Commanded by an aeronautically - rated Air Force Colonel, HQ CAP - USAF consists of approximately 75 active duty Air Force, Air Force Reserve, Air National Guard, and civilian United States Air Force personnel (with all of the Air Force civil service personnel at CAP - USAF also being CAP members), 22 of whom are stationed at National Headquarters, staff CAP - USAF. These members advise, assist, and oversee Civil Air Patrol 's operations and provide liaison between CAP and the USAF. As of August 2014, the commander of CAP - USAF is Colonel Michael D. Tyynismaa, USAF.
The Civil Air Patrol is a non-profit corporation established by Public Law 79 - 476. It receives its funding from four major sources: membership dues, corporate donations, Congressional appropriations, and private donations.
Squadron and group financial support comes from donations and fundraising. Some units charge their own membership dues above and beyond CAP membership dues. These donations and fund raisers are how the squadrons and groups pay for their equipment, rent for facilities, and activities at the local level.
Today, apart from member dues, Civil Air Patrol receives funding from donations and grants from individuals, foundations and corporations; from grants and payments from state governments for patrolling and other tasks as agreed by memorandums of understanding; and from federal funding for reimbursement of fuel, oil and maintenance plus capital expenses for aircraft, vehicles and communications equipment.
There are few paid positions in Civil Air Patrol. Most are located at National Headquarters, although some wings have paid administrators or accountants. During 2011, Civil Air Patrol had 182 paid employees.
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who starred in as good as it gets | As Good as It Gets - wikipedia
As Good as It Gets is a 1997 American romantic comedy film directed by James L. Brooks. It stars Jack Nicholson as a misanthropic and obsessive - compulsive novelist, Helen Hunt as a single mother with a chronically ill son, and Greg Kinnear as a gay artist. The screenplay was written by Mark Andrus and Brooks. The paintings were created for the film by New York artist Billy Sullivan.
Nicholson and Hunt won the Academy Award for Best Actor and Best Actress, respectively, making As Good As It Gets the most recent film to win both of the lead acting awards, and the first since 1991 's The Silence of the Lambs. It is ranked 140th on Empire magazine 's "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' list.
Melvin Udall is a misanthrope who works at home as a best - selling novelist in New York City. He suffers from obsessive -- compulsive disorder which, paired with his misanthropy, alienates nearly everyone with whom he interacts. He avoids stepping on sidewalk cracks while walking through the city due to a superstition of bad luck, and eats breakfast at the same table in the same restaurant every day using disposable plastic utensils he brings with him due to his pathological fear of germs. He takes an interest in his waitress, Carol Connelly, the only server at the restaurant who can tolerate his behavior.
One day, Melvin 's apartment neighbor, a gay artist named Simon Bishop, is assaulted and nearly killed during a robbery. Melvin is intimidated by Simon 's agent, Frank Sachs, into caring for Simon 's dog, Verdell, while Simon is hospitalized. Although he initially does not enjoy caring for the dog, Melvin becomes emotionally attached to it. He simultaneously receives more attention from Carol. When Simon is released from the hospital, Melvin is unable to cope emotionally with returning the dog. Melvin 's life is further altered when Carol decides to work closer to her home in Brooklyn so she can care for her acutely asthmatic son Spencer ("Spence ''). Unable to adjust to another waitress, Melvin arranges through his publisher, whose husband is a doctor, to pay for her son 's considerable medical expenses as long as Carol agrees to return to work. She is overwhelmed at his generosity, but is adamant that she will not sleep with Melvin.
Meanwhile, Simon 's assault and rehabilitation, coupled with Verdell 's preference for Melvin, causes Simon to lose his creative muse. Simon is approaching bankruptcy due to his medical bills. Frank convinces him to go to Baltimore to ask his estranged parents for money. Because Frank is too busy to take the injured Simon to Baltimore himself, Melvin reluctantly agrees to do so -- Frank lends Melvin the use of his Saab 900 convertible for the trip. Melvin invites Carol to accompany them on the trip to lessen the awkwardness. She reluctantly accepts the invitation, and relationships among the three develop.
Once in Baltimore, Carol persuades Melvin to take her out to have dinner. Melvin 's comments during the dinner greatly flatter -- and subsequently upset -- Carol, and she abruptly leaves. Upon seeing the frustrated Carol, Simon begins to sketch her semi-nude in his hotel room and rekindles his creativity, once more feeling a desire to paint. He briefly reconnects with his parents, but is able to tell them that he 'll be fine.
After returning to New York, Carol tells Melvin that she does not want him in her life anymore. She later regrets her statement and calls him to apologize. The relationship between Melvin and Carol remains complicated until Simon (whom Melvin has allowed to move in with him until he can fully heal from his injuries and get a new apartment) convinces Melvin to declare his love for her. Melvin goes to see Carol, who is hesitant, but agrees to try and establish a relationship with him. The film ends with Melvin and Carol walking together. As he opens the door at an early morning pastry shop for Carol, he realizes that he has stepped on a crack in the pavement, but does n't seem to mind.
In 1996, James L. Brooks flew Geoffrey Rush from Sydney to Los Angeles to audition for the part of Simon Bishop, and offered him the role, but Rush declined it.
The soundtrack features instrumental pieces composed by Hans Zimmer and songs by various artists. Zimmer 's work was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score -- Musical or Comedy.
As Good as It Gets was also a box office hit, opening at number three at the box office (behind Titanic and Tomorrow Never Dies) with $12.6 million, and eventually earning over $148 million domestically and $314 million worldwide. It is Jack Nicholson 's second most lucrative film, behind Batman.
Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86 % of professional critics gave the film a positive review based on 76 reviews. Metacritic, a web site that evaluates films by averaging their overall critical response, gave the film a metascore of 67, signifying generally favorable reviews. The film 's two lead actors, Nicholson and Hunt, both received Academy and Golden Globe awards for their performances. Chicago Reader film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote that what director James Brooks "Manages to do with (the characters) as they struggle mightily to connect with one another is funny, painful, beautiful, and basically truthful -- a triumph for everyone involved. ''
However, praise for the film was not uniform among critics. While Roger Ebert gave the film three stars (out of four), he called the film a "compromise, a film that forces a smile onto material that does n't wear one easily, '' writing that the film drew "back to story formulas, '' but had good dialog and performances. Washington Post critic Desson Howe gave a generally negative review of the movie, writing that it "gets bogged down in sentimentality, while its wheels spin futilely in life - solving overdrive. ''
The film received generally positive reviews from critics and was nominated for and received many film awards, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture and a Golden Globe award for Best Picture - Music or Comedy.
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who did nate archibald date in gossip girl | Nate Archibald (Gossip Girl) - wikipedia
Nathaniel Fitzwilliam "Nate '' Archibald is a character in the best selling Gossip Girl book series. He is portrayed by Chace Crawford in the television series of the same name. In the novels, he is considered the primary male character, always being fought over by the two most prominent females, Blair Waldorf and Serena van der Woodsen.
Nate Archibald is a lacrosse player at the elite St. Jude 's School for Boys. His mother, Anne Archibald, is a French socialite, and his father, Captain Archibald, is a former Navy captain and a wealthy banker. His closest friends are Chuck Bass, Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf.
He has been dating Blair since middle school. However, Nate is shown to have deep, unresolved feelings for Serena. They have sex during the summer at a wedding. He reveals this to Blair in the first novel after Serena returns, and right before they were supposed to lose their virginity to each other, which causes their first breakup. He gets together with freshman Jenny Humphrey, but later dumps her for Blair for being too clingy. He and Blair have an on - again - off - again relationship throughout most of the novels.
Nate 's family resides in a stately townhouse off Park Avenue on the exclusive Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City, and his mother 's French socialite family owns a summer chateau in Nice. He is a fan of sailing like his father, and wished to do that instead of attending Yale with Blair, although he expressed interest in attending Brown University. At the end of the series he sails around the world with a friend of his father 's, Captain Charles "Chips '' White to avoid getting in between Blair and Serena again. In I Will Aways Love You, on break from Deep Springs College, Nate chooses Blair in part I and then Serena in part II.
Nathaniel Archibald was born to Captain Howard Archibald, a successful business magnate, and Anne Vanderbilt Archibald, a member of the Vanderbilt family. On the surface, Nate seems to be the perfect "Golden Boy '' of the Upper East Side. He is best friends with Chuck Bass, with whom he attends the elite St. Jude 's School for Boys. Nate has been with girlfriend Blair Waldorf "since kindergarten ''. However, he secretly harbors feelings for Blair 's best friend, Serena van der Woodsen. They shared a sordid one night stand before the show began, which caused her departure to boarding school. Nate 's feelings for Blair are complicated by his ongoing infatuation with Serena and his parents ' determination to keep him on a certain path. He later goes on to attend Columbia University.
Nate is the subject of the song ' Nate Will Not Return ' by British post-punk band The Fall on their 2011 album Ersatz GB.
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where was this year's super bowl held | Super Bowl - Wikipedia
The Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL). The game is the culmination of a regular season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, rather than the year in which it is held. For example, Super Bowl I was played on January 15, 1967, following the 1966 regular season. The sole exception to this naming convention tradition occurred with Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the 2015 regular season, and the following year, the nomenclature returned to Roman numerals for Super Bowl LI, following the 2016 regular season. The most recent Super Bowl was Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, following the 2017 regular season.
The game was created as part of a merger agreement between the NFL and its then - rival league, the American Football League (AFL). It was agreed that the two leagues ' champion teams would play in the AFL -- NFL World Championship Game until the merger was to officially begin in 1970. After the merger, each league was redesignated as a "conference '', and the game has since been played between the conference champions to determine the NFL 's league champion. Currently, the National Football Conference (NFC) leads the league with 27 wins to 25 wins for the American Football Conference (AFC). The Pittsburgh Steelers have the most Super Bowl championship titles, with six. The New England Patriots have the most Super Bowl appearances, with ten. Charles Haley and Tom Brady both have five Super Bowl rings, which is the record for the most rings won by a single player.
The day on which the Super Bowl is played, now considered by some as an unofficial American national holiday, is called "Super Bowl Sunday ''. It is the second - largest day for U.S. food consumption, after Thanksgiving Day. In addition, the Super Bowl has frequently been the most - watched American television broadcast of the year; the seven most - watched broadcasts in U.S. television history are Super Bowls. In 2015, Super Bowl XLIX became the most - watched American television program in history with an average audience of 114.4 million viewers, the fifth time in six years the game had set a record, starting with the 2010 Super Bowl, which itself had taken over the number - one spot held for 27 years by the final episode of M * A * S * H. The Super Bowl is also among the most - watched sporting events in the world, almost all audiences being North American, and is second to soccer 's UEFA Champions League final as the most watched annual sporting event worldwide.
The NFL restricts the use of its "Super Bowl '' trademark; it is frequently called the Big Game or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. Because of the high viewership, commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcast is the most expensive of the year, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for this broadcast. As a result, watching and discussing the broadcast 's commercials has become a significant aspect of the event. In addition, popular singers and musicians including Mariah Carey, Michael Jackson, Madonna, Prince, Beyoncé, Paul McCartney, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Whitney Houston, and Lady Gaga have performed during the event 's pre-game and halftime ceremonies.
For four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. However, in 1960, it encountered its most serious competitor when the American Football League (AFL) was formed. The AFL vied heavily with the NFL for both players and fans, but by the middle of the decade, the strain of competition led to serious merger talks between the two leagues. Prior to the 1966 season, the NFL and AFL reached a merger agreement that was to take effect for the 1970 season. As part of the merger, the champions of the two leagues agreed to meet in a world championship game for professional American football until the merger was effected.
A bowl game is a post-season college football game. The original "bowl game '' was the Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the "Tournament East - West football game '' as part of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and moved to the new Rose Bowl Stadium in 1923. The stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut; the Tournament of Roses football game itself eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game 's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (the Orange Bowl), New Orleans (the Sugar Bowl), and El Paso, Texas (the Sun Bowl) in 1935, and for Dallas (the Cotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was played, the term "bowl '' for any major American football game was well established.
Lamar Hunt, owner of the AFL 's Kansas City Chiefs, first used the term "Super Bowl '' to refer to the NFL - AFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with a Super Ball toy; a vintage example of the ball is on display at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, "I have kiddingly called it the ' Super Bowl, ' which obviously can be improved upon. ''
The leagues ' owners chose the name "AFL -- NFL Championship Game '', but in July 1966 the Kansas City Star quoted Hunt in discussing "the Super Bowl -- that 's my term for the championship game between the two leagues '', and the media immediately began using the term. Although the league stated in 1967 that "not many people like it '', asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as "Merger Bowl '' and "The Game '', the Associated Press reported that "Super Bowl '' "grew and grew and grew - until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum ''. "Super Bowl '' became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numerals were first affixed for the fifth edition, in January 1971.
After the NFL 's Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL 's New York Jets defeated the NFL 's Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III in Miami. One year later, the AFL 's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL 's Minnesota Vikings 23 -- 7 in Super Bowl IV in New Orleans, which was the final AFL - NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (the Colts, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Cleveland Browns) would constitute the American Football Conference (AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form the National Football Conference (NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl.
The winning team receives the Vince Lombardi Trophy, named after the coach of the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games and three of the five preceding NFL championships in 1961, 1962, and 1965. Following Lombardi 's death in September 1970, the trophy was named the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The first trophy awarded under the new name was presented to the Baltimore Colts following their win in Super Bowl V in Miami.
The Super Bowl is currently played on the first Sunday in February. This is due to the current NFL schedule which consists of the opening weekend of the season being held immediately after Labor Day (the first Monday in September), the 17 - week regular season (where teams each play 16 games and have one bye), the first three rounds of the playoffs, and the Super Bowl two weeks after the two Conference Championship Games. This schedule has been in effect since Super Bowl XXXVIII in February 2004. The date of the Super Bowl can thus be determined from the date of the preceding Labor Day. For example, Labor Day in 2015 occurred on September 7; therefore the next Super Bowl was scheduled exactly five months later on February 7, 2016.
Originally, the game took place in early to mid-January. For Super Bowl I there was only one round of playoffs: the pre-merger NFL and AFL Championship Games. The addition of two playoff rounds (first in 1967 and then in 1978), an increase in regular season games from 14 to 16 (1978), and the establishment of one bye - week per team (1990) have caused the Super Bowl to be played later. Partially offsetting these season - lengthening effects, simultaneous with the addition of two regular season games in 1978, the season was started earlier. Prior to 1978, the season started as late as September 21. Now, since Labor Day is always the first Monday of September, September 13 is the latest possible date for the first full Sunday set of games (Since 2002, the regular season has started with the Kickoff Game on the first Thursday after Labor Day). The earliest possible season start date is September 7.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have won six Super Bowls, the most of any team; the Dallas Cowboys, New England Patriots and San Francisco 49ers have five victories each, while the Green Bay Packers and New York Giants have four Super Bowl championships. Fourteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. Eight teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. The Minnesota Vikings were the first team to have appeared a record four times without a win. The Buffalo Bills played in a record four Super Bowls in a row and lost every one. Four teams (the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans) have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The Browns and Lions both won NFL Championships prior to the creation of the Super Bowl, while the Jaguars (1995) and Texans (2002) are both recent NFL expansion teams. (Detroit, Houston, and Jacksonville, however, have hosted a Super Bowl, leaving the Browns the only team to date who has neither played in nor whose city has hosted the game.) The Minnesota Vikings won the last NFL Championship before the merger but lost to the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl IV.
The Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls (Known as the AFL - NFL World Championship Game for these first two contests), defeating the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders following the 1966 and 1967 seasons, respectively. The Packers were led by quarterback, Bart Starr, who was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) for both games. These two championships, coupled with the Packers ' NFL championships in 1961, 1962, and 1965, amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years, and the only threepeat in NFL history (1965, 1966, and 1967).
In Super Bowl III, the AFL 's New York Jets defeated the eighteen - point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16 -- 7. The Jets were led by quarterback Joe Namath, who had famously guaranteed a Jets win prior to the game, and former Colts head coach Weeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL 's competitive equal. This was reinforced the following year when the AFL 's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL 's Minnesota Vikings 23 -- 7 in Super Bowl IV.
After the AFL -- NFL merger was completed in 1970, three franchises -- the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, and Pittsburgh Steelers -- would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls in the decade.
The Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys ' linebacker Chuck Howley). Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL 's league championship game.
The Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, won Super Bowl VI over the Dolphins. However, this would be the Dolphins ' final loss in over a year, as the next year, the Dolphins would go 14 -- 0 in the regular season and eventually win all of their playoff games, capped off with a 14 -- 7 victory in Super Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team to finish an entire perfect regular and postseason. The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winning Super Bowl VIII a year later.
In the late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX, X, XIII, and XIV) in six years. They were led by head coach Chuck Noll, the play of offensive stars Terry Bradshaw, Franco Harris, Lynn Swann, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster, and their dominant "Steel Curtain '' defense, led by "Mean '' Joe Greene, L.C. Greenwood, Ernie Holmes, Mel Blount, Jack Ham, and Jack Lambert. The coaches and administrators also were part of the dynasty 's greatness as evidenced by the team 's "final pieces '' being part of the famous 1974 draft. The selections in that class have been considered the best by any pro franchise ever, as Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft. The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in six AFC Championship Games during the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons. Nine players and three coaches and administrators on the team have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back - to - back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six - year period.
The Steelers ' dynasty was interrupted only by the Oakland Raiders ' Super Bowl XI win and the Cowboys winning their second Super Bowl of the decade.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those of the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight from Super Bowl XIX to Super Bowl XXXI.
The most successful team of the 1980s was the San Francisco 49ers, which featured the West Coast offense of Hall of Fame head coach Bill Walsh. This offense was led by three - time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, running back Roger Craig, and defensive safety / cornerback Ronnie Lott. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI, XIX, XXIII, and XXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL.
The 1980s also produced the 1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18 -- 1 record under head coach Mike Ditka; quarterback Jim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running back Walter Payton. Their team won Super Bowl XX in dominant fashion. The Washington Redskins and New York Giants were also top teams of this period; the Redskins won Super Bowls XVII, XXII, and XXVI. The Giants claimed Super Bowls XXI and XXV. As in the 1970s, the Oakland Raiders were the only team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of other teams; they won Super Bowls XV and XVIII (the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders).
Following several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the Dallas Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997. From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year. In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four. After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII, XXVIII, and XXX) led by quarterback Troy Aikman, running back Emmitt Smith, and wide receiver Michael Irvin. All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys ' streak was interrupted by the 49ers, who won their league - leading fifth title overall with Super Bowl XXIX in dominating fashion under Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young, Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerback Deion Sanders; however, the Cowboys ' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the 49ers. The NFC 's winning streak was continued by the Green Bay Packers who, under Hall of Fame quarterback Brett Favre, won Super Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in the late 1960s.
Super Bowl XXXII saw quarterback John Elway and running back Terrell Davis lead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC 's 13 - year winning streak. The following year, the Broncos defeated the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl XXXIII, Elway 's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game. The back - to - back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win nine out of 12 Super Bowls. In the years between 1995 and 2016, five teams -- the Steelers, New England Patriots, Broncos, Baltimore Ravens, and Indianapolis Colts -- accounted for 20 of the 22 AFC Super Bowl appearances (including the last 14), with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010.
The year following the Broncos ' second victory, however, a surprising St. Louis Rams team led by the undrafted quarterback, Kurt Warner, who would close out the 1990s in a wild battle against the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV. The tense game came down to the final play in which Tennessee had the opportunity to tie the game and send it to overtime. The Titans nearly pulled it off, but the tackle of receiver Kevin Dyson by linebacker Mike Jones kept the ball out of the end zone by a matter of inches. In 2007, ESPN would rank "The Tackle '' as the 2nd greatest moment in Super Bowl history.
Super Bowl XXXV was played by the AFC 's Baltimore Ravens and the NFC 's New York Giants. The Ravens defeated the Giants by the score of 34 -- 7. The game was played on January 28, 2001, at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida.
The New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade. They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). In Super Bowl XXXVI, first - year starting quarterback Tom Brady led his team to a 20 -- 17 upset victory over the St. Louis Rams. Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The Patriots also won Super Bowls XXXVIII and XXXIX defeating the Carolina Panthers and the Philadelphia Eagles respectively. This four - year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers ' 48 -- 21 Super Bowl XXXVII victory over the Oakland Raiders.
The Pittsburgh Steelers and Indianapolis Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super Bowls XL and XLI in 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07, respectively defeating the Seattle Seahawks and Chicago Bears.
In the 2007 season, the Patriots became the fourth team in NFL history to have a perfect unbeaten and untied regular season record, the second in the Super Bowl era after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16 -- 0. They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites in Super Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game to Eli Manning and the New York Giants 17 -- 14, leaving the Patriots ' 2007 record at 18 -- 1.
The following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27 -- 23, final - minute victory against the Arizona Cardinals.
The 2009 season saw the New Orleans Saints defeat the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV by a score of 31 -- 17 to take home their first Championship. With this victory, the Saints joined the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New York Jets as the only teams to have won in their sole Super Bowl appearance.
The 2010s have seen parity between the two conferences, but not within them. Since the start of 2010, five of the nine Super Bowl winners hailed from the NFC, the other four from the AFC.
Following up the Saints ' win in Super Bowl XLIV, the 2010 season brought the Green Bay Packers their fourth Super Bowl (XLV) victory and record thirteenth NFL championship overall with the defeat of the Pittsburgh Steelers in February 2011. The Giants won another title after the 2011 season, again defeating the Patriots in Super Bowl XLVI.
The Baltimore Ravens snapped the NFC 's three - game winning streak by winning Super Bowl XLVII in a 34 -- 31 victory over the San Francisco 49ers. Super Bowl XLVIII, played at New Jersey 's MetLife Stadium in February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold weather environment. The Seattle Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43 -- 8 defeat of the Denver Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle 's top - ranked defense against a Peyton Manning - led Denver offense that had broken the NFL 's single - season scoring record.
In Super Bowl XLIX, the Patriots beat the defending Super Bowl champions, the Seahawks, 28 -- 24 as Malcolm Butler intercepted a Seattle pass in the end zone with the Seahawks poised to take the lead. In Super Bowl 50, the Broncos, led by the league 's top - ranked defense, defeated the Carolina Panthers, who had the league 's top - ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning 's career.
In Super Bowl LI, the Atlanta Falcons had a 28 -- 3 lead late in the third quarter, but lost to the Patriots, 34 -- 28, in the first Super Bowl to ever end in overtime.
In Super Bowl LII, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the New England Patriots, 41 -- 33. It was the Eagles ' third Super Bowl appearance, and their first win in franchise history. It was the Patriots ' tenth Super Bowl appearance, and their fourth appearance in ten years; had the Patriots won, they would have tied the Pittsburgh Steelers with the most Super Bowl wins (six).
The Super Bowls of the late 2000s and 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of the participating quarterbacks, and stagnation (especially on the AFC side) in repeated appearances by the same teams and players. In particular, Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger, or Peyton Manning appeared as the AFC team 's quarterback in all but two of the Super Bowls between 2001 and 2018.
The Super Bowl is one of the most watched annual sporting events in the world, with viewership overwhelmingly domestic. The only other annual event that gathers more viewers is the UEFA Champions League final. For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most watched United States originating television program of the year. The game tends to have high Nielsen television ratings, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 shares. This means that on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment.
In press releases preceding each year 's event, the NFL typically claims that that year 's Super Bowl will have a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries. This figure refers to the number of people able to watch the game, not the number of people actually watching. However, the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in various media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a common misperception about the game 's actual global audience. The New York - based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for the 2005 Super Bowl at 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly 2 million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year.
The 2015 Super Bowl XLIX holds the record for average number of U.S. viewers, with a final number of 114.4 million, making the game the most - viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show was the most watched ever with 118.5 million viewers tuning in, and an all - time high of 168 million viewers in the United States had watched several portions of the Super Bowl 2015 broadcast. The game set a record for total viewers for the fifth time in six years.
The highest - rated game according to Nielsen was Super Bowl XVI in 1982, which was watched in 49.1 percent of households (73 shares), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Ratings for that game, a San Francisco victory over Cincinnati, may have been aided by a large blizzard that had affected much of the northeastern United States on game day, leaving residents to stay at home more than usual. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen 's list of top - rated programs of all time, and three other Super Bowls, XII, XVII, and XX, made the top ten.
Famous commercial campaigns include the Budweiser "Bud Bowl '' campaign, the 1984 introduction of Apple 's Macintosh computer, and the 1999 and 2000 dot - com ads. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, prices have also increased every year, with advertisers paying as much as $3.5 million for a thirty - second spot during Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials. In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. The Super Bowl halftime show has spawned another set of alternative entertainment such as the Lingerie Bowl, the Beer Bottle Bowl, and others.
Since 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6: 19 and 6: 40 PM EST so that most of the game is played during the primetime hours on the East Coast.
Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been. ^ *: The extended current TV contracts with the networks expire after the 2022 season (or Super Bowl LVII in early 2023) and the Super Bowl is currently rotated annually between CBS, Fox, and NBC in that order. ^ * *: ABC is not currently in the rotation for Super Bowl broadcasts. ^ * * *: The first Super Bowl was simultaneously broadcast by CBS and NBC, with each network using the same video feed, but providing its own commentary. Super Bowls I -- VI were blacked out in the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place.
The Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead - in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted on the coattails from Super Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: "A paid program that ran on Channel 4 (WIVB - TV) at 2: 30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That 's higher than some CW prime time shows get on WNLO - TV, Channel 4 's sister station. ''
Because of this strong coattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series, or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead - out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage.
Initially, it was sort of a novelty and so it did n't quite feel right. But it was just like, this is the year... Bands of our generation, you can sort of be seen on a stage like this or, like, not seen. There 's not a lot of middle places. It is a tremendous venue.
Early Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting of marching bands from local colleges or high schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and the halftime show, or simply sang the national anthem of the United States, emerged. Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. After a special live episode of the Fox sketch comedy series In Living Color caused a drop in viewership for the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show, the NFL sought to increase the Super Bowl 's audience by hiring A-list talent to perform. They approached Michael Jackson, whose performance the following year drew higher figures than the game itself. Another notable performance came during Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002, when U2 performed; during their third song, "Where the Streets Have No Name '', the band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of the September 11 attacks.
For many years, Whitney Houston 's performance of the national anthem at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, had long been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history. Then, in an historic, groundbreaking, and emotional performance prior to Super Bowl XLVIII, soprano Renee Fleming became the first opera singer to perform the anthem, propelling FOX to the highest ratings of any program in its history, and remains so today.
The halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII attracted controversy, following an incident in which Justin Timberlake removed a piece of Janet Jackson 's top, briefly exposing one of her breasts before the broadcast quickly cut away from the shot. The incident led to fines being issued by the FCC (and a larger crackdown over "indecent '' content broadcast on television), and MTV (then a sister to the game 's broadcaster that year, CBS, under Viacom) being banned by the NFL from producing the Super Bowl halftime show in the future. In an effort to prevent a repeat of the incident, the NFL held a moratorium on Super Bowl halftime shows featuring pop performers, and instead invited a single, headlining veteran act, such as Paul McCartney, The Who, Prince, and Bruce Springsteen. This practice ended at Super Bowl XLV, which returned to using current pop acts such as The Black Eyed Peas and Katy Perry.
Excluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous "I 'm going to Disney World! '' advertising campaign took place in every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXI when quarterback Phil Simms from the New York Giants became the first player to say the tagline.
As of Super Bowl LII, 27 of 52 Super Bowls have been played in three cities: New Orleans (ten times), the Greater Miami area (ten times), and the Greater Los Angeles area (seven times). No market or region without an active NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market or region is now a de jure requirement for bidding on the game. The winning market is not, however, required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team uses, and nine Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time. For example, Los Angeles 's last five Super Bowls were all played at the Rose Bowl, which has never been used by any NFL franchise outside of the Super Bowl.
No team has ever played the Super Bowl in its home stadium. The closest any team has come was the 2017 Minnesota Vikings, who were within one win of playing Super Bowl LII in U.S. Bank Stadium, but lost the NFC Championship game to the Philadelphia Eagles. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market: the San Francisco 49ers, who played Super Bowl XIX in Stanford Stadium instead of Candlestick Park; and the Los Angeles Rams, who played Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In both cases, the stadium in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large, high - profile event than the stadiums the Rams and 49ers were playing in at the time; this situation has not arisen since 1993, in part because the league has traditionally awarded the Super Bowl in modern times to the newest stadiums. Besides those two, the only other Super Bowl venue that was not the home stadium to an NFL team at the time was Rice Stadium in Houston: the Houston Oilers had played there previously, but moved to the Astrodome several years prior to Super Bowl VIII. The Orange Bowl was the only AFL stadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III.
Traditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 ° F (10 ° C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof. Six Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in the Detroit area -- Super Bowl XVI at Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan and Super Bowl XL at Ford Field in Detroit, two in Minneapolis -- Super Bowl XXVI at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome and Super Bowl LII at the U.S. Bank Stadium, one in Indianapolis at Lucas Oil Stadium for Super Bowl XLVI, and one in the New York area -- Super Bowl XLVIII at MetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm - climate rule.
There have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognize Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a paid state - employee 's holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through, the game was moved to Pro Player Stadium in greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved to San Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn from New York City 's proposed West Side Stadium, because the city, state, and proposed tenants New York Jets could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded to Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given to Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box, and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game. Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded to University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.
In 2011, Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott said, "(The Super Bowl is) commonly known as the single largest human trafficking incident in the United States. '' According to Forbes, 10,000 prostitutes were brought to Miami in 2010 for the Super Bowl. Snopes research in 2015 determined that the actual number of prostitutes involved in a typical Super Bowl weekend is less than 100, not statistically higher than any other time of the year, and that the notion of mass increases in human trafficking around the Super Bowl was a politician 's myth.
The location of the Super Bowl is chosen by the NFL well in advance, usually three to five years before the game. Cities place bids to host a Super Bowl and are evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host. Much of the cost of the Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. Some of the host requirements include:
The NFL owners meet to make a selection on the site, usually three to five years prior to the event. In 2007, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell suggested that a Super Bowl might be played in London, perhaps at Wembley Stadium. The game has never been played in a region that lacks an NFL franchise; seven Super Bowls have been played in Los Angeles, but none were held there in the 21 - year period when the league had no team in the area. New Orleans, the site of the 2013 Super Bowl, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game.
The designated "home team '' alternates between the NFC team in odd - numbered games and the AFC team in even - numbered games. This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Green Bay Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their team logo and wordmark painted in one of the end zones. Designated away teams have won 30 of 51 Super Bowls to date (approximately 59 percent).
Since Super Bowl XIII in January 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or white jerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in Dallas donning their less exposed dark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been six (6) exceptions: the Dallas Cowboys during Super Bowl XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers during Super Bowl XL, the Denver Broncos during Super Bowl 50, and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII. The Cowboys, since 1964, have worn white jerseys at home. The Redskins wore white at home under coach Joe Gibbs starting in 1981 through 1992, continued by Richie Petitbon and Norv Turner through 2000, then again when Gibbs returned from 2004 through 2007. Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers ' decision was compared with the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the 1985 season, but after winning road playoff games against the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to crimson for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, "We 've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms ''; they previously had been 0 -- 4 in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys. The Broncos ' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. It is unclear why the Patriots chose to wear their white jerseys for Super Bowl LII. During the pairing of Bill Belichick and Tom Brady, New England has mostly worn their blue jerseys for home games, but have worn white for a home game in the 2008, 2010, and 2011 seasons. The New England Patriots were 3 - 0 in their white uniforms in Super Bowls prior to Super Bowl LII with Belichick and Brady, and they may have been going on recent trends of teams who wear white for the Super Bowl game. White - shirted teams have won 33 of 52 Super Bowls to date (63 percent). The only teams to win in their dark - colored uniform in more recent years are the Green Bay Packers against the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XLV and the Philadelphia Eagles against the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII, with teams in white winning 12 of the last 14 Super Bowls.
The 49ers, as part of the league 's 75th Anniversary celebration, used their 1957 throwback uniform in Super Bowl XXIX, which for that year was their regular home jersey. No team has yet worn a third jersey or Color Rush uniform for the Super Bowl.
Fifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls.
Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (or will be played; future games are denoted through italics) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.
A total of twenty - six different stadiums, five of which no longer exist and one of which does not yet exist, have hosted or are scheduled to host Super Bowls. Years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.
^ ^: Stadium is now demolished. ^ ‡: Miami Gardens became a city in 2003. Before that, the stadium had a Miami address while in unincorporated Miami - Dade County. ^ † †: The original Stanford Stadium, which hosted Super Bowl XIX, was demolished and replaced with a new stadium in 2006. ^ ˇ: Future Super Bowls, also denoted by italics.
Future venues:
The game has never been played in a region that lacked an NFL or AFL franchise. London, England has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future. Wembley Stadium has hosted several NFL games as part of the NFL International Series and is specifically designed for large, individual events. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zone complications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6: 30 p.m. Eastern Time start would result in the game beginning at 11: 30 p.m. local time in London, an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports (the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9: 15 p.m. local time). As bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LVI, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL 's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LVII in 2023.
The NFL is very active on stopping what it says is unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms "NFL '', "Super Bowl '', and "Super Sunday ''. As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it with euphemisms such as "The Big Game '', or other generic descriptions. A radio spot for Planters nuts parodied this, by saying "it would be super... to have a bowl... of Planters nuts while watching the big game! '' and comedian Stephen Colbert began referring to the game in 2014 as the "Superb Owl ''. In 2015, the NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona - based nonprofit for "Superb Owl ''. The NFL claims that the use of the phrase "Super Bowl '' implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that "promote a message '', while venues that do not regularly show sporting events can not show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches. Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that "any use is prohibited '', as this contradicts the broad doctrine of fair use in the United States. Legislation was proposed by Utah Senator Orrin Hatch in 2008 "to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games '', and "for other purposes ''.
In 2004, The NFL started issuing Cease and Desist letters to casinos in Las Vegas that were hosting Super Bowl parties. "Super Bowl '' is a registered trademark, owned by the NFL, and any other business using that name for profit - making ventures is in violation of federal law, according to the letters. In reaction to the letters, many Vegas resorts, rather than discontinue the popular and lucrative parties, started referring to them as "Big Game Parties. ''
In 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark "The Big Game '' as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public - relations opposition to the move, mostly from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley and their fans, as the Stanford Cardinal football and California Golden Bears football teams compete in the Big Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years before Super Bowl I). Additionally, the Mega Millions lottery game was known as The Big Game from 1996 to 2002.
Like the other major professional leagues in the United States, the winner of the Super Bowl is usually declared "world champions '', a title that has been mocked by non-American journalists. Others feel the title is fitting, since it is the only professional league of its kind.
The practice by the U.S. major leagues of using the "World Champion '' moniker originates from the World Series of professional baseball, and it was later used during the first three Super Bowls when they were referred to as AFL - NFL World Championship Games. The phrase is still engraved on the Super Bowl rings.
Media related to Super Bowl at Wikimedia Commons
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where did the uk come in eurovision song contest | United Kingdom in the Eurovision song Contest 2018 - wikipedia
The United Kingdom participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018. The British entry for the 2018 contest in Lisbon, Portugal, was selected via the national final Eurovision: You Decide, organised by the British broadcaster BBC. On 16 November 2017, it was announced that Måns Zelmerlöw, winner of the 2015 contest for Sweden, would join the show as co-host alongside Mel Giedroyc. The national final took place on 7 February 2018 at the Brighton Dome. Six acts competed in the national final, with the song "Storm '' performed by SuRie being selected the winner.
As a member of the "Big 5 '', the United Kingdom automatically qualified to compete in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest.
Prior to the 2018 contest, the United Kingdom has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest sixty times. Thus far, the United Kingdom has won the contest five times: in 1967 with the song "Puppet on a String '' performed by Sandie Shaw, in 1969 with the song "Boom Bang - a-Bang '' performed by Lulu, in 1976 with the song "Save Your Kisses for Me '' performed by Brotherhood of Man, in 1981 with the song "Making Your Mind Up '' performed by Bucks Fizz and in 1997 with the song "Love Shine a Light '' performed by Katrina and the Waves. To this point, the nation is noted for having finished as the runner - up in a record fifteen contests. Up to and including 1998, the UK had only twice finished outside the top 10, in 1978 and 1987. Since 1999, the year in which the rule was abandoned that songs must be performed in one of the official languages of the country participating, the UK has had less success, thus far only finishing within the top ten twice: in 2002 with the song "Come Back '' performed by Jessica Garlick and in 2009 with the song "It 's My Time '' performed by Jade Ewen. For the 2017 contest, the United Kingdom finished in fifteenth place out of twenty - six competing entries with the song "Never Give Up on You '' performed by Lucie Jones amassing a total of 111 points.
The British national broadcaster, BBC, broadcasts the event within the United Kingdom and organises the selection process for the nation 's entry. BBC announced that the United Kingdom would participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 on 29 September 2017. Between 2011 and 2015, BBC opted to internally select the British entry. For their 2016 entry, the broadcaster announced that a national final would be organised featuring a competition among several artists and songs to choose the British entry for Eurovision. The same process was used in 2017.
Eurovision: You Decide is the national final that was used to select the 2018 entrant, being previously used in the past two years. Six acts competed in a televised show on 7 February 2018 which was held at the Brighton Dome and once again hosted by Mel Giedroyc, being joined this year by Eurovision Song Contest 2015 winner Måns Zelmerlöw. The winner was selected via the combination of a public televote, consisting of televoting and online voting, and the votes of a professional jury panel. As in 2017, the show was broadcast live on BBC Two. The national final was watched by 900,000 viewers in the United Kingdom with a market share of 4.8 %.
On 29 September 2017, BBC announced an open submission for interested artists to submit their songs. The submission period lasted until 27 October 2017. The BBC invited the UK branch of the international OGAE fan club to assist in shortlisting the open entries and also revived its partnership with the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA) who ran a songwriting competition amongst its members. The BBC also consulted with music industry experts including writers, producers, artist managers and members of the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Former music director of RCA Records and founder of Innocent Records, Hugh Goldsmith, acted as music consultant to the BBC. As in 2017, multiple songwriting camps were also held to promote the submission of entries. Songs from all entry methods were included in a final shortlist which was presented to a professional panel, who ultimately selected six finalists to compete in the national final. The six songs were announced on 24 January 2018.
Six acts competed in the televised final on 7 February 2018. A combination of the votes from the public and the votes from an eight - member professional jury selected the winner, SuRie, with "Storm ''. The three members of the panel, who provided feedback regarding the songs during the show, were:
The eight - member jury panel consisted of the following: music journalist Caroline Sullivan, music correspondent Roisin O'Connor, regional radio promoter Steve Tandy, Spotify music editor Sara Sesardic, A&R manager Alastair Webber, MTV Music editor Marco Sensi, singer Kele Le Roc and head judge, vocal coach David Grant.
Zelmerlöw and the United Kingdom 's 2017 representative, Lucie Jones, opened the show performing an ABBA medley.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2018 took place at the Altice Arena in Lisbon, Portugal and consisted of two semi-finals on 8 and 10 May and the final on 12 May 2018. According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big 5 '' (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. As a member of the "Big 5 '', the United Kingdom automatically qualifies to compete in the final. In addition to their participation in the final, the United Kingdom is also required to broadcast and vote in one of the two semi-finals. During the semi-final allocation draw on 29 January 2018, the United Kingdom was assigned to broadcast and vote in the first semi-final on 8 May 2018.
In the United Kingdom, the semi-finals were broadcast on BBC Four with commentary by Scott Mills and Rylan Clark - Neal, while the final was televised on BBC One with commentary by Graham Norton. Mel Giedroyc announced the United Kingdom jury results.
SuRie performed 9th in the running order during the Grand Final. In the middle of her performance, a stage invader grabbed her microphone and shouted: "Modern Nazis of The UK media, we demand freedom! War is not peace! '', before being removed by security and taken into police custody. SuRie was without her microphone for about 10 seconds, but was nevertheless able to finish her performance. She was offered the opportunity to perform again by the EBU after the final country, Italy, had performed, but declined, claiming she and her team were "proud of her performance ''. After returning to The UK, in an interview on This Morning, SuRie revealed she had some bruises on her hands where the invader had grabbed her and also on her shoulder where he had barged into her, but she said that she had not been seriously harmed by the incident.
The following five members comprised the British jury:
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when did the south china sea conflict start | Timeline of the South China Sea dispute - wikipedia
The article covers events that are related to the South China Sea dispute.
The Sa Huynh culture flourished in coastal South China Sea, especially in southern to central Vietnam, from Mekong Delta to Quang Binh province. The people that support Sa Huynh civilization were sea faring Austronesian - speaking people. The Sa Huynh relics can be found in several sites on the coasts of South China Sea, from Palawan in the Philippines to Orchid Island near Taiwan, suggesting that they sailed, settled and traded around the coasts of South China Sea.
It has been claimed by the People 's Republic of China on the argument that since 200 BC Chinese fishermen have used the Spratly islands.
Two famous Chinese books authored by Wan Zhen of the Eastern Wu State and published during the Three Kingdoms period (220 -- 280 AD) and a work titled Guangzhou Ji (Chronicles of Guangzhou) authored by Pei Yuan of the Jin Dynasties described the Paracel and Spratly islands. The local government of the Jin Dynasties exercised jurisdiction over the islands by sending patrolling naval boats to the surrounding sea areas.
Naval forces of the Song State of the Southern Dynasties (420 -- 479 AD) patrolled the Paracel and Spratly islands. In the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907 AD), the islands were placed under the administration and authority of the Qiongzhou Perfecture (now Hainan Province). Chinese administration of the South China Sea continued into the North and South Song dynasties (970 -- 1279).
Archaeologists have found Chinese made potteries porcelains and other historical relics from the Southern dynasties (420 -- 589), the Sui dynasties (581 -- 618), the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907), the Song Dynasties (960 -- 1279), the Yuan dynasties (1206 -- 1368), the Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644) and later eras up to modern times on the South China Sea islands.
The South China Sea was known as the "Champa Sea '' by sailors and traders in the region. It was named after a Hindu thalassocratic empire Champa that flourished in the area around that period.
PLA troops and PRC archaeologists ' discovered ' these markers between 1974 and 1979 and the fiction of the primary sources less 1902 expedition was created.
Translation: In 1984, Deng Xiaoping raised two options: "One method is that we use force to get these islands back. Another is to shelve the sovereignty issue, co-develop the place. ''
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west bengal public service commission 161-a shyama prasad mukherjee road | Public Service Commission, West Bengal - wikipedia
The Public Service Commission, West Bengal or PSCWB (Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ লোকসেবা আয়োগ) is the state agency authorized to conduct the Civil Services Examination for entry - level appointments to the various Civil Services of state of West Bengal in India.
The office of the Public Service Commission, West Bengal is situated in Mudiali, Tollygunge area, Kolkata. The official address is 161A Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026.
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when does the second season of haters back off come out | Haters Back Off - wikipedia
Haters Back Off is a television comedy series starring Colleen Ballinger, based on her character Miranda Sings, that was released on Netflix on October 14, 2016. The "surreal and absurd '' series centers around the family life of Miranda Sings, a sheltered, self - absorbed, overconfident and untalented young performer who seeks fame on YouTube. The half - hour episodes depict Miranda 's road to fame, and the price she pays for trampling on the feelings of others. Season 1 follows Miranda from the time she uploads her first video until one of her videos goes viral. The show co-stars Angela Kinsey as Bethany, Miranda 's mother, Steve Little as Jim, Miranda 's uncle, Francesca Reale as Emily, Miranda 's sister, and Erik Stocklin as Patrick, Miranda 's best friend. Netflix describes the show as "a bizarre family comedy, and a commentary on society today and our fascination with fame. ''
The show was developed by Colleen Ballinger and her brother, Christopher Ballinger, together with showrunners Gigi McCreery and Perry Rein. It is produced by Brightlight Pictures. The show is named for Miranda Sings ' signature catchphrase that she uses when responding to negative comments on her YouTube videos. The eight episodes of series 1 were released simultaneously worldwide. The show is one of the first scripted series created by a YouTube personality.
Netflix has renewed the series for an 8 - episode second season, to be released on October 20, 2017. Ballinger told Entertainment Weekly that the writers plan to continue pulling stories "from things that actually happened to me in my career '' and that, in season 2, "Miranda has a lot of mending relationships to do. '' The season is set to introduce Miranda 's estranged father, played by Matt Besser, as Uncle Jim and Miranda scheme to get her on Broadway "to cement her status as a legend. ''
Since 2008, Colleen Ballinger has posted videos as her comically talentless, narcissistic and quirky character, Miranda Sings, primarily on the YouTube channel Miranda Sings. The character is a satire of bad, but egotistical, performers who film themselves singing as a form of self - promotion. Miranda is portrayed as a home - schooled young woman who is eccentric and infantilized, narcissistically believes that she was born famous, and is obsessed with show business fame. Miranda uses spoonerisms and malapropisms, is irritable, ludicrously self - absorbed and self - righteous, socially awkward, and has a defiant, arrogant attitude. She responds to people who offer criticism with the catchphrase, "Haters back off! ''
In March 2009, Ballinger uploaded a Miranda video called "Free Voice Lesson '', full of awful singing advice, that quickly became her first viral sensation. This led to requests for Ballinger to perform live as Miranda, and she later began to tour worldwide. The Miranda Sings YouTube channel has received more than 1 billion views and has more than 8 million subscribers, while Ballinger 's personal YouTube channel, PsychoSoprano, has more than 900 million views and 5 million subscribers. Miranda has appeared in character on television shows and Ballinger released a 2015 book, Selp - Helf, written in Miranda 's voice, that ranked No. 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list for Advice, How - To & Miscellaneous.
Ballinger told interviewers that she and her brother Chris began to develop the idea for the show about five or six years before it premiered. At first they considered a film treatment but later decided on a television series format. Ballinger chose Netflix over HBO to produce Haters Back Off because she felt that Netflix understood and was enthusiastic about the character and its online origin and fanbase. Comparing the show to Christopher Guest 's Waiting for Guffman, showrunner Perry Rein said: "This is the first time we 've done a show about a really bad dancer and singer. (It has) characters that take themselves very seriously in their very small worlds. ''
On YouTube, Miranda has always had an offstage relationship with her mother and uncle, and Ballinger long had the idea for Miranda 's best friend, Patrick. Ballinger said that she wanted to use the longer format of the series to expose Miranda 's vulnerability and make her believable; to explain the source of the insecurities that make her so rude and eccentric. Emily, Miranda 's sister, is a new character. Ballinger said that her brother, Chris, helped Francesca Reale to create the character. Emily is the only normal person in Miranda 's family, but they treat her as the odd one, like Marilyn in The Munsters. The series expands Miranda 's world seen in YouTube. Miranda represents an "extreme version of what the average gawky teenage girl may be feeling. ''
/ Film mused: "Haters Back Off seems like a smart move for Netflix. (A) streaming content provider seems like a natural fit. Her built - in audience is already used to watching original content online ''. TechCrunch commented: "(T) he rise of YouTube - fueled online influencers has been breathtaking... building big audiences beyond the reach, knowledge and control of traditional entertainment gatekeepers, including the networks... Netflix can... leverage the audiences of these online stars, and their marketing reach, to drive the fans to new properties... online, where their fans already routinely seek entertainment ''. In September 2016, the series was included in The Wall Street Journal 's list of "The 6 Best New Things to Stream in October ''. Bustle.com listed "11 Reasons You Should Watch... Haters Back Off '', writing that "Miranda has become emblematic of a new kind (of) star - seeker in the digital age: a youngster who decides that waiting for a fame - making opportunity simply wo n't do and that in order to become visible (and ostensibly beloved), you have to create the opportunities for visibility yourself. ''
Season 1 of Haters Back Off began filming in April 2016 in and around Port Coquitlam, British Columbia, near Vancouver, which substitutes, in the series, for Miranda 's hometown, Tacoma, Washington. Filming on Season 1 wrapped on June 3, 2016. Ballinger began promotions for season 1 in January 2016 with a comic YouTube video announcement. Miranda was featured on the cover of Variety, and in a feature article about the show, in June 2016. Ballinger also promoted the show on her social media, including with an original song about it performed by Miranda. On September 1, 2016, Netflix released the first production stills from Season 1. On September 21, the show released its first of a series of teasers. Ballinger appeared on The Tonight Show on October 14, 2016, the release date, to promote the series.
Season 2 filmed in and around Vancouver from April until June 5, 2017. Ballinger began promotions for Season 2 in August 2017 with an appearance on Live with Kelly and Ryan. Ballinger announced the release date of Season 2 in character as Miranda on the Miranda Sings YouTube channel on September 11, 2017. On the same date, she released a new original song on Miranda 's YouTube channel to promote the season. On October 10, 2017, Netflix released the official trailer for Season 2.
The series has been renewed for a second season of 8 episodes, bringing the total number of episodes to 16.
The first season of Haters Back Off received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 47 %, based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haters Back Off is bizarre, painful, and often times excruciatingly funny -- yet the appeal of the YouTube transport does n't quite carry over in the longer television format. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 54 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. The show won the "Best Comedy '' award at the 2016 CelebMix Awards.
Positive reviews of Haters Back Off include Robert Lloyd 's in the Los Angeles Times, who observed that, unlike in Miranda 's YouTube videos, the character 's actions in the TV series have consequences and affect the other characters and their feelings. Lloyd thought that the series succeeds in "shaping a funny idea into a semblance of life ''. He praised the performances, especially Kinsey 's. The Guardian printed two positive reviews: Brian Moylan called the series a "hilarious transfer to Netflix... Ballinger gets at something that is not only a cultural critique but often hits on the fragility of egos and everyone 's need for acceptance. '' In their other review, Stuart Heritage wrote: "It 's a uniformly singular sitcom about the effects of fame, and frequently a very funny one... (I) t is great, once you 've attuned yourself to its quirks ''. Melanie McFarland, on NPR, compared Miranda 's world with Pee - wee Herman 's, saying that both are "perversely funny, cartoonish worlds that also manage to be weirdly innocent. ' There 's just that sly element of wrongness about it that makes it oh so right. ' '' Daniel D'Addario wrote in Time magazine that the series "is imperfect, but it 's also more than it needed to be... Ballinger examine (s) what the obsession with having fans papers over and the new problems it creates. '' Paste magazine ranked Haters Back Off as the 9th "best new Netflix Original Series of 2016 ''.
TheWrap 's Michael E. Ross called the series an "antic, sometimes wise, often laugh - out - loud funny case of art imitating life imitating art '', noting that "there are times... when the veneer of ego is stripped away, and we discover the shy, insecure young woman behind the bluster. Haters reflects a hearty sense of humor about the genesis of online celebrity... (W) hat resonates... is Miranda 's underlying humanity, her basic drive to be recognized, to stand apart from the crowd. And we can all relate to the pain of rejection ''. Jasef Wisener of TVOvermind.com gave the series 3.8 stars out of 5. He was favorably impressed by the character development and the performances, especially Ballinger 's and Reale 's. He also liked its structure and musical score, but felt that the exposition was sometimes bogged down in the early episodes by its explanation of details and sometimes panders to Miranda 's established internet audience; he felt that the series improves in the later episodes. He disliked the sexual innuendos and found Miranda 's relationship with Uncle Jim uncomfortable, although these are elements carried over from Miranda 's YouTube videos. The A.V. Club 's Danette Chavez commented that Ballinger 's "portrayal of Miranda is multidimensional in spite of the character 's single - mindedness... Haters fleshes out the environment that would spawn such an egotistical personality... (L) aughs are as consistently delivered '' with zany comedy, although the "domestic strife and even anguish '' makes the series nearly a dramedy. But she felt that "sometimes the foreshadowing is just a little too foreboding... the tonal shifts do n't always jibe. ''
In a mixed review for New York magazine 's Vulture site, Jen Chaney judged that "not everything in Haters Back Off! works... If you find Miranda Sings irritating after watching a two - minute YouTube clip, you should find something else to put in your queue. But... fans... who have a reasonable amount of patience will likely find some redeeming qualities to latch onto, especially as the episodes progress... Miranda is a purposely maddening character. But Ballinger commits to her so fully and with such specific physicality... that she 's often mesmerizing to watch... (But) maybe Miranda Sings is better in shorter doses. '' Similarly, for The New York Times, James Poniewozik wrote that:
Like Miranda 's performances, Haters can be terrible and transfixing at the same time... Ballinger commits to Miranda 's hunger and histrionics... There 's a deeper pathos to Miranda 's situation, but the season does n't delve deeply into that until late, by which time haters will have long since backed off... There 's a lot in Haters Back Off! to gratify Ms. Ballinger 's YouTube fan base... Beyond the winces, there 's something human in its comedy of internet thirst: the insatiable drive to put a piece of oneself out into the world and hit refresh, refresh, refresh.
Brian Lowry, writing for CNN, had a mostly negative reaction. While he felt that while the series ' "critique of a fame - obsessed culture certainly has merit '', and that the later episodes "reward patience '', the show was too "cartoon - like '', and "there 's a sense that the series is stretched beyond what it has to offer. '' Keith Uhlich, in The Hollywood Reporter, found the gags funny, but he concluded that although Miranda is "an acidic critique of the very celebrity strivers who make up the majority of the YouTube community '', it is more effective "in short bursts ''. In "an eight - episode Netflix series... the lampoon loses its edge ''. He also thought that much of the pathos in the series is "unearned, unconvincing '' and the characters are "shallow vessels freighted down by contrived plot complications... And there 's more than a bit of that vainglorious YouTubers ' entitlement in where Haters ultimately ends up, the satire finally curdling into smugness. '' Sonia Saraiya of Variety did not think that the series has "the same organic appeal as Ballinger 's bizarre, pastiche - y videos... Miranda lacks some of the innocent naivete that makes her character work on YouTube... Miranda 's behavior... could be raucously hilarious (for some viewers), an example of theater - geek self - obsession run amok. For me, anyway, Miranda 's obsessions and absorptions... prove to be more tragic than hilarious. '' Rob Lowman of the Los Angeles Daily News wrote: "The series seems to want to exist somewhere between a Pee - wee Herman world, where Miranda exists within her own reality, and Waiting for Guffman or other parodies of self - important clueless people. It does n't succeed as either, nor on its own terms.
The show debuted as the 2nd most popular digital original series in the US for the week of October 14 -- 20, 2016.
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when did the us enter the pacific war | Pacific War - wikipedia
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia - Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South - East Asia, and in China (including the 1945 Soviet -- Japanese conflict).
The Second Sino - Japanese War between the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China had been in progress since 7 July 1937, with hostilities dating back as far as 19 September 1931 with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. However, it is more widely accepted that the Pacific War itself began on 7 / 8 December 1941, when Japan invaded Thailand and attacked the British possessions of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong as well as the United States military and naval bases in Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam and the Philippines.
The Pacific War saw the Allies pitted against Japan, the latter briefly aided by Thailand and to a much lesser extent by the Axis allied Germany and Italy. The war culminated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and other large aerial bomb attacks by the Allies, accompanied by the Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria on 9 August 1945, resulting in the Japanese announcement of intent to surrender on 15 August 1945. The formal surrender of Japan ceremony took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. After the war, Japan lost all rights and titles to its former possessions in Asia and the Pacific, and its sovereignty was limited to the four main home islands. Japan 's Shinto Emperor was forced to relinquish much of his authority and his divine status through the Shinto Directive in order to pave the way for extensive cultural and political reforms.
In Allied countries during the war, the "Pacific War '' was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. In the United States, the term Pacific Theater was widely used, although this was a misnomer in relation to the Allied campaign in Burma, the war in China and other activities within the Southeast Asian Theater.
Japan used the name Greater East Asia War (大 東亜 戦争, Dai Tō - A Sensō), as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941, to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China. This name was released to the public on 12 December, with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan -- China Incident (日 支 事変, Nisshi Jihen) into the Greater East Asia War.
During the Allied military occupation of Japan (1945 -- 52), these Japanese terms were prohibited in official documents, although their informal usage continued, and the war became officially known as the Pacific War (太平洋 戦争, Taiheiyō Sensō). In Japan, the Fifteen Years ' War (十 五 年 戦争, Jūgonen Sensō) is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945.
The Axis states which assisted Japan included the authoritarian government of Thailand, which quickly formed a temporary alliance with the Japanese in 1941, as the Japanese forces were already invading the peninsula of southern Thailand. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, which was former Thai territory that had been annexed by Britain much earlier. The official policy of the US government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, and that the United States was not at war with Thailand. The policy of the US government ever since 1945 has been to treat Thailand not as a former enemy, but rather as a country which had been forced into certain actions by Japanese blackmail, before being occupied by Japanese troops. Thailand has been treated by the United States in the same way as such other Axis - occupied countries as Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Greece, Norway, Poland, and the Netherlands.
Also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang (consisting of most of Manchuria and parts of Inner Mongolia respectively), and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime (which controlled the coastal regions of China). In preparation for the war against the United States, which would be decided at sea and in the air, Japan increased its naval budget as well as putting large formations of the Army and its attached air force under navy command. While formerly the IJA consumed the lion 's share of the state 's military budget due to the secondary role of the IJN in Japan 's campaign against China (with a 73 / 27 split in 1940), from 1942 to 1945 there would instead be a roughly 60 / 40 split in funds between the army and the navy.
Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa (Taiwan). To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, and Burmese National Army forces were active in the area of the Pacific War. Collaborationist units from Hong Kong (reformed ex-colonial police), Philippines, Dutch East Indies (the PETA) and Dutch Guinea, British Malaya and British Borneo, Inner Mongolia and former French Indochina (after the overthrow of Vichy French regime) as well as Timorese militia also assisted Japanese war efforts.
Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The Italians had access to "concession territory '' naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, both navies had access to Japanese naval facilities.
The major Allied participants were the United States, China, the United Kingdom (including the armed forces of British India, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, etc.), Australia, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the Netherlands (as the possessor of the Dutch East Indies and the western part of New Guinea), New Zealand, and Canada, all of whom were members of the Pacific War Council. Mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies.
The Soviet Union fought two short, undeclared border conflicts with Japan in 1938 and 1939, then remained neutral until August 1945, when it joined the Allies and invaded the territory of Manchukuo, China, Inner Mongolia, the Japanese protectorate of Korea and Japanese - claimed islands such as Sakhalin.
Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War: China, the Central Pacific, South - East Asia and the South West Pacific. US sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War: the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater (CBI). However these were not operational commands.
In the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a brief period just before the Japanese surrender, the Soviet Union and its Mongolian ally engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China.
By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full - scale war between China and Japan. The Nationalist and Communist Chinese suspended their civil war to form a nominal alliance against Japan, and the Soviet Union quickly lent support by providing large amount of materiel to Chinese troops. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and conducted the Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang. but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan and captured it in October. The Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion -- in particular in the United States -- condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident.
In 1939, Japanese forces tried to push into the Soviet Far East from Manchuria. They were soundly defeated in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol by a mixed Soviet and Mongolian force led by Georgy Zhukov. This stopped Japanese expansion to the north, and Soviet aid to China ended as a result of the signing of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact at the beginning of its war against Germany.
In September 1940, Japan decided to cut China 's only land line to the outside world by seizing Indochina, which was controlled at the time by Vichy France. Japanese forces broke their agreement with the Vichy administration and fighting broke out, ending in a Japanese victory. On 27 September Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy, becoming one of the three Axis Powers. In practice, there was little coordination between Japan and Germany until 1944, by which time the US was deciphering their secret diplomatic correspondence.
The war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian -- Zaoyang, 1st Battle of Changsha, Battle of Kunlun Pass and Battle of Zaoyi. After these victories, Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940; however, due to its low military - industrial capacity, it was repulsed by the Imperial Japanese Army in late March 1940. In August 1940, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted the "Three Alls Policy '' ("Kill all, Burn all, Loot all '') in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.
By 1941 the conflict had become a stalemate. Although Japan had occupied much of northern, central, and coastal China, the Nationalist Government had retreated to the interior with a provisional capital set up at Chungking while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In addition, Japanese control of northern and central China was somewhat tenuous, in that Japan was usually able to control railroads and the major cities ("points and lines ''), but did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside. The Japanese found its aggression against the retreating and regrouping Chinese army was stalled by the mountainous terrain in southwestern China while the Communists organised widespread guerrilla and saboteur activities in northern and eastern China behind the Japanese front line.
Japan sponsored several puppet governments, one of which was headed by Wang Jingwei. However, its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population, of not yielding any real power to these regimes, and of supporting several rival governments failed to make any of them a viable alternative to the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai - shek. Conflicts between Chinese communist and nationalist forces vying for territory control behind enemy lines culminated in a major armed clash in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.
Japanese strategic bombing efforts mostly targeted large Chinese cities such as Shanghai, Wuhan, and Chongqing, with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943 in the later case. Japan 's strategic bombing campaigns devastated Chinese cities extensively, killing 260,000 -- 350,934 non-combatants.
From as early as 1935 Japanese military strategists had concluded the Dutch East Indies were, because of their oil reserves, of considerable importance to Japan. By 1940 they had expanded this to include Indochina, Malaya, and the Philippines within their concept of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese troop build ups in Hainan, Taiwan, and Haiphong were noted, Imperial Japanese Army officers were openly talking about an inevitable war, and Admiral Sankichi Takahashi was reported as saying a showdown with the United States was necessary.
In an effort to discourage Japanese militarism, Western powers including Australia, the United States, Britain, and the Dutch government in exile, which controlled the petroleum - rich Dutch East Indies, stopped selling oil, iron ore, and steel to Japan, denying it the raw materials needed to continue its activities in China and French Indochina. In Japan, the government and nationalists viewed these embargos as acts of aggression; imported oil made up about 80 % of domestic consumption, without which Japan 's economy, let alone its military, would grind to a halt. The Japanese media, influenced by military propagandists, began to refer to the embargoes as the "ABCD ('' American - British - Chinese - Dutch ") encirclement '' or "ABCD line ''.
Faced with a choice between economic collapse and withdrawal from its recent conquests (with its attendant loss of face), the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters began planning for a war with the western powers in April or May 1941.
Japan 's key objective during the initial part of the conflict was to seize economic resources in the Dutch East Indies and Malaya which offered Japan a way to escape the effects of the Allied embargo. This was known as the Southern Plan. It was also decided -- because of the close relationship between the UK and United States, and the belief the US would inevitably become involved -- Japan would also require taking the Philippines, Wake and Guam.
Japanese planning was for fighting a limited war where Japan would seize key objectives and then establish a defensive perimeter to defeat Allied counterattacks, which in turn would lead to a negotiated peace. The attack on the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, with carrier - based aircraft of the Combined Fleet was to give the Japanese time to complete a perimeter.
The early period of the war was divided into two operational phases. The First Operational Phase was further divided into three separate parts in which the major objectives of the Philippines, British Malaya, Borneo, Burma, Rabaul and the Dutch East Indies would be occupied. The Second Operational Phase called for further expansion into the South Pacific by seizing eastern New Guinea, New Britain, Fiji, Samoa, and strategic points in the Australian area. In the Central Pacific, Midway was targeted as were the Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific. Seizure of these key areas would provide defensive depth and deny the Allies staging areas from which to mount a counteroffensive.
By November these plans were essentially complete, and were modified only slightly over the next month. Japanese military planners ' expectation of success rested on the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union being unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack because of the threat posed to each by Germany; the Soviet Union was even seen as unlikely to commence hostilities.
The Japanese leadership was aware that a total military victory in a traditional sense against the US was impossible; the alternative would be negotiating for peace after their initial victories, which would recognize Japanese hegemony in Asia. In fact, the Imperial GHQ noted, should acceptable negotiations be reached with the Americans, the attacks were to be canceled -- even if the order to attack had already been given. The Japanese leadership looked to base the conduct of the war against America on the historical experiences of the successful wars against China (1894 -- 95) and Russia (1904 -- 05), in both of which a strong continental power was defeated by reaching limited military objectives, not by total conquest.
They also planned, should the United States transfer its Pacific Fleet to the Philippines, to intercept and attack this fleet en route with the Combined Fleet, in keeping with all Japanese Navy prewar planning and doctrine. If the United States or Britain attacked first, the plans further stipulated the military were to hold their positions and wait for orders from GHQ. The planners noted attacking the Philippines and Malaya still had possibilities of success, even in the worst case of a combined preemptive attack including Soviet forces.
Following prolonged tensions between Japan and the Western powers, units of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army launched simultaneous surprise attacks on Australian, British, Dutch and US forces on 7 December (8 December in Asia / West Pacific time zones).
The locations of this first wave of Japanese attacks included: Hawaii, Malaya, Kingdom of Sarawak, Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, and the Philippines. Japanese forces also simultaneously invaded southern and eastern Thailand and were resisted for several hours, before the Thai government signed an armistice with Japan.
In the early hours of 7 December (Hawaiian time), Japan launched a major surprise carrier - based air strike on Pearl Harbor without explicit warning, which crippled the US Pacific Fleet, leaving eight American battleships out of action, 188 American aircraft destroyed, and 2,403 American citizens dead. At the time of the attack, the US was not officially at war anywhere in the world as the Japanese embassy failed to decipher and deliver the Japanese ultimatum to the American government before noon December 7 (Washington time), which means that the people killed or property destroyed at Pearl Harbor by the Japanese attack had a non-combatant status. The Japanese had gambled that the United States, when faced with such a sudden and massive blow, would agree to a negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in Asia. This gamble did not pay off. American losses were less serious than initially thought: The American aircraft carriers, which would prove to be more important than battleships, were at sea, and vital naval infrastructure (fuel oil tanks, shipyard facilities, and a power station), submarine base, and signals intelligence units were unscathed. Japan 's fallback strategy, relying on a war of attrition to make the US come to terms, was beyond the IJN 's capabilities.
Before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the 800,000 - member America First Committee vehemently opposed any American intervention in the European conflict, even as America sold military aid to Britain and the Soviet Union through the Lend - Lease program. Opposition to war in the US vanished after the attack. On 8 December, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands declared war on Japan, followed by China and Australia the next day. Four days after Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, drawing the country into a two - theater war. This is widely agreed to be a grand strategic blunder, as it abrogated both the benefit Germany gained by Japan 's distraction of the US and the reduction in aid to Britain, which both Congress and Hitler had managed to avoid during over a year of mutual provocation, which would otherwise have resulted.
British, Australian, and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and matériel by two years of war with Germany, and heavily committed in the Middle East, North Africa, and elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle - hardened Japanese. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. Two major British warships, HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales, were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on 10 December 1941.
Thailand, with its territory already serving as a springboard for the Malayan Campaign, surrendered within 5 hours of the Japanese invasion. The government of Thailand formally allied with Japan on 21 December. To the south, the Imperial Japanese Army had seized the British colony of Penang on 19 December, encountering little resistance.
Hong Kong was attacked on 8 December and fell on 25 December 1941, with Canadian forces and the Royal Hong Kong Volunteers playing an important part in the defense. American bases on Guam and Wake Island were lost at around the same time.
Following the Declaration by United Nations (the first official use of the term United Nations) on 1 January 1942, the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell to American - British - Dutch - Australian Command (ABDACOM), a supreme command for Allied forces in Southeast Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge force, albeit thinly spread over an area from Burma to the Philippines to northern Australia. Other areas, including India, Hawaii, and the rest of Australia remained under separate local commands. On 15 January, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDACOM.
In January, Japan invaded Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the Battle of Singapore, but were forced to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942; about 130,000 Indian, British, Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid: Bali and Timor also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance left the "ABDA area '' split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on 25 February, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander - in - Chief, India.
Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in Southeast Asia and were making attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a psychologically devastating but militarily insignificant attack on the city of Darwin on 19 February, which killed at least 243 people.
At the Battle of the Java Sea in late - February and early - March, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. The Dutch East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java and Sumatra.
In March and April, a powerful IJN carrier force launched a raid into the Indian Ocean. British Royal Navy bases in Ceylon were hit and the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes and other Allied ships were sunk. The attack forced the Royal Navy to withdraw to the western part of the Indian Ocean. This paved the way for a Japanese assault on Burma and India.
In Burma, the British, under intense pressure, made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo - Burmese border. This cut the Burma Road, which was the western Allies ' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists. In March 1942, the Chinese Expeditionary Force started to attack Japanese forces in northern Burma. On 16 April, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division, led by Sun Li - jen. Cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists had waned from its zenith at the Battle of Wuhan, and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their areas of operation in occupied territories. The Japanese exploited this lack of unity to press ahead in their offensives.
Filipino and US forces resisted in the Philippines until 8 May 1942, when more than 80,000 soldiers were ordered to surrender. By this time, General Douglas MacArthur, who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific, had been withdrawn to Australia. The US Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean. This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the commerce war, and consequently, the war itself.
In late 1941, as the Japanese struck at Pearl Harbor, most of Australia 's best forces were committed to the fight against Hitler in the Mediterranean Theatre. Australia was ill - prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While still calling for reinforcements from Churchill, the Australian Prime Minister John Curtin called for American support with a historic announcement on 27 December 1941:
The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies ' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom.
Australia had been shocked by the speedy collapse of British Malaya and Fall of Singapore in which around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted the "battle for Australia '' would now follow. The Japanese established a major base in the Australian Territory of New Guinea in early 1942. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had been attacked. Over the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times.
Two battle - hardened Australian divisions were steaming from the Mid-East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin insisted on a return to Australia. In early 1942 elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed an invasion of Australia. The Imperial Japanese Army opposed the plan and it was rejected in favour of a policy of isolating Australia from the United States via blockade by advancing through the South Pacific. The Japanese decided upon a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, capital of the Australian Territory of Papua which would put Northern Australia within range of Japanese bomber aircraft.
President Franklin Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur in the Philippines to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of MacArthur who became Supreme Commander, South West Pacific. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. Enemy naval activity reached Sydney in late May 1942, when Japanese midget submarines launched a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney 's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle.
In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia - Pacific war council, based in Washington, DC. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However, the smaller powers continued to push for an American - based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington, on 1 April 1942, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, his key advisor Harry Hopkins, and representatives from Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the US -- UK Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington. Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor.
Having accomplished their objectives during the First Operation Phase with ease, the Japanese now turned to the second. The Second Operational Phase planned to expand Japan 's strategic depth by adding eastern New Guinea, New Britain, the Aleutians, Midway, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, and strategic points in the Australian area. However, the Naval General Staff, the Combined Fleet, and the Imperial Army, all had different strategies on the next sequence of operations. The Naval General Staff advocated an advance to the south to seize parts of Australia. However, with large numbers of troops still engaged in China combined with those stationed in Manchuria facing the Soviet Union, the Imperial Japanese Army declined to contribute the forces necessary for such an operation, this quickly led to the abandonment of the concept. The Naval General Staff still wanted to cut the sea links between Australia and the United States by capturing New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa. Since this required far fewer troops, on March 13 the Naval General Staff and the Army agreed to operations with the goal of capturing Fiji and Samoa. The Second Operational Phase began well when Lae and Salamaua, located in eastern New Guinea, were captured on March 8. However, on March 10, American carrier aircraft attacked the invasion forces and inflicted considerable losses. The raid had major operational implications since it forced the Japanese to stop their advance in the South Pacific, until the Combined Fleet provided the means to protect future operations from American carrier attack. Concurrently, the Doolittle Raid occurred in April 1942, where 16 bombers took off from the aircraft carrier USS Hornet, 600 miles (970 km) from Japan. The raid inflicted minimal material damage on Japanese soil but was a huge morale boost for the United States, it also had major psychological repercussions in Japan, in exposing the vulnerabilities of the Japanese homeland. As the raid was mounted by a carrier task force, it consequently highlighted to the dangers the Japanese home islands could face until the destruction of the American carrier forces was achieved. With only Marcus Island and a line of converted trawlers patrolling the vast waters that separate Wake and Kamchatka, the Japanese east coast was left open to attack.
Admiral Yamamoto now perceived that was it was essential to complete the destruction of the United States Navy, which had begun at Pearl Harbor. His proposal to achieve this was by attacking and occupying Midway Atoll an objective, which he assessed, the Americans would sure be certain to fight for as they would be forced to contest a Japanese invasion there since it was close enough to Hawaii. During a series of meetings held from April 2 -- 5, between the Naval General Staff and representatives of the Combined Fleet reached a compromise. Yamamoto got his Midway operation, but only after he had threatened to resign. In return, however, Yamamoto had to agree to two demands from the Naval General Staff both of which had implications for the Midway operation. In order to cover the offensive in the South Pacific, Yamamoto agreed to allocate one carrier division to the operation against Port Moresby. Yamamoto also agreed to include an attack to seize strategic points in the Aleutian Islands simultaneously with the Midway operation, these were enough to remove the Japanese margin of superiority in the coming Midway attack.
The attack on Port Moresby was codenamed the MO Operation and was divided into several parts or phases. In the first, Tulagi would be occupied on May 3, the carriers would then conduct a wide sweep through the Coral Sea to find and attack and destroy Allied naval forces, with the landings conducted to capture Port Moresby scheduled for May 10. The MO Operation featured a force of 60 ships led by the two carriers: Shōkaku and Zuikaku, one light carrier (Shōhō), six heavy cruisers, three light cruisers, and 15 destroyers. Additionally, some 250 aircraft were assigned to the operation including 140 aboard the three carriers. However, the actual battle did not go according to plan, although Tulagi was seized on May 3, the following day, aircraft from the American carrier Yorktown struck the invasion force. The element of surprise, which had been present at Pearl Harbor, was now lost due to the success of Allied codebreakers who had discovered the attack would be against Port Moresby. From the Allied point of view if Port Moresby fell, the Japanese would control the seas to the north and west of Australia and could isolate the country. An Allied task force under the command of Admiral Fletcher, with the carriers USS Lexington and USS Yorktown was assembled to stop the Japanese advance. For the next two days, both the American and Japanese carrier forces tried unsuccessfully to locate each other. On May 7, the Japanese carriers launched a full strike on a contact reported to be enemy carriers, the report though turned out to be false. The strike force found and struck only an oiler, the Neosho and the destroyer Sims. The American carriers also launched a strike with incomplete reconnaissance, instead of finding the main Japanese carrier force, they only located and sank the Shōhō. On May 8, the opposing carrier forces finally found each other and exchanged air strikes. The 69 aircraft from the two Japanese carriers succeeded in sinking the carrier Lexington and damaging Yorktown, in return the Americans damaged the Shōkaku. Although Zuikaku was the left undamaged, aircraft and personnel losses to Zuikaku were heavy and the Japanese were unable to support a landing on Port Moresby. As a result, the MO Operation was cancelled, and the Japanese were subsequently forced to abandon their attempts to isolate Australia. Although they managed to sink a carrier, the battle was a disaster for the Japanese. Not only was the attack on Port Moresby halted, which constituted the first strategic Japanese setback of the war, but all three carriers that were committed to the battle would now be unavailable for the operation against Midway. The Battle of the Coral Sea was the first naval battle fought in which ships involved never sighted each other, with attacks solely by aircraft.
After Coral Sea, the Japanese had four fleet carriers operational -- Sōryū, Kaga, Akagi and Hiryū -- and believed that the Americans had a maximum of two -- Enterprise and Hornet. Saratoga was out of action, undergoing repair after a torpedo attack, while Yorktown had been damaged at Coral Sea and was believed by Japanese naval intelligence to have been sunk. She would, in fact, sortie for Midway after just three days ' of repairs to her flight deck, with civilian work crews still aboard, in time to be present for the next decisive engagement.
Admiral Yamamoto viewed the operation against Midway as the potentially decisive battle of the war which could would lead to the destruction of American strategic power in the Pacific, and subsequently open the door for a negotiated peace settlement with the United States, favorable to Japan. For the operation, the Japanese had only four carriers; Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū. Through strategic and tactical surprise, the Japanese would knock out Midway 's air strength and soften it for a landing by 5,000 troops. After the quick capture of the island, the Combined Fleet would lay the basis for the most important part of the operation. Yamamoto hoped that the attack would lure the Americans into a trap, Midway was to be bait for the USN which would depart Pearl Harbor to counterattack after Midway had been captured. When the Americans arrived, he would concentrate his scattered forces to defeat them. An important aspect of the scheme was Operation AL, which was the plan to seize two islands in the Aleutians, concurrently with the attack on Midway. Contradictory to persistent myth, the Aleutian operation was not a diversion to draw American forces from Midway, as the Japanese wanted the Americans to be drawn to Midway, rather than away from it. However, in May, Allied codebreakers discovered the planned attack on Midway. Yamamoto 's complex plan had no provision for intervention by the American fleet before the Japanese had expected them. Planned surveillance of the American fleet in Pearl Harbor by long - ranged seaplane did not happen as a result of an abortive identical operation in March. Planned detection of the American departure by submarine patrol line faltered on their late departure, a product of Nagumo 's hasty sortie.
The battle began on June 3, when American aircraft from Midway spotted and attacked the Japanese transport group 700 miles (1,100 km) west of the atoll. On June 4, the Japanese launched a 108 - aircraft strike on the island, the attackers brushing aside Midway 's defending fighters but failing to deliver a decisive blow to the island 's facilities. Most importantly, the strike aircraft based on Midway had already departed to attack the Japanese carriers, which had been spotted. This information was passed to the three American carriers and a total of 116 carrier aircraft, in addition to those from Midway, were on their way to attack the Japanese. The aircraft from Midway attacked, but failed to score a single hit on the Japanese. In the middle of these uncoordinated attacks, a Japanese scout aircraft reported the presence of an American task force, but it was not until later that the presence of an American carrier was confirmed. Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, was put in a difficult tactical situation in which he had to counter continuous American air attacks and prepare to recover his Midway strike, while deciding whether to mount an immediate strike on the American carrier or wait to prepare a proper attack. After quick deliberation, he opted for a delayed but better - prepared attack on the American task force after recovering his Midway strike and properly arming aircraft. However, beginning at 10.22 am, American SBD Dauntlesses surprised and successfully attacked three of the Japanese carriers. With their decks laden with fully fueled and armed aircraft, Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi were turned into blazing wrecks. A Japanese single carrier, Hiryū, remained operational, and launched an immediate counterattack. Both of her attacks hit Yorktown and put her out of action. Later in the afternoon, aircraft from the two remaining American carriers found and destroyed Hiryū. The crippled Yorktown, along with the destroyer Hammann, were both sunk by the Japanese submarine I - 168. With the striking power of the Kido Butai having been destroyed, Japan 's offensive power was blunted. Early on the morning of June 5, with the battle lost, the Japanese cancelled the Midway operation and the initiative in the Pacific was in the balance. Although losing four carriers, Parshall and Tully note losses at Midway did not radically degrade the fighting capabilities of Japanese naval aviation as a whole.
Japanese land forces continued to advance in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. From July 1942, a few Australian reserve battalions, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea, against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track, towards Port Moresby, over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, returning from action in the Mediterranean theater. In early September 1942 Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base at Milne Bay, near the eastern tip of New Guinea. They were beaten back by Allied (primarily Australian Army) forces.
At the same time as major battles raged in New Guinea, Allied forces became aware of a Japanese airfield under construction at Guadalcanal through coastwatchers. On August 7, US Marines landed on the islands of Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomons. Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, commander of the newly formed Eighth Fleet at Rabaul, reacted quickly. Gathering five heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and a destroyer, sailed to engage the Allied force off the coast of Guadalcanal. On the night of August 8 - 9, Mikawa 's quick response resulted in a brilliant victory during which four Allied heavy cruisers were sunk. No Japanese ships were lost, it was one of the worst American naval defeats of the war. The victory was only mitigated by the failure of the Japanese to attack the vulnerable transports. Had it been done so, the first American counterattack in the Pacific could have been stopped. The Japanese originally perceived the American landings as nothing more than a reconnaissance in force.
With Japanese and Allied forces occupying various parts of the island, over the following six months both sides poured resources into an escalating battle of attrition on land, at sea, and in the sky. Most of the Japanese aircraft based in the South Pacific were redeployed to the defense of Guadalcanal. Many were lost in numerous engagements with the Allied air forces based at Henderson Field as well as carrier based aircraft. Meanwhile, Japanese ground forces launched repeated attacks on heavily defended US positions around Henderson Field, in which they suffered appalling casualties. To sustain these offensives, resupply was carried out by Japanese convoys, termed the "Tokyo Express '' by the Allies. The convoys often faced night battles with enemy naval forces in which they expended destroyers that the IJN could ill - afford to lose. Later fleet battles involving heavier ships and even daytime carrier battles resulted in a stretch of water near Guadalcanal becoming known as "Ironbottom Sound '' from the multitude of ships sunk on both sides. However, the Allies were much better able to replace these losses. Finally recognizing that the campaign to recapture Henderson Field and secure Guadalcanal had simply become too costly to continue, the Japanese evacuated the island and withdrew in February 1943. In the six - month war of attrition, the Japanese had lost as a result of failing to commit enough forces in sufficient time.
By late 1942, Japanese headquarters decided to make Guadalcanal their priority. They ordered the Japanese on the Kokoda Track, within sight of the lights of Port Moresby, to retreat to the northeastern coast of New Guinea. Australian and US forces attacked their fortified positions and after more than two months of fighting in the Buna -- Gona area finally captured the key Japanese beachhead in early 1943.
In June 1943, the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel, which defined their offensive strategy in the South Pacific. The operation was aimed at isolating the major Japanese forward base at Rabaul and cutting its supply and communication lines. This prepared the way for Nimitz 's island - hopping campaign towards Japan.
In mainland China, the Japanese 3rd, 6th, and 40th Divisions, a grand total of around 120,000 troops, massed at Yueyang and advanced southward in three columns, attempting again to cross the Miluo River to reach Changsha. In January 1942, Chinese forces scored a victory at Changsha, the first Allied success against Japan.
After the Doolittle Raid, the Japanese army conducted the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, with the goal of searching out the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them, and destroying air bases. This operation started on 15 May 1942 with 40 infantry and 15 -- 16 artillery battalions, but was repelled by Chinese forces in September. During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and also spread cholera, typhoid, plague and dysentery pathogens. Chinese estimates put the death toll at 250,000 civilians. Around 1,700 Japanese troops died, out of a total 10,000 who fell ill when their biological weapons rebounded on their own forces.
On 2 November 1943, Isamu Yokoyama, commander of the Imperial Japanese 11th Army, deployed the 39th, 58th, 13th, 3rd, 116th and 68th Divisions, a total of around 100,000 troops, to attack Changde of China. During the seven - week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly campaign of attrition. Although the Imperial Japanese Army initially successfully captured the city, the Chinese 57th Division was able to pin them down long enough for reinforcements to arrive and encircle the Japanese. The Chinese then cut Japanese supply lines, provoking a retreat and Chinese pursuit. During the battle, Japan used chemical weapons.
In the aftermath of the Japanese conquest of Burma, there was widespread disorder and pro-Independence agitation in eastern India and a disastrous famine in Bengal, which ultimately caused up to 3 million deaths. In spite of these, and inadequate lines of communication, British and Indian forces attempted limited counter-attacks in Burma in early 1943. An offensive in Arakan failed, ignominiously in the view of some senior officers, while a long distance raid mounted by the Chindits under Brigadier Orde Wingate suffered heavy losses, but was publicized to bolster Allied morale. It also provoked the Japanese to mount major offensives themselves the following year.
In August 1943 the Allies formed a new South East Asia Command (SEAC) to take over strategic responsibilities for Burma and India from the British India Command, under Wavell. In October 1943 Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten as its Supreme Commander. The British and Indian Fourteenth Army was formed to face the Japanese in Burma. Under Lieutenant General William Slim, its training, morale and health greatly improved. The American General Joseph Stilwell, who also was deputy commander to Mountbatten and commanded US forces in the China Burma India Theater, directed aid to China and prepared to construct the Ledo Road to link India and China by land.
Midway proved to be the last great naval battle for two years. The United States used the ensuing period to turn its vast industrial potential into increased numbers of ships, planes, and trained aircrew. At the same time, Japan, lacking an adequate industrial base or technological strategy, a good aircrew training program, or adequate naval resources and commerce defense, fell further and further behind. In strategic terms the Allies began a long movement across the Pacific, seizing one island base after another. Not every Japanese stronghold had to be captured; some, like Truk, Rabaul, and Formosa, were neutralized by air attack and bypassed. The goal was to get close to Japan itself, then launch massive strategic air attacks, improve the submarine blockade, and finally (only if necessary) execute an invasion.
In November 1943 US Marines sustained high casualties when they overwhelmed the 4,500 - strong garrison at Tarawa. This helped the Allies to improve the techniques of amphibious landings, learning from their mistakes and implementing changes such as thorough pre-emptive bombings and bombardment, more careful planning regarding tides and landing craft schedules, and better overall coordination.
The US Navy did not seek out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle, as Mahanian doctrine would suggest (and as Japan hoped); the Allied advance could only be stopped by a Japanese naval attack, which oil shortages (induced by submarine attack) made impossible.
On 22 November 1943 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and ROC Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek, met in Cairo, Egypt, to discuss a strategy to defeat Japan. The meeting was also known as the Cairo Conference and concluded with the Cairo Declaration.
US submarines, as well as some British and Dutch vessels, operating from bases at Cavite in the Philippines (1941 -- 42); Fremantle and Brisbane, Australia; Pearl Harbor; Trincomalee, Ceylon; Midway; and later Guam, played a major role in defeating Japan, even though submarines made up a small proportion of the Allied navies -- less than two percent in the case of the US Navy. Submarines strangled Japan by sinking its merchant fleet, intercepting many troop transports, and cutting off nearly all the oil imports essential to weapons production and military operations. By early 1945, Japanese oil supplies were so limited that its fleet was virtually stranded.
The Japanese military claimed its defenses sank 468 Allied submarines during the war. In reality, only 42 American submarines were sunk in the Pacific due to hostile action, with 10 others lost in accidents or as the result of friendly fire. The Dutch lost five submarines due to Japanese attack or minefields, and the British lost three.
American submarines accounted for 56 % of the Japanese merchantmen sunk; mines or aircraft destroyed most of the rest. American submariners also claimed 28 % of Japanese warships destroyed. Furthermore, they played important reconnaissance roles, as at the battles of the Philippine Sea (June 1944) and Leyte Gulf (October 1944) (and, coincidentally, at Midway in June 1942), when they gave accurate and timely warning of the approach of the Japanese fleet. Submarines also rescued hundreds of downed fliers, including future US president George H.W. Bush.
Allied submarines did not adopt a defensive posture and wait for the enemy to attack. Within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack, in retribution against Japan, Roosevelt promulgated a new doctrine: unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan. This meant sinking any warship, commercial vessel, or passenger ship in Axis - controlled waters, without warning and without aiding survivors. At the outbreak of the war in the Pacific, the Dutch admiral in charge of the naval defense of the East Indies, Conrad Helfrich, gave instructions to wage war aggressively. His small force of submarines sank more Japanese ships in the first weeks of the war than the entire British and US navies together, an exploit which earned him the nickname "Ship - a-day Helfrich ''.
While Japan had a large number of submarines, they did not make a significant impact on the war. In 1942, the Japanese fleet submarines performed well, knocking out or damaging many Allied warships. However, Imperial Japanese Navy (and pre-war US) doctrine stipulated that only fleet battles, not guerre de course (commerce raiding) could win naval campaigns. So, while the US had an unusually long supply line between its west coast and frontline areas, leaving it vulnerable to submarine attack, Japan used its submarines primarily for long - range reconnaissance and only occasionally attacked US supply lines. The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia in 1942 and 1943 also achieved little.
As the war turned against Japan, IJN submarines increasingly served to resupply strongholds which had been cut off, such as Truk and Rabaul. In addition, Japan honored its neutrality treaty with the Soviet Union and ignored American freighters shipping millions of tons of military supplies from San Francisco to Vladivostok, much to the consternation of its German ally.
The US Navy, by contrast, relied on commerce raiding from the outset. However, the problem of Allied forces surrounded in the Philippines, during the early part of 1942, led to diversion of boats to "guerrilla submarine '' missions. Basing in Australia placed boats under Japanese aerial threat while en route to patrol areas, reducing their effectiveness, and Nimitz relied on submarines for close surveillance of enemy bases. Furthermore, the standard - issue Mark 14 torpedo and its Mark VI exploder both proved defective, problems which were not corrected until September 1943. Worst of all, before the war, an uninformed US Customs officer had seized a copy of the Japanese merchant marine code (called the "maru code '' in the USN), not knowing that the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) had broken it. The Japanese promptly changed it, and the new code was not broken again by OP - 20 - G until 1943.
Thus, only in 1944 did the US Navy begin to use its 150 submarines to maximum effect: installing effective shipboard radar, replacing commanders deemed lacking in aggression, and fixing the faults in the torpedoes. Japanese commerce protection was "shiftless beyond description, '' and convoys were poorly organized and defended compared to Allied ones, a product of flawed IJN doctrine and training -- errors concealed by American faults as much as Japanese overconfidence. The number of American submarines patrols (and sinkings) rose steeply: 350 patrols (180 ships sunk) in 1942, 350 (335) in 1943, and 520 (603) in 1944. By 1945, sinkings of Japanese vessels had decreased because so few targets dared to venture out on the high seas. In all, Allied submarines destroyed 1,200 merchant ships -- about five million tons of shipping. Most were small cargo carriers, but 124 were tankers bringing desperately needed oil from the East Indies. Another 320 were passenger ships and troop transports. At critical stages of the Guadalcanal, Saipan, and Leyte campaigns, thousands of Japanese troops were killed or diverted from where they were needed. Over 200 warships were sunk, ranging from many auxiliaries and destroyers to one battleship and no fewer than eight carriers.
Underwater warfare was especially dangerous; of the 16,000 Americans who went out on patrol, 3,500 (22 %) never returned, the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II. The Joint Army -- Navy Assessment Committee assessed US submarine credits. The Japanese losses, 130 submarines in all, were higher.
In mid-1944 Japan mobilized over 500,000 men and launched a massive operation across China under the code name Operation Ichi - Go, their largest offensive of World War II, with the goal of connecting Japanese - controlled territory in China and French Indochina and capturing airbases in southeastern China where American bombers were based. During this time, about 250,000 newly American - trained Chinese troops under Joseph Stilwell and Chinese expeditionary force were forcibly locked in the Burmese theater by the terms of the Lend - Lease Agreement. Though Japan suffered about 100,000 casualties, these attacks, the biggest in several years, gained much ground for Japan before Chinese forces stopped the incursions in Guangxi. Despite major tactical victories, the operation overall failed to provide Japan with any significant strategic gains. A great majority of the Chinese forces were able to retreat out of the area, and later come back to attack Japanese positions at the Battle of West Hunan. Japan was not any closer to defeating China after this operation, and the constant defeats the Japanese suffered in the Pacific meant that Japan never got the time and resources needed to achieve final victory over China. Operation Ichi - go created a great sense of social confusion in the areas of China that it affected. Chinese Communist guerrillas were able to exploit this confusion to gain influence and control of greater areas of the countryside in the aftermath of Ichi - go.
After the Allied setbacks in 1943, the South East Asia command prepared to launch offensives into Burma on several fronts. In the first months of 1944, the Chinese and American troops of the Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC), commanded by the American Joseph Stilwell, began extending the Ledo Road from India into northern Burma, while the XV Corps began an advance along the coast in the Arakan Province. In February 1944 the Japanese mounted a local counter-attack in the Arakan. After early Japanese success, this counter-attack was defeated when the Indian divisions of XV Corps stood firm, relying on aircraft to drop supplies to isolated forward units until reserve divisions could relieve them.
The Japanese responded to the Allied attacks by launching an offensive of their own into India in the middle of March, across the mountainous and densely forested frontier. This attack, codenamed Operation U-Go, was advocated by Lieutenant General Renya Mutaguchi, the recently promoted commander of the Japanese Fifteenth Army; Imperial General Headquarters permitted it to proceed, despite misgivings at several intervening headquarters. Although several units of the British Fourteenth Army had to fight their way out of encirclement, by early April they had concentrated around Imphal in Manipur state. A Japanese division which had advanced to Kohima in Nagaland cut the main road to Imphal, but failed to capture the whole of the defences at Kohima. During April, the Japanese attacks against Imphal failed, while fresh Allied formations drove the Japanese from the positions they had captured at Kohima.
As many Japanese had feared, Japan 's supply arrangements could not maintain her forces. Once Mutaguchi 's hopes for an early victory were thwarted, his troops, particularly those at Kohima, starved. During May, while Mutaguchi continued to order attacks, the Allies advanced southwards from Kohima and northwards from Imphal. The two Allied attacks met on 22 June, breaking the Japanese siege of Imphal. The Japanese finally broke off the operation on 3 July. They had lost over 50,000 troops, mainly to starvation and disease. This represented the worst defeat suffered by the Imperial Japanese Army to that date.
Although the advance in the Arakan had been halted to release troops and aircraft for the Battle of Imphal, the Americans and Chinese had continued to advance in northern Burma, aided by the Chindits operating against the Japanese lines of communication. In the middle of 1944 the Chinese Expeditionary Force invaded northern Burma from Yunnan. They captured a fortified position at Mount Song. By the time campaigning ceased during the monsoon rains, the NCAC had secured a vital airfield at Myitkyina (August 1944), which eased the problems of air resupply from India to China over "The Hump ''.
In May 1943, the Japanese prepared Operation Z or the Z plan, which envisioned the use of Japanese naval power to counter American forces threatening the outer defense perimeter line. This line extended from the Aleutians down through Wake, the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, Nauru, the Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, then westward past Java and Sumatra to Burma. In 1943 - 44, Allied forces in the Solomons began driving relentlessly to Rabaul, eventually encircling and neutralizing the stronghold. With their position in the Solomons disintegrating, the Japanese modified the Z Plan by eliminating the Gilbert and Marshall Islands, and the Bismarck Archipelago as vital areas to be defended. They then based their possible actions on the defense of an inner perimeter, which included the Marianas, Palau, western New Guinea, and the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile in the Central Pacific the American initiated a major offensive, beginning in November 1943 with landings in the Gilbert Islands. The Japanese were forced to watch helplessly as their garrisons in the Gilberts and then the Marshalls were crushed. The strategy of holding overextended island garrisons was fully exposed.
In February 1944, the US Navy 's fast carrier task force, during Operation Hailstone, attacked the major naval base of Truk. Although the Japanese had moved their major vessels out in time to avoid being caught at anchor in the atoll, two days of air attacks resulted in significant losses to Japanese aircraft and merchant shipping. The Japanese were forced to abandon Truk and were now unable to counter the Americans on any front on the perimeter. Consequently, the Japanese retained their remaining strength in preparation for what they hoped would be a decisive battle. The Japanese then developed a new plan, known as A-GO. A-GO envisioned a decisive fleet action that would be fought somewhere from the Palaus to the Western Carolines. It was in this area that the newly formed Mobile Fleet along with large numbers of land - based aircraft, would be concentrated. If the Americans attacked the Marianas, they would be attacked by land - based planes in the vicinity. Then the Americans would be lured into the areas where the Mobile Fleet could defeat them.
On 15 June 1944, 535 ships began landing 128,000 US Army and Marine Corps personnel on the island of Saipan in the Northern Marianas. The Allies aimed to establish airfields near enough the Japanese Home Islands, including Honshu, the location of Tokyo, to allow their bombing with the new Boeing B - 29 Superfortress. The ability to plan and execute such a complex operation in the space of 90 days was indicative of Allied logistical superiority.
Japanese commanders saw holding Saipan as imperative. The only way to do so involved destroying the U.S. Fifth Fleet, which had 15 fleet carriers and 956 planes, 7 battleships, 28 submarines, and 69 destroyers, as well as several light and heavy cruisers. Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa attacked with nine - tenths of Japan 's fighting fleet, which included nine carriers with 473 planes, 5 battleships, several cruisers, and 28 destroyers. Ozawa 's pilots were outnumbered 2: 1 and their aircraft were becoming or were already obsolete. The Japanese had considerable antiaircraft defenses but lacked proximity fuzes or good radar. With the odds against him, Ozawa devised an appropriate strategy. His planes had greater range because they were not weighed down with protective armor; they could attack at about 480 km (300 mi), and could search a radius of 900 km (560 mi). U.S. Navy Hellcat fighters could attack only within 200 miles (320 km) and search only within a 325 - mile (523 km) radius. Ozawa planned to use this advantage by positioning his fleet 300 miles (480 km) out. The Japanese planes would hit the U.S. carriers, land at Guam to refuel, then hit the enemy again when returning to their carriers. Ozawa also counted on about 500 land - based planes at Guam and other islands.
Admiral Raymond A. Spruance had overall command of the U.S. Fifth Fleet. The Japanese plan would have failed if the much larger U.S. fleet had closed on Ozawa and attacked aggressively; Ozawa correctly inferred Spruance would not attack. U.S. Admiral Marc Mitscher, in tactical command of Task Force 58, with its 15 carriers, was aggressive, but Spruance vetoed Mitscher 's plan to hunt down Ozawa because Spruance 's orders made protecting the landings on Saipan his first priority.
The forces converged in the largest sea - battle of World War II up to that point - the Battle of the Philippine Sea (19 -- 20 June 1944). Over the previous month American destroyers had destroyed 17 of 25 submarines out of Ozawa 's screening force. Repeated US raids destroyed the Japanese land - based planes. Ozawa 's main attack lacked coordination, with the Japanese planes arriving at their targets in a staggered sequence. Following a directive from Nimitz, the US carriers all had combat - information centers, which interpreted the flow of radar data and radioed interception orders to the Hellcats. The result was later dubbed the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot. The few attackers to reach the US fleet encountered massive AA fire with proximity fuzes. Only one American warship was slightly damaged.
On the second day, US reconnaissance planes located Ozawa 's fleet, 275 miles (443 km) away, and submarines sank two Japanese carriers. Mitscher launched 230 torpedo planes and dive bombers. He then discovered the enemy was actually another 60 miles (97 km) further off, out of aircraft range (based on a roundtrip flight). Mitscher decided this chance to destroy the Japanese fleet was worth the risk of aircraft losses due to running out of fuel on the return flight. Overall, the US lost 130 planes and 76 aircrew; however, Japan lost 450 planes, three carriers, and 445 aircrew. US aircraft had effectively destroyed the Imperial Japanese Navy 's carrier force.
A month after the invasion of Saipan, the US recaptured Guam and captured Tinian.
Once captured, the islands of Saipan and Tinian were used extensively by the United States military as they finally put mainland Japan within round - trip range of American B - 29 bombers. In response, Japanese forces attacked the bases on Saipan and Tinian from November 1944 to January 1945. At the same time and afterwards, the United States Army Air Forces based out of these islands conducted an intense strategic bombing campaign against the Japanese cities of military and industrial importance, including Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe and others.
After the disaster at Philippine Sea the Japanese were left with two choices: either to commit their remaining strength in an all - out offensive or to sit by while the Americans occupied the Philippines and cut the sea lanes between Japan and the vital resources from the Dutch East Indies and Malaya. The plan devised by the Japanese was a final attempt to create a decisive battle by utilizing their last remaining strength, which the firepower of its heavy cruisers and battleships, which were to be all committed against the American beachhead at Leyte. The Japanese planned to use their remaining carriers as bait, in order to lure the American carriers away from Leyte Gulf long enough for the heavy warships to enter and destroy any American ships present.
The Japanese assembled a force totaling four carriers, nine battleships, 14 heavy cruisers, seven light cruisers, and 35 destroyers. They would be split into three forces. The "Center Force '', under the command of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, consisted of five battleships (including the Yamato and Musashi), 12 cruisers and 13 destroyers; the "Northern Force '', under the command of Jisaburō Ozawa comprised four carriers, two battleships partly converted to carriers, three light cruisers and nine destroyers; the "Southern Force '' contained two groups, one under the command of Shōji Nishimura consisting of two Fusō - class battleships, one heavy cruiser and four destroyers, the other under Kiyohide Shima comprised two heavy cruisers, a light cruiser and four destroyers. The main Center Force would pass through the San Bernardino Strait into the Philippine Sea, turn southwards, and then attack the landing area. The two separate groups of the Southern Force would join up and strike at the landing area through the Surigao Strait, while Northern Force with the Japanese carriers was to lure the main American covering forces away from Leyte, the carriers only embarked a total of just 108 aircraft.
However, after departing from Brunei Bay on October 23, the Center Force was attacked by two American submarines which resulted in the loss of two heavy cruisers with another crippled. The next day, after entering the Sibuyan Sea on October 24, Center Force was assaulted by American carrier aircraft throughout the whole day leaving another heavy cruiser being forced to retire. The Americans then targeted the Musashi and sank it under a barrage of torpedo and bomb hits. Many other ships of Center Force were attacked, but continued on. Convinced that their attacks had made Center Force ineffective, the American carriers headed north to address the newly detected threat of the Japanese carriers of Ozawa 's Force. On the night of October 24 - 25, the Southern Force under Nishimura, attempted to enter Leyte Gulf from the south through Surigao Strait where an American - Australian force led by Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf, of six battleships, eight cruisers, and 26 destroyers ambushed the Japanese.. Utilizing radar - guided torpedo attacks, American destroyers sank one of the battleships and three destroyers while damaging the other battleship. Radar guided naval gunfire then finished off the second battleship, with only a single Japanese destroyer surviving. As a result of observing radio silence, Shima 's group was unable to coordinate and synchronize its movements with Nishimura 's group and subsequently arrived at Surigao Strait in the middle of the encounter; after making a haphazard torpedo attack Shima retreated.
Off Cape Engaño, the Americans launched over 500 aircraft sorties at the Northern force, followed up by a surface group of cruisers and destroyers. All four Japanese carriers were sunk, but this part of the Japanese plan succeeded in drawing the American carriers away from Leyte Gulf. On October 25, the final major surface action fought between the Japanese and the Americans fleets during the war, occurred off Samar. When Center Force fell upon a group of American escort carriers escorted by only destroyers and destroyer escorts. Both sides were surprised, but the outcome looked certain since the Japanese had four battleships, six heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers leading two destroyer squadrons. However, they did not press home their advantage, and were content to conduct a largely indecisive gunnery duel before breaking off. Japanese losses were extremely heavy with four carriers, three battleships, six heavy cruisers, four light cruisers and eleven destroyers sunk. While the Americans lost three carriers, a destroyer and two destroyer escorts. The Battle of Leyte Gulf was arguably the largest naval battle in history and was the largest naval battle of World War II.
On 20 October 1944 the US Sixth Army, supported by naval and air bombardment, landed on the favorable eastern shore of Leyte, north of Mindanao. The US Sixth Army continued its advance from the east, as the Japanese rushed reinforcements to the Ormoc Bay area on the western side of the island. While the Sixth Army was reinforced successfully, the US Fifth Air Force was able to devastate the Japanese attempts to resupply. In torrential rains and over difficult terrain, the advance continued across Leyte and the neighboring island of Samar to the north. On 7 December US Army units landed at Ormoc Bay and, after a major land and air battle, cut off the Japanese ability to reinforce and supply Leyte. Although fierce fighting continued on Leyte for months, the US Army was in control.
On 15 December 1944 landings against minimal resistance were made on the southern beaches of the island of Mindoro, a key location in the planned Lingayen Gulf operations, in support of major landings scheduled on Luzon. On 9 January 1945, on the south shore of Lingayen Gulf on the western coast of Luzon, General Krueger 's Sixth Army landed his first units. Almost 175,000 men followed across the twenty - mile (32 km) beachhead within a few days. With heavy air support, Army units pushed inland, taking Clark Field, 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Manila, in the last week of January.
Two more major landings followed, one to cut off the Bataan Peninsula, and another, that included a parachute drop, south of Manila. Pincers closed on the city and, on 3 February 1945, elements of the 1st Cavalry Division pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and the 8th Cavalry passed through the northern suburbs and into the city itself.
As the advance on Manila continued from the north and the south, the Bataan Peninsula was rapidly secured. On 16 February paratroopers and amphibious units assaulted the island fortress of Corregidor, and resistance ended there on 27 February.
In all, ten US divisions and five independent regiments battled on Luzon, making it the largest campaign of the Pacific war, involving more troops than the United States had used in North Africa, Italy, or southern France. Forces included the Mexican Escuadrón 201 fighter squadron as part of the Fuerza Aérea Expedicionaria Mexicana (FAEM -- "Mexican Expeditionary Air Force ''), with the squadron attached to the 58th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces that flew tactical support missions. Of the 250,000 Japanese troops defending Luzon, 80 percent died. The last Japanese soldier in the Philippines to surrender was Hiroo Onoda on 9 March 1974.
Palawan Island, between Borneo and Mindoro, the fifth largest and western-most Philippine Island, was invaded on 28 February with landings of the Eighth Army at Puerto Princesa. The Japanese put up little direct defense of Palawan, but cleaning up pockets of Japanese resistance lasted until late April, as the Japanese used their common tactic of withdrawing into the mountain jungles, dispersed as small units. Throughout the Philippines, US forces were aided by Filipino guerrillas to find and dispatch the holdouts.
The US Eighth Army then moved on to its first landing on Mindanao (17 April), the last of the major Philippine Islands to be taken. Mindanao was followed by invasion and occupation of Panay, Cebu, Negros and several islands in the Sulu Archipelago. These islands provided bases for the US Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces to attack targets throughout the Philippines and the South China Sea.
The Battle of Iwo Jima ("Operation Detachment '') in February 1945 was one of the bloodiest battles fought by the Americans in the Pacific War. Iwo Jima is an 8 sq mile (21 km) island situated halfway between Tokyo and the Mariana Islands. Holland Smith, the commander of the invasion force, aimed to capture the island and prevent its use as an early - warning station against air raids on the Japanese Home Islands, and to use it as an emergency landing field. Lt. General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, the commander of the defense of Iwo Jima, knew that he could not win the battle, but he hoped to make the Americans suffer far more than they could endure.
From early 1944 until the days leading up to the invasion, Kuribayashi transformed the island into a massive network of bunkers, hidden guns, and 11 mi (18 km) of underground tunnels. The heavy American naval and air bombardment did little but drive the Japanese further underground, making their positions impervious to enemy fire. Their pillboxes and bunkers were all connected so that if one was knocked out, it could be reoccupied again. The network of bunkers and pillboxes greatly favored the defender.
Starting in mid-June 1944, Iwo Jima came under sustained aerial bombardment and naval artillery fire. However, Kuribayashi 's hidden guns and defenses survived the constant bombardment virtually unscathed. On 19 February 1945, some 30,000 men of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Marine Divisions landed on the southeast coast of Iwo, just under Mount Suribachi; where most of the island 's defenses were concentrated. For some time, they did not come under fire. This was part of Kuribayashi 's plan to hold fire until the landing beaches were full. As soon as the Marines pushed inland to a line of enemy bunkers, they came under devastating machine gun and artillery fire which cut down many of the men. By the end of the day, the Marines reached the west coast of the island, but their losses were appalling; almost 2,000 men killed or wounded.
On 23 February, the 28th Marine Regiment reached the summit of Suribachi, prompting the now famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima picture. Navy Secretary James Forrestal, upon seeing the flag, remarked "there will be a Marine Corps for the next 500 years ''. The flag raising is often cited as the most reproduced photograph of all time and became the archetypal representation not only of that battle, but of the entire Pacific War. For the rest of February, the Americans pushed north, and by 1 March, had taken two - thirds of the island. But it was not until 26 March that the island was finally secured. The Japanese fought to the last man, killing 6,800 Marines and wounding nearly 20,000 more. The Japanese losses totaled well over 20,000 men killed, and only 1,083 prisoners were taken. Historians debate whether it was strategically worth the casualties sustained.
In late 1944 and early 1945, the Allied South East Asia Command launched offensives into Burma, intending to recover most of the country, including Rangoon, the capital, before the onset of the monsoon in May.
The Indian XV Corps advanced along the coast in Arakan province, at last capturing Akyab Island after failures in the two previous years. They then landed troops behind the retreating Japanese, inflicting heavy casualties, and captured Ramree Island and Cheduba Island off the coast, establishing airfields on them which were used to support the offensive into Central Burma.
The Chinese Expeditionary Force captured Mong - Yu and Lashio, while the Chinese and American Northern Combat Area Command resumed its advance in northern Burma. In late January 1945, these two forces linked up with each other at Hsipaw. The Ledo Road was completed, linking India and China, but too late in the war to have any significant effect.
The Japanese Burma Area Army attempted to forestall the main Allied attack on the central part of the front by withdrawing their troops behind the Irrawaddy River. Lieutenant General Heitarō Kimura, the new Japanese commander in Burma, hoped that the Allies ' lines of communications would be overstretched trying to cross this obstacle. However, the advancing British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim switched its axis of advance to outflank the main Japanese armies.
During February, Fourteenth Army secured bridgeheads across the Irrawaddy on a broad front. On 1 March, units of IV Corps captured the supply centre of Meiktila, throwing the Japanese into disarray. While the Japanese attempted to recapture Meiktila, XXXIII Corps captured Mandalay. The Japanese armies were heavily defeated, and with the capture of Mandalay, the Burmese population and the Burma National Army (which the Japanese had raised) turned against the Japanese.
During April, Fourteenth Army advanced 300 miles (480 km) south towards Rangoon, the capital and principal port of Burma, but was delayed by Japanese rearguards 40 miles (64 km) north of Rangoon at the end of the month. Slim feared that the Japanese would defend Rangoon house - to - house during the monsoon, which would commit his army to prolonged action with disastrously inadequate supplies, and in March he had asked that a plan to capture Rangoon by an amphibious force, Operation Dracula, which had been abandoned earlier, be reinstated. Dracula was launched on 1 May, to find that the Japanese had already evacuated Rangoon. The troops that occupied Rangoon linked up with Fourteenth Army five days later, securing the Allies ' lines of communication.
The Japanese forces which had been bypassed by the Allied advances attempted to break out across the Sittaung River during June and July to rejoin the Burma Area Army which had regrouped in Tenasserim in southern Burma. They suffered 14,000 casualties, half their strength. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.
The Allies were preparing to make amphibious landings in Malaya when word of the Japanese surrender arrived.
The Borneo campaign of 1945 was the last major campaign in the South West Pacific Area. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under General Leslie Morshead, attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centered on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, the Australian First Tactical Air Force and the US Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign.
The campaign opened with a landing on the small island of Tarakan on 1 May. This was followed on 1 June by simultaneous assaults in the north west, on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei. A week later the Australians attacked Japanese positions in North Borneo. The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, with the last major amphibious assault of World War II, at Balikpapan on 1 July.
Although the campaign was criticized in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years, as pointless or a "waste '' of the lives of soldiers, it did achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the Dutch East Indies, capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions. At one of the very worst sites, around Sandakan in Borneo, only six of some 2,500 British and Australian prisoners survived.
By April 1945, China had already been at war with Japan for more than seven years. Both nations were exhausted by years of battles, bombings and blockades. After Japanese victories in Operation Ichi - Go, Japan was losing the battle in Burma and facing constant attacks from Chinese Nationalist forces and Communist guerrillas in the country side. The Imperial Japanese Army began preparations for the Battle of West Hunan in March 1945. Japanese mobilized 34th, 47th, 64th, 68th and 116th Divisions, as well as the 86th Independent Brigade, for a total of 80,000 men to seize Chinese airfields and secure railroads in West Hunan by early April. In response, the Chinese National Military Council dispatched the 4th Front Army and the 10th and 27th Army Groups with He Yingqin as commander - in - chief. At the same time, it airlifted the entire Chinese New 6th Corps, an American - equipped corps and veterans of the Burma Expeditionary Force, from Kunming to Zhijiang. Chinese forces totaled 110,000 men in 20 divisions. They were supported by about 400 aircraft from Chinese and American air forces. Chinese forces achieved a decisive victory and launched a large counterattack in this campaign. Concurrently, the Chinese managed to repel a Japanese offensive in Henan and Hubei. Afterwards, Chinese forces retook Hunan and Hubei provinces in South China. Chinese launched a counter offensive to retake Guangxi which was the last major Japanese stronghold in South China. In August 1945, Chinese forces successfully retook Guangxi.
The largest and bloodiest American battle came at Okinawa, as the US sought airbases for 3,000 B - 29 bombers and 240 squadrons of B - 17 bombers for the intense bombardment of Japan 's home islands in preparation for a full - scale invasion in late 1945. The Japanese, with 115,000 troops augmented by thousands of civilians on the heavily populated island, did not resist on the beaches -- their strategy was to maximize the number of soldier and Marine casualties, and naval losses from Kamikaze attacks. After an intense bombardment the Americans landed on 1 April 1945 and declared victory on 21 June. The supporting naval forces were the targets for 4,000 sorties, many by Kamikaze suicide planes. US losses totaled 38 ships of all types sunk and 368 damaged with 4,900 sailors killed. The Americans suffered 75,000 casualties on the ground; 94 % of the Japanese soldiers died along with many civilians.
The British Pacific Fleet operated as a separate unit from the American task forces in the Okinawa operation. Its objective was to strike airfields on the chain of islands between Formosa and Okinawa, to prevent the Japanese reinforcing the defences of Okinawa from that direction.
Hard - fought battles on the Japanese home islands of Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides but finally produced a Japanese defeat. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa, 94 percent died. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of kamikaze tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the Allies. The US Navy proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade and air raids.
Towards the end of the war as the role of strategic bombing became more important, a new command for the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific was created to oversee all US strategic bombing in the hemisphere, under United States Army Air Forces General Curtis LeMay. Japanese industrial production plunged as nearly half of the built - up areas of 67 cities were destroyed by B - 29 firebombing raids. On 9 -- 10 March 1945 alone, about 100,000 people were killed in a conflagration caused by an incendiary attack on Tokyo. LeMay also oversaw Operation Starvation, in which the inland waterways of Japan were extensively mined by air, which disrupted the small amount of remaining Japanese coastal sea traffic. On 26 July 1945, the President of the United States Harry S. Truman, the President of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai - shek and the Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for the Empire of Japan as agreed upon at the Potsdam Conference. This ultimatum stated that, if Japan did not surrender, it would face "prompt and utter destruction. ''
On 6 August 1945, the US dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in the first nuclear attack in history. In a press release issued after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Truman warned Japan to surrender or "... expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. '' Three days later, on 9 August, the US dropped another atomic bomb on Nagasaki, the last nuclear attack in history. More than 140,000 -- 240,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings. The necessity of the atomic bombings has long been debated, with detractors claiming that a naval blockade and aerial bombing campaign had already made invasion, hence the atomic bomb, unnecessary. However, other scholars have argued that the bombings shocked the Japanese government into surrender, with Emperor finally indicating his wish to stop the war. Another argument in favor of the atomic bombs is that they helped avoid Operation Downfall, or a prolonged blockade and bombing campaign, any of which would have exacted much higher casualties among Japanese civilians. Historian Richard B. Frank wrote that a Soviet invasion of Japan was never likely because they had insufficient naval capability to mount an amphibious invasion of Hokkaidō.
On 3 February 1945 the Soviet Union agreed with Roosevelt to enter the Pacific conflict. It promised to act 90 days after the war ended in Europe and did so exactly on schedule on 9 August by invading Manchuria. A battle - hardened, one million - strong Soviet force, transferred from Europe, attacked Japanese forces in Manchuria and landed a heavy blow against the Japanese Kantōgun (Kwantung Army).
The Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation began on 9 August 1945, with the Soviet invasion of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo and was the last campaign of the Second World War and the largest of the 1945 Soviet -- Japanese War which resumed hostilities between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Empire of Japan after almost six years of peace. Soviet gains on the continent were Manchukuo, Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia) and northern Korea. The USSR 's entry into the war was a significant factor in the Japanese decision to surrender as it became apparent the Soviets were no longer willing to act as an intermediary for a negotiated settlement on favorable terms.
The effects of the "Twin Shocks '' -- the Soviet entry and the atomic bombings -- were profound. On 10 August the "sacred decision '' was made by Japanese Cabinet to accept the Potsdam terms on one condition: the "prerogative of His Majesty as a Sovereign Ruler ''. At noon on 15 August, after the American government 's intentionally ambiguous reply, stating that the "authority '' of the emperor "shall be subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers '', the Emperor broadcast to the nation and to the world at large the rescript of surrender, ending the Second World War.
Should we continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
In Japan, 14 August is considered to be the day that the Pacific War ended. However, as Imperial Japan actually surrendered on 15 August, this day became known in the English - speaking countries as "V-J Day '' (Victory in Japan). The formal Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on 2 September 1945, on the battleship USS Missouri, in Tokyo Bay. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, with representatives of several Allied nations, from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu and Yoshijirō Umezu.
Following this period, MacArthur went to Tokyo to oversee the postwar development of the country. This period in Japanese history is known as the occupation.
United States
There were some 426,000 American casualties: 161,000 dead (including 111,914 in battle and 49,000 non-battle), 248,316 wounded, and 16,358 captured (not counting POWs who died). Material losses were 188 + warships including 5 battleships, 11 aircraft carriers, 25 cruisers, 84 destroyers and destroyer escorts, and 63 submarines, plus 21,255 aircraft. This gave the USN a 2 - 1 exchange ratio with the IJN in terms of ships and aircraft.
The US protectorate in the Philippines suffered considerable losses. Military losses were 27,000 dead (including POWs), 75,000 living POWs, and an unknown number wounded, not counting irregulars that fought in the insurgency. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died due to either war - related shortages or Japanese war crimes.
China
According to official Chinese Nationalist statistics, losses to the regular National Revolutionary Army totaled 3,237,000, with 1,320,000 killed 1,797,000 wounded 120,000 missing. The soldiers of the Chinese Communist Party suffered 584,267 casualties, of which 160,603 were killed, 133,197 missing, and 290,467 wounded. This would equate to a total of 3.82 million combined NRA / CCP casualties, of which 1.74 million were killed or missing. Neither total includes the considerable number of irregular guerrilla fighters sworn to regional warlords who fought the Japanese. Including them, an academic study published in the United States estimates Chinese military casualties at 6.75 million with 3.75 million killed or missing. The casualties break down as 1.5 million killed in battle, 750,000 missing in action, 1.5 million deaths due to disease and 3 million wounded.
China suffered enormous civilian losses in the war. Estimates vary wildly, though there is a general consensus that civilian deaths were in the 17 to 22 million range, mostly from war - related causes such as famine. A large number of deaths were caused directly by Japanese war crimes. For instance, 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed in the "Three Alls '' campaign.
Commonwealth
Between the Malayan Campaign (130,000 discounting some 20,000 Australians), Burma Campaign (86,600), Battle of Hong Kong (15,000), and various naval encounters, British Empire forces incurred some 235,000 casualties in the Pacific Theater, including roughly 82,000 killed (50,000 in combat and 32,000 as POWs) The Royal Navy lost 23 warships in the Pacific and Indian oceans: 1 battleship, 1 battlecruiser, 1 aircraft carrier, 3 cruisers, 8 destroyers, 5 submarines, and 4 escorts. There were significant indirect losses to the British Empire territories of India and Burma as a result of the war. These included 3 million deaths in the Bengal famine of 1943 and 0.25 to 1 million deaths in British Burma.
Australia incurred losses of 45,841 not including deaths and illnesses from natural causes such as disease: 17,501 killed (including POW deaths in captivity), 13,997 wounded, and 14,345 living POWs. New Zealand lost 578 men killed, with an unknown number wounded or captured. 6 warships of the Royal Australian Navy totaling 29,391 tons were sunk: 3 cruisers (Canberra, Perth, and Sydney), 2 destroyers (Vampire and Voyager), and 3 corvettes (Armidale, Geelong, and Wallaroo, the latter two in accidents).
Other
Between Lake Khasan, Khalkin Gol, advisors deployed to China, and the 1945 operations in Manchuria and the Kuriles, Soviet casualties against Japan totaled 68,612: 22,731 killed / missing and 45,908 wounded. Material losses included some 1,000 tanks and AFVs, 5 landing ships, and 300 aircraft. Mongolian casualties were 753.
The entire 140,000 - strong Royal Dutch East Indies Army was killed, captured, or missing by the conclusion of the East Indies Campaign. 1,500 colonial and 900 Dutch soldiers were killed in action. Most of the colonial soldiers were freed on the spot or deserted. Of the ethnic Dutch troops, 900 were killed in action and 37,000 became prisoners. 8,500 of these POWs would die in Japanese captivity. Dutch naval losses in the Pacific numbered 14 major warships and 14 minor ones totaling some 40,427 tons: 2 cruisers (Java and De Ruyter), 7 destroyers (Evertsen, Kortenaer, Piet Hein, Witte de With, Banckert, Van Nes, and Van Ghent), 5 submarines (K XVIII, K XVII, K XIII, KX, and K VII), 7 minelayers (Prins van Oranje, Pro Patria, Bangkalan, Rigel, Soemenep, Krakatau, and Gouden Leeuw, most of which were scuttled), and 7 minesweepers (A, B, D, C, Pieter de Bitter, Eland Dubois, and Jan van Amstel). About 30,000 Dutch and 300,000 Indonesia forced laborers died during the Japanese occupation of the East Indies, while 3 million Indonesian civilians perished in famines.
Similar to the Dutch, the 65,000 - strong French colonial army in French Indochina (16,500 European French and 48,500 colonial) disintegrated at the end of the Japanese invasion. 2,129 European French and 2,100 Indochinese colonial troops were killed, while 12,000 French and 3,000 colonial troops were kept as prisoners. 1 - 2 million deaths occurred under Japanese occupation in French Indochina, mostly due to the 1945 Vietnamese famine.
800,000 Japanese civilians and over 2 million Japanese soldiers died during the war. According to a report compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964, combined Japanese Army and Navy deaths during the war (1937 -- 45) numbered approximately 2,121,000 men, mostly against either the Americans (1.1 + million) in places such as the Solomons, Japan, Taiwan, the Central Pacific, and the Philippines, or against various Chinese factions (500,000 +), predominantly the NRA and CCP, during the war on the Chinese mainland, the Chinese resistance movement in Manchuria and Burma campaign. The losses were broken down as follows:
Key: Location, Army dead, Navy dead, (Total dead) Japan Proper: 58,100, 45,800, (103,900) Bonin Islands: 2,700, 12,500, (15,200) Okinawa: 67,900, 21,500, (89,400) Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500, 10,600, (39,100) Korea: 19,600, 6,900, (26,500) Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200, 3,200, (11,400) Manchuria: 45,900, 800, (46,700) China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600, 20,100, (455,700) Siberia: 52,300, 400, (52,700) Central Pacific: 95,800, 151,400, (247,200) Philippines: 377,500, 121,100, (498,600) French Indochina: 7,900, 4,500, (12,400) Thailand: 6,900, 100, (7,000) Burma (inc. India): 163,000, 1,500, (164,500) Malaya & Singapore: 8,500, 2,900, (11,400) Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900, 1,500, (2,400) Sumatra: 2,700, 500, (3,200) Java: 2,700, 3,800, (6,500) Lesser Sundas: 51,800, 1,200, (53,000) Borneo: 11,300, 6,700, (18,000) Celebes: 1,500, 4,000, (5,500) Moluccas: 2,600, 1,800, (4,400) New Guinea: 112,400, 15,200, (127,600) Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700, 10,800, (30,500) Solomon Islands: 63,200, 25,000, (88,200) Total: 1,647,200, 473,800, (2,121,000)
The IJN lost over 341 warships, including 11 battleships, 25 aircraft carriers, 39 cruisers, 135 destroyers, and 131 submarines, almost entirely in action against the United States Navy. The IJN and IJA together lost some 45,125 aircraft.
Japan 's ally Germany lost 10 submarines and four auxiliary cruisers (Thor, Michel, Pinguin, and Kormoran) in the Indian and Pacific oceans. These four alone sank 420,467 gross tons of Allied shipping.
On 7 December 1941, 2,403 non-combatants (2,335 neutral military personnel and 68 civilians) were killed and 1,247 wounded during the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war or explicit warning, it was judged by the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.
During the Pacific War, Japanese soldiers killed millions of non-combatants, including prisoners of war, from surrounding nations. At least 20 million Chinese died during the Second Sino - Japanese War (1937 -- 1945).
Unit 731 was one example of wartime atrocities committed on a civilian population during World War II, where experiments were performed on thousands of Chinese and Korean civilians as well as Allied prisoners of war. In military campaigns, the Imperial Japanese Army used biological weapons and chemical weapons on the Chinese, killing around 400,000 civilians. The Nanking Massacre is another example of atrocity committed by Japanese soldiers on a civilian population.
According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 %, some seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. The most notorious use of forced labour was in the construction of the Burma -- Thailand "Death Railway. '' Around 1,536 U.S. civilians were killed or otherwise died of abuse and mistreatment in Japanese internment camps in the Far East; in comparison, 883 U.S. civilians died in German internment camps in Europe.
A widely publicised example of institutionalised sexual slavery are "comfort women '', a euphemism for the 200,000 women, mostly from Korea and China, who served in the Imperial Japanese Army 's camps during World War II. Some 35 Dutch comfort women brought a successful case before the Batavia Military Tribunal in 1948. In 1993, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yōhei Kōno said that women were coerced into brothels run by Japan 's wartime military. Other Japanese leaders have apologized, including former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi in 2001. In 2007, then - Prime Minister Shinzō Abe asserted: "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion. ''
The Three Alls Policy (Sankō Sakusen) was a Japanese scorched earth policy adopted in China, the three alls being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All ''. Initiated in 1940 by Ryūkichi Tanaka, the Sankō Sakusen was implemented in full scale in 1942 in north China by Yasuji Okamura. According to historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta, the scorched earth campaign was responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million '' Chinese civilians.
The collection of skulls and other remains of Japanese soldiers by Allied soldiers was shown by several studies to have been widespread enough to be commented upon by Allied military authorities and US wartime press.
Following the surrender of Japan, the International Military Tribunal for the Far East took place in Ichigaya, Tokyo from 29 April 1946 to 12 November 1948 to try those accused of the most serious war crimes. Meanwhile, military tribunals were also held by the returning powers throughout Asia and the Pacific for lesser figures.
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who sings the theme song for orange is the new black | You 've Got Time - wikipedia
"You 've Got Time '' is the main title theme song for the Netflix Original Series Orange Is the New Black, written, composed and performed by Regina Spektor. The song was nominated in the Best Song Written for Visual Media category at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards.
The song was written specifically for Orange Is the New Black by Regina Spektor, who was approached by the show 's creator, Jenji Kohan. Kohan said, "I listened to Regina 's albums obsessively while writing the series, so I immediately thought of her for our theme song. '' Additionally Spektor had previously performed a cover of "Little Boxes, '' the theme song used on Kohan 's series Weeds.
Kohan gave Spektor access to rough edits of the episodes while the first season was in production. Spektor said she composed the song while "thinking about the idea of what it must be like to be in prison and the different states of mind. '' After recording the song with producer Rob Cavallo, she brought the demo to Kohan, initially apprehensive that Kohan would not like it. "We took out the rough mix and listened to it with headphones and sort of held our breath, like, ' Is she going to like it? ' And then she said, ' This is fucking awesome, I love it! It 's going to fit really well! ' ''
The song has been well received. Casey Cipriani of Indiewire wrote that the song 's lyrics suggesting animals trapped in a cage was ideal for Orange Is the New Black. Garin Pirnia of Rolling Stone noted that after the song begins with Spektor 's "aggressive '' guitar playing, "' You 've Got Time ' softens during the bridge, though, generating an aura of hope. When Spektor sings the title refrain, it works literally for the prison motif but also alludes to the show 's themes of redemption and forgiveness. ''
"You 've Got Time '' was nominated in the Best Song Written for Visual Media category at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. It was Spektor 's first Grammy nomination.
The song was covered by The Wind and The Wave for its 2015 album, Covers One.
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countries who failed to qualify for world cup | 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification - Wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification process was a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations to decide 31 of the 32 teams which will play in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, with Russia qualifying automatically as hosts. All 210 remaining FIFA member associations were eligible to enter the qualifying process, and for the first time in World Cup history, all eligible national teams registered for the preliminary competition, but Zimbabwe and Indonesia were disqualified before playing their first matches. Bhutan, South Sudan, Gibraltar and Kosovo made their FIFA World Cup qualification debuts. Myanmar, having successfully appealed against a ban from the competition for crowd trouble during a 2014 World Cup qualifying tie against Oman, were obliged to play all their home matches outside the country.
While the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015, a number of qualification matches were played before that. The first began in Dili, Timor Leste, on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, with East Timorese player Chiquito do Carmo scoring the first goal of qualification. Matches were also played in CONCACAF prior to the main draw.
The number of teams participating in the final tournament is 32. Even though the qualification process began in March 2015, the allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.
In October 2013, UEFA President Michel Platini proposed that the World Cup finals should be expanded from 32 to 40 teams starting from 2018. The format would have been the same, but in groups of five instead of four. This was in response to FIFA President Sepp Blatter 's comments that Africa and Asia deserved more spots in the World Cup finals at the expense of European and South American teams. However, FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said that expansion in 2018 would be "unlikely '', while Russian sports minister Vitaly Mutko said that the country was "preparing on the basis that 32 teams will be taking part. '' Expansion was ultimately delayed until 10 January 2017, when the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to 48 teams starting in the 2026 FIFA World Cup.
While all FIFA members entered the tournament, not all competed. Zimbabwe were expelled from the competition on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee and Indonesia were excluded from the qualifying competition following the suspension of their football association by FIFA on 30 May 2015. Kuwait had a number of their qualifiers cancelled for a similar suspension that began while their campaign was underway, which eventually resulted in their elimination. Brazil were the first team to achieve qualification for the tournament following their 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay on 28 March 2017. Peru became the 32nd and final team to qualify when, 233 days after Brazil secured their place, they beat New Zealand 2 -- 0 on aggregate in the OFC - CONMEBOL play - off.
Note: One team each from AFC, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, and OFC played in the inter-confederation play - offs, between 10 -- 15 November 2017 (CONCACAF v AFC and OFC v CONMEBOL).
Note: UEFA total includes + 1 for Russia as hosts.
The formats of the qualifying competitions depended on each confederation (see below). Each round might be played in either of the following formats:
In league format, the ranking of teams in each group is based on the following criteria (regulations Articles 20.6 and 20.7):
In cases where teams finishing in the same position across different groups are compared for determining which teams advance to the next stage, the criteria is decided by the confederation and require the approval of FIFA (regulations Article 20.8).
In knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen - minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot - out (regulations Article 20.9).
The AFC Executive Committee meeting on 16 April 2014 approved the proposal to merge the preliminary qualification rounds of the FIFA World Cup and the AFC Asian Cup, which will be expanded to 24 teams starting in 2019:
A total of 24 teams eliminated from World Cup qualification in the second round compete in the third round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification (which is separate from the third round of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification), where they are divided into six groups of four teams and compete for the remaining slots of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. The 24 teams consist of the 16 highest ranked teams eliminated in the second round, and the eight teams that advanced from the play - off round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification which are contested by the remaining 12 teams eliminated in the second round.
The draw for the third round was held on 12 April 2016 at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Group A
Group B
The third - placed teams from each group in the third round played against each other home - and - away over two legs to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs.
The CAF Executive Committee approved the format for the qualifiers of the 2018 FIFA World Cup on 14 January 2015. However, on 9 July 2015 FIFA officially announced that only three rounds would be played instead of four.
Zimbabwe, even though they entered the competition, were expelled on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee. Therefore, only 53 African teams were involved in the draw.
The draw for the third round was held on 24 June 2016 at the CAF headquarters in Cairo, Egypt.
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
An amendment to the qualification process for this tournament had been suggested, which would see the first three rounds played as knockout rounds, with both the fourth round and the final round (referred to as ' The Hex ') played as group stages. The first round would be played during the FIFA international dates of 23 -- 31 March 2015. CONCACAF announced the full details on 12 January 2015:
The draw for the fifth round (to decide the fixtures) was held on 8 July 2016 at the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami Beach, United States.
The qualification structure was the same as the previous five editions. The ten teams played in a league of home - and - away round - robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth - placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs, playing the winners of the Oceania Football Confederation qualifying competition.
Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were decided by a draw held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
The qualification structure was as follows:
The OFC had considered different proposals of the qualifying tournament. A previous proposal adopted by the OFC in October 2014 would have the eight teams divided into two groups of four teams to play home - and - away round - robin matches in the second round, followed by the top two teams of each group advancing to the third round to play in a single group of home - and - away round - robin matches to decide the winners of the 2016 OFC Nations Cup which would qualify to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and advance to the inter-confederation play - offs. However, it was later reported in April 2015 that the OFC had reversed its decision, and the 2016 OFC Nations Cup was played as a one - off tournament similar to the 2012 OFC Nations Cup.
The draw for the third round was held on 8 July 2016 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand.
Group A
Group B
Final The draw for the final (which decided the order of legs) was held on 15 June 2017 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand. The winners of the final advanced to inter-confederation play - offs.
Russia qualified automatically as hosts. The qualifying format for the remaining FIFA - affiliated UEFA teams was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 22 -- 23 March 2015 in Vienna.
The draw for the first round was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
In deciding the eight best runners - up, the matches against the sixth - placed team in each group were discarded.
The draw for the second round (play - offs) was held on 17 October 2017 at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland. The winners of each tie qualified for the World Cup.
There were two inter-confederation playoffs to determine the final two qualification spots for the finals. The first legs were played on 10 and 11 November 2017, and the second legs were played on 15 November 2017.
The matchups were decided at the preliminary draw which was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
For each confederation and inter-confederation play - offs, see sections in each article:
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lyrics to your the best around karate kid | You 're the best - wikipedia
"You 're the Best '' is a song, performed by Joe Esposito and written by Bill Conti (music) and Allee Willis (lyrics), which came to prominence as the music to the All - Valley Karate Championships montage in the 1984 movie The Karate Kid in which the protagonist, Daniel LaRusso (Ralph Macchio), proves a surprisingly formidable contender.
"You 're the Best '' came to prominence after being used in the 1984 film The Karate Kid. Responding to years of criticism of "You 're the Best '' on the radio, singer Joe Esposito called in to the Adam Carolla Show on April 9, 2008. The criticism was that the lyric "History repeats itself '' was inappropriate because it was played during Daniel LaRusso 's (Ralph Macchio) first All - Valley Tournament in The Karate Kid. Esposito revealed that the song was originally intended for the Rocky III soundtrack, but was replaced by "Eye of the Tiger. '' It was subsequently also turned down for the Flashdance soundtrack in favour of "Maniac '' by Michael Sembello. The Karate Kid 's director, John G. Avildsen, liked the song so much that he used it in the movie.
The track has been used since in numerous homages to eighties movies, including:
Mexican wrestler Ricky Marvin uses the song as his theme.
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who holds the highest number of world record in swimming | List of World records in Swimming - wikipedia
The world records in swimming are ratified by FINA, the international governing body of swimming. Records can be set in long course (50 metres) or short course (25 metres) swimming pools. FINA recognises world records in the following events for both men and women, except for the mixed relays, where teams consist of two men and two women, in any order.
The long course (LCM) records are significantly older than the short course (SCM) records, and are generally viewed as the more prestigious of the two. LCM records originate as early as the early 1900s (later in the cases of butterfly evolving out of breaststroke). As for SCM, FINA first began the recognition process for these records in March 1991, with the establishment / setting of a standard time in each event (generally tied to the then - known World Best Time (WBT)), which had to be bettered in order for FINA 's initially recognized "World Record '' in the short course event.
The ratification process is described in FINA Rule SW12, and involves submission of paperwork certifying the accuracy of the timing system and the length of the pool, satisfaction of FINA rules regarding swimwear and a negative doping test by the swimmer (s) involved. Records can be set at intermediate distances in an individual race and for the first leg of a relay race. Records which have not yet been fully ratified are marked with a ' # ' symbol in these lists.
Many of the records below were established by swimmers wearing bodysuits or suits made of polyurethane or other non-textile materials allowed in the race pool from February 2008 until December 2009. On the eve of the 2009 FINA World Championships in Rome, the international governing body for five Olympic aquatic sports voted to ban the use of bodysuits and all suits made of non-textile materials starting 1 January 2010. The suits seemed to improve the performance in those with larger physiques, boosting performance in some athletes more than others, depending on morphology and physiology, and creating an angle of buoyancy that was improved in some more than on others.. Since then, best times set by swimmers wearing textile materials have once again overtaken more than half of the world records recognized by FINA.
On 25 July 2013 FINA Technical Swimming Congress voted to allow world records in the long course mixed 400 free relay and mixed 400 medley relay, as well as in six events in short course meters: the mixed 200 medley and 200 free relays, as well as the men 's and women 's 200 free relays and the men 's and women 's 200 medley relays. In October 2013 FINA decided to establish "standards '' before something can be recognized as the first World Record in these events. But later on 13 March 2014 FINA has officially ratified the eight world records set by Indiana University swimmers at the IU Relay Rally held on 26 September 2013 in Bloomington.
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who played jesse's mom in breaking bad | Tess Harper - wikipedia
Tessie Jean "Tess '' Harper (née Washam; born August 15, 1950) is an American actress. She was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for her first film role in 1983 's Tender Mercies, and for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for the 1986 film Crimes of the Heart. Her other film appearances include Flashpoint (1984), Ishtar (1987), Far North (1988), and No Country for Old Men (2007). She portrayed Jesse Pinkman 's mother on Breaking Bad (2008 -- 2013), appearing in the first three seasons.
Harper was born on August 15, 1950, in Mammoth Spring, Arkansas, the daughter of Rosemary (née Langston) and Ed Washam. Most members of her family were quilt makers. On her own time she liked to sit on the porch swing and read. She graduated from high school in 1968. She attended Arkansas State University - Beebe, where she performed in several plays, as well as Southwest Missouri State University (now Missouri State University) in Springfield, Missouri, where she graduated with a degree in education.
Harper began acting in theater productions, theme parks (including Dogpatch, USA and Silver Dollar City), dinner theatre, and children 's theatre. She had given up hopes of an acting career and was working for a financial institution in Texas. The institution wanted to produce a TV spot and asked her to be in the spot, which she accepted. In a twist of fate, a casting person with Tender Mercies had to spend the night in Dallas and saw Harper 's spot on TV. She called Robert Duvall and arranged an audition. Director Bruce Beresford was impressed with Harper and cast her in the lead female role of Rosa Lee, the young widow and mother who marries country singer Mac Sledge. Beresford said that Harper brought a kind of rural quality to the role without coming across as simple or foolish. He said of Harper, "She walked into the room and even before she spoke, I thought, ' That 's the girl to play the lead. ' '' Harper did not realize this, and recalled shortly after the film 's release, "After I did the final screen test, I went to see Breaker Morant and started sobbing uncontrollably halfway through it. A friend had to take me home, and I kept crying, ' You do n't understand! They 're not gon na let me do this part! ' ''
Tender Mercies was Harper 's feature film debut. She later said that she was so excited about the role that she bit her script just to make sure it was real, and she was so nervous that during her first take she feared the filmmakers would "come to their senses and say, ' We 're sorry, we made a terrible mistake. ' '' Duvall, who played the lead role of Mac Sledge, did his best to help Harper in her first film role. During one scene in which Mac Sledge and Rosa Lee were fighting, Duvall yelled at a make - up artist in front of Harper specifically to make her angry for the scene; Duvall apologized to the make - up artist after the scene was shot. After filming, Duvall said Harper did a very good job, and he felt her rural past in Arkansas helped her in the part. She earned a Golden Globe Award nomination for the role. Duvall won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance.
Harper appeared in the TV mini-series Chiefs (1983) and Celebrity (1984), as well as many television movies including Starflight: The Plane That Could n't Land (1983) and Reckless Disregard (1985). In 1983, she appeared in the full - length feature Silkwood. In 1986, Harper was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her work as Chick Boyle in Crimes of the Heart, which was directed by her Tender Mercies director Bruce Beresford. She later played parts in Ishtar (1987), Far North (1988), The Man in the Moon (1991), The Jackal (1997) and Loggerheads (2005). She also took part in Michael Jackson 's Black Or White (1991) musical minifilm.
Harper had a regular role on the CBS series Christy, from 1994 - 95. Her roles have frequently been that of a Southern lady, although she had worked to lose her Arkansas accent. She also had a recurring role on another CBS television series, Early Edition, from 1996 to 2000. She portrayed the mother of lead character Gary Hobsen. Harper shared a Screen Actors Guild Award (in the Best Ensemble Cast category) with her fellow cast members in the Oscar - winning film No Country for Old Men, in which she played the wife of Tommy Lee Jones.
She had the recurring role of Mrs. Pinkman on Breaking Bad, appearing in the first three seasons.
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who sings the song at the end of the hobbit 2 | I See Fire - wikipedia
"I See Fire '' is a song recorded and produced by English singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran. The song was commissioned for the soundtrack of the 2013 film The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, where it played over the closing credits. The Hobbit director, Peter Jackson, asked Sheeran to write a song for the movie, after Jackson 's daughter, Katie, suggested Sheeran. Sheeran saw the film, wrote the song, and recorded most of the track elements on the same day.
The song was released as a digital download on 5 November 2013; its music video was released the same day. It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 13 and reached number - one in New Zealand on its sixth week, marking Sheeran 's first number - one single in the country. "I See Fire '' was nominated for a Satellite Award for Best Original Song.
"I See Fire '' plays over the first section of the closing credits of The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, an epic fantasy adventure film directed by New Zealand filmmaker, Peter Jackson. Released on 13 December 2013, it is the second installment in the three - part film series based on the novel, The Hobbit, by J.R.R. Tolkien. The Hobbit follows the quest of a home - loving hobbit, a fictional, diminutive humanoid, to win a share of the treasure guarded by the dragon, Smaug.
Sheeran has a lifelong devotion to the novel of Tolkien. His grandfather owns a first edition copy. It was the first book Sheeran 's father read to him as a child, and the first book that he read himself. On 5 November 2013, Sheeran announced his involvement in the soundtrack in a series of online posts, which included his thanking Jackson for the opportunity. He is also a fan of Jackson 's films.
Jackson was introduced to Sheeran 's music through his daughter, Katie, who attended Sheeran 's concert in Wellington, New Zealand, in March 2013. Jackson, having learned Sheeran 's regard toward his films, met him over lunch the following day where they exchanged email addresses.
In late 2013, Jackson and Fran Walsh, who co-produced and co-wrote the film, were searching for an artist who would write and record the song. Following Katie 's advice, they decided to tap Sheeran. Jackson sent a message to Sheeran, who was in the Mediterranean island of Ibiza attending a wedding ceremony, asking if he would be interested in the project, which Sheeran accepted. Departing from London, Sheeran and his manager, Stuart, arrived in Wellington within 48 hours.
Sheeran watched the film at an early screening in Park Road Post, a film post-production facility located in Wellington, New Zealand. Jackson advised Sheeran to focus on the film 's ending: "Focus on the last 10 minutes. That 's what the song needs to reflect (...) Write a song that takes the audience by the hand and leads them from Middle - earth back into reality. '' Capturing his reaction to watching the film, Sheeran immediately began writing the lyrics "from the perspective of being a dwarf ''. Jackson required a folk song and Sheeran, who is "known for songs that would n't fit in a Hobbit film '', attempted to follow in that direction.
Sheeran wrote and recorded, in only one day, most of the elements present in the released version. Further revisions were made in a course of three days that Sheeran stayed in the facility. Sheeran revealed he was given complete freedom in the creative process, while receiving ready inputs from Jackson and his co-filmmakers. In particular, Sheeran notes: "(Jackson) knows the colors and templates of what the song should be rather than how the melody should go. ''
Sheeran also produced the song, playing all the instruments except for the cello. Despite having never played the violin, he chose to perform it himself through overdubbing. Flight of the Conchords ' touring cellist Nigel Collins added cello parts as dictated by Sheeran. Pete Cobbin of Abbey Road Studios mixed "I See Fire ''; Cobbin was at Park Road Post at the same time, responsible for mixing the musical score of The Desolation of Smaug.
"I See Fire '' is a folk ballad, characterized with gently strummed acoustic guitar. Sheeran revealed he took inspiration from the 1970s Irish folk band Planxty. According to Entertainment Weekly 's Jodi Walker, the song is "touch reminiscent '' of "The Parting Glass '', an Irish traditional song that is a bonus track in Sheeran 's debut album, +. The themes in The Hobbit are present in the song 's lyrics, which refer to "fire, mountains and brotherhood ''.
"I See Fire '' was released on 5 November 2013 through iTunes, initially in the United States and then worldwide within the next 36 hours. It was later released on 10 December 2013 as part of the film 's soundtrack, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, through WaterTower Music and Decca Records. Sheeran released "I See Fire '' while on tour in support of his debut album; it was the first solo record that he released, two years since his last. Initially, the track was announced as a non-inclusion in his next album, subsequently titled x. However, it appeared on the deluxe edition of that album. Sheeran announced the inclusion on 9 April 2014.
The official music video for "I See Fire '' premiered on 5 November 2013, along with the release of the song. The video shows Sheeran performing and recording the vocals, the songwriting and recording of live instruments, behind the scenes, all throughout interspersed with shots from the film. The footage which shows Sheeran performing and recording the song is shot in black - and - white, while the rest shown in full color. The video, which is uploaded in the Warner Bros. Pictures channel in YouTube, had accumulated over 80 million views as of April 2017.
"I See Fire '' attracted critical commentaries. In his review of the single, Nick Catucci of the Entertainment Weekly stated that although looming in the song is a "flame - broiled disaster '', Sheeran "keeps his strumming cool, and a hopeful flame burning for Bilbo ''. For Rolling Stone, Ryan Reed wrote: "The haunting track is right in line with Sheeran 's trademark style, filled with dramatic crooning and quiet acoustic guitars. '' Delia Paunescu of Vulture.com found "I See Fire '' "so calming it may put you to sleep ''.
In December 2013, Sheeran said he would be promoting the song until end of the awards season, in his bid to bagging a nomination at the 2014 Academy Awards (although it was not nominated). "I See Fire '' was nominated for Best Original Song at the 2014 Satellite Awards. It also received nomination for Best Song Written for Visual Media from the 2015 Grammy Award.
Since its release on 5 November 2013, "I See Fire '' has been listed for 727 weeks in 19 different charts. Its first appearance was on 7 November in the Ireland Singles Top 100, where it debuted at number 22. The song was successful in many European countries, with a peak position of number 1 in Norway and Sweden. In Sheeran 's home country, the single peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart, spending 65 weeks on the chart. The British Phonographic Industry certified the single silver on 26 December 2014, denoting sales of 400,000 units.
"I See Fire '' was well received in Oceania. In New Zealand, single peaked at number 1 for three weeks. It was certified triple platinum by the Recorded Music NZ, denoting sales of 45,000 copies. "I See Fire '' is the 6th top - selling single in New Zealand in 2014. In Australia, the single peaked at number 10 for 3 non-consecutive weeks. It has been certified two - time platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, denoting sales of 140,000 copies as of 2014. In Australia 's 2014 year - end chart, "I See Fire '' was ranked at number 78.
According to commercial streaming company Spotify, "I See Fire '' was the most streamed song from a soundtrack between 2013 and 2014, outperforming other popular contemporaries. In April 2015, Spotify released a report of the most streamed tracks worldwide under the category sleep. "I See Fire '' was placed at number 4, joining Sheeran 's other 6 songs ranked in the top 20. Sleep is one of Spotify 's most popular categories "that people also use for general relaxation and to help themselves unwind ''. The Guardian columnist Tim Dowling suggests that the report is an indication of "very popular, slightly mellow songs that keep cropping up on sleep playlists '' but not a list of a "carefully curated journey to unconsciousness ''.
American singer - songwriter Peter Hollens recorded a version of the song. Hollens had previously recorded "Misty Mountain '' off the soundtrack for the first installment of The Hobbit series. His version of "I See Fire '' features "98 different sound tracks '' layered onto "8 -- 14 vocal parts '' that Hollens recorded.
Norwegian DJ and record producer Kygo released a remixed version of the song which became viral. Kygo 's success is attributed largely in part to the reception of his remixed version of "I See Fire ''. Less than two years later, the remix had been played 26 million plays on SoundCloud. As of May 2018, the version has been played over 62 million times on SoundCloud.
New Zealand musical trio Sole Mio released a cover of "I See Fire '' in support of New Zealand 's participation at the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
An Australian singer - songwriter, Joe Moore, auditioned for the fourth series of The Voice Australia with a cover of "I See Fire ''. The cover was included as a bonus track and was released on his debut studio album A Thousand Lifetimes.
Irish musical ensemble Celtic Woman performed a cover of the song on their album Destiny, sung by debuting member Mairead Carlin.
The German heavy metal guitarist Axel Rudi Pell has released a power ballad version of the song on his compilation album The Ballads V in 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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