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where are the dairies that make haagen dazs located | Häagen - Dazs - wikipedia
Häagen - Dazs / ˌhɑːɡənˈdɑːs / is an American ice cream brand, established by Reuben and Rose Mattus in the Bronx, New York, in 1961. Starting with only three flavors: vanilla, chocolate, and coffee, the company opened its first retail store in Brooklyn, New York, on November 15, 1976. The business now has franchises throughout the United States and many other countries around the world including the United Kingdom, India, China, Lebanon and Brazil.
Häagen - Dazs ice cream does not use stabilizers such as guar gum, xanthan gum, or carrageenan. The company also produces ice cream bars, ice cream cakes, sorbet, frozen yogurt, and gelato.
Reuben Mattus invented the "Häagen - Dazs '' name supposedly as a tribute to Denmark 's exemplary treatment of its Jews during the Second World War, and included an outline map of Denmark on early labels. Mattus claimed the name was "Danish - sounding, '' although it is not Danish, which has neither an umlaut ä (rather, the ligature æ is the corresponding counterpart) nor a digraph zs, nor did the name have any meaning in any language before its creation. (The surname Haagen, without an umlaut, does exist in Denmark.) Mattus felt that Denmark was known for its dairy products and had a positive image in the United States. His daughter Doris Hurley reported in the 1999 PBS documentary An Ice Cream Show that her father sat at the kitchen table for hours saying nonsensical words until he came up with a combination he liked. The reason he chose this method was so that the name would be unique and original.
In 1980, Häagen - Dazs unsuccessfully sued Frusen Glädjé, an American ice cream maker founded that year, for using foreign branding strategies. The phrase frusen glädje -- without the acute accent -- is Swedish for "frozen delight ''. In 1985, Frusen Glädjé was sold to Kraft General Foods. A Kraft spokeswoman stated that Kraft sold its Frusen Glädjé license to the Unilever corporation in 1993, but a spokesman for Unilever claimed that Frusen Glädjé was not part of the deal. The brand has since disappeared.
Häagen - Dazs ice cream comes in several traditional flavors as well as several esoteric flavors that are specific to the brand, such as Vanilla Swiss Almond and Bananas Foster. It is marketed as a "super-premium '' brand: it is quite dense (very little air is mixed in during manufacture), uses no emulsifiers or stabilizers other than egg yolks, and has a high butterfat content. It is sold both in grocery stores and in dedicated retail outlets serving ice cream cones, sundaes, and so on.
Since 1992, most of the world 's Häagen - Dazs products have been manufactured at a plant in Tilloy - lès - Mofflaines, France that is now controlled by General Mills. In the United States and Canada, Häagen - Dazs is licensed to and produced by Nestlé subsidiary Dreyer 's. Häagen - Dazs entered the Japanese market in 1984 by forming a joint venture with Suntory and Takanashi Milk, which has produced their products there ever since.
To offset increasing costs of their ingredients and the delivery of the product, Häagen - Dazs announced that, in January 2009, it would be reducing the size of their ice cream cartons in the US from 16 US fl oz (470 ml) to 14 US fl oz (410 ml). In March 2009, they announced that they would be shrinking the 32 US fl oz (950 ml) container to 28 US fl oz (830 ml). In response, Ben & Jerry 's said that they would not be changing the sizes of their cartons.
Häagen - Dazs 's founder Reuben Mattus was born in Poland in 1912 to Jewish parents. His father died during the First World War, and his widowed mother emigrated to New York City with her two children in 1921. They joined an uncle who was in the Italian lemon - ice business in Brooklyn. By the late 1920s, the family began making ice pops, and by 1929, chocolate - covered ice cream bars and sandwiches under the name Senator Frozen Products on Southern Boulevard in the South Bronx, delivering them with a horse - drawn wagon to neighborhood stores in the Bronx.
The Senator Frozen Products company was profitable, but by the 1950s the large mass - producers of ice cream started a price war, leading to his decision to make a heavy kind of high - end ice cream. In 1959, he decided to form a new ice cream company with what he thought to be a Danish - sounding name, Häagen - Dazs, a move known in the marketing industry as foreign branding.
The Pillsbury Company bought Häagen - Dazs in 1983. In 1999, Pillsbury and Nestlé merged their U.S. and Canadian ice cream operations into a joint venture called Ice Cream Partners. General Mills, in turn, bought Pillsbury in 2001 and succeeded to its interest in the joint venture. That same year, Nestlé exercised its contractual right to buy out General Mills ' interest in Ice Cream Partners, which included the right to a 99 - year license for the Häagen - Dazs brand. Since then, pursuant to that license, the Dreyer 's subsidiary of Nestlé has produced and marketed Häagen - Dazs products in the United States and Canada.
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who wrote how much is that doggie in the window | (How Much is) that Doggie in the Window? - Wikipedia
"(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window? '' is a popular novelty song published as having been written by Bob Merrill in 1952 and very loosely based on the folk tune, Carnival of Venice. This song is also loosely based on the song "Oh, where, oh, where, has my little dog gone? '' The best - known version of the song was the original, recorded by Patti Page on December 18, 1952, and released in January 1953 by Mercury Records as catalog numbers 70070 (78 rpm) and 70070X45 (45 rpm) under the title "The Doggie in the Window '', with the flip side being "My Jealous Eyes ''. It reached No. 1 on both the Billboard and Cash Box charts in 1953, and sold over two million copies.
Mercury, however, had poor distribution in the United Kingdom. Therefore, a recording by Lita Roza was the one most widely heard in the UK, reaching No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart in 1953. It also distinguished Roza as the first British woman to have a number - one hit in the UK chart. It was also the first song with a question in the title to reach number 1.
"Doggie '' was one in a series of successful novelty songs since the 1930s, following on the success of songs such as Bing Crosby 's "Pistol Packin ' Mama '' and Merv Griffin 's "I 've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts ''. Prior to the release of "Doggie '', composer Bob Merrill penned "If I Knew You Were Comin ' I 'd 've Baked a Cake ''. The original Page recording included the sounds of dogs barking, credited on the label as "Barks by Joe and Mac '' (her arranger, Joe Reisman, and a violinist). The recording also features Page 's signature multi-part tight harmonies, all sung by Page. Throughout the years, she recorded several other versions as well.
On April 4, 1953, singer Patti Page 's rendition of "The Doggie in the Window '' went to No. 1 in the US Billboard magazine chart, staying at that top spot for eight weeks. The song was wildly popular across a wide demographic. The song had school children "yipping ''; Mercury Records was besieged with requests for free puppies; and the American Kennel Club 's annual registrations spiked up by eight percent. In all, Page 's record sold over 2 million copies.
Following the top ten entrance of Lita Roza 's cover version on March 14, 1953, the Patti Page version of the song was released in the UK on March 28, renamed "(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window '' (sans question mark), under Mercury 's "Oriole Records '' label. Given the delay getting to market in the UK, it was not as successful as the Roza version, only entering the charts at number nine before leaving the charts altogether five weeks later. The Roza version went to number one, lasting in that spot for one week. But for five weeks between 28 March 1953 and 25 April 1953, there were two versions of "Doggie '' in the UK top twelve singles chart.
According to rock historian Michael Uslan, "novelty songs '' like "Doggie '' led to the "fervent embrace of rock & roll '' by 1955. "A lot of songs at that time were extremely bland, squeaky - clean stuff. The music field was ripe for something new, something vibrant to shake the rafters. ''
The song has since become a popular children 's song. Bob Merrill 's lyrics were reworked by Iza Trapani into her 2004 children 's book, How Much Is That Doggie in the Window?.
The phrase "How much is that doggie in the window? '' seemed innocent enough in 1953, but in modern times it has become synonymous with the trade in puppies from pet shops, often originating in puppy mills.
In 2009, Patti Page recorded a version of the song with a new title ("Do You See That Doggie in the Shelter '') together with new lyrics by Chris Gantry, with the hopes of emphasizing the adoption of homeless animals from animal shelters. The rights to that song were given exclusively to the Humane Society of the United States. Said Page:
"The original song asks the question: ' How much is that doggie in the window? ' Today, the answer is ' too much. ' And I do n't just mean the price tag on the puppies in pet stores. The real cost is in the suffering of the mother dogs back at the puppy mill. That 's where most pet store puppies come from. And that kind of cruelty is too high a price to pay. ''
Upon Page 's death in 2011, the Humane Society wrote in its online eulogy, "We remember her fondly for her compassion for animals. ''
A season five episode of Cold Case, "Devil 's Music '', used Patti Page 's recording in the opening.
The 2007 video game BioShock does not use the original overdubbed Mercury recording. Instead a 1966 re-recording by Patti Page with full orchestra for Columbia Records was substituted.
Roza was a singer with The Ted Heath jazz band during the 1950s. During this period, she was voted Favourite Female Vocalist in a Melody Maker poll from 1951 to 1955 and a similar poll in New Musical Express from 1952 to 1955.
In 1951, she recorded "Allentown Jail '' with the Heath Band, which led to her A&R Dick Rowe asking her to sing "(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window? ''. Her initial response was negative, "I 'm not recording that, it 's rubbish. '' She recalled that he pleaded with her, responding "It 'll be a big hit, please do it, Lita. '' She relented, saying she would record it but never sing it again afterwards.
"Doggie '' was a new entry in the UK charts on 14 March 1953 at number nine. It moved up to number three in its second and third week of release before dropping down to number four on 4 April. On 11 April it moved up to number two for a week, before becoming number one on 18 April. This made Lita Roza both the first female vocalist to top the UK singles chart and the first person from Liverpool, long before the success of The Beatles or Cilla Black. It held the top spot for one week, before gradually dropping down the top ten over the next five weeks, with its final week in the top ten being at number nine on 23 May.
Lita Roza was widely reported to have strongly disliked her song. In an interview in 2004 she revealed that she had kept her promise never to perform the song, "I sang it once, just one take, and vowed I would never sing it again. When it reached number one, there was enormous pressure to perform it but I always refused. It just was n't my style. '' However, she would go on to be most widely remembered for that song. In 2001, Roza opened Liverpool 's Wall of Hits on Matthew Street, home of The Cavern Club. On display were various discs from every British number - one from Merseyside, the first being her own.
The song returned to the spotlight briefly during the 1980s as the result of an interview with Smash Hits magazine, wherein Margaret Thatcher, who was then serving as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, admitted that Lita Roza 's version of "Doggie '' was her favourite song of all time.
Following Roza 's death in August 2008, she left £ 300,000 in her will to charities, of which £ 190,000 went to three dog - related charities: Battersea Dogs and Cats Home, The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association, and The Cinnamon Trust.
The song has also been covered by many groups and is available on many children songs CDs and is considered as children 's music in many countries. It can also be found on many musical toys made since the late 1960s. For example, a Sankyo music box made in the 1970s played the song, as do many musical toys manufactured today.
In the 1960s the Grasshoppers, a parody of the Chipmunks sang that song on a children 's album.
The song has also been parodied a few times, including:
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how many times have ireland beaten england in the six nations | History of rugby union matches between England and Ireland - wikipedia
England and Ireland have played rugby union internationals since 1875, with England winning the first match at The Oval, London by two goals to nil. (A points scoring system was not used in rugby at the time.) The two teams have played a total of 133 Test matches; with England winning 76 of them, Ireland 49 and 8 resulting in a draw.
Apart from their annual match, currently part of the Six Nations Championship, the teams have also met in two warm - up matches prior to the 2011 and 2015 World Cups, and a one - off match in April 1988 to celebrate the millennium of the city of Dublin. The winners of the 1988 match, England, were awarded the Millennium Trophy which then became the trophy for the annual match between the teams.
The Millennium Trophy is currently held by Ireland, who won the most recent match 24 -- 15 at the Twickenham Stadium during the 2018 Six Nations Championship.
In the Home Nations Championship (1874 -- 1909 and 1932 -- 1939), England played Ireland on 41 occasions, England winning 27, Ireland 13 with one match having been drawn.
In the Five Nations (1910 -- 1931 and 1947 -- 1999), England played Ireland on 70 occasions, England winning 38, Ireland 25 with seven matches having been drawn. In these matches, England have scored 851 points, and Ireland 575.
In the Six Nations (2000 -- present), England have played Ireland on 19 occasions, England winning 8, Ireland 11 and no matches have been drawn. In these matches, England have scored 384 points, and Ireland 310.
In other test matches, England have played Ireland on three occasions (1988, 2011 and 2015), with England winning all three. In these matches, England have scored 62 points, and Ireland 32.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
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where does the northern pacific railroad start and end | Northern Pacific Railway - wikipedia
The Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction.
Construction began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike '' in western Montana on September 8, 1883. The railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land.
The Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which became BNSF Railway in 1996.
Congress chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864 with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.
Congress granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864. It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.
For the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. The backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company.
Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present - day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota. The NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. Four small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. In Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155 - mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1875. It was leased to the Northern Pacific the following year, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific.
The Northern Pacific Railroad reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith 's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years.
In 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. On November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times.
Attacks on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.
In 1886 the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota - North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.
The Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.
The NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system. The federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. At first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. By 1905 the railroad company 's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. With better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless '' land directly to farmers at good prices. By 1910 the railroad 's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.
In 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road 's western terminus on July 14. However, for the past three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated.
Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker 's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific. Cooke and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads.
The Northern Pacific, however, survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last - minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of the year. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. By 1874, however, the company was moribund.
Northern Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became fourth president of the company. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. Throughout 1874 - 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.
In 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines.
This small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad.
On May 24, 1879, Vermont lawyer Frederick Billings became the president of the company. Billings ' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad 's new - found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters.
German - born journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe in 1871 - 73. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard 's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors ' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company.
Of the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad 's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington.
Within a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific 's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second - class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail.
Villard, who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested '' Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited -- and raised -- $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool, '' Villard 's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific.
Despite a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashabel H. Barney served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind.
In 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. On October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million - dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself.
General Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families.
On January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east - west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system.
Villard pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. To celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard 's in - laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.
Villard 's fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Wall Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. Villard himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884.
Again, the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company.
Throughout the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. Surveys of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. In 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. However, due to impaired health, he was forced to resign a few months later.
In 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77 - mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886.
In January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850 - foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2 - 10 - 0s -- the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) -- to handle a tiny five - car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound.
Despite this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. However, an associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888.
In an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. In addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893.
To combat the Great Northern, in a few instances Villard built branch line mileage simply to occupy a territory, regardless of whether the territory offered the railroad any business. Mismanagement, sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard 's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president.
For the next three years, the Villard - Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific 's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter.
Ultimately, the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J.P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.
Though James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan - controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.
In the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all - important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive.
Rather than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific 's second bankruptcy.
The ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. At the same time, E.H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago.
The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. To Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high - speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. Harriman was the first to approach the Burlington 's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. Hill, however, met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific.
Not to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. By the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. Hill, on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred.
In three days, however, the Harriman - Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Harriman was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later.
In 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington 's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington 's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill 's philosophy of "community of interest, '' a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. Elliott would be left to make peace with the Hill - controlled Great Northern; the Harriman - controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road.
After the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. Its physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double - tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.
The Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4 - 8 - 4 Northern type steam engine, the 2 - 8 - 8 - 4 Yellowstone, and was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors ' FTs in 1944.
The Northern Pacific 's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.
By 1900, most of the remaining land - grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district. '' Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and was hard to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of it was sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser. The railroads goals were to sell its land to provide operating funds; and to populate the region to provide the markets and routine business necessary to sustain the railroad.
In later years, consolidation in American railroading brought the Northern Pacific together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. Ironically, the merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling.
In 1949, the Northern Pacific 's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions.
Headquartered in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division 's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.
Headquartered in St. Paul, Minnesota, the St. Paul Division 's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches.
Headquartered in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division 's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.
Headquartered in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division 's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches.
Headquartered in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain Division 's main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, and from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. The division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.
Headquartered in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division 's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.
Headquartered in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division 's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.
The North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train 's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific 's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.
The Northern Pacific 's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952. The Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). However, it had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12 -- 13, 1970.
The Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak.
There were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included:
Hazen Titus was appointed as the line 's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.
Titus and his staff discovered the "inedible '' potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers '', they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line 's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato '' as a slogan to promote the railroad 's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it. When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific 's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently. '' Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato ''; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.
Presidents of Northern Pacific Railway were:
The Northern Pacific was known for many firsts in locomotive history and was a leader in the development of modern steam locomotives. The NP was one of the first railroads to use Mikado 2 - 8 - 2 locomotives in the United States and the first to use the 4 - 8 - 4 "Northern '' type.
The NP 's desire to burn low grade semi-bituminous coal from company - owned mines at Rosebud, Montana, played a part in the development of the 4 - 8 - 4 wheel arrangement for steam locomotives. With a BTU fifty percent lower than anthracite coal, the NP 's locomotive design called for a much larger firebox, and thus an additional axle on the trailing truck. This led locomotive designers from the 4 - 8 - 2 Mountain to the 4 - 8 - 4 Northern, first produced by Alco for the NP in 1926 and designated the Class A by the railway.
The 2 - 8 - 8 - 4, called the Yellowstone, was first built for the NP by Alco in 1928 and numbered 5000, Class Z - 5, with more built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1930. The large locomotives were designed to handle higher tonnage on freight trains while simultaneously eliminating the need to use more 2 - 8 - 2 Mikados and crews. They originally served in the western North Dakota / eastern Montana territory.
The Northern Pacific purchased the 4 - 8 - 4 Timken 1111, a "Northern '' type called the Four Aces, the first locomotive built with roller bearings, in 1933. The Northern Pacific renumbered it 2626 and classified it as the sole member of locomotive Class A-1. It was used in passenger service in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana until 1957 when it was retired from active service and scrapped at South Tacoma, despite attempts to preserve the locomotive. After Timken 1111, the NP bought only roller bearing equipped steam locomotives, with the exception of four 4 - 6 - 6 - 4 Class Z - 6 locomotives that were later changed to roller bearings.
Twenty - one Northern Pacific steam locomotives have been preserved:
In addition, preserved Spokane, Portland and Seattle 700, a 4 - 8 - 4, was derived from Northern Pacific designs.
Many NP passenger cars remain in private collections.
Numerous NP cabooses remain in private collections.
In search of a trademark, the Northern Pacific considered and rejected many designs. Edwin Harrison McHenry, the Chief Engineer, was struck with a geometric design, a Taijitu in the Korean flag he saw while visiting the Korean exhibit at the Chicago World 's Fair in 1893. The idea came to him that it was just the symbol for the long - sought - for trademark. With a slight modification, and rendered in red and black, the symbol became the railroad 's trademark.
In 1876, photographer Frank Jay Haynes began contract work with the railroad for publicity photographs. In 1881 he met Charles Fee and through his 20 - year friendship with Fee, Haynes became known as the "Official Photographer of the N.P.R.R ''. His "Northern Pacific Views '' photographically documented over the years, the routes, destinations, infrastructure and equipment of the railroad.
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what language do they speak in the isle of man | Languages of the Isle of Man - wikipedia
The main language of the Isle of Man is English, predominantly the Manx English dialect. Manx, the historical language of the island, is still maintained by a very small speaker population.
Both English and Manx are official languages in Tynwald.
The Manx language is a Celtic language of the Goidelic subdivision, and descendant of Old Irish. It is sometimes called Manx Gaelic to distinguish it from the local variety of English.
The language was historically the dominant one on the island, but fell out of use during the twentieth century, and is considered to have become extinct in 1974 after the death of Ned Maddrell. At the present time, less than one hundred children receive their education exclusively in Manx. There are an additional 1,689 second - language speakers, comprising 2.2 % of the population of the Isle of Man. The language has been offered in public schools since 1992, and has been mandatory since 2001.
The English language has replaced Manx as the dominant language on the island. The native dialect is known as Anglo - Manx or Manx English, and has been employed by a number of the island 's more notable writers such as T.E. Brown and "Cushag ''. which distinguishes itself by considerable influence and a large number of loanwords and phrases from Manx Gaelic. However, this dialect is being supplanted by other dialects of English, especially from north west England.
For formal purposes British English is the usual form of English used in the Isle of Man. For many years, the BBC has been the main broadcaster to the island, and many English people have settled in the IOM.
Forms of Irish English can also be heard on the island, from both Dublin and Belfast. The island has traditionally had many Irish tourists, and settlers.
There are a few people in the island who speak other languages habitually. These include Irish speakers. French, German and Spanish are also taught in the island 's schools.
Old Irish and Middle Irish are the ancestors of today 's Manx language. Neither of these became extinct, so much as evolved, and Manx diverged from Scottish and Irish forms.
During the Middle Ages, the three Gaelic languages maintained a single standard for higher registers and poetry. This is sometimes misleadingly referred to as "Classical Irish '' - despite the fact it was much in use in Scotland and presumably the Isle of Man. It is also known as Classical Gaelic.
Many of the island 's placenames are Norse in origin, e.g. Laxey, Ramsey, and so are some of the island 's institutions e.g. Tynwald (Þingvóllr). A few Norse inscriptions remain.
There seems to be evidence that the island once spoke a form of P - Celtic before it became Gaelicised. There is little evidence of this in placenames however.
Latin and French have been used in ceremonial purposes, e.g. legal use, and mottos, as in the UK.
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the inferior part of the spinal cavity is called | Body cavity - wikipedia
A body cavity is any fluid - filled space in a multicellular organism other than those of vessels (such as blood vessels and lymph vessels). The human body cavity normally refers to the ventral body cavity, because it is by far the largest.
A coelom is a cavity lined by mesothelium, an epithelium derived from mesoderm. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.
Arthropods and most molluscs have a reduced (but still true) coelom, usually the pericardial cavity and the gonocoel. Their principal body cavity is the hemocoel or haeomocoel of an open circulatory system, often derived from the blastocoel.
Mammalian embryos develop two cavities: the intraembryonic coelom and the extraembryonic coelom (or chorionic cavity). The intraembryonic coelom is lined by somatic and splanchnic lateral plate mesoderm, while the extraembryonic coelom is lined by extraembryonic mesoderm. The intraembryonic coelom is the only cavity that persists in the mammal at term, which is why its name is often contracted to simply coelomic cavity. Subdividing the coelomic cavity into compartments, for example, the pericardial cavity / pericardium, where the heart develops, simplifies discussion of the anatomies of complex animals.
Organisms can be also classified according to the type of body cavity they possess.
Anatomical structures are often described in terms of the cavity in which they reside. The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
Together the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity can be referred to as the dorsal body cavity. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.
The thoracic cavity consists of three cavities that fill the interior area of the chest.
The diaphragm divides the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. The abdominal cavity occupies the entire lower half of the trunk, anterior to the spine. Just under the abdominal cavity, anterior to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior and anterior to the abdominal cavity. Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity while the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity. Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.
The cavities include:
At the end of the third week, the neural tube, which is a fold of one of the layers of the trilaminar germ disc, called the ectoderm, appears. This layer elevates and closes dorsally, while the gut tube rolls up and closes ventrally to create a "tube on top of a tube. '' The mesoderm, which is another layer of the trilaminar germ disc, holds the tubes together and the lateral plate mesoderm, the middle layer of the germ disc, splits to form a visceral layer associated with the gut and a parietal layer, which along with the overlying ectoderm, forms the lateral body wall. The space between the visceral and parietal layers of lateral plate mesoderm is the primitive body cavity. When the lateral body wall folds, it moves ventrally and fuses at the midline. The body cavity closes, except in the region of the connecting stalk. Here, the gut tube maintains an attachment to the yolk sac. The yolk sac is a membranous sac attached to the embryo, which provides nutrients and functions as the circulatory system of the very early embryo.
The lateral body wall folds, pulling the amnion in with it so that the amnion surrounds the embryo and extends over the connecting stalk, which becomes the umbilical cord, which connects the fetus with the placenta. If the ventral body wall fails to close, ventral body wall defects can result, such as ectopia cordis, a congenital malformation in which the heart is abnormally located outside the thorax. Another defect is gastroschisis, a congenital defect in the anterior abdominal wall through which the abdominal contents freely protrude. Another possibility is bladder exstrophy, in which part of the urinary bladder is present outside the body. In normal circumstances, the parietal mesoderm will form the parietal layer of serous membranes lining the outside (walls) of the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities. The visceral layer will form the visceral layer of the serous membranes covering the lungs, heart, and abdominal organs. These layers are continuous at the root of each organ as the organs lie in their respective cavities. The peritoneum, a serum membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity, forms in the gut layers and in places mesenteries extend from the gut as double layers of peritoneum. Mesenteries provide a pathway for vessels, nerves, and lymphatics to the organs. Initially, the gut tube from the caudal end of the foregut to the end of the hindgut is suspended from the dorsal body wall by dorsal mesentery. Ventral mesentery, derived from the septum transversum, exists only in the region of the terminal part of the esophagus, the stomach, and the upper portion of the duodenum.
This Wikipedia entry incorporates text from the freely licensed Connexions (1) edition of Anatomy & Physiology (2) text - book by OpenStax College
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who won the nba mvp of the league | NBA Most Valuable player award - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player (MVP) is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) award given since the 1955 -- 56 season to the best performing player of the regular season. The winner receives the Maurice Podoloff Trophy, which is named in honor of the first commissioner (then president) of the NBA, who served from 1946 until 1963. Until the 1979 -- 80 season, the MVP was selected by a vote of NBA players. Since the 1980 -- 81 season, the award is decided by a panel of sportswriters and broadcasters throughout the United States and Canada, each of whom casts a vote for first to fifth place selections. Each first - place vote is worth 10 points; each second - place vote is worth seven; each third - place vote is worth five, fourth - place is worth three and fifth - place is worth one. Starting from 2010, one ballot was cast by fans through online voting. The player with the highest point total wins the award. As of June 2017, the current holder of the award is Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder.
Every player who has won this award and has been eligible for the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame has been inducted. Kareem Abdul - Jabbar won the award a record six times. Both Bill Russell and Michael Jordan won the award five times, while Wilt Chamberlain and LeBron James won the award four times. Russell and James are the only players to have won the award four times in five seasons. Moses Malone, Larry Bird and Magic Johnson each won the award three times, while Bob Pettit, Karl Malone, Tim Duncan, Steve Nash and Stephen Curry have each won it twice. Only two rookies have won the award: Wilt Chamberlain in the 1959 -- 60 season and Wes Unseld in the 1968 -- 69 season. Hakeem Olajuwon of Nigeria, Tim Duncan of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Steve Nash of Canada and Dirk Nowitzki of Germany are the only MVP winners considered "international players '' by the NBA.
Stephen Curry in 2015 -- 16 is the only player to have won the award unanimously. Shaquille O'Neal in 1999 -- 2000 and LeBron James in 2012 -- 13 are the only two players to have fallen one vote shy of a unanimous selection, both receiving 120 of 121 votes. The most recent winner, Russell Westbrook, is the first to have played for a team that failed to win at least 50 regular - season games since the 1982 -- 83 season. Every player to have won the award has made at least one appearance as a player in the NBA Finals, with the exceptions of Steve Nash and Derrick Rose.
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new orleans baby cakes miami marlins minor league teams | New Orleans Baby Cakes - wikipedia
The New Orleans Baby Cakes (formerly the Zephyrs) are a minor league baseball team based in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb of New Orleans. The Baby Cakes play in the Pacific Coast League (PCL) and are the Triple - A affiliate of the Miami Marlins. The Baby Cakes play their home games at Shrine on Airline.
The team joined the PCL after the 1997 season when the American Association (AA) was disbanded. They were one of five clubs from the AA to join the PCL, with three joining the International League. Triple - A baseball was also expanded to 30 teams at that time, concurrent with the expansion of Major League Baseball.
The Baby Cakes franchise history spans more than 110 years, three cities, five leagues, and affiliations with 14 of the present 30 Major League teams, some on more than one occasion. Both the organization 's formation and geographic moves were in response to franchise movements on the major league level.
Prior to 1978, New Orleans was home to another minor - league team, the New Orleans Pelicans.
In order to bolster its claim to Major League status, the American League moved some of its teams from mid-sized Midwestern cities to larger Eastern venues for the 1901 season. One such shift saw the Kansas City Blues become the Washington Senators. With the town suddenly bereft of a ball club, a new team, which would, in time, become the Zephyrs, was quickly founded. Playing with the old Blues nickname, the team was easily the class of the new, but unrated, incarnation of the Western League, winning the pennant by 10 games.
With a decent team and a solid fan base, the franchise moved on to become a founding member of the new American Association, rated at what today would be the Triple - A level. Although only moderately successful on the field, the team was a fixture of the Midwest sports scene, playing in Kansas City for over half a century.
The most notable player for the franchise was future Baseball Hall of Fame member Phil Rizzuto, the League MVP and Sporting News Minor League Player of the Year in 1940. Another MVP was Don Bollweg in 1952. The team, itself, won the championship in 1938, and then back - to - back in 1952 and 1953. Winning teams boast higher ticket sales, so when the Philadelphia Athletics found themselves unable to compete for market - share with the Phillies and decided to relocate after the 1954 season, Kansas City, Missouri was an attractive choice. This move, however, forced the Blues out, victims of their own success.
The franchise set up shop in Denver, Colorado in 1955. Although naming a team for its uniform color had been popular in the 19th century, it was not fashionable in the 20th. As Denver had no connection to the original Blues, and in recognition of the new location in the Rockies, the team took on a new nickname, the "Bears. '' (The Bears name has been used for other sports teams in Denver in the past several years as well.)
The team played at what became known later as Mile High Stadium, but was originally known as Bears Stadium, after the team. This stadium was one of the largest venues in history to host minor league baseball on a routine basis, and had the additional draw of being in one of the largest minor league markets at the time. For many years, the biggest crowds were on 4th of July fireworks nights, and every year the American Association scheduled the Bears for a home game. Crowds of 45,000 and more watched the fireworks game, easily the biggest crowds most of the minor leaguers had ever drawn.
The Triple - A Bears were affiliated with the New York Yankees at the outset, with Ralph Houk managing many players who would reach the majors and play in the World Series. The team had some early success, winning the American Association Championship in 1957. League MVPs in this period included Marv Throneberry in 1956 and Steve Boros in 1960.
Although the team had been a member of the American Association since the league 's inception 60 years before, it was a Midwestern circuit, and for the 1963 season, the Bears transferred to the Pacific Coast League. The mid-1960s Bears included such future big - leaguers as César Tovar and Ted Uhlaender, but lacked overall success. It also turned out that with the PCL otherwise all but confined to the actual Pacific coast, Denver was now located too far east; in 1969 the franchise returned to the AA.
The Denver Bears had some good teams from the 1970s to the mid-1980s, producing such players as Andre Dawson, Tim Wallach, Warren Cromartie, Tim Raines, Graig Nettles, Terry Francona, Wallace Johnson, Danny Morris, Pat Rooney, and Bill Gullickson. Denver players Richie Scheinblum, Cliff Johnson, Roger Freed, Frank Ortenzio, and Randy Bass were league MVPs. The managing careers of both Billy Martin and Felipe Alou began with the Bears. The team won the Association 's championship with some regularity, topping the league in 1971, 1976, 1977, 1981, and 1983. The 1980 Bears were recognized as one of the 100 greatest minor league teams of all time.
In 1985, the team name was changed to the Denver Zephyrs, after the famous passenger train. Barry Larkin was league MVP while with the Zephyrs, as were Greg Vaughn, Jim Olander, and Jim Tatum. ESPN broadcaster Orestes Destrade also played for the Zephyrs. Under the new nickname, the franchise won the American Association in 1987 and took the 1991 pennant. They went on to win the 1991 Triple - A Classic against the International League 's Columbus Clippers, 4 -- 1.
The Denver Zephyrs lasted eight seasons. Then in 1993, the Major Leagues arrived in Denver with the Colorado Rockies expansion team of the National League and it was time to find a new home for the Zephyrs.
Louisiana lawyer / business promoter Robert E. Couhig, Jr. led the effort to relocate the team to New Orleans. Oddly, the "Zephyr '' name was appropriate for New Orleans, too, as the Zephyr Roller Coaster was a popular ride at the Pontchartrain Beach amusement park (which had closed in 1983). They remained in the American Association until 1998 when they moved to the Pacific Coast League, despite the fact they were now over 1,600 miles (2,600 km) away from the Pacific coast.
The Zephyrs won the 1998 Pacific Coast League championship and went on to win the Triple - A World Series against the Buffalo Bisons, 3 -- 1. The Zephyrs were also slated to participate in the 2001 championship series with the Tacoma Rainiers, but the season was cancelled in the wake of the September 11 attacks, and the teams were named co-champions.
The Zephyrs finished the 2005 season three days before Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans, and though Zephyr Field sustained moderate damage, the team was able to open the 2006 season at home, making them the first professional team in New Orleans to do so after the hurricane.
On May 5 -- 6, 2006 in a game that became known as the "Music City Marathon '', the Zephyrs played 24 innings in Nashville, ultimately defeating the Sounds 5 -- 4 the next day on a Wiki González RBI single. The Z 's scored once in the eighth and once in the ninth, and the teams remained tied through 18 innings before curfew was called. The 24 innings matches the longest game in PCL history, set in 1909, and the Z 's set 12 franchise records, including striking out a league - record 29 times.
In 2008, the Zephyrs ' season ended three days early due to the approach of Hurricane Gustav. When it became apparent that Gustav would hit the Gulf Coast on September 1, the Zephyrs cancelled their games of August 30 through September 1.
On September 22, 2008, the Zephyrs became the Triple - A affiliate of the Florida Marlins (now the Miami Marlins). In October 2009, the Zephyrs unveiled a new logo, clearly embracing New Orleans with the "Fleur de Z '' logo.
The Zephyrs announced a plan to rebrand for the 2017 season. A "name the team '' contest was held in search of a new team name to be accompanied by new logos and a color scheme by Brandiose. The seven finalist monikers were Baby Cakes, Crawfish, King Cakes, Night Owls, Po'boys, Red Eyes, and Tailgators. On November 15, the team unveiled Baby Cakes as the new team name and purple, green, and gold as the new team colors, as well as a unique promotion to promote the name: any child born in the state of Louisiana during 2017 is eligible for a lifetime pass to Baby Cakes games, and will be entered into a raffle wherein the winner will receive a full four - year tuition to a state college in Louisiana upon their 18th birthday in 2035.
The name change was met with mixed reactions. Some fans found the new moniker and logos appealing, and the team reported increased merchandise sales after the announcement. Others expressed disappointment in the new name via social media, claiming it to be an unsuitable name for a sports team and that it did not accurately reflect local culture. At the time of the branding announcement, the team noted fan interest in retaining the Zephyrs moniker, but pointed out that the name had relocated from Denver to New Orleans and had no regional ties or significance other than the roller coaster at Pontchartrain Beach which closed in 1983.
On April 14, 2017, Baby Cakes pitchers Scott Copeland (7 IP), Hunter Cervenka (1 IP), and Brandon Cunniff (1 IP) combined to pitch a no - hitter against the Iowa Cubs.
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7 - day disabled list * On Miami Marlins 40 - man roster # Rehab assignment ∞ Reserve list ‡ Restricted list § Suspended list † Temporary inactive list Roster updated August 28, 2018 Transactions → More rosters: MiLB Pacific Coast League → Miami Marlins minor league players
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where was the final scene of castaway filmed | Cast Away - wikipedia
Cast Away is a 2000 American epic survival film directed and co-produced by Robert Zemeckis and starring Tom Hanks, Helen Hunt, and Nick Searcy. The film depicts a FedEx employee marooned on an uninhabited island after his plane crashes in the South Pacific and his attempts to survive on the island using remnants of his plane 's cargo.
The film was released on December 22, 2000. It was a critical and commercial success, grossing $429 million worldwide, with Hanks being nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role at the 73rd Academy Awards.
In December 1995, Chuck Noland is a time - obsessed systems engineer who travels worldwide resolving productivity problems at FedEx depots. He is in a long - term relationship with Kelly Frears, with whom he lives in Memphis, Tennessee. Although the couple wants to get married, Chuck 's busy schedule interferes with their relationship. A Christmas with relatives is interrupted when Chuck is summoned to resolve a problem in Malaysia. While flying through a violent storm, his plane crashes into the Pacific Ocean. Chuck escapes the sinking plane and is saved by an inflatable life raft, but loses the emergency locator transmitter. He clings to the life raft, loses consciousness, and floats all night before washing up on an island. After he awakens, he explores the island and soon discovers that it is uninhabited.
Several FedEx packages from the crashed plane also wash up on the shore, as well as the corpse of one of the pilots, which he buries. He initially tries to signal for rescue and makes an escape attempt with the remnants of his life raft, but can not pass the powerful surf and the coral reefs surrounding the island. He searches for food, water, and shelter, and opens the packages, finding a number of useful items. He leaves one package, which has a pair of angel wings stenciled on it, unopened. During a first attempt to make fire, Chuck receives a deep wound to his hand. In anger and pain, he throws several objects, including a Wilson volleyball from one of the packages. A short time later he draws a face in the bloody hand print on the ball, names it Wilson, and begins talking to it. One night, Chuck calculates that in order for the rescue workers to find the site of the plane crash, they will have to search an area twice the size of Texas, making him doubtful he will ever be found.
Four years later, Chuck has adapted to the island 's meager living conditions, having become adept at spearing fish and making fires. He also has regular conversations and arguments with Wilson, his only means of socialization. A large section of a portable toilet washes up on the island; Chuck uses it as a sail in the construction of a raft. After spending some time building and stocking the raft and deciding when weather conditions will be optimal (using an analemma he has created in his cave to monitor the time of year), he launches, using the sail to overcome the powerful surf. After some time on the ocean, a storm nearly tears his raft apart. The following day, as Chuck sleeps, Wilson becomes untethered and floats away from the raft. Chuck is wakened by the spray of a sounding whale, sees Wilson, and swims after him, but Wilson has gone too far to safely retrieve. Chuck returns to the raft and collapses in tears. Later, a passing cargo ship finds him, drifting.
Upon returning to civilization, Chuck learns that he has long been given up for dead; his family and acquaintances have held a funeral, and Kelly has since married Chuck 's onetime dentist and has a daughter. After reuniting, the pair profess their love for each other but, realizing they could not be together because of her commitment to her new family, they sadly part. Kelly gives Chuck the car they once shared.
Some time later, after buying a new volleyball, Chuck travels to Canadian, Texas, to return the unopened FedEx package with the angel wings to its sender, a woman named Bettina Peterson. No one is home, so he leaves the package at the door with a note saying that the package saved his life. He departs and stops at a remote crossroads. A friendly woman passing by in a pickup truck stops to explain where each road leads. As she drives away, Chuck notices the angel wings on the back of her truck are similar to those on the parcel. As Chuck is left standing at the crossroads he looks down each road, then smiles faintly as he looks in the direction of the woman 's truck.
Tom Hanks once stated in an Actor Roundtable with The Hollywood Reporter that "... I wanted to examine the concept of four years of hopelessness, in which you have none of the requirements for living -- food, water, shelter, fire and company ''. But it took six years to put together the alliance that would actually examine that. (Hanks) only had a third of (the story), and (screenwriter) Bill Broyles only had a third of it, (director) Bob Zemeckis came along and provided that other third. Hanks also went on to say "I had that original idea. I was reading an article about FedEx, and I realized that 747s filled with packages fly across the Pacific three times a day. And I just thought, "What happens if that goes down? ''
The film 's shooting occurred between 1998 and 2000, but was not shot consecutively. Hanks gained 50 pounds (23 kg) during pre-production, for the purpose of making his transformation more dramatic. After a majority of the film was shot, production was halted for a year so that he could lose the weight and grow his hair and beard to look like he had been living on the island for years. During the year - long hiatus, Zemeckis used the same film crew to make another film, What Lies Beneath.
Cast Away was filmed on Monuriki, one of the Mamanuca Islands in Fiji. It is in a subgroup of the Mamanuca archipelago, which is sited off the coast of Viti Levu, Fiji 's largest island. The island became a tourist attraction following the film 's release. After Chuck 's return, it is identified by Kelly as being "about 600 miles south of the Cook Islands, '' but there is actually no land between the southernmost Cook Islands of Mangaia and Antarctica.
The film essentially begins and ends in the same location, on the Arrington Ranch in the Texas Panhandle south of the city of Canadian, Texas.
The film 's minimal score was composed by Alan Silvestri for which he won a Grammy Award in 2002. The film 's soundtrack is most notable for its lack of score and creature sound effects (such as bird song or insect sounds) while Chuck is on the island, which is intended to reinforce the feeling of isolation. Cast Away contains no original musical score until Chuck escapes the island. However, there is a Russian choral piece heard near the start of the film that was not composed or even recorded by Silvestri, so it does not appear on the film 's soundtrack list. It is a traditional Russian song written by Lev Knipper called "Oh, My Field '' ("Polyushko, Polye '') and it is available on various collections of Red Army hymns.
The official soundtrack CD is an anthology of musical pieces from all films up to that point directed by Zemeckis and scored by Silvestri. The only track from Cast Away itself is the theme from the end credits.
FedEx provided access to their facilities (Memphis, Los Angeles, and Moscow) as well as airplanes, trucks, uniforms, and logistical support. A team of FedEx marketers oversaw production through more than two years of filming. FedEx CEO Fred Smith made an appearance as himself for the scene where Chuck is welcomed back, which was filmed on location at FedEx 's home facilities in Memphis, Tennessee. The idea of a story based on a FedEx plane crashing gave the company "a heart attack at first, '' but the overall story was seen as positive. FedEx, which paid no money for product placement in the film, saw an increase in brand awareness in Asia and Europe following the film 's release.
In the film, Wilson the volleyball serves as Chuck Noland 's personified friend and only companion during the four years that Noland spends alone on a deserted island. Named after the volleyball 's manufacturer, Wilson Sporting Goods, the character was created by screenwriter William Broyles, Jr... While researching for the film, he consulted with professional survival experts, and then chose to deliberately strand himself for one week on an isolated beach in the Gulf of California, to force himself to search for water and food, and obtain his own shelter. During this time, a volleyball washed up on shore. This was the inspiration for the film 's inanimate companion. From a screenwriting point of view, Wilson also serves to realistically allow dialogue in a one - person - only situation.
One of the original volleyball props was sold at auction for $18,500 to the ex-CEO of FedEx Office, Ken May. At the time of the film 's release, Wilson launched its own joint promotion centered on the fact that one of its products was "co-starring '' with Tom Hanks. Wilson manufactured a volleyball with a reproduction of the bloodied handprint face on one side. It was sold for a limited time during the film 's initial release and continues to be offered on the company 's website.
On Rotten Tomatoes, Cast Away has an approval rating of 90 % based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Flawed but fascinating, Cast Away offers an intelligent script, some of Robert Zemeckis ' most mature directing, and a showcase performance from Tom Hanks. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 73 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Cast Away opened in 2,774 theaters in North America and grossed $28,883,406 with an average of $10,412 per theater on its opening weekend. For the four - day Christmas long holiday weekend, it took in a total of $39,852,075. The film kept performing well and ended up earning $233,632,142 domestically and $196,000,000 internationally for a total of $429,632,142, well above its production budget of $90 million.
A FedEx commercial during the 2003 Super Bowl parodied the final scene of the film, in which Chuck returns a package to its sender. In this version, the woman answers the door, and when Chuck asks what was in the box, the woman replies: "Just a satellite phone, GPS locator, fishing rod, water purifier, and some seeds. Just silly stuff. ''
Media executive Lloyd Braun of ABC Studios first suggested the idea of a Cast Away -- type television series at a dinner party in 2003. Thom Sherman later pitched the idea for Cast Away -- The Series, but never developed the idea. The concept was later developed and pitched with the title Nowhere, which later turned into the ABC show Lost.
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who sings the song i would walk 500 miles | I 'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) - wikipedia
"I 'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) '' is a song written and performed by Scottish duo The Proclaimers, and first released as the lead single from their 1988 album Sunshine on Leith. The song reached number 11 in the UK Singles Chart on its initial release, and it has since become their most popular song worldwide, initially becoming a number 1 hit in Iceland, before reaching number 1 in both Australia and New Zealand in early 1989.
In 1993, following its appearance in the American film Benny & Joon, the song was released in North America and many other countries around the world, it reached the top five on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 charts. In 2007, the Proclaimers re-recorded the song with English comedians Peter Kay and Matt Lucas for the UK 's Comic Relief charity telethon, scoring a number one hit in the UK, outperforming their original UK singles performance.
"I 'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) '' has become a live staple at the Proclaimers ' concerts. The duo played it at Edinburgh 50,000 -- The Final Push at Murrayfield Stadium on 6 July 2005, the final concert of Live 8, to symbolise the conclusion of "The Long Walk to Justice ''.
The song was mainly written by Craig Reid in mid-1987 while waiting to travel to a Proclaimers concert in Aberdeen. Reid recalled, "I can remember sitting at the piano and the chords just came to me. I reckon I wrote the whole thing in 45 minutes. I knew that it was a good song, maybe even a single, but I had no idea how popular it would become. '' Reid has said that the band 's earnings from the song are about five times the rest of their catalogue combined.
All tracks written and composed by Charlie and Craig Reid, except where noted.
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In 2007, the Proclaimers re-recorded the song with Peter Kay and Matt Lucas as their characters Brian Potter from Phoenix Nights and Andy Pipkin from Little Britain respectively. There is a slight change in the title of the song, with the parentheses placed around "I 'm Gonna Be '' rather than "500 Miles ''. The lyrics also include a change, with the words "roll 500 miles '' replacing "walk 500 miles '', because the characters Brian Potter and Andy Pipkin are both in wheelchairs. "(I 'm Gonna Be) 500 Miles '' was released as a charity single for Comic Relief immediately following its performance on the Comic Relief 2007: The Big One television show on BBC1 on 16 March 2007. It reached number 3 on the official UK Singles Chart on download sales alone, and one week later reached number 1, where it remained for three weeks. It sold 126,000 copies in its first week, making it the biggest selling number one of the year up to that point. Its sales were double that of the official Comic Relief single by Girls Aloud vs. Sugababes, and their cover of Aerosmith 's "Walk This Way ''. The song ended 2007 as the year 's 8th biggest - selling single in the UK. The song was popular in Ireland as well, and peaked at # 7 in Irish Singles Chart.
Kay also directed a video clip of the song featuring himself as Brian Potter, Lucas as Andy, David Walliams as Lou, The Proclaimers and an audience of celebrity guests, comprising Johnny Ball, David Beckham, David Bellamy, Dusty Bin, Tony Blackburn, Stan Boardman, Basil Brush, Bob the Builder, Bucks Fizz, Cannon and Ball, Bob Carolgees & Spit the Dog, Jasper Carrott, Keith Chegwin, Jimmy Cricket, Tess Daly, Bobby Davro (referred to in the lyrics), Carol Decker, Sally Dynevor, Lesley Garrett, Andy Gray, Clare Grogan, Paul Henry, Frazer Hines, Siobhan Redmond (credited as "Her off Holby City ''), Elton John, The Krankies, Burt Kwouk, Bonnie Langford, Eddie Large, Michael Le Vell, Limahl, Kenny Lynch, Des Lynam, Timmy Mallett, Jennie McAlpine, Bill Oddie, Paul O'Grady, Postman Pat, Wendi Peters, Robert Powell, Rod, Jane and Freddy, Rupert the Bear, Showaddywaddy, Status Quo, Frank Sidebottom, Sonia, Dennis Taylor, David Tennant, Willie Thorne, Kate Thornton, Dave Lee Travis, Martin Tyler, Roy Walker, Louis Walsh, Pete Waterman, Elton Welsby, June Whitfield, Gary Wilmot and Bob Wilson. Osama bin Laden (then still a fugitive terrorist), Lord Lucan (missing since 1974) and Shergar (a kidnapped race horse) are also falsely credited as appearing in the video.
The enhanced CD and DVD also featured the promotional video for the song and a photo gallery.
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Originally recorded and released in 1988, the song was first a success only in countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, later in 1993, it was included as one of the main themes of the 1993 American romantic comedy film Benny & Joon starring Johnny Depp and Mary Stuart Masterson; subsequently, due to its exposure during the film, "I 'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) '' reached the top 3 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart during the summer of that year.
The song is often played in the warm up before the Scotland football team matches when playing at home at Hampden Park in Glasgow, and again when the team scores. The same is true for the Scottish Rugby team at Murrayfield Stadium although since 2013 a mashup version of the song mixed with David Guetta 's "Titanium '' and Midnight Oil 's "Beds Are Burning '' has been used as well.
The song is also often played at Easter Road before Scottish Premiership side Hibernian 's home matches.
Scottish darts player Robert Thornton uses the song as his walk - on song.
In 2007, Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song, with minor lyric changes, for their video game Alvin and the Chipmunks.
At the end of the fourth series of the new Doctor Who, a video of the cast and crew of the show (as well as The Proclaimers themselves) singing and dancing along to the song was released, as a farewell to David Tennant, Russell T. Davies, and other key players in the show 's development; hailing the shift into the Steven Moffat era of the show.
The song was also very popular in Spain in the late 1990s thanks to TV advertisements. It was a reference song for the ads of Retevisión, one of the first private telecommunications companies in Spain.
The song is also featured on the How I Met Your Mother episode "Arrivederci, Fiero '', in which it is revealed that the character Marshall has had a cassette tape with the song on it stuck in his car for years. Commentary on the song 's unlimited replay value follows. It remained a running gag for the rest of the series.
This song is also featured on the Grey 's Anatomy episode in season 9 "Readiness is All '' when Matthew proposes to April in a surprise flash - mob to this song.
The song is featured in the movies Bachelorette, Identity Thief, Benny & Joon, Burke and Hare, Sunshine on Leith, and Peter Rabbit. It is also featured in the movie The Angels ' Share directed by Ken Loach, which won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 2012.
A cover of the song was recorded by Down by Law on their album Punkrockacademyfightsong.
The song is sung in the television series The Cafe by Ralf Little and cast to close out the final episode of season one, "Deal or No Deal ''.
The song is also sung in the 2014 Australian film 500 Miles by the lead actor Pete Valley to the lead actress Ebony Nave in a quite iconic scene that is set in a small country town pub.
In 2014, Imagine Dragons performed a live cover of the song at the T in the Park music festival in Scotland. A YouTube video of the performance has more than 3.8 million views as of June 2017.
In 2015, Budweiser 's Super Bowl ad features a cover version of this song by Sleeping at Last. In the same year it also laid the basis for song "Magna Carta 800 Years '', which was a tribute to Magna Carta in the rebooted version of Horrible Histories.
This song appears in a commercial for Lunchables as a promotion for their new product, "kabobbles ''.
The song appeared in the fourth episode of Hindsight.
The song appears in commercials for the 2015 Volkswagen Golf and 2017 Ford Edge.
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when did they stop making paper food stamps | Supplemental Nutrition Assistance program - wikipedia
The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides food - purchasing assistance for low - and no - income people living in the United States. It is a federal aid program, administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), though benefits are distributed by each U.S. state 's Division of Social Services or Children and Family Services.
SNAP benefits cost $70.9 billion in fiscal year 2016 and supplied roughly 44.2 million Americans (14 % of the population) with an average of $125.51 for each person per month in food assistance. Beneficiaries and costs increased sharply with the Great Recession, peaked in 2013 and have declined through 2016 as the economy recovered. It is the largest nutrition program of the fifteen administered by FNS and is a component of the federal social safety net for low - income Americans.
The amount of SNAP benefits received by a household depends on the household 's size, income, and expenses. For most of its history, the program used paper - denominated "stamps '' or coupons -- worth US $ 1 (brown), $5 (blue), and $10 (green) -- bound into booklets of various denominations, to be torn out individually and used in single - use exchange. Because of their 1: 1 value ratio with actual currency, the coupons were printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Their rectangular shape resembled a U.S. dollar bill (although about one - half the size), including intaglio printing on high - quality paper with watermarks. In the late 1990s, the Food Stamp Program was revamped, with some states phasing out actual stamps in favor of a specialized debit card system known as Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT), provided by private contractors. EBT has been implemented in all states since June 2004. Each month, SNAP food stamp benefits are directly deposited into the household 's EBT card account. Households may use EBT to pay for food at supermarkets, convenience stores, and other food retailers, including certain farmers ' markets.
The idea for the first FSP has been credited to various people, most notably U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and the program 's first administrator, Milo Perkins. Of the program, Perkins said, "We got a picture of a gorge, with farm surpluses on one cliff and under - nourished city folks with outstretched hands on the other. We set out to find a practical way to build a bridge across that chasm. '' The program operated by permitting people on relief to buy orange stamps equal to their normal food expenditures; for every US $1 worth of orange stamps purchased, fifty cents ' worth of blue stamps were received. Orange stamps could be used to buy any food; blue stamps could be used only to buy food determined by the Department to be surplus.
Over the course of nearly four years, the first FSP reached approximately 20 million people in nearly half of the counties in the U.S., at a total cost of $262 million. At its peak, the program assisted an estimated 4 million people. The first recipient was Mabel McFiggin of Rochester, New York; the first retailer to redeem the stamps was Joseph Mutolo; and the first retailer caught violating program rules was Nick Salzano in October 1939. The program ended when the conditions that brought the program into being (unmarketable food surpluses and widespread unemployment) ceased to exist.
The eighteen years between the end of the first FSP and the inception of the next were filled with studies, reports, and legislative proposals. Prominent U.S. Senators actively associated with attempts to enact a food stamp program during this period included George Aiken, Robert M. La Follette, Jr., Hubert Humphrey, Estes Kefauver, and Stuart Symington. From 1954 on, U.S. Representative Leonor Sullivan strove to pass food - stamp - program legislation.
On September 21, 1959, P.L. 86 - 341 authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to operate a food - stamp system through January 31, 1962. The Eisenhower Administration never used the authority. However, in fulfillment of a campaign promise made in West Virginia, President John F. Kennedy 's first Executive Order called for expanded food distribution and, on February 2, 1961, he announced that food stamp pilot programs would be initiated. The pilot programs would retain the requirement that the food stamps be purchased, but eliminated the concept of special stamps for surplus foods. A Department spokesman indicated the emphasis would be on increasing the consumption of perishables.
Of the program, U.S. Representative Leonor K. Sullivan of Missouri asserted, "... the Department of Agriculture seemed bent on outlining a possible food stamp plan of such scope and magnitude, involving some 25 million persons, as to make the whole idea seem ridiculous and tear food stamp plans to smithereens. ''
The Food Stamp Act of 1964 appropriated $75 million to 350,000 individuals in 40 counties and three cities. The measure drew overwhelming support from House Democrats, 90 percent from urban areas, 96 percent from the suburbs, and 87 percent from rural areas. Republican lawmakers opposed the initial measure: only 12 percent of urban Republicans, 11 percent from the suburbs, and 5 percent from rural areas voted affirmatively. President Lyndon B. Johnson hailed food stamps as "a realistic and responsible step toward the fuller and wiser use of an agricultural abundance ''.
Rooted in congressional logrolling, the act was part of a larger appropriation that raised price supports for cotton and wheat. Rural lawmakers supported the program so that their urban colleagues would not dismantle farm subsidies. Food stamps, along with Medicaid, Head Start, and the Job Corps were foremost among the growing anti-poverty programs.
President Johnson called for a permanent food - stamp program on January 31, 1964, as part of his "War on Poverty '' platform introduced at the State of the Union a few weeks earlier. Agriculture Secretary Orville Freeman submitted the legislation on April 17, 1964. The bill eventually passed by Congress was H.R. 10222, introduced by Congresswoman Sullivan. One of the members on the House Committee on Agriculture who voted against the FSP in Committee was then Representative Bob Dole.
As a Senator, Dole became a staunch supporter of the program, after he worked with George McGovern to produce a bipartisan solution to two of the main problems associated with food stamps: cumbersome purchase requirements and lax eligibility standards. Dole told Congress regarding the new provisions, "I am confident that this bill eliminates the greedy and feeds the needy. '' The law was intended to strengthen the agricultural economy and provide improved levels of nutrition among low - income households; however, the practical purpose was to bring the pilot FSP under congressional control and to enact the regulations into law.
The major provisions were:
The Agriculture Department estimated that participation in a national FSP would eventually reach 4 million, at a cost of $360 million annually, far below the actual numbers.
In April 1965, participation topped half a million. (Actual participation was 561,261 people.) Participation topped 1 million in March 1966, 2 million in October 1967, 3 million in February 1969, 4 million in February 1970, 5 million one month later in March 1970, 6 million two months later in May 1970, 10 million in February 1971, and 15 million in October 1974. Rapid increases in participation during this period were primarily due to geographic expansion.
The early 1970s were a period of growth in participation, concern about the cost of providing food stamp benefits, and questions about administration, primarily timely certification. During this time, the issue was framed that would dominate food stamp legislation ever after: how to balance program access with program accountability. Three major pieces of legislation shaped this period, leading up to massive reform to follow:
P.L. 91 - 671 (January 11, 1971) established uniform national standards of eligibility and work requirements; required that allotments be equivalent to the cost of a nutritionally adequate diet; limited households ' purchase requirements to 30 percent of their income; instituted an outreach requirement; authorized the Agriculture Department to pay 62.5 percent of specific administrative costs incurred by States; expanded the FSP to Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands of the United States; and provided $1.75 billion appropriations for Fiscal Year 1971.
Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (P.L. 93 - 86, August 10, 1973) required States to expand the program to every political jurisdiction before July 1, 1974; expanded the program to drug addicts and alcoholics in treatment and rehabilitation centers; established semi-annual allotment adjustments, bi-monthly issuance, and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) "cash - out '' (which gave the option to states to issue Food Stamp benefits to SSI recipients in the form of their estimated cash value consolidated within the SSI grant, in order to reduce administrative costs); introduced statutory complexity in the income definition (by including in - kind payments and providing an accompanying exception); and required the Department to establish temporary eligibility standards for disasters.
P.L. 93 - 347 (July 12, 1974) authorized the Department to pay 50 percent of all states ' costs for administering the program and established the requirement for efficient and effective administration by the States.
In accordance with P.L. 93 - 86, the FSP began operating nationwide on July 1, 1974. (The program was not fully implemented in Puerto Rico until November 1, 1974.) Participation for July 1974 was almost 14 million.
Once a person is a beneficiary of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Program he (or she) may be automatically eligible for Food Stamps depending on his (or her) state 's laws. How much money in food stamps they receive also varies by state. Supplemental Security Income was created in 1974.
Both the outgoing Republican Administration and the new Democratic Administration offered Congress proposed legislation to reform the FSP in 1977. The Republican bill stressed targeting benefits to the neediest, simplifying administration, and tightening controls on the program; the Democratic bill focused on increasing access to those most in need and simplifying and streamlining a complicated and cumbersome process that delayed benefit delivery as well as reducing errors, and curbing abuse. The chief force for the Democratic Administration was Robert Greenstein, Administrator of the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS).
In Congress, major players were Senators George McGovern, Jacob Javits, Humphrey, and Dole and Congressmen Foley and Richmond. Amid all the themes, the one that became the rallying cry for FSP reform was "EPR '' -- eliminate the purchase requirement -- because of the barrier to participation the purchase requirement represented. The bill that became the law (S. 275) did eliminate the purchase requirement. It also:
In addition to EPR, the Food Stamp Act of 1977 included several access provisions:
The integrity provisions of the new program included fraud disqualifications, enhanced Federal funding for States ' anti-fraud activities, and financial incentives for low error rates.
The House Report for the 1977 legislation points out that the changes in the Food Stamp Program are needed without reference to upcoming welfare reform since "the path to welfare reform is, indeed, rocky... ''
EPR was implemented January 1, 1979. Participation that month increased 1.5 million over the preceding month.
The large and expensive FSP proved to be a favorite subject of close scrutiny from both the Executive Branch and Congress in the early 1980s. Major legislation in 1981 and 1982 enacted cutbacks including:
Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT) began in Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1984.
Recognition of the severe domestic hunger problem in the latter half of the 1980s led to incremental expansions of the FSP in 1985 and 1987, such as elimination of sales tax on food stamp purchases, reinstitution of categorical eligibility, increased resource limit for most households ($2,000), eligibility for the homeless, and expanded nutrition education. The Hunger Prevention Act of 1988 and the Mickey Leland Memorial Domestic Hunger Relief Act in 1990 foretold the improvements that would be coming. The 1988 and 1990 legislation accomplished the following:
Throughout this era, significant players were principally various committee chairmen: Congressmen Leland, Hall, Foley, Leon Panetta, and, de la Garza and Senator Patrick Leahy.
By 1993, major changes in food stamp benefits had arrived. The final legislation provided for $2.8 billion in benefit increases over Fiscal Years 1984 - 1988. Leon Panetta, in his new role as OMB Director, played a major role as did Senator Leahy. Substantive changes included:
In December 1979, participation finally surpassed 20 million. In March 1994, participation hit a new high of 28 million.
The mid-1990s was a period of welfare reform. Prior to 1996, the rules for the cash welfare program, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), were waived for many states. With the enactment of the 1996 welfare reform act, called the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), AFDC, an entitlement program, was replaced that with a new block grant to states called Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF).
Although the Food Stamp Program was reauthorized in the 1996 Farm Bill, the 1996 welfare reform made several changes to the program, including:
As a result of all these changes, "participation rates plummeted '' in the late 1990s, according to Slate online magazine.
The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA) and the Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Act of 1998 (AREERA) made some changes to these provisions, most significantly:
The fiscal year 2001 agriculture appropriations bill included two significant changes. The legislation increased the excess shelter cap to $340 in fiscal year 2001 and then indexed the cap to changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Consumers each year beginning in fiscal year 2002. The legislation also allowed states to use the vehicle limit they use in a TANF assistance program, if it would be result in a lower attribution of resources for the household.
In the late 1990s, the Food Stamp Program was revamped, with some states phasing out actual stamps in favor of a specialized debit card system known as Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT), provided by private contractors. Many states merged the use of the EBT card for public welfare programs as well, such as cash assistance. The move was designed to save the government money by not printing the coupons, make benefits available immediately instead of requiring the recipient to wait for mailing or picking up the booklets in person, and reduce theft and diversion.
The 2008 farm bill renamed the Food Stamp Program as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (beginning October 2008) and replaced all references to "stamp '' or "coupon '' in federal law with "card '' or "EBT. ''
SNAP benefits temporarily increased with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), a federal stimulus package to help Americans affected by the Great Recession of 2007. Beginning in April 2009 and continuing through the expansion 's expiration on November 1, 2013, the ARRA appropriated $45.2 billion to increase monthly benefit levels to an average of $133. This amounted to a 13.6 percent funding increase for SNAP recipients.
This temporary expansion expired on November 1, 2013, resulting in a relative benefit decrease for SNAP households; on average, benefits decreased by 5 percent. According to a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities report, the maximum monthly benefit for a family of four dropped from $668 to $632, while the maximum monthly benefit for an individual dropped from $200 to $189.
In June 2014, Mother Jones reported that "Overall, 18 percent of all food benefits money is spent at Walmart, '' and that Walmart had submitted a statement to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stating,
Our business operations are subject to numerous risks, factors, and uncertainties, domestically and internationally, which are outside our control. These factors include... changes in the amount of payments made under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Plan and other public assistance plans, (and) changes in the eligibility requirements of public assistance plans.
Companies that have lobbied on behalf of SNAP include PepsiCo, Coca - Cola, and the grocery chain Kroger. Kraft Foods, which receives "One - sixth (of its) revenues... from food stamp purchases '' also opposes food stamp cuts.
Because SNAP is a mandatory, or entitlement, program, the federal government is required to fund the benefits of all eligible participants. There are income and resource requirements for SNAP, as well as specific requirements for immigrants, elderly persons and persons with disabilities.
For income, individuals and households may qualify for benefits if they earn a gross monthly income that is 130 % (or less) of the federal poverty level for a specific household size. For example: the SNAP - eligible gross monthly income is $1,245 or less for an individual. For a household of 4, the SNAP eligible gross monthly income is $2,552 or less. Gross monthly income is the amount an individual makes each month before any deductions, i.e. taxes, insurance, pensions, etc.
There is also a resource requirement for SNAP, although eligibility requirements vary slightly from state to state. Generally speaking, households may have up to $2,250 in a bank account or other countable sources. If at least one person is age 60 or older and / or has disabilities, households may have $3,500 in countable resources.
The lack of affordable housing in urban areas means that money that could have been spent on food is spent on housing expenses. Housing is generally considered affordable when it costs 30 % or less of total household income; rising housing costs have made this ideal difficult to attain.
This is especially true in New York City, where 28 % of rent stabilized tenants spend more than half their income on rent. Among lower income families the percentage is much higher. According to an estimate by the Community Service Society, 65 % of New York City families living below the federal poverty line are paying more than half of their income toward rent.
The current eligibility criteria attempt to address this, by including a deduction for "excess shelter costs ''. This applies only to households that spend more than half of their net income on rent. For the purpose of this calculation, a household 's net income is obtained by subtracting certain deductions from their gross (before deductions) income. If the household 's total expenditures on rent exceed 50 % of that net income, then the net income is further reduced by the amount of rent that exceeds 50 % of net income. For 2007, this deduction can be no more than $417, except in households that include an elderly or disabled person. Deductions include:
The adjusted net income, including the deduction for excess shelter costs, is used to determine whether a household is eligible for food stamps.
The 2002 Farm Bill restores SNAP eligibility to most legal immigrants that:
Certain non-citizens, such as those admitted for humanitarian reasons and those admitted for permanent residence, may also be eligible for SNAP. Eligible household members can get SNAP benefits even if there are other members of the household that are not eligible.
To apply for SNAP benefits, an applicant must first fill out a program application and return it to the state or local SNAP office. Each state has a different application, which is usually available online. There is more information about various state applications processes, including locations of SNAP offices in various state, displayed on an interactive Outreach Map found on the FNS website. Individuals who believe they may be eligible for SNAP benefits may use the Food and Nutrition Services ' SNAP Screening Tool, which can help gauge eligibility.
As per USDA rules, households can use SNAP benefits to purchase:
Additionally, restaurants operating in certain areas may be permitted to accept SNAP benefits from eligible candidates like elderly, homeless or disabled people in return for affordable meals.
However, the USDA clearly mentions that households can not use SNAP benefits to purchase the following:
Soft drinks, candy, cookies, snack crackers, and ice cream are classified as food items and are therefore eligible items. Seafood, steak, and bakery cakes are also food items and are therefore eligible items.
Energy drinks which have a nutrition facts label are eligible foods, but energy drinks which have a supplement facts label are classified by the FDA as supplements, and are therefore not eligible.
Live animals and birds may not be purchased; but live fish and shellfish are eligible foods. Pumpkins are eligible, but inedible gourds and solely ornamental pumpkins are not.
Gift baskets containing both food and non-food items "are not eligible for purchase with SNAP benefits if the value of the non-food items exceeds 50 percent of the purchase price. Items such as birthday and other special occasion cakes are eligible as long as the value of non-edible decorations does not exceed 50 percent of the price. ''
States are allowed under federal law to administer SNAP in different ways. As of April 2015, the USDA had published eleven periodic State Options Reports outlining variations in how states have administered the program. The USDA 's most recent State Options Report, published in April 2015, summarizes:
SNAP 's statutes, regulations, and waivers provide State agencies with various policy options. State agencies use this flexibility to adapt their programs to meet the needs of eligible, low ‐ income people in their States. Modernization and technology have provided States with new opportunities and options in administering the program. Certain options may facilitate program design goals, such as removing or reducing barriers to access for low - income families and individuals, or providing better support for those working or looking for work. This flexibility helps States better target benefits to those most in need, streamline program administration and field operations, and coordinate SNAP activities with those of other programs.
Some areas of differences among states include: when and how frequently SNAP recipients must report household circumstances; on whether the state agency acts on all reported changes or only some changes; whether the state uses a simplified method for determining the cost of doing business in cases where an applicant is self - employed; and whether legally obligated child support payments made to non-household members are counted as an income exclusion rather than a deduction.
State agencies also have an option to call their program SNAP; whether to continue to refer to their program under its former name, the Food Stamp Program; or whether to choose an alternate name. Among the 50 states plus the District of Columbia, 32 call their program SNAP; five continue to call the program the Food Stamp Program; and 16 have adopted their own name. For example, California calls its SNAP implementation "CalFresh '', while Arizona calls its program "Nutrition Assistance ''.
According to January 2015 figures reported by the Census Bureau and USDA and compiled by USA Today, the states and district with the most food stamp recipients per capita are:
According to June 2009 figures reported by the state agencies, the USDA, and Census Bureau, and compiled by the New York Times, the individual counties with the highest levels of SNAP usage were:
During the recession of 2008, SNAP participation hit an all - time high. Arguing in support for SNAP, the Food Research and Action Center argued that "putting more resources quickly into the hands of the people most likely to turn around and spend it can both boost the economy and cushion the hardships on vulnerable people who face a constant struggle against hunger. '' Researchers have found that every $1 that is spent from SNAP results in $1.73 of economic activity. In California, the cost - benefit ratio is even higher: for every $1 spent from SNAP between $3.67 to $8.34 is saved in health care costs. The Congressional Budget Office also rated an increase in SNAP benefits as one of the two most cost - effective of all spending and tax options it examined for boosting growth and jobs in a weak economy.
A summary statistical report indicated that an average of 44.2 million people used the program in FY 2016, down from 45.8 million in 2015 and below the 2013 peak of 47.6 million. SNAP is able to support 75 % of those eligible for the program. Nearly 72 percent of SNAP participants are in families with children; more than one - quarter of participants are in households with seniors or people with disabilities.
As of 2013, more than 15 % of the U.S. population receive food assistance, and more than 20 % in Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oregon and Tennessee. Washington D.C. was the highest share of the population to receive food assistance at over 23 %.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture (based on a study of data gathered in Fiscal Year 2010), statistics for the food stamp program are as follows:
Amounts paid to program beneficiaries rose from $28.6 billion in 2005 to $76.1 billion in 2013, falling back to $66.6 billion by 2016. This increase was due to the high unemployment rate (leading to higher SNAP participation) and the increased benefit per person with the passing of ARRA. SNAP average monthly benefits increased from $96.18 per person to $133.08 per person. Other program costs, which include the Federal share of State administrative expenses, Nutrition Education, and Employment and Training, amounted to roughly $3.7 million in 2013. There were cuts into the program 's budget introduced in 2014 that were estimated to save $8.6 billion over 10 years. Some of the states are looking for measures within the states to balance the cuts, so they would not affect the recipients of the federal aid program.
While SNAP participants and other low - income nonparticipants spend similar amounts on food spending, SNAP participants tend to still experience greater food insecurity than nonparticipants. This is believed to be a reflection of the welfare of individuals who take the time to apply for SNAP benefits rather than the shortcomings of SNAP. Households facing the greatest hardships are the most likely to bear the burden of applying for program benefits. Therefore, SNAP participants tend to be, on average, less food secure than other low - income nonparticipants.
Self - selection by more food - needy households into SNAP makes it difficult to observe positive effects on food security from survey data. Statistical models that control for this endogeneity suggest that SNAP receipt reduces the likelihood of being food insecure and very food insecure by roughly 30 percent and 20 percent, respectively.
Because SNAP is a means - tested entitlement program, participation rates are closely related to the number of individuals living in poverty in a given period. In periods of economic recession, SNAP enrollment tends to increase and in periods of prosperity, SNAP participation tends to be lower. Unemployment is therefore also related to SNAP participation. However, ERS data shows that poverty and SNAP participation levels have continued to rise following the 2008 recession, even though unemployment rates have leveled off. Poverty levels are the strongest correlates for program participation.
A 2016 study found that SNAP benefits lead to greater expenditures on housing, transportation, and education by beneficiaries.
The purpose of the Food Stamp Program as laid out in its implementation was to assist low - income households in obtaining adequate and nutritious diets. According to Peter H. Rossi, a sociologist whose work involved evaluation of social programs, "the program rests on the assumption that households with restricted incomes may skimp on food purchases and live on diets that are inadequate in quantity and quality, or, alternatively skimp on other necessities to maintain an adequate diet ''. Food stamps, as many like Rossi, MacDonald, and Eisinger contend, are used not only for increasing food but also as income maintenance. Income maintenance is money that households are able to spend on other things because they no longer have to spend it on food. According to various studies shown by Rossi, because of income maintenance only about $0.17 -- $0.47 more is being spent on food for every food stamp dollar than was spent prior to individuals receiving food stamps.
Studies are inconclusive as to whether SNAP has a direct effect on the nutritional quality of food choices made by participants. Unlike other federal programs that provide food subsidies, i.e. the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC), SNAP does not have nutritional standards for purchases. Critics of the program suggest that this lack of structure represents a missed opportunity for public health advancement and cost containment. In April 2013, the USDA research body, the Economic Research Service (ERS), published a study that examined diet quality in SNAP participants compared to low - income nonparticipants. The study revealed a difference in diet quality between SNAP participants and low - income nonparticipants, finding that SNAP participants score slightly lower on the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) than nonparticipants. The study also concluded that SNAP increases the likelihood that participants will consume whole fruit by 23 percentage points. However, the analysis also suggests that SNAP participation decreases participants ' intake of dark green and orange vegetables by a modest amount.
A 2016 study found no evidence that SNAP increased expenditures on tobacco by beneficiaries.
The USDA 's Economic Research Service explains: "SNAP is a counter-cyclical government assistance program -- it provides assistance to more low - income households during an economic downturn or recession and to fewer households during an economic expansion. The rise in SNAP participation during an economic downturn results in greater SNAP expenditures which, in turn, stimulate the economy. ''
In 2011, Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack gave a statement regarding SNAP benefits: "Every dollar of SNAP benefits generates $1.84 in the economy in terms of economic activity. '' Vilsack 's estimate was based on a 2002 USDA study which found that "ultimately, the additional $5 billion of FSP (Food Stamp Program) expenditures triggered an increase in total economic activity (production, sales, and value of shipments) of $9.2 billion and an increase in jobs of 82,100, '' or $1.84 stimulus for every dollar spent.
A January 2008 report by Moody 's Analytics chief economist Mark Zandi analyzed measures of the Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 and found that in a weak economy, every $1 in SNAP expenditures generates $1.73 in real GDP increase, making it the most effective stimulus among all the provisions of the act, including both tax cuts and spending increases.
A 2010 report by Kenneth Hanson published by the USDA 's Economic Research Service estimated that a $1 billion increase in SNAP expenditures increases economic activity (GDP) by $1.79 billion (i.e., the GDP multiplier is 1.79). The same report also estimated that the "preferred jobs impact... are the 8,900 full - time equivalent jobs plus self - employed or the 9,800 full - time and part - time jobs plus self - employed from $1 billion of SNAP benefits. ''
In March 2013, the Washington Post reported that one - third of Woonsocket, Rhode Island 's population used food stamps, putting local merchants on a "boom or bust '' cycle each month when EBT payments were deposited. The Post stated that "a federal program that began as a last resort for a few million hungry people has grown into an economic lifeline for entire towns. '' And this growth "has been especially swift in once - prosperous places hit by the housing bust ''.
In addition to local town merchants, national retailers are starting to take in an increasing large percentage of SNAP benefits. For example, "Walmart estimates it takes in about 18 % of total U.S. outlays on food stamps. ''
In March 2012, the USDA published its fifth report in a series of periodic analyses to estimate the extent of trafficking in SNAP; that is, selling or otherwise converting SNAP benefits for cash payouts. Although trafficking does not directly increase costs to the Federal Government, it diverts benefits from their intended purpose of helping low - income families access a nutritious diet. Also trafficking may indirectly increase costs by encouraging participants to stay in the program longer than intended, or by incentivizing new participants seeking to profit from trafficking. The FNS aggressively acts to control trafficking by using SNAP purchase data to identify suspicious transaction patterns, conducting undercover investigations, and collaborating with other investigative agencies.
Trafficking diverted an estimated one cent of each SNAP dollar ($330 million annually) from SNAP benefits between 2006 and 2008. Trafficking has declined over time from nearly 4 percent in the 1990s. About 8.2 percent of all stores trafficked from 2006 to 2008 compared to the 10.5 percent of SNAP authorized stores involved in trafficking in 2011. A variety of store characteristics and settings were related to the level of trafficking. Although large stores accounted for 87.3 percent of all SNAP redemptions, they only accounted for about 5.4 percent of trafficking redemptions. Trafficking was much less likely to occur among publicly owned than privately owned stores and was much less likely among stores in areas with less poverty rather than more. The total annual value of trafficked benefits increased at about the same rate as overall program growth. The current estimate of total SNAP dollars trafficked is higher than observed in the previous 2002 -- 2005 period. This increase is consistent, however, with the almost 37 percent growths in average annual SNAP benefits from the 2002 -- 2005 study periods to the most recent one. The methodology used to generate these estimates has known limitations. However, given variable data and resources, it is the most practical approach available to FNS. Further improvements to SNAP trafficking estimates would require new resources to assess the prevalence of trafficking among a random sample of stores.
The USDA report released in August 2013 says the dollar value of trafficking increased to 1.3 percent, up from 1 percent in the USDA 's 2006 -- 2008 survey, and "About 18 percent of those stores classified as convenience stores or small groceries were estimated to have trafficked. For larger stores (supermarkets and large groceries), only 0.32 percent were estimated to have trafficked. In terms of redemptions, about 17 percent of small groceries redemptions and 14 percent of convenience store redemptions were estimated to have been trafficked. This compares with a rate of 0.2 percent for large stores. ''
The USDA, in December 2011, announced new policies to attempt to curb waste, fraud, and abuse. These changes will include stiffer penalties for retailers who are caught participating in illegal or fraudulent activities. "The department is proposing increasing penalties for retailers and providing states with access to large federal databases they would be required to use to verify information from applicants. SNAP benefit fraud, generally in the form of store employees buying EBT cards from recipients is widespread in urban areas, with one in seven corner stores engaging in such behavior, according to a recent government estimate. There are in excess of 200,000 stores, and we have 100 agents spread across the country. Some do undercover work, but the principal way we track fraud is through analyzing electronic transactions '' for suspicious patterns, USDA Under Secretary Kevin Concannon told The Washington Times. Also, states will be given additional guidance that will help develop a tighter policy for those seeking to effectively investigate fraud and clarifying the definition of trafficking.
According to the Government Accountability Office, at a 2009 count, there was a payment error rate of 4.36 % of SNAP benefits down from 9.86 % in 1999. A 2003 analysis found that two - thirds of all improper payments were the fault of the caseworker, not the participant. There are also instances of fraud involving exchange of SNAP benefits for cash and / or for items not eligible for purchase with EBT cards. In 2011, the Michigan program raised eligibility requirements for full - time college students, to save taxpayer money and to end student use of monthly SNAP benefits.
In Maine, incidents of recycling fraud have occurred in the past where individuals once committed fraud by using their EBT cards to buy canned or bottled beverages (requiring a deposit to be paid at the point of purchase for each beverage container), dump the contents out so the empty beverage container could be returned for deposit redemption, and thereby, allowed these individuals to eventually purchase non-EBT authorized products with cash from the beverage container deposits.
The State of Utah developed a system called "eFind '' to monitor, evaluate and cross-examine qualifying and reporting data of recipients assets. Utah 's eFind system is a "back end '', web - based system that gathers, filters, and organizes information from various federal, state, and local databases. The data in eFind is used to help state eligibility workers determine applicants ' eligibility for public assistance programs, including Medicaid, CHIP, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and child care assistance. When information is changed in one database, the reported changes become available to other departments utilizing the system. This system was developed with federal funds and it is available to other states free of charge.
The USDA only reports direct fraud and trafficking in benefits, which was officially estimated at $858 million in 2012. The Cato Institute reports that there was another $2.2 billion in erroneous payouts in 2009. Cato also reported that the erroneous payout rate dropped significantly from 5.6 percent in 2007 to 3.8 percent in 2011.
The 2008 Farm Bill authorized $20 million to be spent on pilot projects to determine whether incentives provided to SNAP recipients at the point - of - sale would increase the purchase of fruits, vegetables, or other healthful foods. Fifteen states expressed interest in having the pilot program and, ultimately, five states submitted applications to be considered for HIP. Hampden County, Massachusetts was selected as the Healthy Incentives Pilot (HIP) site. HIP is designed to take place from August 2010 to April 2013 with the actual operation phase of the pilot program scheduled to last 15 months, from November 2011 to January 2013.
HIP offers select SNAP recipients a 30 % subsidy on produce, which is credited to the participant 's EBT card, for 15 months. 7,500 households will participate HIP and an equal number will not; the differences between the two groups will be analyzed to see the effects of the program. Produce, under the HIP, is defined as fresh, frozen, canned, or dried fruits and vegetables that do not have any added sugar, salt, fat, or oil.
The Massachusetts Department of Transitional Assistance (DTA) is the state agency responsible for SNAP. DTA has recruited retailers to take part in HIP and sell more produce, planned for the EBT system change with the state EBT vendor, and hired six new staff members dedicated to HIP. DTA has agreed to provide FNS with monthly reports, data collection and evaluation.
Periodically, proposals have been raised to restrict SNAP benefits from being used to purchase various categories or types of food which have been criticized as "junk food '' or "luxury items ''. However, Congress and the Department of Agriculture have repeatedly rejected such proposals on both administrative burden and personal freedom grounds. The Food and Nutrition Service noted in 2007 that no federal standards exist to determine which foods should be considered "healthy '' or not, that "vegetables, fruits, grain products, meat and meat alternatives account for nearly three - quarters of the money value of food used by food stamp households '' and that "food stamp recipients are no more likely to consume soft drinks than are higher - income individuals, and are less likely to consume sweets and salty snacks. '' Thomas Farley and Russell Sykes argued that the USDA should reconsider the possibility of restricting "junk food '' purchases with SNAP in order to encourage healthy eating, along with incentivizing the purchase of healthy items through a credit or rebate program that makes foods such as fresh vegetables and meats cheaper. They also noted that many urban food stores do a poor job of stocking healthy foods and instead favor high - profit processed items.
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who invaded greece and settled on the peloponnesus peninsula | Peloponnese - wikipedia
The Peloponnese (/ ˈpɛləpəˌniːz /) or Peloponnesus (/ ˌpɛləpəˈniːsəs /; Greek: Πελοπόννησος, Pelopónnēsos) is a peninsula and geographic region in southern Greece. It is separated from the central part of the country by the Isthmus and Gulf of Corinth. During the late Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, the peninsula was known as the Morea (Greek: Μωρέας), a name still in colloquial use in its demotic form (Μωριάς).
The peninsula is divided among three administrative regions: most belongs to the Peloponnese region, with smaller parts belonging to the West Greece and Attica regions.
In 2016, Lonely Planet voted the Peloponnese the top spot of their Best in Europe list.
The Peloponnese is a peninsula that covers an area of some 21,549.6 square kilometres (8,320.3 sq mi) and constitutes the southernmost part of mainland Greece. While technically it may be considered an island since the construction of the Corinth Canal in 1893, like other peninsulas that have been separated from their mainland by man - made bodies of waters, it is rarely, if ever, referred to as an "island ''. It has two land connections with the rest of Greece, a natural one at the Isthmus of Corinth, and an artificial one by the Rio -- Antirrio bridge (completed 2004).
The peninsula has a mountainous interior and deeply indented coasts. The Peloponnese possesses four south - pointing peninsulas, the Messenian, the Mani, the Cape Malea (also known as Epidaurus Limera), and the Argolid in the far northeast of the Peloponnese. Mount Taygetus in the south is the highest mountain in the Peloponnese, at 2,407 metres (7,897 ft). Οther important mountains include Cyllene (2,376 metres (7,795 ft)) in the northeast, Aroania in the north (2,355 metres (7,726 ft)), Erymanthos (2,224 metres (7,297 ft)) and Panachaikon in the northwest (1,926 metres (6,319 ft)), Mainalon in the center (1,981 metres (6,499 ft)), and Parnon (1,935 metres (6,348 ft)) in the southeast. The entire peninsula is earthquake prone and has been the site of many earthquakes in the past.
The longest river is the Alfeios in the west (110 km), followed by the Evrotas in the south (82 km), and also the Pineios, also in the west (70 km). Extensive lowlands are found only in the west, with the exception of the Evrotas valley in the south and in the Argolid in the northeast. The Peloponnese is home to numerous spectacular beaches, which are a major tourist draw.
Two groups of islands lie off the Peloponnesian coast: the Argo - Saronic Islands to the east, and the Ionian to the west. The island of Kythira, off the Epidaurus Limera peninsula to the south of the Peloponnese, is considered to be part of the Ionian Islands. The island of Elafonisos used to be part of the peninsula but was separated following the major quake of 365 AD.
Since antiquity, and continuing to the present day, the Peloponnese has been divided into seven major regions: Achaea (north), Corinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), Arcadia (center), Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), and Elis (west). Each of these regions is headed by a city. The largest city is Patras (pop. 170,000) in Achaia, followed by Kalamata (pop. 55,000) in Messinia.
The peninsula has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Its modern name derives from ancient Greek mythology, specifically the legend of the hero Pelops, who was said to have conquered the entire region. The name Peloponnesos means "Island of Pelops ''.
The Mycenaean civilization, mainland Greece 's (and Europe 's) first major civilization, dominated the Peloponnese in the Bronze Age from its stronghold at Mycenae in the north - east of the peninsula. The Mycenean civilization collapsed suddenly at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological research has found that many of its cities and palaces show signs of destruction. The subsequent period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, is marked by an absence of written records.
In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games were held at Olympia, in the western Peloponnese and this date is sometimes used to denote the beginning of the classical period of Greek antiquity. During classical antiquity, the Peloponnese was at the heart of the affairs of ancient Greece, possessed some of its most powerful city - states, and was the location of some of its bloodiest battles.
The major cities of Sparta, Corinth, Argos and Megalopolis were all located on the Peloponnese, and it was the homeland of the Peloponnesian League. Soldiers from the peninsula fought in the Persian Wars, and it was also the scene of the Peloponnesian War of 431 -- 404 BC. The entire Peloponnese with the notable exception of Sparta joined Alexander 's expedition against the Persian Empire.
Along with the rest of Greece, the Peloponnese fell to the expanding Roman Republic in 146 BC, when the Romans razed the city of Corinth and massacred its inhabitants. The Romans created the province of Achaea comprising the Peloponnese and central Greece. During the Roman period, the peninsula remained prosperous but became a provincial backwater, relatively cut off from the affairs of the wider Roman world.
After the partition of the Empire in 395, the Peloponnese became a part of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The devastation of Alaric 's raid in 396 -- 397 led to the construction of the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth. Through most of late antiquity, the peninsula retained its urbanized character: in the 6th century, Hierocles counted 26 cities in his Synecdemus. By the latter part of that century, however, building activity seems to have stopped virtually everywhere except Constantinople, Thessalonica, Corinth and Athens. This has traditionally been attributed to calamities such as plague, earthquakes and Slavic invasions. However, more recent analysis suggests that urban decline was closely linked with the collapse of long - distance and regional commercial networks that underpinned and supported late antique urbanism in Greece, as well as with the generalized withdrawal of imperial troops and administration from the Balkans.
The scale of the Slavic incursions and settlement in the 7th and 8th centuries remains a matter of dispute, although it is nowadays considered much smaller than previously thought. The Slavs did occupy most of the peninsula, as evidenced by the abundance of Slavic toponyms, but these toponyms accumulated over centuries rather than as a result of an initial "flood '' of Slavic invasions; and many appeared to have been mediated by speakers of Greek, or in mixed Slavic - Greek compounds.
Fewer Slavic toponyms appear in the eastern coast, which remained in Byzantine hands and was included in the thema of Hellas, established by Justinian II c. 690. While traditional historiography has dated the arrival of Slavs to southern Greece to the late 6th century, according to Florin Curta there is no evidence for a Slavic presence in the Peloponnese until after c. 700 AD, when Slavs may have been allowed to settle in specific areas that had been depopulated.
Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from intermittent uprisings. There was also a continuity of the Peloponnesian Greek population. This is especially true in Mani and Tsakonia, where Slavic incursions were minimal, or non-existent. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks, who remained in the towns, while Greek villages continued to exist in the interior, probably governing themselves, possibly paying tribute to the Slavs. The first attempt by the Byzantine imperial government to re-assert its control over the independent Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese occurred in 783, with the logothete Staurakios ' overland campaign from Constantinople into Greece and the Peloponnese, which according to Theophanes the Confessor made many prisoners and forced the Slavs to pay tribute.
From the mid-9th century, following a Slavic revolt and attack on Patras, a determined Hellenization process was carried out. According to the Chronicle of Monemvasia, in 805 the Byzantine governor of Corinth went to war with the Slavs, exterminated them, and allowed the original inhabitants to claim their own lands. They regained control of the city of Patras and the region was re-settled with Greeks. Many Slavs were transported to Asia Minor, and many Asian, Sicilian and Calabrian Greeks were resettled in the Peloponnese. By the turn of the 9th century, the entire Peloponnese was formed into the new thema of Peloponnesos, with its capital at Corinth.
The imposition of Byzantine rule over the Slavic enclaves may have largely been a process of Christianization and accommodating Slavic chieftains into the Imperial fold, as literary, epigraphic and sigillographic evidence testify to Slavic archontes participating in Imperial affairs. By the end of the 9th century, the Peloponnese was culturally and administratively Greek again, with the exception of a few small Slavic tribes in the mountains such as the Melingoi and Ezeritai. Although they were to remain relatively autonomous until Ottoman times, such tribes were the exception rather than the rule. Even the Melingoi and Ezeritai, however, could speak Greek and appear to have been Christian.
The success of the Hellenization campaign also shows that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century. A 2017 human genetics study showed that the Peloponnesians have little admixture with populations of the Slavic homeland and are much closer to Sicilians and southern Italians.
Apart from the troubled relations with the Slavs, the coastal regions of the Peloponnese suffered greatly from repeated Arab raids following the Arab capture of Crete in the 820s and the establishment of a corsair emirate there. After the island was recovered by Byzantium in 961 however, the region entered a period of renewed prosperity, where agriculture, commerce and urban industry flourished.
In 1205, following the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the forces of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders under William of Champlitte and Geoffrey of Villehardouin marched south through mainland Greece and conquered the Peloponnese against sporadic local Greek resistance. The Franks then founded the Principality of Achaea, nominally a vassal of the Latin Empire, while the Venetians occupied a number of strategically important ports around the coast such as Navarino and Coron, which they retained into the 15th century. The Franks popularized the name Morea for the peninsula, which first appears as the name of a small bishopric in Elis during the 10th century. Its etymology is disputed, but it is most commonly held to be derived from the mulberry tree (morea), whose leaves are similar in shape to the peninsula.
Frankish supremacy in the peninsula however received a critical blow after the Battle of Pelagonia, when William II of Villehardouin was forced to cede the newly constructed fortress and palace at Mystras near ancient Sparta to a resurgent Byzantium. This Greek province (and later a semi-autonomous Despotate) staged a gradual reconquest, eventually conquering the Frankish principality by 1430. The same period was also marked by the migration and settlement of the Arvanites to Central Greece and the Peloponnese.
The Ottoman Turks began raiding the Peloponnese from c. 1358, but their raids intensified only after 1387, when the energetic Evrenos Bey took control. Exploiting the quarrels between Byzantines and Franks, he plundered across the peninsula and forced both the Byzantine despots and the remaining Frankish rulers to acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty and pay tribute. This situation lasted until the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, after which Ottoman power was for a time checked.
Ottoman incursions into the Morea resumed under Turahan Bey after 1423. Despite the reconstruction of the Hexamilion wall at the Isthmus of Corinth, the Ottomans under Murad II breached it in 1446, forcing the Despots of the Morea to re-acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty, and again under Turahan in 1452 and 1456. Following the occupation of the Duchy of Athens in 1456, the Ottomans occupied a third of the Peloponnese in 1458, and Sultan Mehmed II extinguished the remnants of the Despotate in 1460. The last Byzantine stronghold, Salmeniko Castle, under its commander Graitzas Palaiologos, held out until July 1461. Only the Venetian fortresses of Modon, Coron, Navarino, Monemvasia, Argos and Nauplion escaped Ottoman control.
The Venetian fortresses were conquered in a series of Ottoman -- Venetian Wars: the first war, lasting from 1463 to 1479, saw much fighting in the Peloponnese, resulting in the loss of Argos, while Modon and Coron fell in 1500 during the second war. Coron and Patras were captured in a crusading expedition in 1532, led by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria, but this provoked another war in which the last Venetian possessions on the Greek mainland were lost.
Following the Ottoman conquest, the peninsula was made into a province (sanjak), with 109 ziamets and 342 timars. During the first period of Ottoman rule (1460 -- 1687), the capital was first in Corinth (Turk. Gördes), later in Leontari (Londari), Mystras (Misistire) and finally in Nauplion (Tr. Anaboli). Sometime in the mid-17th century, the Morea became the centre of a separate eyalet, with Patras (Ballibadra) as its capital. Until the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1570, the Christian population (counted at some 42,000 families c. 1550) managed to retain some privileges and Islamization was slow, mostly among the Albanians or the estate owners who were integrated into the Ottoman feudal system.
Although they quickly came to control most of the fertile lands, Muslims remained a distinct minority. Christian communities retained a large measure of self - government, but the entire Ottoman period was marked by a flight of the Christian population from the plains to the mountains. This occasioned the rise of the klepht s, armed brigands and rebels, in the mountains, as well as the corresponding institution of the government - funded armatoloi to check the klephts ' activities.
With the outbreak of the "Great Turkish War '' in 1683, the Venetians under Francesco Morosini occupied the entire peninsula by 1687, and received recognition by the Ottomans in the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). The Venetians established their province as the "Kingdom of the Morea '' (It. Regno di Morea), but their rule proved unpopular, and when the Ottomans invaded the peninsula in 1715, most local Greeks welcomed them. The Ottoman reconquest was easy and swift, and was recognized by Venice in the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.
The Peloponnese now became the core of the Morea Eyalet, headed by the Mora valesi, who until 1780 was a pasha of the first rank (with three horsetails) and held the title of vizier. After 1780 and until the Greek War of Independence, the province was headed by a muhassil. The pasha of the Morea was aided by a number of subordinate officials, including a Christian translator (dragoman), who was the senior Christian official of the province. As during the first Ottoman period, the Morea was divided into 22 districts or beyliks. The capital was first at Nauplion, but after 1786 at Tripolitza (Tr. Trabliçe).
The Moreot Christians rose against the Ottomans with Russian aid during the so - called "Orlov Revolt '' of 1770, but it was swiftly and brutally suppressed. As a result, the total population decreased during this time, while the Muslim element in it increased. Nevertheless, through the privileges granted with the Treaty of Kuchuk - Kainarji, especially the right for the Christians to trade under the Russian flag, led to a considerable economic flowering of the local Greeks, which, coupled with the increased cultural contacts with Western Europe (Modern Greek Enlightenment) and the inspiring ideals of the French Revolution, laid the groundwork for the Greek War of Independence.
The Peloponnesians played a major role in the Greek War of Independence -- the war actually began in the Peloponnese, when rebels took control of Kalamata on March 23, 1821. The Greek insurgents made rapid progress and the entire peninsula was under Greek control within a few months, with the exception of a few coastal forts and the main Turkish garrison at Tripolitsa. The fighting was fierce and marked by atrocities on both sides; eventually the entire Muslim population was either massacred or fled to the forts. The capture of Tripolitsa in September 1821 marked a turning point. Rivalries among the insurgents eventually erupted into civil war in 1824, which enabled the Ottoman Egyptian vassal Ibrahim Pasha to land in the peninsula in 1825.
The Peloponnese peninsula was the scene of fierce fighting and extensive devastation following the arrival of Ibrahim 's Egyptian troops. Partly as a result of the atrocities committed by Ibrahim, the UK, France and the Russian Empire decided to intervene in favor of the Greeks. The decisive naval Battle of Navarino was fought in 1827 off Pylos on the west coast of the Peloponnese, where a combined British, French and Russian fleet decisively defeated the Turko - Egyptian fleet. Subsequently a French expeditionary corps cleared the last Turko - Egyptian forces from the peninsula in 1828. The city of Nafplion, on the east coast of the peninsula, became the first capital of the independent Greek state.
During the 19th and early 20th century, the region became relatively poor and economically isolated. A significant part of its population emigrated to the larger cities of Greece, especially Athens, and other countries such as the United States and Australia. It was badly affected by the Second World War and Greek Civil War, experiencing some of the worst atrocities committed in Greece during those conflicts. Living standards improved dramatically throughout Greece after the country 's accession to the European Union in 1981.
In late August 2007, large parts of Peloponnese suffered from wildfires, which caused severe damage in villages and forests and the death of 77 people. The impact of the fires to the environment and economy of the region are still unknown. It is thought to be the largest environmental disaster in modern Greek history.
The principal modern cities of the Peloponnese are (2011 census):
The Peloponnese possesses many important archaeological sites dating from the Bronze Age through to the Middle Ages. Among the most notable are:
Specialities of the region:
Coordinates: 37 ° 20 ′ 59 '' N 22 ° 21 ′ 08 '' E / 37.34972 ° N 22.35222 ° E / 37.34972; 22.35222
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who is the girl that does the at&t commercials | Milana Vayntrub - wikipedia
Milana Aleksandrovna Vayntrub (/ ˈvaɪntruːb /; Uzbek Cyrillic: Милана Александровна Вайнтруб; born March 8, 1987) is an Uzbekistan - born American actress and comedian, who is known for playing the character Lily Adams in a series of AT&T television commercials.
Vayntrub has appeared in many short films and in the web series Let 's Talk About Something More Interesting, co-starring Stevie Nelson. She starred in the Yahoo! Screen series Other Space.
Vayntrub was born in Tashkent, Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, and is Jewish. When she was three years old, she and her parents emigrated to the U.S. as refugees, settling in West Hollywood.
She started acting in Mattel Barbie commercials at the age of five, due in part to her family 's financial problems.
Vayntrub briefly attended Beverly Hills High School, but dropped out after her sophomore year, got a GED, and went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts in Communications from University of California, San Diego. She received training with the improvisational comedy group Upright Citizens Brigade.
Vayntrub and Stevie Nelson teamed up to start the YouTube comedy channel Live Prude Girls where they produced a number of shorts and the hit web series Let 's Talk About Something More Interesting. Live Prude Girls went on to be featured on NewMediaRockstars ' Top 100 Channels countdown, ranked at No. 93.
Vayntrub has had small roles in film and television, including Life Happens. She has also starred in several CollegeHumor videos. In 2011, Vayntrub was the lead in the music video for "Teenage Tide '' by Letting Up Despite Great Faults. She appeared as Tara in two episodes of the sitcom Silicon Valley.
Since November 2013, she has portrayed a saleswoman named "Lily Adams '' in a series of TV commercials for AT&T. She also portrayed Tina Shukshin on the Yahoo! Screen original series Other Space.
In January 2016, after visiting Greece and meeting with refugee families fleeing the Syrian Civil War, Vayntrub co-founded a website and social media movement called # CantDoNothing to spotlight the European migrant crisis. She appeared in the television series This Is Us as Sloane Sandburg, author and co-star of the play in which Kevin Pearson is starring in New York.
In July 2017, Vayntrub was cast in the lead role of Marvel superheroine Doreen Green / Squirrel Girl in Marvel 's upcoming television series New Warriors.
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which countries have adopted the euro as their currency | Euro - wikipedia
The single currency
The euro (sign: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of the European Union. Currently 19 of 28 member states use the euro (eurozone). It is the second most traded currency in the foreign exchange market after the United States dollar. The euro is subdivided into 100 cents.
The currency is also officially used by the institutions of the European Union and four other European countries, as well as unilaterally by two others, and is consequently used daily by some 337 million Europeans as of 2015. Outside Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally, 210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro.
The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. As of January 2017, with more than € 1.1 trillion in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world, having surpassed the U.S. dollar.
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1: 1 (US $1.1743). Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day - to - day operating currency of its original members, and by May 2002 had completely replaced the former currencies. While the euro dropped subsequently to US $0.83 within two years (26 October 2000), it has traded above the U.S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US $1.60 on 18 July 2008. Since late 2009, the euro has been immersed in the European sovereign - debt crisis which has led to the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility as well as other reforms aimed at stabilising the currency. In July 2012, the euro fell below US $1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spain 's troubled banking sector. As of April 2018, the euro -- dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US $1.23.
The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt - based European Central Bank (ECB) and the Eurosystem (composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries). As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.
The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all states have done so. The United Kingdom and Denmark negotiated exemptions, while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a 2003 referendum, and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course.
Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them. Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8 % of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECB 's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs, thereby incurring matching liabilities vis - à - vis the ECB. These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The other 92 % of euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares of the ECB capital key, calculated using national share of European Union (EU) population and national share of EU GDP, equally weighted.
The euro is divided into 100 cents (sometimes referred to as euro cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins). In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are sometimes used, with many local variations such as centime in France.
All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided). For the denominations except the 1 -, 2 - and 5 - cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states which were members when the euro was introduced. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country) the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway. The 1 -, 2 - and 5 - cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the 15 member states of 2002 raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.
The coins are issued in € 2, € 1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c denominations. To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland (by law). This practice is discouraged by the Commission, as is the practice of certain shops of refusing to accept high - value euro notes.
Commemorative coins with € 2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the € 2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.
The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides. The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina. Notes are issued in € 500, € 200, € 100, € 50, € 20, € 10, € 5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between countries and with the future. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.
Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one country to another. All intra-EU transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs. This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro. Credit / debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper - based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic - based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, TARGET, for large euro transactions.
A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to two. The European Commission then chose the design created by the Belgian Alain Billiet. Of the symbol, the EC stated
Inspiration for the € symbol itself came from the Greek epsilon (Є) -- a reference to the cradle of European civilisation -- and the first letter of the word Europe, crossed by two parallel lines to ' certify ' the stability of the euro.
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground and background colour tones. While the Commission intended the logo to be a prescribed glyph shape, font designers made it clear that they intended to design their own variants instead. Typewriters lacking the euro sign can create it by typing a capital "C '', backspacing, and overstriking it with the equal ("= '') sign. Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from nation to nation, but for texts in English the symbol (or the ISO - standard "EUR '') should precede the amount.
There is no official symbol for the cent.
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3 % of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than 60 % of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which resulted in the introduction of the euro. (For macroeconomic theory, see below.)
The name "euro '' was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995. Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name "euro '' on 4 August 1995.
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown on the right.
The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the pound sterling) that day.
The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.
The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller 's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to indefinitely (the latter for Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia in banknotes and coins, and for Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia in banknotes only). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remain exchangeable until 2022.
Following the U.S. financial crisis in 2008, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010. Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected. All these countries utilized EU funds except Italy, that is a major donor of the EFSF. To be included in the eurozone, countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same level of strictness among countries.
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, "(I) f the (euro area) is treated as a single entity, its (economic and fiscal) position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK '' and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area 's government debt / GDP ratio of 86 % in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States. "Moreover '', they write, "private - sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo - Saxon economies ''. The authors conclude that the crisis "is as much political as economic '' and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of "institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state ''.
The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro - area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.
A historical parallel -- to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors -- gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt - rating warning of its own.
The euro is the sole currency of 19 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. These countries constitute the "eurozone '', some 332 million people in total as of 2013.
With all but two of the remaining EU members obliged to join, together with future members of the EU, the enlargement of the eurozone is set to continue. Outside the EU, the euro is also the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo and several European microstates (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City) as well as in four overseas territories of EU members that are not themselves part of the EU (Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and Akrotiri and Dhekelia). Together this direct usage of the euro outside the EU affects nearly 3 million people.
The euro has been used as a trading currency in Cuba since 1998, and Syria since 2006. There are also various currencies pegged to the euro (see below). In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and used major currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar.
Since its introduction, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18 % in 1999 to 27 % in 2008. Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71 % to 64 % and that held in Yen fell from 6.4 % to 3.3 %. The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $1.1 trillion or € 850 billion, with a share of 22 % of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31 % of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.
The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency has been debated among economists. Former US Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency ''. In contrast to Greenspan 's 2007 assessment, the euro 's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign - debt crisis.
Outside the eurozone, a total of 22 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 13 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), two African island countries (Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and three Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark), Bulgaria (Bulgarian lev) and Macedonia (Macedonian denar). On 28 July 2009, São Tomé and Príncipe signed an agreement with Portugal which will eventually tie its currency to the euro. Additionally, the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies, including the euro and the US dollar, with the euro given the highest weighting.
With the exception of Bosnia, Bulgaria, Macedonia (which had pegged their currencies against the Deutsche Mark) and Cape Verde (formerly pegged to the Portuguese escudo), all of these non-EU countries had a currency peg to the French Franc before pegging their currencies to the euro. Pegging a country 's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation and encourages foreign investment due to its stability.
Within the EU several currencies are pegged to the euro, mostly as a precondition to joining the eurozone. The Bulgarian lev was formerly pegged to the Deutsche Mark; one other EU currency with a direct peg due to ERM II is the Danish krone.
In total, as of 2013, 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe, and another 545,000 people on Pacific islands.
Since 2005, stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros, although the Order 's official currency remains the Maltese scudo. The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.
In economics, an optimum currency area, or region (OCA or OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. There are two models, both proposed by Robert Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model. Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro. However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies. Before the late - 2000s recession it was considered unlikely that a state would leave the euro or the whole zone would collapse. However the Greek government - debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form. Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up. John Lanchester, writing for The New Yorker, explains it:
The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).
Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone. However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices -- in particular in price levels -- should decrease because of the law of one price. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.
Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank.
The euro has come under criticism due to its imperialistic style regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member States on issues such as nominal interest rates Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.
Unfortunately, there is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, UK, and China. The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers. Hence export from the euro zone becomes more difficult.
In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euros are served by high stability and low inflation.
A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5 % to 10 %, although one study suggested an increase of only 3 % while another estimated 9 to 14 %. However, a meta - analysis of all available studies suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible. Furthermore, studies accounting for time trend reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade. These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade.
Physical investment seems to have increased by 5 % in the eurozone due to the introduction. Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20 % during the first four years of the EMU. Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe. The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies. A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22 % of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.
The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation. In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies. A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro. The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased. It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so.
One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates. It has been found that the introduction of the euro created "significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside Europe ''. These reductions in market risk "were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe ''.
The introduction of the euro seems to have had a strong effect on European financial integration. According to a study on this question, it has "significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets (...) However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated. '' Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.
As of January 2014, and since the introduction of the euro, interest rates of most members countries (particularly those with a weak currency), have decreased. Some of these countries had the most serious sovereign financing problems.
The effect of declining interest rates, combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB, made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most, and their linked sovereigns, to borrow significant amounts (above the 3 % of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels. Following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so near worthless there was no liquid market for them. This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign - debt crisis.
The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed. Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s. Other studies have found evidence of price convergence, in particular for cars. A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).
A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5 %.
The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This is because of the implications of the Mundell -- Fleming model, which implies a central bank can not (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets, and as the ECB has chosen monetary autonomy, the exchange - rate regime of the euro is flexible, or floating. In its first decade, the euro appreciated relative to the currency of Europe 's main trading partners. Starting at US $1.60 in 2008, the euro declined to US $ 1.04 in 2015. In the following years the euro has recovered somewhat; as of March 2018 it stands as around US $1.23.
The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese Yen, 3 May vs Pound Sterling). Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs U.S. dollar, 23 July vs Japanese Yen, 29 December vs Pound Sterling). With the advent of the global financial crisis the euro initially fell, only to regain later. Despite pressure due to the European sovereign - debt crisis the euro remained stable. In November 2011 the euro 's exchange rate index -- measured against currencies of the bloc 's major trading partners -- was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis kicked off in 2007. In late January 2018, the euro rose again above US1.25.It also hit new relative or absolute highs against £ and other currencies.
The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular. This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages, e.g., those where there is no eu diphthong. Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled as eвро (evro) and not eуро (euro) in all official documents. In the Greek script the term ευρώ (evró) is used; the Greek "cent '' coins are denominated in λεπτό / ά (leptó / á). Official practice for English - language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural, although the European Commission 's Directorate - General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English.
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when does the next season of my little pony start | List of My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic episodes - wikipedia
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic is a 2010 animated television series developed by Lauren Faust. The show premiered on the launch of The Hub in the United States on Sunday, October 10, 2010. As of September 16, 2017, 162 episodes have aired through the show 's seven seasons. All episodes are 22 minutes and a season comprises 26 episodes, with the exception of Season 3, which contained 13 episodes. My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic is produced by Hasbro Studios in the United States and DHX Media / Vancouver in Canada. In the United States, the series is rated TV - Y. A seventh season has been released by Hasbro, with episodes beginning broadcast on April 2017. Like previous seasons with the exception of Season 3, Season 7 will consist of 26 episodes, with 21 released.
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who had the idea of freedom of speech | Freedom of speech - Wikipedia
Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community to articulate one 's opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or sanction. The term "freedom of expression '' is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.
Freedom of expression is recognized as a human right under article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 19 of the UDHR states that "everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference '' and "everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice ''. The version of Article 19 in the ICCPR later amends this by stating that the exercise of these rights carries "special duties and responsibilities '' and may "therefore be subject to certain restrictions '' when necessary "(f) or respect of the rights or reputation of others '' or "(f) or the protection of national security or of public order (order public), or of public health or morals ''.
Freedom of speech and expression, therefore, may not be recognized as being absolute, and common limitations to freedom of speech relate to libel, slander, obscenity, pornography, sedition, incitement, fighting words, classified information, copyright violation, trade secrets, food labeling, non-disclosure agreements, the right to privacy, the right to be forgotten, public security, and perjury. Justifications for such include the harm principle, proposed by John Stuart Mill in On Liberty, which suggests that: "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. '' The idea of the "offense principle '' is also used in the justification of speech limitations, describing the restriction on forms of expression deemed offensive to society, considering factors such as extent, duration, motives of the speaker, and ease with which it could be avoided. With the evolution of the digital age, application of the freedom of speech becomes more controversial as new means of communication and restrictions arise, for example the Golden Shield Project, an initiative by Chinese government 's Ministry of Public Security that filters potentially unfavorable data from foreign countries.
The right to freedom of expression has been interpreted to include the right to take and publish photographs of strangers in public areas without their permission or knowledge.
Freedom of speech and expression has a long history that predates modern international human rights instruments. It is thought that ancient Athens ' democratic ideology of free speech may have emerged in the late 6th or early 5th century BC. The values of the Roman Republic included freedom of speech and freedom of religion.
Concepts of freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents. England 's Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the constitutional right of ' freedom of speech in Parliament ' which is still in effect. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. The Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that:
The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.
Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, states that:
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Today, freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples ' Rights. Based on John Milton 's arguments, freedom of speech is understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right to express, or disseminate, information and ideas, but three further distinct aspects:
International, regional and national standards also recognize that freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any medium, be it orally, in written, in print, through the Internet or through art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means of expression.
The right to freedom of speech and expression is closely related to other rights, and may be limited when conflicting with other rights (see limitations on freedom of speech). The right to freedom of expression is also related to the right to a fair trial and court proceeding which may limit access to the search for information, or determine the opportunity and means in which freedom of expression is manifested within court proceedings. As a general principle freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor and reputation of others. However greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved.
The right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press is not necessarily enabling freedom of speech. Judith Lichtenberg has outlined conditions in which freedom of the press may constrain freedom of speech, for example where the media suppresses information or stifles the diversity of voices inherent in freedom of speech. Lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle "no money, no voice ''.
Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy. The norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn. He argues that the concept of democracy is that of self - government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. In order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal.
Eric Barendt has called this defense of free speech on the grounds of democracy "probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies ''. Thomas I. Emerson expanded on this defense when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change. Freedom of speech acts as a "safety valve '' to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution. He argues that "The principle of open discussion is a method of achieving a more adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus. '' Emerson furthermore maintains that "Opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating (the) normal process of bureaucratic decay. ''
Research undertaken by the Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank, indicates that freedom of speech, and the process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact in the quality of governance of a country. "Voice and Accountability '' within a country, defined as "the extent to which a country 's citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and free media '' is one of the six dimensions of governance that the Worldwide Governance Indicators measure for more than 200 countries. Against this backdrop it is important that development agencies create grounds for effective support for a free press in developing countries.
Richard Moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. Moon writes that "by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others -- family, friends, co-workers, church congregation, and countrymen. By entering into discussion with others an individual participates in the development of knowledge and in the direction of the community. ''
Legal systems sometimes recognize certain limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other rights and freedoms, such as in the cases of libel, slander, pornography, obscenity, fighting words, and intellectual property. Justifications for limitations to freedom of speech often reference the "harm principle '' or the "offense principle ''. Limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction or social disapprobation, or both. Certain public institutions may also enact policies restricting the freedom of speech, for example speech codes at state schools.
In On Liberty (1859), John Stuart Mill argued that "... there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered. '' Mill argues that the fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment. However, Mill also introduced what is known as the harm principle, in placing the following limitation on free expression: "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. ''
In 1985, Joel Feinberg introduced what is known as the "offense principle '', arguing that Mill 's harm principle does not provide sufficient protection against the wrongful behaviors of others. Feinberg wrote "It is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offense (as opposed to injury or harm) to persons other than the actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end. '' Hence Feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. But, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm. In contrast, Mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on the harm principle. Because the degree to which people may take offense varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, Feinberg suggests that a number of factors need to be taken into account when applying the offense principle, including: the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of the offense, and the general interest of the community at large.
Along similar lines as Mill, Jasper Doomen has argued that harm should be defined from the point of view of the individual citizen, not limiting harm to physical harm since nonphysical harm may also be involved; Feinberg 's distinction between harm and offense is criticized as largely trivial.
In 1999, Bernard Harcourt wrote of the collapse of the harm principle: "Today the debate is characterized by a cacophony of competing harm arguments without any way to resolve them. There is no longer an argument within the structure of the debate to resolve the competing claims of harm. The original harm principle was never equipped determine the relative importance of harms. ''
Interpretations of both the harm and offense limitations to freedom of speech are culturally and politically relative. For instance, in Russia, the harm and offense principles have been used to justify the Russian LGBT propaganda law restricting speech (and action) in relation to LGBT issues. A number of European countries that take pride in freedom of speech nevertheless outlaw speech that might be interpreted as Holocaust denial. These include Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, and Switzerland.
Kurt Westergaard, a Danish cartoonist, created the controversial cartoon of the Islamic prophet Muhammad wearing a bomb in his turban and was met with strong violent reactions worldwide.
Norman Finkelstein, a writer and professor of political science expressed the opinion that Charlie Hebdo 's abrasive cartoons of Muhammad exceeded the boundaries of free speech, and compared those cartoons with the cartoons of Julius Streicher, who was hanged by the Allies after World War II for the words and drawings he had published. In 2006, in response to a particularly abrasive issue of Charlie Hebdo, French President Jacques Chirac condemned "overt provocations '' which could inflame passions. "Anything that can hurt the convictions of someone else, in particular religious convictions, should be avoided '', Chirac said.
In the U.S., the standing landmark opinion on political speech is Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California. In Brandenburg, the US Supreme Court referred to the right even to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms:
(Our) decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action.
The opinion in Brandenburg discarded the previous test of "clear and present danger '' and made the right to freedom of (political) speech 's protections in the United States almost absolute. Hate speech is also protected by the First Amendment in the United States, as decided in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, (1992) in which the Supreme Court ruled that hate speech is permissible, except in the case of imminent violence. See the First Amendment to the United States Constitution for more detailed information on this decision and its historical background.
Jo Glanville, editor of the Index on Censorship, states that "the Internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech ''. International, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including the Internet. The Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 was the first major attempt by the United States Congress to regulate pornographic material on the Internet. In 1997, in the landmark cyberlaw case of Reno v. ACLU, the US Supreme Court partially overturned the law. Judge Stewart R. Dalzell, one of the three federal judges who in June 1996 declared parts of the CDA unconstitutional, in his opinion stated the following:
The Internet is a far more speech - enhancing medium than print, the village green, or the mails. Because it would necessarily affect the Internet itself, the CDA would necessarily reduce the speech available for adults on the medium. This is a constitutionally intolerable result. Some of the dialogue on the Internet surely tests the limits of conventional discourse. Speech on the Internet can be unfiltered, unpolished, and unconventional, even emotionally charged, sexually explicit, and vulgar -- in a word, "indecent '' in many communities. But we should expect such speech to occur in a medium in which citizens from all walks of life have a voice. We should also protect the autonomy that such a medium confers to ordinary people as well as media magnates. (...) My analysis does not deprive the Government of all means of protecting children from the dangers of Internet communication. The Government can continue to protect children from pornography on the Internet through vigorous enforcement of existing laws criminalizing obscenity and child pornography. (...) As we learned at the hearing, there is also a compelling need for public educations about the benefits and dangers of this new medium, and the Government can fill that role as well. In my view, our action today should only mean that Government 's permissible supervision of Internet contents stops at the traditional line of unprotected speech. (...) The absence of governmental regulation of Internet content has unquestionably produced a kind of chaos, but as one of the plaintiff 's experts put it with such resonance at the hearing: "What achieved success was the very chaos that the Internet is. The strength of the Internet is chaos. '' Just as the strength of the Internet is chaos, so that strength of our liberty depends upon the chaos and cacophony of the unfettered speech the First Amendment protects.
The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for the "Information Society '' in stating:
We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers.
According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault the public domain is under pressure from the "commodification of information '' as information with previously little or no economic value has acquired independent economic value in the information age. This includes factual data, personal data, genetic information and pure ideas. The commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as broadcasting and telecommunications law.
Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i.e. the ability to access Web content, without censorship or restrictions.
Freedom of information is also explicitly protected by acts such as the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act of Ontario, in Canada.
The concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet. Internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. The Global Internet Freedom Consortium claims to remove blocks to the "free flow of information '' for what they term "closed societies ''. According to the Reporters without Borders (RWB) "internet enemy list '' the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship: China, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar / Burma, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam.
A widely publicized example of internet censorship is the "Great Firewall of China '' (in reference both to its role as a network firewall and to the ancient Great Wall of China). The system blocks content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the Internet gateways. The system also selectively engages in DNS poisoning when particular sites are requested. The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical. Internet censorship in the People 's Republic of China is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations, including more than sixty regulations directed at the Internet. Censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state - owned ISPs, business companies, and organizations.
Before the invention of the printing press a written work, once created, could only be physically multiplied by highly laborious and error - prone manual copying. No elaborate system of censorship and control over scribes existed, who until the 14th century were restricted to religious institutions, and their works rarely caused wider controversy. In response to the printing press, and the heresies it allowed to spread, the Roman Catholic Church moved to impose censorship. Printing allowed for multiple exact copies of a work, leading to a more rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information (see print culture). The origins of copyright law in most European countries lie in efforts by the Roman Catholic Church and governments to regulate and control the output of printers.
In 1501 Pope Alexander VI issued a Bill against the unlicensed printing of books and in 1559 the Index Expurgatorius, or List of Prohibited Books, was issued for the first time. The Index Expurgatorius is the most famous and long lasting example of "bad books '' catalogues issued by the Roman Catholic Church, which presumed to be in authority over private thoughts and opinions, and suppressed views that went against its doctrines. The Index Expurgatorius was administered by the Roman Inquisition, but enforced by local government authorities, and went through 300 editions. Amongst others, it banned or censored books written by René Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei, David Hume, John Locke, Daniel Defoe, Jean - Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire. While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways because it allowed for the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. As a consequence, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books.
The notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing and the press. Areopagitica, published in 1644, was John Milton 's response to the Parliament of England 's re-introduction of government licensing of printers, hence publishers. Church authorities had previously ensured that Milton 's essay on the right to divorce was refused a license for publication. In Areopagitica, published without a license, Milton made an impassioned plea for freedom of expression and toleration of falsehood, stating:
Give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties.
Milton 's defense of freedom of expression was grounded in a Protestant worldview and he thought that the English people had the mission to work out the truth of the Reformation, which would lead to the enlightenment of all people. But Milton also articulated the main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. By defining the scope of freedom of expression and of "harmful '' speech Milton argued against the principle of pre-censorship and in favor of tolerance for a wide range of views. Freedom of the press ceased being regulated in England in 1695 when the Licensing Order of 1643 was allowed to expire after the introduction of the Bill of Rights 1689 shortly after the Glorious Revolution. The emergence of publications like the Tatler (1709) and the Spectator (1711) are given credit for creating a ' bourgeois public sphere ' in England that allowed for a free exchange of ideas and information.
As the "menace '' of printing spread, more governments attempted to centralize control. The French crown repressed printing and the printer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. In 1557 the British Crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and heretical books by chartering the Stationers ' Company. The right to print was limited to the members of that guild, and thirty years later the Star Chamber was chartered to curtail the "greate enormities and abuses '' of "dyvers contentyous and disorderlye persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books. '' The right to print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had 53 printing presses. As the British crown took control of type founding in 1637 printers fled to the Netherlands. Confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the Bastille in Paris before it was stormed in 1789.
A succession of English thinkers was at the forefront of early discussion on a right to freedom of expression, among them John Milton (1608 -- 74) and John Locke (1632 -- 1704). Locke established the individual as the unit of value and the bearer of rights to life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness. However Locke 's ideas evolved primarily around the concept of the right to seek salvation for one 's soul, and was thus primarily concerned with theological matters. Locke neither supported a universal toleration of peoples nor freedom of speech; according to his ideas, some groups, such as atheists, should not be allowed.
By the second half of the 17th century philosophers on the European continent like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle developed ideas encompassing a more universal aspect freedom of speech and toleration than the early English philosophers. By the 18th century the idea of freedom of speech was being discussed by thinkers all over the Western world, especially by French philosophes like Denis Diderot, Baron d'Holbach and Claude Adrien Helvétius. The idea began to be incorporated in political theory both in theory as well as practice; the first state edict in history proclaiming complete freedom of speech was the one issued December 4, 1770 in Denmark - Norway during the regency of Johann Friedrich Struensee. However Struensee himself imposed some minor limitations to this edict in October 7, 1771, and it was even further limited after the fall of Struensee with legislation introduced in 1773, although censorship was not reintroduced.
John Stuart Mill (1806 -- 1873) argued that without human freedom there can be no progress in science, law or politics, which according to Mill required free discussion of opinion. Mill 's On Liberty, published in 1859 became a classic defence of the right to freedom of expression. Mill argued that truth drives out falsity, therefore the free expression of ideas, true or false, should not be feared. Truth is not stable or fixed, but evolves with time. Mill argued that much of what we once considered true has turned out false. Therefore, views should not be prohibited for their apparent falsity. Mill also argued that free discussion is necessary to prevent the "deep slumber of a decided opinion ''. Discussion would drive the onwards march of truth and by considering false views the basis of true views could be re-affirmed. Furthermore, Mill argued that an opinion only carries intrinsic value to the owner of that opinion, thus silencing the expression of that opinion is an injustice to a basic human right. For Mill, the only instance in which speech can be justifiably suppressed is in order to prevent harm from a clear and direct threat. Neither economic or moral implications, nor the speakers own well - being would justify suppression of speech.
In Evelyn Beatrice Hall 's biography of Voltaire, she coined the following sentence to illustrate Voltaire 's beliefs: "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. '' Hall 's quote is frequently cited to describe the principle of freedom of speech. In the 20th Century, Noam Chomsky states that: "If you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you do n't like. Dictators such as Stalin and Hitler, were in favor of freedom of speech for views they liked only. If you 're in favor of freedom of speech, that means you 're in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. '' Lee Bollinger argues that "the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self - restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters. '' Bollinger argues that tolerance is a desirable value, if not essential. However, critics argue that society should be concerned by those who directly deny or advocate, for example, genocide (see limitations above).
The 1928 novel Lady Chatterley 's Lover by D.H. Lawrence was banned for obscenity in a number of countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and Canada. In the late 1950s and early 1960s it was the subject of landmark court rulings which saw the ban for obscenity overturned. Dominic Sandbrook of The Telegraph in the UK writes, "Now that public obscenity has become commonplace, it is hard to recapture the atmosphere of a society that saw fit to ban books such as Lady Chatterley 's Lover because it was likely to "deprave and corrupt '' its readers. '' Fred Kaplan of The New York Times stated the overturning of the obscenity laws "set off an explosion of free speech '' in the US.
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who was the movie war dogs based on | War Dogs (2016 film) - wikipedia
War Dogs is a 2016 American biographical dark comedy - crime film directed by Todd Phillips and written by Phillips, Jason Smilovic and Stephen Chin, based on a Rolling Stone article by Guy Lawson. Lawson then wrote a book titled Arms and the Dudes detailing the story. The film follows two arms dealers, Efraim Diveroli and David Packouz, who receive a US Army contract to supply munitions for the Afghan National Army worth approximately $300 million. The film is heavily fictionalized and dramatized, and some of its events, such as the duo driving through Iraq, were either invented or based on other events, such as screenwriter Stephen Chin 's own experiences.
The film stars Jonah Hill, Miles Teller, Ana de Armas and Bradley Cooper, who also co-produced. Filming began on March 2, 2015 in Romania. The film premiered in New York City on August 3, 2016 and was theatrically released by Warner Bros. Pictures on August 19, 2016. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $86 million. Hill received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance.
In 2005, David Packouz lives in Miami, Florida, working as a massage therapist and living with his girlfriend Iz. Desiring an additional source of income, David spends his life savings on high - quality Egyptian cotton sheets, planning to sell them to Miami retirement homes, but this venture fails to produce results. At a funeral for a friend, David runs into his high school best friend Efraim Diveroli, who had moved to Los Angeles some years prior to work with his uncle selling guns. Efraim has left his uncle and formed his own company, AEY, which fills orders for arms placed by the US government due to the ongoing War in Iraq. David 's life takes another turn when his girlfriend informs him that she is pregnant. Efraim offers him a job at AEY, and even though David and Iz both vehemently oppose the war, David eventually agrees, telling his girlfriend that he has begun selling his cotton sheets to the US government through Efraim 's contacts.
Efraim explains to David that all orders placed for military equipment are posted on a public website, where anyone can place bids on filling the orders, and their job is to find the small orders that larger contractors do not bother with and place bids on them, with these smaller orders still being worth millions of dollars. A local small business owner, Ralph Slutzky, assists the business with funding, under the false belief that AEY only sells arms to help protect Israel. Eventually, David and Efraim land a contract to provide several thousand Beretta pistols to the Iraqi Police in Baghdad, a deal that would put them on the map. Unfortunately, an Italian embargo blocks the shipment to Iraq, so Efraim attempts to route the shipment through Jordan, but the shipment gets held up there as well. With Iz discovering David 's true business by overhearing a conversation between him and Efraim, leaving her upset, David and Efraim have to fly to Jordan to free up their cargo or risk being blacklisted by the US Government for failing to deliver.
In Jordan, Efraim manages to use bribes to free up the Beretta shipment, but are still not allowed to fly the cargo to Baghdad without a permit that will take several weeks to acquire. The guns are loaded up into a truck and the two are provided with a driver who offers to drive the guns to Iraq, as no permit is required for driving guns across the border. The three drive through the night, at one point bribing border patrol with two cartons of cigarettes, and at another point being attacked by insurgents while trying to get gas, but eventually arrive at the military base. Captain Santos, the man receiving the shipment, is impressed by the lengths the two went through to get the guns to him, and the two are paid.
After this, AEY continues to secure larger deals and make more money, even moving into a larger office and hiring more employees, and David 's daughter Ella is born. Efraim, however, continues to grow more unstable and untrustworthy, as the company is suddenly given a chance to land their biggest deal yet. Known as "The Afghan Deal '', the US Government wishes to arm the Afghan military for the long - term, and post a massive order worth $300 million, which includes 100 million rounds of AK - 47 ammunition and would have netted the war dogs a $100 million profit. Filling this order proves to be near - impossible for such a relatively small company, particularly in that there is a global shortage on AK - 47 ammunition, but the two end up lucking into an encounter with legendary US arms dealer Henry Girard. Girard has access to the massive weapon storages that were created in Albania but never used, and must now be disposed of in accordance with NATO treaties, which includes well over a hundred million rounds of AK - 47 ammunition. Girard can not directly deal with the US Government anymore, due to being on a watchlist, and wants to make the deal through AEY. Efraim agrees, although David expresses discomfort working with a man who is on a terrorist watchlist.
The two go to Albania to confirm that the ammunition works, then place the winning bid on the contract -- though Efraim is upset to learn that their bid was the lowest by $53 million, reducing their profit margin. Meanwhile, Iz grows frustrated with David 's continuing string of lies about his work, and leaves to live with her mother. While in Albania to prepare the shipment, David discovers that virtually all of the rounds are Chinese - made and illegal under a US embargo against Chinese arms. Efraim comes up with the idea of re-packaging the rounds in generic packaging, pretending that they are concerned about the weight of the shipments (though it inadvertently does save $3 million in shipping costs). While the rounds are repackaged and shipped, Efraim learns that Henry charged them a 400 % markup (10 cents on 2.5 cents) on the rounds, and wants to cut him out of the deal. David protests that they are all making great money, but Efraim destroys the only copy of his partnership contract with David and proceeds with his plan to cut Henry out.
Henry retaliates by having David kidnapped from his hotel room, beaten, and held at gunpoint before leaving him alive, though David is left wondering if his now missing Albanian driver, Bashkim, has been killed. David learns that Efraim has not paid the small ($100,000) cost to Enver, the Albanian who is handling the repackaging.
David returns to Miami, where he tells Efraim that he is quitting AEY and demands immediate payout of the $4 million (offers to settle for $1.6) owed for his work - to - date, but Efraim refuses and laughs about the partnership contract being gone. David returns to working as a massage therapist and convinces Iz to move back in with him by telling her the truth about his AEY work. Weeks later, Efraim and Ralph Slutzky meet with David. Efraim offers a severance package of just $200,000, which David responds to by threatening to blackmail him with the evidence he has of the falsified documentation the two created to look like a respectable company so they could secure the Afghan deal. Shortly after this, David and Efraim are both arrested by the FBI. Enver, not paid for the repackaging contract and understanding the Chinese embargo, had reported AEY to the Pentagon. The FBI had arrested Ralph, who then wore a wire during the meeting with David and Efraim, giving the FBI enough to arrest them. Efraim is sentenced to four years in prison for numerous crimes related to conspiracy and fraud on the Afghan deal, and David gets seven months house arrest in exchange for co-operating with the investigation.
Months later, David meets with Henry, who apologizes for the kidnapping and assault in Albania, claiming he had bad information. He also thanks David for not mentioning his name in his confession to the FBI. David begins to ask questions about the events of the deal, including the fate of Bashkim. In response, Henry pulls out a briefcase full of money, a part of his own cut from the Afghan deal, and offers it to David in exchange for dropping the subject. The movie ends before David decides.
Initially, Jesse Eisenberg and Shia LaBeouf were set to star in the film; however, Jonah Hill and Miles Teller were eventually cast. Further casting was announced in early 2015, with Ana de Armas joining in February, and JB Blanc joining in March. Screenwriter Stephen Chin based many of the incidents on his own experiences in Iraq.
Shooting was initially set to begin late April 2015, in Miami, for several weeks. According to SSN Insider, filming began on March 2, 2015. Later confirmed by the Business Wire on March 17, 2015, filming was underway in Romania. On April 24, 2015, Hill was spotted on the film set in the Century City district of Los Angeles. On April 29, 2015, Hill and Teller were spotted filming on the set in Burbank, California. On May 7, 2015, filming took place in Miami.
Warner Bros. originally set the film a release date for March 11, 2016. However, in November 2015, the release date was moved to August 19, 2016.
War Dogs grossed $43 million in North America and $43.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $86.2 million, against a budget of $40 million.
In the United States and Canada, War Dogs was released on August 19, 2016, alongside Ben - Hur and Kubo and the Two Strings, and was projected to gross $12 -- 15 million from 3,100 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $1.3 million from its Thursday night previews and $5.5 million on its first day (including previews). It went on to gross $14.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office and first among new releases.
War Dogs received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 60 % based on 209 reviews with an average rating of the 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "War Dogs rises on the strength of Jonah Hill 's compelling performance to take a lightly entertaining look at troubling real - world events. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
ScreenCrush 's Matt Singer said, "Superficially, the movie looks a lot like past Phillips comedies about men behaving badly, with dirty jokes and wacky hijinks galore. But War Dogs is more critical of its protagonists ' behavior, and there 's plenty of sad commentary about the state of modern America. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club had misgivings about the film 's slant and biographical omissions, saying: "One might quibble with the way Phillips limits responsibility on the Pentagon deal by painting AEY as better businessmen than they actually were (...), while avoiding the darker sides of the story... '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com, in a mixed - to - negative review, stated that "War Dogs is a film about horrible people that refuses to own the horribleness. ''
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longest words for each letter of the alphabet | Longest word in English - wikipedia
The identity of the longest word in English depends upon the definition of what constitutes a word in the English language, as well as how length should be compared. In addition to words derived naturally from the language 's roots (without any known intentional invention), English allows new words to be formed by coinage and construction; place names may be considered words; technical terms may be arbitrarily long. Length may be understood in terms of orthography and number of written letters, or (less commonly) phonology and the number of phonemes.
The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, a word that refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano; medically, it is the same as silicosis. The word was deliberately coined to be the longest word in English, and has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim.
The Oxford English Dictionary contains pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters).
Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary does not contain antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters), as the editors found no widespread, sustained usage of the word in its original meaning. The longest word in that dictionary is electroencephalographically (27 letters).
The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is floccinaucinihilipilification at 29 letters. Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning "nothing '' and defined as "the act of estimating something as worthless ''; its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741.
Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present - day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word. According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are deinstitutionalization and counterrevolutionaries, with 22 letters each.
A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is uncharacteristically, at 20 letters.
The word internationalization is abbreviated "i18n '', the embedded number representing the number of letters between the first and the last.
In his play Assemblywomen (Ecclesiazousae), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 171 letters (183 in the transliteration below), which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients:
Henry Carey 's farce Chrononhotonthologos (1743) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos? ''
Thomas Love Peacock put these creations into the mouth of the phrenologist Mr. Cranium in his 1816 romp Headlong Hall: osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous (44 characters) and osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary (51 characters).
James Joyce made up nine 100 - letter words plus one 101 - letter word in his novel Finnegans Wake, the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve. As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word. Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel The Bell Jar, when the protagonist was reading Finnegans Wake.
"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious '', the 34 - letter title of a song from the movie Mary Poppins, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title. The attributed meaning is "a word that you say when you do n't know what to say. '' The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman.
The English language permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes pseudo (false, spurious) and anti (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. A word like anti-aircraft (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to anti-anti - aircraft (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from there be prefixed with an endless stream of "anti - '' s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. More familiarly, the addition of numerous "great '' s to a relative, e.g. great - great - great - grandfather, can produce words of arbitrary length. In musical notation, a 8192nd note may be called a semihemidemisemihemidemisemihemidemisemiquaver.
Antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction.
A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.
The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open - ended, giving rise to the 189,819 - letter chemical name Methionylthreonylthreonyl... isoleucine for the protein also known as titin, which is involved in striated muscle formation. In nature, DNA molecules can be much bigger than protein molecules and therefore potentially be referred to with much longer chemical names. For example, the wheat chromosome 3B contains almost 1 billion base pairs, so the sequence of one of its strands, if written out in full like Adenilyladenilylguanilylcystidylthymidyl..., would be about 8 billion letters long. The longest published word, Acetylseryltyrosylseryliso... serine, referring to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus, was 1,185 letters long, and appeared in the American Chemical Society 's Chemical Abstracts Service in 1964 and 1966. In 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service overhauled its naming system and started discouraging excessively long names.
John Horton Conway and Landon Curt Noll developed an open - ended system for naming powers of 10, in which one sexmilliaquingentsexagintillion, coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 10 = 10. Under the long number scale, it would be 10 = 10. Jonathan Bowers has developed a system for even larger numbers (enneenneconteennahecteika - enneenneconteennahectenedaka - enneenneconteennahecteyodaka - enneenneconteennahectezedaka - enneenneconteennahecteexdaka - enneenneconteennahectepedaka - enneennecontehectetedaka - enneenneconteennahectetradaka - enneenneconteennahectedoka - enneenneconteennahectehendaka - enneenneconteennahectedaka - enneenneconteennahectexenna - enneenneconteennahecteyotta - enneenneconteennahectezetta - enneenneconteennahecteexa - enneenneconteennahectepeta - enneenneconteennahectetera - enneenneconteennahectegiga - enneenneconteennahectemega - enneenneconteennahectekilla - enneenneconteennahectillion for 10 3 ∗ 10 3 ∗ 10 63 − 3 + 3 (\ displaystyle 10 ^ (3 * 10 ^ (3 * 10 ^ (63) - 3) + 3))).
Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name -- it is a kind of amphipod. However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in 1929 after being petitioned by Mary J. Rathbun to take up the case.
Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides is the longest accepted binomial name. It is a species of soldier fly.
Aequeosalinocalcalinoceraceoaluminosocupreovitriolic, at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675 -- 1737). The word is composed of the following elements:
The longest officially recognized place name in an English - speaking country is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahu (57 letters), which is a hill in New Zealand. The name is in the Māori language. A longer and widely recognised version of the name is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu (85 letters), which appears on the signpost at the location (see the photo on this page). In Māori, the digraphs ng and wh are each treated as single letters.
In Canada, the longest place name is Dysart, Dudley, Harcourt, Guilford, Harburn, Bruton, Havelock, Eyre and Clyde, a township in Ontario, at 61 letters or 68 non-space characters.
The longest non-contrived place name in the United Kingdom which is a single non-hyphenated word is Cottonshopeburnfoot (19 letters) and the longest which is hyphenated is Sutton - under - Whitestonecliffe (29 characters).
The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg, a lake in Webster, Massachusetts. It means "Fishing Place at the Boundaries -- Neutral Meeting Grounds '' and is sometimes facetiously translated as "you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle ''. The lake is also known as Webster Lake. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are Winchester - on - the - Severn, a town in Maryland, and Washington - on - the - Brazos, a notable place in Texas history.
The longest official geographical name in Australia is Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya. It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning "where the Devil urinates ''.
In Ireland, the longest English placename at 19 letters is Newtownmountkennedy in County Wicklow.
Guinness World Records formerly contained a category for longest personal name used.
Long birth names are often coined in protest of naming laws or for other personal reasons.
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where do krebs (step 2) and the etc (step 3) occur | Electron transport chain - wikipedia
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions. If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP, which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
In Complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH - CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6. 5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster, from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase; EC 1.3. 5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron - sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
In Complex III (cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10. 2.2), the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H + 2e -) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone (2H + 2e -) at the Q site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9. 3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain. The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits. The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix. This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex. Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production. Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2, 4 - dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock - eater ''). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.
Quinones are mobile, lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid - state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher - energy molecule.
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard '' conditions.
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid - soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water - soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction.
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
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when did the smoking ban start in the uk | Smoking ban in England - wikipedia
A smoking ban in England, making it illegal to smoke in all enclosed work places in England, came into force on 1 July 2007 as a consequence of the Health Act 2006. Similar bans had already been introduced by the rest of the United Kingdom before this -- Scotland on 26 March 2006, Wales on 2 April 2007 and Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007.
Before the ban many businesses voluntarily introduced bans on smoking mainly as a result of public feedback. The pub chain Wetherspoons was the first major chain to introduce a complete ban on indoor smoking.
Tobacco advertising had been banned in England gradually starting with a ban on Television Advertising of cigarettes in 1965 to a complete ban on all Tobacco Advertising in 2005.
On 16 November 2004 a Public Health white paper proposed a smoking ban in almost all public places in England and Wales. Smoking restrictions would be phased in, with a ban on smoking in NHS and government buildings by 2006, in enclosed public places by 2007, and pubs, bars and restaurants (except pubs not serving food) by the end of 2008.
On 26 October 2005, after external challenge and debates within the Cabinet, the government announced that it would continue with its plans. All workplaces, including restaurants and pubs selling food, would have to comply by summer 2007 However, there was widespread criticism from all sides of the argument on this, with a number of MPs threatening to try to overturn the bill. Many representatives of the licensed trade told the Government that only a total ban would work, and over 90 MPs signed a motion demanding this, with over 100 signing a petition for a free vote on the issue. It was reported on 24 November that Chief Medical Officer Liam Donaldson nearly quit over the partial ban, but decided to stay to champion a total ban. On the same day, the government released the results of the public consultation, after Cancer Research UK demanded them under the Freedom of Information Act, which revealed that nearly 9 out of 10 respondents wanted a total ban.
On 11 January 2006, the government further announced that it would give MPs a free vote on an amendment to the Health Bill, submitted by the Health select committee, to instigate a comprehensive smoke - free workplace regulations. Health Secretary Patricia Hewitt voted in favour of the amendment and, in so doing, voted against her own Department 's then publicly stated policy (i.e. the proposed partial regulations). All other parties had offered free votes on the issue which was debated on 14 February, with three options: the present compromise, a total ban, or an exemption for members ' clubs only.
On 14 February 2006, the House of Commons first voted on the amendment to the original compromise plan, to extend the ban to all enclosed public places except private members ' clubs. The amendment was carried with a large majority. MPs then voted on a further amendment to ban smoking in all enclosed public places including private members ' clubs. Again this amendment gained significant support and was carried with a large majority. This therefore replaced the earlier successful amendment which would have allowed smoking only in private members ' clubs. The legislation was passed by the House of Lords, allowing a total smoking ban in enclosed public places to come into force in England.
Political opposition did not entirely disappear at this point, the House of Lords Economic Affairs Committee accused the Government of overreacting to the threat posed by passive smoking and said that the smoking ban was symptomatic of MPs ' failure to understand risk on 7 June 2006.
The ban came into force on 1 July 2007, as announced on 30 November 2006 by former Secretary of State for Health Patricia Hewitt, who called it "a huge step forward for public health ''.
On 30 June 2010, the recently formed Coalition Government announced that it would not be reviewing the ban. An attempt in October 2010 by Conservative MP David Nuttall to amend the law to exempt private members ' clubs and pubs from the smoking ban was defeated in the House of Commons on its first reading.
While the ban affects almost all indoor workplaces, some exemptions were provided:
An exemption was also theoretically possible within the Palace of Westminster, as for other Royal Palaces, although members of the House of Commons and the House of Lords agreed to observe the spirit of the ban and restrict any smoking within the grounds of Parliament to four designated outside areas.
Smoking is permitted in a private residence, although not in areas used as a shared work - space. In flats with communal entrances or shared corridors, these must be smoke - free.
University halls of residence presented some dilemmas in practice as regards defining what is public and private. Several universities have imposed a blanket ban on smoking including halls of residence.
As part of the implementation of the smoking ban, Transport for London announced that smoking would be no longer permitted on taxis, private hire vehicles and all London Buses premises, including all bus stop shelters.
The Association of Train Operating Companies and Network Rail introduced an extended ban on smoking covering all railway property including all National Rail station platforms whether enclosed or not. The ban has since been extended to cover the use of Electronic cigarettes. Smoking on board trains was banned in 2005 when both GNER and First Caledonian Sleeper withdrew smoking accommodation from their services.
The Tyne and Wear Metro was the first public transport system to ban in its entirety which has been enforced since the system first opened in 1980.
The ban is enforced by Environmental Health Officers in England, who issue warnings and offer advice before resorting to punitive measures and have had to issue a low frequency of fines since the law came into force. However, there were some objectors who generated higher - profile legal cases, for instance Hugh Howitt, also known as Hamish Howitt, the landlord of the Happy Scots Bar in Blackpool who was the first landlord to be prosecuted for permitting smoking in a smoke - free place under his control. On 2 August 2007, Howitt appeared before Blackpool Magistrates ' Court and pleaded not guilty to 12 counts of failing to stop people smoking in his pub. On 2 December 2008, Howitt effectively had his premises licence revoked, after an appeal by Blackpool Council was upheld; he was not allowed to appeal, and Howitt had to close the Delboys Bar following the decision.
There have been some incidents of violence perpetrated by people refusing to obey the ban, in one of which a former heavyweight boxer, James Oyebola, was shot in the head after he asked a customer at a nightclub to stop smoking and later died of his injuries. However, the view of enforcement authorities is that the smoke - free workplace regulations are simple to understand, popular, and as a result largely ' self - policing '. For a short while, bars in the UK that offered shisha (the smoking of flavoured tobacco through a pipe) were still allowed to provide their services inside the establishment, however the ban covered this area in late 2007 leading to a rapid decline in shisha bars.
A legal blunder by Stoke - on - Trent City Council meant that, while the smoking ban still applied in the city, the council were unable to issue fines to people caught flouting the law until 16 July 2007. The blunder caused the city to briefly be dubbed Smoke - on - Trent.
A group calling themselves "Freedom To Choose '', launched a campaign for a judicial review of the smoke - free workplace regulations claiming a breach of the Human Rights Act 1998, as it does not respect the right to privacy of people who wish to smoke in public. Supporters of the regulations put forward counter-arguments positing that the rights of smokers to indulge in their habit cease as soon as it negatively affects other people in the vicinity. In 2010 pub landlord Nick Hogan was jailed for an offence related to the smoking ban. In 2012 it was reported that "Five years after the introduction of the smoking ban in England, almost seven out of 10 licensees want the legislation amended to allow for separate smoking rooms in pubs ''.
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what is the chronological order of the fast and furious movies | The Fast and the Furious - wikipedia
The Fast and the Furious (also known as Fast & Furious) is an American franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing, heists and espionage, and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films. Distributed by Universal Pictures, the series was established with the 2001 film titled The Fast and the Furious; this was followed by seven sequels, two short films that tie into the series, and as of May 2017, it has become Universal 's biggest franchise of all time, currently the sixth - highest - grossing film series of all time with a combined gross of over $5 billion.
The film is based on an article, titled "Racer X '', about New York street clubs that race Japanese cars late at night, although the film is set primarily in Los Angeles. While elite street racer and ex-convict Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) and his crew: Jesse (Chad Lindberg), Leon (Johnny Strong), Vince (Matt Schulze) and Letty Ortiz (Michelle Rodriguez), are under suspicion of stealing expensive electronic equipment by hijacking moving trucks, Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker) is an undercover police officer who attempts to find out who exactly is stealing the equipment. He works for FBI agent Bilkins (Thom Barry) and LAPD Sgt. Tanner (Ted Levine).
Falling for Dominic 's younger sister, Mia Toretto (Jordana Brewster), Brian confesses to her his status as an undercover police officer and convinces her to come with him to save her brother and his friends from the truck drivers, who have now armed themselves to combat the robberies. He tracks Dominic 's location by triangulating his cell phone signal and they arrive at the hijacking in progress to find Letty, badly injured in a car accident, and Vince critically wounded, having lacerated his arm and been shot by a truck driver. Brian and Mia work together with Dominic, Leon and Letty to rescue Vince. Brian then makes the difficult decision to blow his cover to the crew by phoning in for a medivac. The revelation enrages Dominic, who flees with Leon, Letty, and Mia as the medivac arrives for Vince.
Brian soon follows Dominic to his house and holds him at gunpoint to prevent him from fleeing further. Jesse arrives shortly afterwards, apologizing for his actions at Race Wars and pleading for Dominic 's help with Johnny Tran (Rick Yune). Moments later, Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen (Reggie Lee) perform a drive - by shooting, killing Jesse. Brian and Dominic chase them, with Dominic driving his late father 's modified 1970 Dodge Charger. Dominic forces Lance 's motorcycle off the road, severely injuring him, while Brian shoots and kills Tran. Afterwards, Brian and Dominic engage in an impromptu street race, narrowly avoiding a passing train. However, Dominic collides with a semitruck and rolls his car twice, injuring himself, and rendering the Charger undrivable. Instead of arresting him, Brian hands over the keys to his Supra and lets Dominic escape, using the line "I owe you a ten - second car. ''
Watched by undercover Customs Agent Monica Fuentes (Eva Mendes), Brian is caught by US Customs agents and given a deal by FBI Agent Bilkins and Customs Agent Markham (James Remar) to go undercover and try to bring down drug lord Carter Verone (Cole Hauser) in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees but only if he is given permission to choose his partner, refusing to partner with the agent assigned to watch him. Brian heads home to Barstow, California, where he recruits Roman Pearce (Tyrese Gibson), a childhood friend of Brian who had served jail time and is under house arrest, to help him. Pearce agrees, but only for the same deal Brian was offered, and with the help of Monica, Brian and Roman work together to take down Verone. After acquiring confiscated vehicles and being hired by Verone as his drivers, the duo return to a Customs / FBI hideout, where Roman confronts Markham over the latter 's interference with the mission. After the situation is cooled down, Brian tells Bilkins and Markham that Verone plans to smuggle the money into his private jet and fly off, but also suspects something wrong with Monica 's role in the mission.
Later, Brian and Roman race two of Verone 's drivers for their cars and begin to devise a personal back up plan if the operation goes awry. Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone 's men. On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone 's money, with two of Verone 's men Enrique (Mo Gallini) and Roberto (Roberto Sanchez) riding along to watch Brian and Roman. Before the 15 - minute window is set, the detective in charge, Whitworth (Mark Boone Junior), decides to call in the police to move in for the arrest, resulting in a high - speed chase across the city. The duo lead the police to a warehouse, where a scramble by dozens of street racers disorient the police. Following the scramble, police manage to pull over the Evo and the Eclipse, only to find out that they were driven by two members of Brian 's new crew, friends, Tej Parker (Ludacris) and Suki (Devon Aoki).
As Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro, Enrique tells him to make a detour away from the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his (orange) Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs Agents have Verone 's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they are duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. As he knew Monica was an undercover agent, he gave her the wrong information on the destination point and plans to use her as leverage. When Brian arrives at the intended drop - off point, Enrique prepares to kill him when Roman suddenly appears and the both of them dispatch Enrique. Verone makes his escape aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman use the Yenko Camaro and drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manage to apprehend Verone and save Monica.
With their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next other than to settle in Miami when the former mentions starting a garage. Roman asks how they would afford that and Brian reveals that he took some of the money, as Roman also reveals that his pockets are n't empty, having taken money for himself.
This film 's story occurs sometime after Fast & Furious 6 with a scene that was later made concurrent with events in Furious 7.
After totaling his car in an illegal street race, Sean Boswell (Lucas Black) is sent to live in Tokyo, Japan, with his father, a U.S. Navy officer, in order to avoid juvenile detention or even jail.
While in school, he befriends Twinkie (Bow Wow), a "military brat '' who introduces him to the world of drift racing in Japan. Though forbidden to drive, he decides to race against Takashi (Brian Tee) aka D.K. (Drift King). He borrows a Nissan Silvia from Han Lue (Sung Kang), now a business partner to Takashi, and loses, totaling the car because of his lack of knowledge of drifting. To repay his debt for the car he destroyed, Sean works for Han. Later on, Han becomes friends with Sean and teaches him how to drift.
Takashi 's uncle Kamata (Sonny Chiba) (the head of the Yakuza) reprimands Takashi for allowing Han to steal from him. Takashi confronts Han, Sean and Neela (Nathalie Kelley), and in doing so, they flee. During the chase, Han is killed in a car accident when his car catches fire. Takashi, Sean, and his father become involved in an armed standoff which is resolved by Neela agreeing to leave with Takashi. Twinkie gives his money to Sean to replace the money Han stole, which Sean then returns to Kamata.
Sean proposes a race against Takashi to determine who must leave Tokyo. Sean and Han 's friends then build a 1967 Ford Mustang, with an inline - 6 engine and other parts salvaged from Han 's Silvia that Sean had destroyed. Sean wins the race and is later challenged by Dominic Toretto.
Fast & Furious, as well as its succeeding films, takes place before the events of The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift.
About five years after the events of the first film, Dominic and his new crew (Letty, Han, Leo, Santos and Cara) have been hijacking fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic. When their trail gets too hot, Dominic disbands the crew. However, he is later informed that Letty has been murdered. Dominic returns to Los Angeles where he finds traces of nitro - methane at the crash site, and tracks the buyer of the gas to David Park. Meanwhile, Brian O'Conner, who has been working as an FBI agent, is tracking down a drug trafficker named Arturo Braga. When Brian and Dominic cross paths at David Park 's apartment, Dominic is about to drop David out the window. But Brian intervenes, and works a scheme where he enters a street race where the winner would join Braga 's team of drivers. Although Dominic wins the four - car race by bumping Brian 's car, Brian later joins the team by replacing one of Braga 's other drivers.
The team meets Fenix Calderon (Laz Alonso) who directs them to drive the heroin across the border using underground tunnels to avoid detection. Brian realizes that the drivers are to be killed following the mission, and when Fenix reveals to Dominic that he killed Letty, Dominic detonates the nitrous in his car, blowing up a bunch of vehicles. In the chaos, Brian hijacks the Hummer that is carrying the heroin. Dominic and Brian drive back to Los Angeles, hiding the heroin in an impound lot. When Dominic learns Brian was the last person to contact Letty, he attacks him until Brian reveals that Letty was working undercover for Brian, tracking down Braga in exchange for clearing Dominic 's name. Brian negotiates with the agency to free Dominic if they can lure Braga into personally coming to exchange the heroin for cash. However, at the drop site, it is revealed that the Braga they arrested was a decoy, and that the real Braga (John Ortiz) has escaped, fleeing to Mexico.
Suspended from duty, Brian joins Dominic to go to Mexico and in hopes of catching Braga. Although Braga agreeably surrenders, they are pursued by Braga 's men through town and then the tunnels. Fenix T - bones Brian 's car right outside the tunnel exit, but before he can kill Brian, Dominic drives into and kills Fenix. As the police arrive, Dominic refuses to escape, saying he is tired of running. Despite Brian 's request for clemency, the judge sentences Dominic to 25 years to life. During the prison bus ride to Lompoc penitentiary, Brian and Mia, along with Leo and Santos, arrive in their cars and intercept the bus.
When Dominic "Dom '' Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro. Awaiting Dom 's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that the lead participant, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car - a Ford GT40. Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi 's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse.
While Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains the complete financial details of Reyes ' criminal empire, including the locations of US $100 million in cash.
Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom 's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes ' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian 's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes ' men.
Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes ' men, who kill Hobbs ' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang break into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes ' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom 's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24 - hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince 's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways.
On a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no - stakes race to prove who is the better driver.
In a mid-credits scene, Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin, where he discovers a recent photo of Dom 's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead.
Following their successful heist in Brazil, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and his professional criminal crew have fled around the world: Dom lives with Elena; his sister Mia lives with Brian O'Conner and their son, Jack; Gisele and Han live together; and Roman and Tej live in luxury. Meanwhile, DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Riley Hicks investigate the destruction of a Russian military convoy by a crew led by former British SAS Major and special ops soldier Owen Shaw. Hobbs persuades Dom to help capture Shaw by showing him a photo of the supposedly long - dead Letty Ortiz, Dom 's former lover. Dom and his crew accept the mission in exchange for their amnesty, allowing them to return to the United States.
In London, Shaw 's hideout is found, but this is revealed to be a trap, distracting them and the police while Shaw 's crew performs a heist at an Interpol building. Shaw flees by car, detonating his hideout and disabling most of the police, leaving Dom, Brian, Tej, Han, Gisele, Hobbs, and Riley to pursue him. Letty arrives to help Shaw, shooting Dom without hesitation before escaping. Back at their headquarters, Hobbs tells Dom 's crew that Shaw is stealing components to create a deadly device, intending to sell it to the highest bidder. Meanwhile, Shaw 's investigation into the opposing crew reveals Letty 's relationship with Dom, but she is revealed to be suffering from amnesia. Dominic 's crew learns that Shaw is connected to a drug lord who was imprisoned by Brian, Arturo Braga. Brian returns to Los Angeles as a prisoner to question Braga, who says Letty survived the explosion that seemingly killed her; Shaw took her in after discovering her amnesia. With FBI help, Brian is released from prison, regrouping with the team in London.
Dom challenges Letty in a street racing competition; afterwards, he returns her cross necklace he had kept. After Letty leaves, Shaw offers Dom a chance to walk away, threatening to otherwise hurt his family, but Dom refuses. Tej tracks Shaw 's next attack to a Spanish NATO base. Shaw 's crew assaults a highway military convoy carrying a computer chip to complete his deadly device. Dom 's crew interferes while Shaw, accompanied by Letty, commandeers a tank, destroying cars en route. Brian and Roman manage to flip the tank before it causes further damage, resulting in Letty being thrown from the vehicle and Dom risking his life to save her. Shaw and his crew are captured, but reveal Mia has been kidnapped by Shaw. Hobbs is forced to release Shaw, and Riley, revealed to be Shaw 's covert accomplice, leaves with him; Letty chooses to remain with Dom.
Shaw 's group board a large moving aircraft on a runway as Dom 's crew gives chase. Dom, Letty, and Brian board the craft; Brian rescues Mia, escaping in an onboard car. The plane attempts to take - off, but is held down by excess weight as the rest of the team tether the plane to their vehicles. Gisele sacrifices herself to save Han from Shaw 's henchman; Letty kills Riley and escapes to safety, but Dom pursues Shaw and the computer chip. As the plane crashes into the ground, Shaw is thrown from it, seriously injuring him, and Dom drives a car out of the exploding plane. Dom reunites with his crew, and gives the chip to Hobbs to secure their pardons. Dom and the others return to his old family home in Los Angeles. Hobbs and Elena, now working together, arrive to confirm the crew 's freedom; Elena accepts that Dom loves Letty. As Roman says grace over the crew 's meal, Dom asks Letty if the gathering feels familiar; she answers "no, but it feels like home. ''
In a mid-credits scene, which takes place in Tokyo, Han is involved in a car chase when he is suddenly broadsided by an oncoming car. The driver walks away from the scene after leaving Letty 's cross necklace by the crash, and calls Dom as Han 's car fatally explodes, saying, "You do n't know me. You 're about to. ''
After defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto, Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen 's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs ' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom 's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo, explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom 's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han 's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han 's who gives him personal items found at Han 's crash site.
Back at Han 's funeral in Los Angeles, Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Mr. Nobody. Nobody says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God 's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande 's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi, where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God 's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God 's Eye near telecommunications repeaters, the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Nobody and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God 's Eye. At his own request, the injured Nobody is left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. To reduce their disadvantage, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family.
While Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone, Ramsey attempts to hack into God 's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Brian engages Jakande 's henchman Kiet and throws him down an elevator shaft, allowing Ramsey to regain control of God 's Eye and shut it down. Dom and Shaw engage in a one - on - one brawl on top of a public parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande 's helicopter, tossing Shaw 's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom 's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, "It 's about time ''.
Shaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high - security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he 's gon na say goodbye. Dom says, "It 's never goodbye. '' He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions, as the screen fades to "For Paul '' written on a white title screen.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom 's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando 's reworked car against Raldo 's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.
The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
In New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher and persuades Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.
Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene 's behest, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
In February 2016, Diesel announced the ninth film and tenth film would be released on April 10, 2020, and April 2, 2021, respectively, and that the tenth film would serve as the final film in the series. Justin Lin is reportedly in line to direct the ninth installment. It was also announced that Jordana Brewster would return for the ninth installment.
In May 2018, Daniel Casey from Kin, was announced to write a screenplay for the ninth film, making the first film in the franchise without long - time screenwriter Chris Morgan.
Vin Diesel announced in an interview with Variety that potential spin - offs were in the early stages of development. A spin - off film centered around two characters Luke Hobbs and Deckard Shaw was announced by Universal and set with release date of July 26, 2019, with Variety reporting that Shane Black was being considered to direct and Morgan returning to write the script. The announcement of the spin - off provoked a response on Instagram by Tyrese Gibson, criticizing Johnson for causing the ninth Fast & Furious film to be delayed for another year.
On October 23, 2017, Dwayne Johnson posted a video on Instagram which showed the finished script for the spin - off, titled Hobbs and Shaw. In February 2018, David Leitch entered talks to direct the film, which was confirmed later that April. In March 2018, it was reported that the film would start production in September 2018. In May 2018, the release date of the film was pushed back a week to August 2, 2019.
On April 23, 2018, it was announced that Universal and DreamWorks Animation are creating an animated series based on the franchise that will be launched on Netflix.
The short film was included on a new print of the DVD of the first film in June 2003 to bridge the first two films.
Brian O'Conner packs his bags and leaves Los Angeles, before the LAPD gets a chance to arrest him for letting Dominic escape. While the FBI launch a national manhunt for him, Brian travels across Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, winning every street race he participates in, with his red Dodge Stealth. However, he is forced to ditch his car at a motel in San Antonio when police officers are notified of his presence. When they collect the car, he manages to hitch a ride from an unknown woman (Minka Kelly), despite her knowing who he really is. She drops him at a used car lot, with him realizing she knows that he is a wanted man. There, he buys a green Nissan Skyline GT - R R34. Later, collecting money from street races, he modifies the car with new rims and repaints it silver before traveling eastbound and winning more races on the way. Upon reaching Jacksonville, Florida, Brian heads south toward Miami, where he sees Slap Jack 's Toyota Supra and Orange Julius ' Mazda RX - 7 (both 2 Fast 2 Furious characters) before the screen reads "2 be continued... ''.
Tego Leo (Tego Calderón) is in a Dominican Republic prison, ranting about corporations holding back the electric car and starting wars for oil. Meanwhile, on the streets, Rico Santos (Don Omar) chats to an old man unable to find enough gas. Han Lue (Sung Kang) arrives and is collected from the airport by Cara (Mirtha Michelle) and Malo (F. Valentino Morales). They drive him back to Santos ' house, where his aunt Rubia (Adria Carrasco) is struggling with rising prices linked to the cost of gasoline and Dominic is working on his car. The team then enjoy a welcome meal with the family. After breaking Leo out of prison, they head to a club, where Han and Cara flirt, while Dominic meets up with local politician Elvis (Juan Fernandez), who informs them of a window of opportunity to hijack a gasoline shipment. While relaxing at the club afterwards, Dominic is surprised by the arrival of Letty, who has tracked him from Mexico. The two drive together to the beach, where they "rekindle their relationship ''.
Below is a table of all films, both short and feature length, in chronological order. Real world release dates are also noted.
Universal has incorporated several theme park attractions involving the Fast & Furious franchise. Universal Studios Hollywood and its Studio Tour has featured several of the picture car vehicles. From 2006 to 2013, The Fast & The Furious: Extreme Close - Up attraction was part of the Studio Tour. On June 25, 2015, Universal Studios Hollywood allotted the final portion of their Studio Tour for the dark ride Fast and Furious: Supercharged. Universal Orlando announced the development of a ride of the same name to open in 2018.
Fast & Furious Live is a live show that combines stunt drivers, pyrotechnics and projection mapping. The show had two preview shows on January 11 -- 12 at Liverpool 's Echo Arena. It officially began its tour at London 's The O2 Arena on January 19, 2018, followed by a worldwide tour until later in 2018. On March 1, 2018, it was revealed on the tour 's website that five new dates had been released for September.
The following list is sourced from the tour 's website.
The film series has spawned several racing video games for various systems. The arcade game The Fast and the Furious (known as Wild Speed in Japan) was released by Raw Thrills in 2004. In 2006, the video game The Fast and the Furious was released for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable. Several games (The Fast and the Furious: Pink Slip, Fast & Furious, Fast Five, Fast & Furious: Adrenaline, Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy) have all been released for iOS and are available on the iTunes App Store; for Android devices there is an official version of Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy. In 2013, Fast & Furious: Showdown was released for the PC (Windows OS), Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. Various cars, locations and characters from the series have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town. In 2015, in a deal with Microsoft Studios, a standalone expansion of Forza Horizon 2 for Xbox One and Xbox 360 was released titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious.
Racing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film 's cars in different scales from 1 / 18 to 1 / 64. RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002. 1 / 24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl. Johnny Lightning, under the JL Full Throttle Brand, released 1 / 64th and 1 / 24th models of the cars from Tokyo Drift. These models were designed by Diecast Hall of Fame designer Eric Tscherne. Greenlight has also sold cars from the new films in the series and some from the previous films. Hot Wheels has released 1 / 64 models since 2013.
The Fast and the Furious franchise was filmed in a number of countries including: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Spain, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the United States.
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will there be a new episode of dragon ball super this week | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterwards, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
Twelve pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and ten ending themes. For the first 76 episodes, the opening theme is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. Beginning with episode 77, the second opening theme is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. For the first 12 episodes, the ending theme is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. Beginning with episode 109, the tenth ending theme is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by the rock band RottenGraffty.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia and India in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super started airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
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who was the first emperor of ancient china | Qin Shi Huang - wikipedia
Huang - Lao
Qin Shi Huang (Chinese: 秦始皇; literally: "First Emperor of Qin '', pronunciation (help info); 18 February 259 BC -- 10 September 210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and was the first emperor of a unified China. He was born Ying Zheng (嬴 政) or Zhao Zheng (趙 政), a prince of the state of Qin. He became Zheng, the King of Qin (秦王 政) when he was thirteen, then China 's first emperor when he was 38 after the Qin had conquered all of the other Warring States and unified all of China in 221 BC. Rather than maintain the title of "king '' (王 wáng) borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor (始皇帝) of the Qin dynasty from 220 to 210 BC. His self - invented title "emperor '' (皇帝 huángdì), as indicated by his use of the word "First '', would continue to be borne by Chinese rulers for the next two millennia.
During his reign, his generals greatly expanded the size of the Chinese state: campaigns south of Chu permanently added the Yue lands of Hunan and Guangdong to the Chinese cultural orbit; campaigns in Central Asia conquered the Ordos Loop from the nomad Xiongnu, although eventually it would also lead to their confederation under Modu Chanyu. Qin Shi Huang also worked with his minister Li Si to enact major economic and political reforms aimed at the standardization of the diverse practices of the earlier Chinese states. He is traditionally said to have banned and burned many books and executed scholars, though a closer examination renders the account doubtful. His public works projects included the unification of diverse state walls into a single Great Wall of China and a massive new national road system, as well as the city - sized mausoleum guarded by the life - sized Terracotta Army. He ruled until his death in 210 BC during his fourth tour of Eastern China. His achievements made him one of the most respected and influential individuals in world history, and a legacy among the Chinese.
Modern Chinese sources often give the personal name of Qin Shi Huang as Ying Zheng, with Ying (嬴) taken as the surname and Zheng (政) the given name. In ancient China however the naming convention differed, and Zhao (趙) may be used as the surname. Unlike modern Chinese names, the nobles of ancient China had two distinct surnames: the ancestral name (姓) comprised a larger group descended from a prominent ancestor, usually said to have lived during the time of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors of Chinese legend, and the clan name (氏) comprised a smaller group that showed a branch 's current fief or recent title. (This is remarkably similar to the practice of contemporary Romans for naming men, such as M. Tullius Cicero and C. Julius Caesar.) The ancient practice was to list men 's names separately -- Sima Qian 's "Basic Annals of the First Emperor of Qin '' introduces him as "given the name Zheng and the surname Zhao '' -- or to combine the clan surname with the personal name: Sima 's account of Chu describes the sixteenth year of the reign of King Kaolie as "the time when Zhao Zheng was enthroned as King of Qin ''. However, since modern Chinese surnames (despite usually descending from clan names) use the same character as the old ancestral names, it is much more common in modern Chinese sources to see the emperor 's personal name written as Ying Zheng, using the ancestral name of the Ying family.
The rulers of Qin had styled themselves kings from the time of King Huiwen in 325 BC. Upon his ascension, Zheng became known as the King of Qin or King Zheng of Qin. This title made him the nominal equal of the rulers of Shang and of Zhou, the last of whose kings had been deposed by King Zhaoxiang of Qin in 256 BC.
Following the surrender of Qi in 221 BC, King Zheng had reunited all of the lands of the former Kingdom of Zhou. Rather than maintain his rank as king, however, he created a new title of huángdì (emperor) for himself. This new title combined two titles -- huáng of the mythical Three Sovereigns (三 皇, Sān Huáng) and the dì of the legendary Five Emperors (五帝, Wŭ Dì) of Chinese prehistory. The title was intended to appropriate some of the prestige of the Yellow Emperor, whose cult was popular in the later Warring States period and who was considered to be a founder of the Chinese people. King Zheng chose the new regnal name of First Emperor (Shǐ Huángdì, formerly transcribed as Shih Huang - ti) on the understanding that his successors would be successively titled the "Second Emperor '', "Third Emperor '', and so on through the generations. (In fact, the scheme lasted only as long as his immediate heir, the Second Emperor.) The new title carried religious overtones. For that reason, Sinologists -- starting with Peter Boodberg or Edward Schafer -- sometimes translate it as "thearch '' and the First Emperor as the First Thearch.
The First Emperor intended that his realm would remain intact through the ages but, following its overthrow and replacement by Han after his death, it became customary to prefix his title with Qin. Thus:
As early as Sima Qian, it was common to shorten the resulting four - character Qin Shi Huangdi to 秦始皇, variously transcribed as Qin Shihuang or Qin Shi Huang.
Following his elevation as emperor, both Zheng 's personal name 政 and possibly its homophone 正 became taboo. The First Emperor also arrogated the first - person Chinese pronoun 朕 (OC * lrəm ', mod. zhèn) for his exclusive use and in 212 BC began calling himself The Immortal (真人, OC * Tin - niŋ, mod. Zhēnrén, lit. "True Man ''). Others were to address him as "Your Majesty '' (陛下, mod. Bìxià, lit. "Beneath the Palace Steps '') in person and "Your Highness '' (上) in writing.
According to the Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian during the Han dynasty, the first emperor was the eldest son of the Qin prince Yiren, who later became King Zhuangxiang of Qin. Prince Yiren at that time was residing at the court of Zhao, serving as a hostage to guarantee the armistice between the Qin and Zhao states. Prince Yiren had fallen in love at first sight with a concubine of Lü Buwei, a rich merchant from the State of Wey. Lü consented for her to be Yiren 's wife, who then became known as Lady Zhao (Zhao Ji) after the state of Zhao. Lady Zhao gave birth to the child on 18 February; and he was given the name Zhao Zheng -- the name Zheng (正) came from his month of birth Zhengyue, the first month of the Chinese lunar calendar; the clan name of Zhao came from his father 's lineage and was unrelated to either his mother 's name or the location of his birth. Lü Buwei 's machinations later helped Yiren become King Zhuangxiang of Qin in 250 BC.
However, the Records of the Grand Historian also claimed that the first emperor was not the actual son of Prince Yiren but that of Lü Buwei. According to this account, when Lü Buwei introduced the dancing girl to the prince, she was Lü Buwei 's concubine and had already become pregnant by him, and the baby was born after an unusually long period of pregnancy. According to translations of the Annals of Lü Buwei, Zhao Ji gave birth to the future emperor in the city of Handan in 259 BC, the first month of the 48th year of King Zhaoxiang of Qin.
The idea that the emperor was an illegitimate child, widely believed throughout Chinese history, contributed to the generally negative view of the First Emperor. However, a number of modern scholars have doubted this account of his birth. Sinologist Derk Bodde wrote: "There is good reason for believing that the sentence describing this unusual pregnancy is an interpolation added to the Shih - chi by an unknown person in order to slander the First Emperor and indicate his political as well as natal illegitimacy ''. John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, in their translation of Lü Buwei 's Spring and Autumn Annals, call the story "patently false, meant both to libel Lü and to cast aspersions on the First Emperor ''. Claiming Lü Buwei -- a merchant -- as the First Emperor 's biological father was meant to be especially disparaging, since later Confucian society regarded merchants as the lowest of all social classes.
In 246 BC, when King Zhuangxiang died after a short reign of just three years, he was succeeded on the throne by his 13 - year - old son. At the time, Zhao Zheng was still young, so Lü Buwei acted as the regent prime minister of the State of Qin, which was still waging war against the other six states. Nine years later, in 235 BC, Zhao Zheng assumed full power after Lü Buwei was banished for his involvement in a scandal with Queen Dowager Zhao.
Zhao Chengjiao, the Lord Chang'an (长安 君), was Zhao Zheng 's legitimate half - brother, by the same father but from a different mother. After Zhao Zheng inherited the throne, Chengjiao rebelled at Tunliu and surrendered to the state of Zhao. Chengjiao 's remaining retainers and families were executed by Zhao Zheng.
As King Zheng grew older, Lü Buwei became fearful that the boy king would discover his liaison with his mother Lady Zhao. He decided to distance himself and look for a replacement for the queen dowager. He found a man named Lao Ai. According to The Record of Grand Historian, Lao Ai was disguised as a eunuch by plucking his beard. Later Lao Ai and queen Zhao Ji got along so well they secretly had two sons together. Lao Ai then became ennobled as Marquis Lào Ǎi, and was showered with riches. Lao Ai 's plot was supposed to replace King Zheng with one of the hidden sons. But during a dinner party drunken Lào Ǎi was heard bragging about being the young king 's step father. In 238 BC the king was travelling to the ancient capital of Yōng (雍). Lao Ai seized the queen mother 's seal and mobilized an army in an attempt to start a coup and rebel. When King Zheng found out this fact, he ordered Lü Buwei to let Lord Changping and Lord Changwen attack Lao Ai and their army killed hundreds of the rebels at the capital, although Lao Ai succeeded in fleeing from this battle.
A price of 1 million copper coins was placed on Lao Ai 's head if he was taken alive or half a million if dead. Lao Ai 's supporters were captured and beheaded; then Lao Ai was tied up and torn to five pieces by horse carriages, while his entire family was executed to the third degree. The two hidden sons were also killed, while mother Zhao Ji was placed under house arrest until her death many years later. Lü Buwei drank a cup of poison wine and committed suicide in 235 BC. Ying Zheng then assumed full power as the King of the Qin state. Replacing Lü Buwei, Li Si became the new chancellor.
King Zheng and his troops continued to take over different states. The state of Yan was small, weak and frequently harassed by soldiers. It was no match for the Qin state. So Crown Prince Dan of Yan plotted an assassination attempt to get rid of King Zheng, begging Jing Ke to go on the mission in 227 BC. Jing Ke was accompanied by Qin Wuyang in the plot. Each was supposed to present a gift to King Zheng: a map of Dukang and the severed head of Fan Wuji.
Qin Wuyang first tried to present the map case gift, but trembled in fear and moved no further towards the king. Jing Ke continued to advance toward the king, while explaining that his partner "has never set eyes on the Son of Heaven '', which is why he is trembling. Jing Ke had to present both gifts by himself. While unrolling the map, a dagger was revealed. The king drew back, stood on his feet, but struggled to draw the sword to defend himself. At the time, other palace officials were not allowed to carry weapons. Jing Ke pursued the king, attempting to stab him, but missed. King Zheng drew out his sword and cut Jing Ke 's thigh. Jing Ke then threw the dagger, but missed again. Suffering eight wounds from the king 's sword, Jing Ke realized his attempt had failed and knew that both of them would be killed afterwards. The Yan state was conquered by the Qin state five years later.
Gao Jianli was a close friend of Jing Ke, who wanted to avenge his death. As a famous lute player, one day he was summoned by King Zheng to play the instrument. Someone in the palace who had known him in the past exclaimed, "This is Gao Jianli ''. Unable to bring himself to kill such a skilled musician, the emperor ordered his eyes put out. But the king allowed Gao Jianli to play in his presence. He praised the playing and even allowed Gao Jianli to get closer. As part of the plot, the lute was fastened with a heavy piece of lead. He raised the lute and struck at the king. He missed, and his assassination attempt failed. Gao Jianli was later executed.
In 230 BC, King Zheng unleashed the final campaigns of the Warring States period, setting out to conquer the remaining independent kingdoms, one by one.
The first state to fall was Hán (韓; sometimes called Hann to distinguish it from the Hàn 漢 of Han dynasty), in 230 BC. Then Qin took advantage of natural disasters in 229 BC to invade and conquer Zhào, where Qin Shi Huang had been born. He now avenged his poor treatment as a child hostage there, seeking out and killing his enemies.
Qin armies conquered the state of Zhao in 228 BC, the northern country of Yan in 226 BC, the small state of Wei in 225 BC, and the largest state and greatest challenge, Chu, in 223 BC.
In 222 BC, the last remnants of Yan and the royal family were captured in Liaodong in the northeast. The only independent country left was now state of Qi, in the far east, what is now the Shandong peninsula. Terrified, the young king of Qi sent 200,000 people to defend his western borders. In 221 BC, the Qin armies invaded from the north, captured the king, and annexed Qi. Some of the strategies Qin used to unify China were to standardize the trade and communication, currency and language.
For the first time, all Chinese lands were unified under one powerful ruler. In that same year, King Zheng proclaimed himself the "First Emperor '' (始皇帝, Shǐ Huángdì), no longer a king in the old sense and now far surpassing the achievements of the old Zhou Dynasty rulers. The emperor made the He Shi Bi into the Imperial Seal, known as the "Heirloom Seal of the Realm ''. The words, "Having received the Mandate from Heaven, may (the emperor) lead a long and prosperous life. '' (受命 於 天, 既 壽 永昌) were written by Prime Minister Li Si, and carved onto the seal by Sun Shou. The Seal was later passed from emperor to emperor for generations to come.
In the South, military expansion in the form of campaigns against the Yue tribes continued during his reign, with various regions being annexed to what is now Guangdong province and part of today 's Vietnam.
In an attempt to avoid a recurrence of the political chaos of the Warring States period, Qin Shi Huang and his prime minister Li Si completely abolished feudalism. The empire was then divided into 36 commanderies (郡, Jùn), later more than 40 commanderies. The whole of China was thus divided into administrative units: first commanderies, then counties (縣, Xiàn), townships (鄉, Xiāng) and hundred - family units (里, Li, which roughly corresponds to the modern - day subdistricts and communities). This system was different from the previous dynasties, which had loose alliances and federations. People could no longer be identified by their native region or former feudal state, as when a person from Chu was called "Chu person '' (楚 人, Chu rén). Appointments were subsequently based on merit instead of hereditary rights.
Qin Shi Huang and Li Si unified China economically by standardizing the Chinese units of measurements such as weights and measures, the currency, and the length of the axles of carts to facilitate transport on the road system. The emperor also developed an extensive network of roads and canals connecting the provinces to improve trade between them. The currency of the different states were also standardized to the Ban liang coin (半 兩, Bàn Liǎng). Perhaps most importantly, the Chinese script was unified. Under Li Si, the seal script of the state of Qin was standardized through removal of variant forms within the Qin script itself. This newly standardized script was then made official throughout all the conquered regions, thus doing away with all the regional scripts to form one language, one communication system for all of China.
Qin Shi Huang also followed the school of the five elements, earth, wood, metal, fire and water. (五 德 終始 說) Zhao Zheng 's birth element is water, which is connected with the colour black. It was also believed that the royal house of the previous dynasty Zhou had ruled by the power of fire, which was the colour red. The new Qin dynasty must be ruled by the next element on the list, which is water, represented by the colour black. Black became the colour for garments, flags, pennants. Other associations include north as the cardinal direction, winter season and the number six. Tallies and official hats were 15 centimetres (5.9 inches) long, carriages two metres (6.6 feet) wide, one pace (步; Bù) was 1.4 metres (4.6 ft).
While the previous Warring States era was one of constant warfare, it was also considered the golden age of free thought. Qin Shi Huang eliminated the Hundred Schools of Thought which incorporated Confucianism and other philosophies. After the unification of China, with all other schools of thought banned, legalism became the endorsed ideology of the Qin dynasty, which was basically a system that required the people to follow the laws or be punished accordingly.
Beginning in 213 BC, at the instigation of Li Si and to avoid scholars ' comparisons of his reign with the past, Qin Shi Huang ordered most existing books to be burned with the exception of those on astrology, agriculture, medicine, divination, and the history of the State of Qin. This would also serve the purpose of furthering the ongoing reformation of the writing system by removing examples of obsolete scripts. Owning the Book of Songs or the Classic of History was to be punished especially severely. According to the later Records of the Grand Historian, the following year Qin Shi Huang had some 460 scholars buried alive for owning the forbidden books. The emperor 's oldest son Fusu criticised him for this act.
Recent research suggests that the "burying of the Confucian scholars alive '' is a Confucian martyrs ' legend; rather, the emperor ordered the killing (坑 kēng) of a group of alchemists after having found that they had fooled him. In Han times, the Confucian scholars, who had served the Qin loyally, used that incident to distance themselves from the failed dynasty. Kong Anguo (孔安國 c. 165 -- c. 74 BC), a descendant of Confucius, turned the alchemists (方士 fāngshì) into Confucianists (儒 rú) and entwined the martyrs ' legend with the strange story of the rediscovery of the lost Confucian books behind a demolished wall in the house of his ancestors. The emperor 's own library still had copies of the forbidden books but most of these were destroyed later when Xiang Yu burned the palaces of Xianyang in 206 BC.
In 230 BC, the state of Qin had defeated the state of Han. A Han aristocrat named Zhang Liang swore revenge on the Qin emperor. He sold all his valuables and in 218 BC, he hired a strongman assassin and built him a heavy metal cone weighing 120 jin (roughly 160 lb or 97 kg). The two men hid among the bushes along the emperor 's route over a mountain. At a signal, the muscular assassin hurled the cone at the first carriage and shattered it. However, the emperor was actually in the second carriage, as he was travelling with two identical carriages for this very reason. Thus the attempt failed. Both men were able to escape in spite of a huge manhunt.
The Qin fought nomadic tribes to the north and north - west. The Xiongnu tribes were not defeated and subdued, thus the campaign was tiring and unsuccessful, and to prevent the Xiongnu from encroaching on the northern frontier any longer, the emperor ordered the construction of an immense defensive wall. This wall, for whose construction hundreds of thousands of men were mobilized, and an unknown number died, is a precursor to the current Great Wall of China. It connected numerous state walls which had been built during the previous four centuries, a network of small walls linking river defences to impassable cliffs.
A famous South China quotation was "In the North there is the Great wall, in the South there is the Lingqu canal '' (北 有 長城 、 南 有 靈 渠, Běiyǒu chángchéng, nányǒu língqú). In 214 BC the Emperor began the project of a major canal to transport supplies to the army. The canal allows water transport between north and south China. The canal, 34 kilometres in length, links the Xiang River which flows into the Yangtze and the Li Jiang, which flows into the Pearl River. The canal connected two of China 's major waterways and aided Qin 's expansion into the south - west. The construction is considered one of the three great feats of Ancient Chinese engineering, the others being the Great Wall and the Sichuan Dujiangyan Irrigation System.
Later in his life, Qin Shi Huang feared death and desperately sought the fabled elixir of life, which would supposedly allow him to live forever. He was obsessed with acquiring immortality and fell prey to many who offered him supposed elixirs. He visited Zhifu Island three times in order to achieve immortality.
In one case he sent Xu Fu, a Zhifu islander, with ships carrying hundreds of young men and women in search of the mystical Penglai mountain. They were sent to find Anqi Sheng, a 1,000 - year - old magician whom Qin Shi Huang had supposedly met in his travels and who had invited him to seek him there. These people never returned, perhaps because they knew that if they returned without the promised elixir, they would surely be executed. Legends claim that they reached Japan and colonized it. It is also possible that the book burning, a purge on what could be seen as wasteful and useless literature, was, in part, an attempt to focus the minds of the Emperor 's best scholars on the alchemical quest. Some of the executed scholars were those who had been unable to offer any evidence of their supernatural schemes. This may have been the ultimate means of testing their abilities: if any of them had magic powers, then they would surely come back to life when they were let out again. Since the great emperor was afraid of death and "evil spirits '', he had workers build a series of tunnels and passageways to each of his palaces (he owned over 200), because traveling unseen would supposedly keep him safe from the evil spirits.
In 211 BC a large meteor is said to have fallen in Dōngjùn (東郡) in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. On it, an unknown person inscribed the words "The First Emperor will die and his land will be divided '' (始 皇 死 而 地 分). When the emperor heard of this, he sent an imperial secretary to investigate this prophecy. No one would confess to the deed, so all the people living nearby were put to death. The stone was then burned and pulverized.
During his fourth tour of Eastern China, the Emperor became seriously ill after he arrived in Pingyuanjin (Pingyuan County, Shandong), and died on 10 September 210 BC (Julian Calendar) at the palace in Shaqiu prefecture (沙丘 平台, Shāqiū Píngtái), about two months away by road from the capital Xianyang.
The cause of Qin Shi Huang 's death is still largely unknown, reportedly, he died from Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning due to ingesting mercury pills, made by his alchemists and court physicians, believing it to be an elixir of immortality.
After the Emperor 's death, Prime Minister Li Si, who accompanied him, became extremely worried that the news of his death could trigger a general uprising in the Empire. It would take two months for the entourage to reach the capital, and it would not be possible to stop the uprising. Li Si decided to hide the death of the Emperor, and return to Xianyang. Most of the Imperial entourage accompanying the Emperor were left ignorant of the Emperor 's death; only a younger son, Ying Huhai, who was travelling with his father, the eunuch Zhao Gao, Li Si, and five or six favourite eunuchs knew of the death. Li Si also ordered that two carts containing rotten fish be carried immediately before and after the wagon of the Emperor. The idea behind this was to prevent people from noticing the foul smell emanating from the wagon of the Emperor, where his body was starting to decompose severely as it was summertime. They also pulled down the shade so no one could see his face, changed his clothes daily, brought food and when he had to have important conversations, they would act as if he wanted to send them a message.
Eventually, after about two months, Li Si and the imperial court reached Xianyang, where the news of the death of the emperor was announced. Qin Shi Huang did not like to talk about his own death and he had never written a will. After his death, the eldest son Fusu would normally become the next emperor.
Li Si and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao conspired to kill Fusu because Fusu 's favorite general was Meng Tian, whom they disliked and feared; Meng Tian 's brother, a senior minister, had once punished Zhao Gao. They believed that if Fusu was enthroned, they would lose their power. Li Si and Zhao Gao forged a letter from Qin Shi Huang saying that both Fusu and General Meng must commit suicide. The plan worked, and the younger son Hu Hai became the Second Emperor, later known as Qin Er Shi or "Second Generation Qin ''.
Qin Er Shi, however, was not as capable as his father. Revolts quickly erupted. His reign was a time of extreme civil unrest, and everything built by the First Emperor crumbled away within a short period. One of the immediate revolt attempts was the 209 BC Daze Village Uprising led by Chen Sheng and Wu Guang.
The following are some family members of Qin Shi Huang:
Qin Shi Huang had about 50 children (about 30 sons and 15 daughters), but most of their names are unknown. He had numerous concubines but appeared to have never named an empress.
The Chinese historian Sima Qian, writing a century after the First Emperor 's death, wrote that it took 700,000 men to construct the emperor 's mausoleum. British historian John Man points out that this figure is larger than the population of any city in the world at that time and he calculates that the foundations could have been built by 16,000 men in two years. While Sima Qian never mentioned the terracotta army, the statues were discovered by a group of farmers digging wells on March 29, 1974. The soldiers were created with a series of mix - and - match clay molds and then further individualized by the artists ' hand. Han Purple was also used on some of the warriors. There are around 6,000 Terracotta Warriors and their purpose was to protect the Emperor in the afterlife from evil spirits. Also among the army are chariots and 40,000 real bronze weapons.
One of the first projects which the young king accomplished while he was alive was the construction of his own tomb. In 215 BC Qin Shi Huang ordered General Meng Tian to begin its construction with the assistance of 300,000 men. Other sources suggest that he ordered 720,000 unpaid laborers to build his tomb according to his specifications. Again, given John Man 's observation regarding populations at the time (see paragraph above), these historical estimates are debatable. The main tomb (located at 34 ° 22 ′ 52.75 '' N 109 ° 15 ′ 13.06 '' E / 34.3813194 ° N 109.2536278 ° E / 34.3813194; 109.2536278) containing the emperor has yet to be opened and there is evidence suggesting that it remains relatively intact. Sima Qian 's description of the tomb includes replicas of palaces and scenic towers, "rare utensils and wonderful objects '', 100 rivers made with mercury, representations of "the heavenly bodies '', and crossbows rigged to shoot anyone who tried to break in. The tomb was built at the foot of Mount Li, 30 kilometers away from Xi'an. Modern archaeologists have located the tomb, and have inserted probes deep into it. The probes revealed abnormally high quantities of mercury, some 100 times the naturally occurring rate, suggesting that some parts of the legend are credible. Secrets were maintained, as most of the workmen who built the tomb were killed.
Traditional Chinese historiography almost always portrayed the First Emperor of the Chinese unified states as a brutal tyrant who had an obsessive fear of assassination. Ideological antipathy towards the Legalist State of Qin was established as early as 266 BC, when Confucian philosopher Xunzi disparaged it. Later Confucian historians condemned the emperor who had burned the classics and had buried Confucian scholars alive. They eventually compiled a list of the Ten Crimes of Qin to highlight his tyrannical actions.
The famous Han poet and statesman Jia Yi concluded his essay The Faults of Qin (過 秦 論, Guò Qín Lùn) with what was to become the standard Confucian judgment of the reasons for Qin 's collapse. Jia Yi 's essay, admired as a masterpiece of rhetoric and reasoning, was copied into two great Han histories and has had a far - reaching influence on Chinese political thought as a classic illustration of Confucian theory. He attributed Qin 's disintegration to its internal failures. Jia Yi wrote that:
Qin, from a tiny base, had become a great power, ruling the land and receiving homage from all quarters for a hundred odd years. Yet after they unified the land and secured themselves within the pass, a single common rustic could nevertheless challenge this empire... Why? Because the ruler lacked humaneness and rightness; because preserving power differs fundamentally from seizing power.
In more modern times, historical assessment of the First Emperor different from traditional Chinese historiography began to emerge. The reassessment was spurred on by the weakness of China in the latter half of the 19th century and early 20th century. At that time some began to regard Confucian traditions as an impediment to China 's entry into the modern world, opening the way for changing perspectives.
At a time when foreign nations encroached upon Chinese territory, leading Kuomintang historian Xiao Yishan emphasized the role of Qin Shi Huang in repulsing the northern barbarians, particularly in the construction of the Great Wall.
Another historian, Ma Feibai (馬 非 百), published in 1941 a full - length revisionist biography of the First Emperor entitled Qín Shǐ Huángdì Zhuàn (秦始皇 帝 傳), calling him "one of the great heroes of Chinese history ''. Ma compared him with the contemporary leader Chiang Kai - shek and saw many parallels in the careers and policies of the two men, both of whom he admired. Chiang 's Northern Expedition of the late 1920s, which directly preceded the new Nationalist government at Nanjing was compared to the unification brought about by Qin Shi Huang.
With the coming of the Communist Revolution and the establishment of a new, revolutionary regime in 1949, another re-evaluation of the First Emperor emerged as a Marxist critique. This new interpretation of Qin Shi Huang was generally a combination of traditional and modern views, but essentially critical. This is exemplified in the Complete History of China, which was compiled in September 1955 as an official survey of Chinese history. The work described the First Emperor 's major steps toward unification and standardisation as corresponding to the interests of the ruling group and the merchant class, not of the nation or the people, and the subsequent fall of his dynasty as a manifestation of the class struggle. The perennial debate about the fall of the Qin Dynasty was also explained in Marxist terms, the peasant rebellions being a revolt against oppression -- a revolt which undermined the dynasty, but which was bound to fail because of a compromise with "landlord class elements ''.
Since 1972, however, a radically different official view of Qin Shi Huang in accordance with Maoist thought has been given prominence throughout China. Hong Shidi 's biography Qin Shi Huang initiated the re-evaluation. The work was published by the state press as a mass popular history, and it sold 1.85 million copies within two years. In the new era, Qin Shi Huang was seen as a far - sighted ruler who destroyed the forces of division and established the first unified, centralized state in Chinese history by rejecting the past. Personal attributes, such as his quest for immortality, so emphasized in traditional historiography, were scarcely mentioned. The new evaluations described approvingly how, in his time (an era of great political and social change), he had no compunctions against using violent methods to crush counter-revolutionaries, such as the "industrial and commercial slave owner '' chancellor Lü Buwei. However, he was criticized for not being as thorough as he should have been, and as a result, after his death, hidden subversives under the leadership of the chief eunuch Zhao Gao were able to seize power and use it to restore the old feudal order.
To round out this re-evaluation, Luo Siding put forward a new interpretation of the precipitous collapse of the Qin Dynasty in an article entitled "On the Class Struggle During the Period Between Qin and Han '' in a 1974 issue of Red Flag, to replace the old explanation. The new theory claimed that the cause of the fall of Qin lay in the lack of thoroughness of Qin Shi Huang 's "dictatorship over the reactionaries, even to the extent of permitting them to worm their way into organs of political authority and usurp important posts. ''
Mao Zedong, chairman of the People 's Republic of China, was reviled for his persecution of intellectuals. On being compared to the First Emperor, Mao responded:
"He buried 460 scholars alive; we have buried forty - six thousand scholars alive... You (intellectuals) revile us for being Qin Shi Huangs. You are wrong. We have surpassed Qin Shi Huang a hundredfold. When you berate us for imitating his despotism, we are happy to agree! Your mistake was that you did not say so enough. ''
Tom Ambrose characterises Qin Shi Huang as the founder of "the first police state in history ''.
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who argued that the psyche contained three components called the id ego and super-ego | Id, ego and super-ego - wikipedia
The id, ego and super-ego are three distinct, yet interacting agents in the psychic apparatus defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of the psyche.
The three parts are the theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction our mental life is described. According to this Freudian model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.
As Freud explained:
"The functional importance of the ego is manifested in the fact that normally control over the approaches to motility devolves upon it. Thus in its relation to the id it is like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse; with this difference, that the rider tries to do so with his own strength while the ego uses borrowed forces. The analogy may be carried a little further. Often a rider, if he is not to be parted from his horse, is obliged to guide it where it wants to go; so in the same way the ego is in the habit of transforming the id 's will into action as if it were its own. '' (p. 19).
Although the model is structural and makes reference to an apparatus, the id, ego and super-ego are purely psychological concepts and do not correspond to (somatic) structures of the brain such as the kind dealt with by neuroscience. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, shameful, weak, and feel compelled to do certain things. Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses "the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the (ego) ideal -- its dictatorial ' Thou shalt. ' ''
Freud (1933) hypothesizes different levels of ego ideal or superego development with increasingly greater ideals:
... nor must it be forgotten that a child has a different estimate of his parents at different periods of his life. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent; but later they lose much of this. Identifications then come about with these later parents as well, and indeed they regularly make important contributions to the formation of character; but in that case they only affect the ego, they no longer influence the super-ego, which has been determined by the earliest parental images.
The earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the parental imago, then one feels the ' dictatorial thou shalt ' to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freud 's work: the auto - erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and the phallic. These different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. For example, aggressive desires to decapitate, to dismember, to cannibalize, to swallow whole, to suck dry, to make disappear, to blow away, etc. animate myths, are enjoyed in fantasy and horror movies, and are observable in the fantasies and repressions of patients across cultures.
The concepts themselves arose at a late stage in the development of Freud 's thought as the "structural model '' (which succeeded his "economic model '' and "topographical model '') and was first discussed in his 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle and was formalized and elaborated upon three years later in his The Ego and the Id. Freud 's proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term "unconscious '' and its many conflicting uses.
The id (Latin for "it '', German: Es) is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human 's basic, instinctual drives. Id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives. The id contains the libido, which is the primary source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. The id acts according to the "pleasure principle '' -- the psychic force that motivates the tendency to seek immediate gratification of any impulse -- defined as seeking to avoid pain or unpleasure (not "displeasure '') aroused by increases in instinctual tension. According to Freud the id is unconscious by definition:
It is the dark, inaccessible part of our personality, what little we know of it we have learned from our study of the dreamwork and of course the construction of neurotic symptoms, and most of that is of a negative character and can be described only as a contrast to the ego. We approach the id with analogies: we call it a chaos, a cauldron full of seething excitations... It is filled with energy reaching it from the instincts, but it has no organization, produces no collective will, but only a striving to bring about the satisfaction of the instinctual needs subject to the observance of the pleasure principle.
In the id:
... contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out... There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation... nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time.
Developmentally, the id precedes the ego; i.e., the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. Thus, the id:
... contains everything that is inherited, that is present at birth, is laid down in the constitution -- above all, therefore, the instincts, which originate from the somatic organization, and which find a first psychical expression here (in the id) in forms unknown to us.
The mind of a newborn child is regarded as completely "id - ridden '', in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses, and needs immediate satisfaction.
The id "knows no judgements of value: no good and evil, no morality... Instinctual cathexes seeking discharge -- that, in our view, is all there is in the id. '' It is regarded as "the great reservoir of libido '', the instinctive drive to create -- the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. Alongside the life instincts came the death instincts -- the death drive which Freud articulated relatively late in his career in "the hypothesis of a death instinct, the task of which is to lead organic life back into the inanimate state. '' For Freud, "the death instinct would thus seem to express itself -- though probably only in part -- as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world and other organisms '' through aggression. Freud considered that "the id, the whole person... originally includes all the instinctual impulses... the destructive instinct as well '', as eros or the life instincts.
The ego (Latin for "I '', German: Ich) acts according to the reality principle; i.e., it seeks to please the id 's drive in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bring grief. At the same time, Freud concedes that as the ego "attempts to mediate between id and reality, it is often obliged to cloak the (unconscious) commands of the id with its own preconscious rationalizations, to conceal the id 's conflicts with reality, to profess... to be taking notice of reality even when the id has remained rigid and unyielding. '' The reality principle that operates the ego is a regulating mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs and function effectively in the real world. An example would be to resist the urge to grab other people 's belongings, but instead to purchase those items.
The ego is the organized part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual - cognitive, and executive functions. Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although not all of the operations of the ego are conscious. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory. The ego separates out what is real. It helps us to organize our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us. "The ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world... The ego represents what may be called reason and common sense, in contrast to the id, which contains the passions... in its relation to the id it is like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse; with this difference, that the rider tries to do so with his own strength, while the ego uses borrowed forces. '' Still worse, "it serves three severe masters... the external world, the super-ego and the id. '' Its task is to find a balance between primitive drives and reality while satisfying the id and super-ego. Its main concern is with the individual 's safety and allows some of the id 's desires to be expressed, but only when consequences of these actions are marginal. "Thus the ego, driven by the id, confined by the super-ego, repulsed by reality, struggles... (in) bringing about harmony among the forces and influences working in and upon it, '' and readily "breaks out in anxiety -- realistic anxiety regarding the external world, moral anxiety regarding the super-ego, and neurotic anxiety regarding the strength of the passions in the id. '' It has to do its best to suit all three, thus is constantly feeling hemmed by the danger of causing discontent on two other sides. It is said, however, that the ego seems to be more loyal to the id, preferring to gloss over the finer details of reality to minimize conflicts while pretending to have a regard for reality. But the super-ego is constantly watching every one of the ego 's moves and punishes it with feelings of guilt, anxiety, and inferiority.
To overcome this the ego employs defense mechanisms. The defense mechanisms are not done so directly or consciously. They lessen the tension by covering up our impulses that are threatening. Ego defense mechanisms are often used by the ego when id behavior conflicts with reality and either society 's morals, norms, and taboos or the individual 's expectations as a result of the internalization of these morals, norms, and their taboos.
Denial, displacement, intellectualisation, fantasy, compensation, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation were the defense mechanisms Freud identified. However, his daughter Anna Freud clarified and identified the concepts of undoing, suppression, dissociation, idealization, identification, introjection, inversion, somatisation, splitting, and substitution.
In a diagram of the Structural and Topographical Models of Mind, the ego is depicted to be half in the consciousness, while a quarter is in the preconscious and the other quarter lies in the unconscious.
In modern English, ego has many meanings. It could mean one 's self - esteem; an inflated sense of self - worth; the conscious - thinking self; or in philosophical terms, one 's self. Ego development is known as the development of multiple processes, cognitive function, defenses, and interpersonal skills or to early adolescence when ego processes are emerged.
The super-ego (German: Über - Ich) reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence. Freud developed his concept of the super-ego from an earlier combination of the ego ideal and the "special psychical agency which performs the task of seeing that narcissistic satisfaction from the ego ideal is ensured... what we call our ' conscience '. '' For him "the installation of the super-ego can be described as a successful instance of identification with the parental agency, '' while as development proceeds "the super-ego also takes on the influence of those who have stepped into the place of parents -- educators, teachers, people chosen as ideal models ''.
Thus a child 's super-ego is in fact constructed on the model not of its parents but of its parents ' super-ego; the contents which fill it are the same and it becomes the vehicle of tradition and of all the time - resisting judgements of value which have propagated themselves in this manner from generation to generation.
The super-ego aims for perfection. It forms the organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious, that includes the individual 's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic agency (commonly called "conscience '') that criticizes and prohibits their drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions. "The Super-ego can be thought of as a type of conscience that punishes misbehavior with feelings of guilt. For example, for having extra-marital affairs. '' Taken in this sense, the super-ego is the precedent for the conceptualization of the inner critic as it appears in contemporary therapies such as IFS.
The super-ego works in contradiction to the id. The super-ego strives to act in a socially appropriate manner, whereas the id just wants instant self - gratification. The super-ego controls our sense of right and wrong and guilt. It helps us fit into society by getting us to act in socially acceptable ways.
The super-ego's demands often oppose the id 's, so the ego sometimes has a hard time in reconciling the two.
Freud 's theory implies that the super-ego is a symbolic internalisation of the father figure and cultural regulations. The super-ego tends to stand in opposition to the desires of the id because of their conflicting objectives, and its aggressiveness towards the ego. The super-ego acts as the conscience, maintaining our sense of morality and proscription from taboos. The super-ego and the ego are the product of two key factors: the state of helplessness of the child and the Oedipus complex. Its formation takes place during the dissolution of the Oedipus complex and is formed by an identification with and internalisation of the father figure after the little boy can not successfully hold the mother as a love - object out of fear of castration. Freud described the super-ego and its relationship to the father figure and Oedipus complex thus:
The super-ego retains the character of the father, while the more powerful the Oedipus complex was and the more rapidly it succumbed to repression (under the influence of authority, religious teaching, schooling and reading), the stricter will be the domination of the super-ego over the ego later on -- in the form of conscience or perhaps of an unconscious sense of guilt.
The concept of super-ego and the Oedipus complex is subject to criticism for its perceived sexism. Women, who are considered to be already castrated, do not identify with the father, and therefore, for Freud, "their super-ego is never so inexorable, so impersonal, so independent of its emotional origins as we require it to be in men... they are often more influenced in their judgements by feelings of affection or hostility. '' However, Freud went on to modify his position to the effect "that the majority of men are also far behind the masculine ideal and that all human individuals, as a result of their human identity, combine in themselves both masculine and feminine characteristics, otherwise known as human characteristics. ''
Freud 's earlier, topographical model of the mind had divided the mind into the three elements of conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious contains events that we are aware of, preconscious is events that are in the process of becoming conscious, and unconscious include events that we are not aware of. At its heart was "the dialectic of unconscious traumatic memory versus consciousness... which soon became a conflict between System Ucs versus System Cs. '' With what Freud called the "disagreeable discovery that on the one hand (super -) ego and conscious and on the other hand repressed and unconscious are far from coinciding, '' Freud took the step in the structural model to "no longer use the term ' unconscious ' in the systematic sense, '' and to rename "the mental region that is foreign to the ego... (and) in future call it the ' id '. '' The partition of the psyche defined in the structural model is thus one that cuts across the topographical model 's partition of "conscious vs. unconscious ''.
"The new terminology which he introduced has a highly clarifying effect and so made further clinical advances possible. '' Its value lies in the increased degree of precision and diversification made possible: Although the id is unconscious by definition, the ego and the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious. What is more, with this new model Freud achieved a more systematic classification of mental disorder than had been available previously:
Transference neuroses correspond to a conflict between the ego and the id; narcissistic neuroses, to a conflict between the ego and the superego; and psychoses, to one between the ego and the external world.
It is important to realise however, that "the three newly presented entities, the id, the ego and the superego, all had lengthy past histories (two of them under other names) '' -- the id as the systematic unconscious, the super-ego as conscience / ego ideal. Equally, Freud never abandoned the topographical division of conscious, preconscious, and unconscious, though as he noted ruefully "the three qualities of consciousness and the three provinces of the mental apparatus do not fall together into three peaceful couples... we had no right to expect any such smooth arrangement. ''
The iceberg metaphor is a commonly used visual metaphor when attempting to relate the ego, id and superego with the conscious and unconscious mind. In the iceberg metaphor the entire id and part of both the superego and the ego would be submerged in the underwater portion representing the unconscious mind. The remaining portions of the ego and superego would be displayed above water in the conscious mind area.
The terms "id '', "ego '', and "super-ego '' are not Freud 's own. They are latinisations by his translator James Strachey. Freud himself wrote of "das Es '', "das Ich '', and "das Über - Ich '' -- respectively, "the It '', "the I '', and "the Over-I '' (or "I above ''); thus to the German reader, Freud 's original terms are more or less self - explanatory. Freud borrowed the term "das Es '' from Georg Groddeck, a German physician to whose unconventional ideas Freud was much attracted (Groddeck 's translators render the term in English as "the It ''). The word ego is taken directly from Latin, where it is the nominative of the first person singular personal pronoun and is translated as "I myself '' to express emphasis.
Figures like Bruno Bettelheim have criticized the way "the English translations impeded students ' efforts to gain a true understanding of Freud. '' by substituting the formalised language of the elaborated code for the quotidian immediacy of Freud 's own language.
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when was the last time fsu had a losing season | List of Florida State Seminoles football seasons - wikipedia
The Florida State Seminoles football team has represented Florida State University in collegiate football since 1947. The following is a list of Florida State Seminoles football seasons.
Florida State College, forerunner of Florida State University, played three years of intercollegiate football from 1902 to 1904. In 1905 the state legislature passed the Buckman Act and Florida State College became Florida State College for Women. The University of Florida at Lake City moved to Gainesville and merged with the East Florida Seminary to form a new University of Florida. FSU did not play football again until 1947.
Note: FSU was forced to vacate five wins in 2006 and seven wins in 2007 due to an academic cheating scandal.
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in the u.s what is the most common use for antibiotics | Antibiotic use in livestock - wikipedia
Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a batch of animals when at least one is diagnosed as ill (metaphylaxis, similar to the way bacterial meningitis is treated in children), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis) against disease. The use of subtherapeutic doses in animal feed and / or water to promote growth and improve feed efficiency was eliminated effective January 1, 2017, as a result of new FDA Veterinary Feed Directive. This practice has been banned in Europe since 2006. This article looks at antibiotic use for growth promotion and the situation in the United States and does not cover therapy, prophylaxis or metaphylaxis in Europe.
Antimicrobials (including antibiotics and antifungals) and other drugs can only be used by veterinarians and livestock owners in the U.S. for treatment, control, or prevention of diseases. Some other countries outside Europe can use antimicrobials to increase the growth rates of livestock, poultry, and other farmed animals, although these pharmaceuticals do not always have to be administered by a veterinarian.
There are also global concerns over the use of antibiotics for growth promotion or therapy purposes because of the potential for some drugs to enter the human food chain despite rigorous withdrawal measures and testing to prevent antibiotic residues in food, increasing antibiotic resistance in animals, a potential although largely unproven link to antibiotic - resistant infections in humans, and what some consider antibiotic misuse. Other drugs may be used only under strict limits, and some organizations and authorities seek to further restrict the use of some or all drugs in animals. Other authorities, such as the World Organization for Animal Health, say that "Without antibiotics there would be supply problems of animal protein for the human population ''.
However, in 2013 the CDC finalized and released a report detailing antibiotic resistance and classified the top 18 resistant bacterium as either being urgent, serious or concerning threats (CDC). Of those organisms, three (CDIFF, CRE and Neisseria gonorrhoeae) have been classified as urgent threats and require more monitoring and prevention (CDC). In the US alone, more than 2 million people are diagnosed with antibiotic resistant infections and over 23,000 die per year due to resistant infections (CDC).
Given the concerns about antibiotic use for feed conversion, research into alternatives is ongoing.
In 1910 in the United States, a meat shortage resulted in protests and boycotts. After this and other shortages, the public demanded government research into stabilization of food supplies. Since the 1900s, livestock production on United States farms has had to rear larger quantities of animals over a short period of time to meet new consumer demands. Factory farming or the use of high intensity feedlots originated in the late 19th century when advances in technology and science allowed for mass production of livestock. Global agriculture production doubled four times within 1820 and 1975, feeding one billion in 1800 and up to 6.5 billion in 2002. Along with the new large animal densities came the threat of disease, therefore requiring a greater disease control of these animals. In 1950, a group of United States scientists found that adding antibiotics to animal feed increases the growth rate of livestock. American Cyanamid published research establishing the practice.
By 2001 this practice had grown so much that a report by the Union of Concerned Scientists found that nearly 90 % of the total use of antimicrobials in the United States was for non-therapeutic purposes in agricultural production.
Antibiotics have an appropriate place in the humane care of illness in livestock, when they reduce the suffering of a sick animal or control the spread of the illness to nearby animals. Thus, ideas that they should never be used in livestock husbandry are misguided. Instead, the goal is to prevent the allowance of preventive use from being distorted into routine use, constituting overuse.
Certain antibiotics, when given in low, sub-therapeutic doses, are known to improve feed conversion efficiency (more output, such as muscle or milk, for a given amount of feed) and / or may promote greater growth, most likely by affecting gut flora. However, any antibiotics deemed medically important to humans by the CDC are illegal to use as growth promoters in the U.S. Only drugs that have no association with human medicine -- and therefore no risk to humans -- are allowed to be used for this purpose. It is also important to note that some drugs listed below are ionophores, which are not antibiotics and do not pose any potential risk to human health.
The use of antibiotics to increase the growth of pigs is the most studied in livestock. This use for growth rather than disease prevention is referred to as subtherapeutic antibiotic use. Studies have shown that administering low doses of antibiotics in livestock feed improves growth rate, reduces mortality and morbidity, and improves reproductive performance. It is estimated that over one - half of the antibiotics produced and sold in the United States is used as a feed additive. Although it is still not completely understood why and how antibiotics increase the growth rate of pigs, possibilities include metabolic effects, disease control effects, and nutritional effects. While subtherapeutic use has many benefits for raising swine, there is growing concern that this practice leads to increased antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria are resistant to one or more microbial agents that are usually used to treat infection. There are three stages in the possible emergence and continuation of antibiotic resistance: genetic change, antibiotic selection, and spread of antibiotic resistance.
The use of drugs in food animals is regulated in nearly all countries. Historically, this has been to prevent alteration or contamination of meat, milk, eggs and other products with toxins that are harmful to humans. Treating a sick animal with drugs may lead to some of those drugs remaining in the animal when it is slaughtered or milked. Scientific experiments provide data that shows how long a drug is present in the body of an animal and what the animal 's body does to the drug. Of particular concern are drugs that may be passed into milk or eggs. By the use of ' drug withdrawal periods ' before slaughter or the use of milk or eggs from treated animals, veterinarians and animal owners ensure that the meat, milk and eggs is free of contamination.
These restrictions include not only poisons or drugs (such as penicillin) which may result in allergic reactions but also contaminants which may cause cancer. It is illegal in the US to administer drugs or feed substances to animals if they have been shown to cause cancer.
One of the main restrictions is the amount that is administered to animals in the industry. These drugs should be administered to healthy livestock at a low concentration of 200 g per ton of feed. The amount distributed is also altered throughout the lifespan of livestock in order to meet specific growth needs.
Legality of the use of specific drugs in animal medicine varies according to location.
Just as in human medicine, some drugs are available over the counter and others are restricted to use only on the prescription of a veterinary physician. In the US, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires specific labels on all drugs, giving directions on the use of the drug. For animals, this includes the species, dose, reason for giving the drug (indication) and the required withdrawal period, if any. Federal law requires laypersons to use drugs only in the manner listed. Veterinarians who have examined an animal or a herd of animals may issue a replacement label, giving new directions, based on their medical knowledge, unless it is a feed - grade antibiotic (is administered through the feed or water) in which case the veterinarian can not issue directions different than the label. It is illegal in the US for any layperson to administer any drug to a food animal in a way not specific to the drug label. Over-the - counter drugs which may be used by laypersons include anti-parasite drugs (including fly sprays) and antimicrobials. These drugs can be applied as sprays, creams, injections, oral pills or fluids, or as a feed additive, depending on the drug and the label.
In December 2013, the FDA updated its regulations to try to begin reducing use of antibiotics for growth enhancement. Significant lobbying comes from all directions, from those against tighter regulation to those who complain it does n't go far enough.
Currently few policies, regulations and laws exist that promote limitation of antibiotic use on factory farms. In addition, few policies are being created that call for this decrease in antibiotic use. However, numerous state senators and members of congress showed support for the Preventing Antibiotic Resistance Act of 2015 (PARA) and the Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2013 (PAMTA). These acts proposed amendments be made to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act which would limit and preserve the use of antibiotics for medically necessary situations. Both of these bills died in Congress in 2015.
In 2015, the FDA approved a new Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD), which is an updated rule that give instructions to pharmaceutical companies, veterinarians, and producers about how to administer necessary drugs through the animal 's feed and water. This new rule followed through on the FDA 's commitment to phase out the use of antibiotics for growth promotion and increased feed conversion. It is now illegal to use any antimicrobial that is medically important to humans for anything other than treatment, control, and prevention of disease. Furthermore, even then, producers now have to have a licensed veterinarian sign a legal form - much like a prescription - for producers to purchase, store, or administer these products. This document gives specific instructions about the animals to be fed, the dates when they will be fed, and the concentration. Violating a VFD is now a violation of federal law. This is a major step toward reducing antibiotic resistance in both animals and humans. The new VFD took effect on January 1, 2017.
Drugs can be administered to animals in a variety of means, just as with humans. Among these are topical (on the skin), by injection (including intravenous, subcutaneous, subcutaneous implants, intramuscular and intraperitoneal), orally and by inhaliation. Oral drugs can be in pill or liquid form, and can be given by mixing the drug with both feed or drinking water. The type of administration can differ depending on the drug you 're giving, and the specific case of the animal. Illness, severity of illness, selected drug, age and or condition of the animal, species of the animal, type of housing and many other factors come into play when deciding how to administer the drug. For animals that are not regularly fed a concentrated feed or which can be handled repeatedly, a slow - release medication might be the more appropriate depending on the severity of the issue. For animals that are fed regularly (rather than grazing freely) or that can not be easily handled, the most appropriate means of administering the drug may be to include the drug in feed or water, although this is not as common, because you will be administering the drug to all animals that come in contact with the sources. This eliminates the stress of daily (or more frequent) handling of animals, which can cause stress on the animal. Poultry are most commonly medicated in this fashion, as they are easily stressed to the point of dying.
The timely administration of drugs is key to preventing animal suffering and economic loss to the farmer. Infected animals can spread the disease to the healthy animals, causing the whole herd to become ill. A variety of techniques are used to monitor animals for illness so that they can be treated appropriately. Stress reduction, adequate nutrition, shelter, and quarantine of incoming stock are all important factors to promote growth and reduce illness and the need for active treatment, although some vaccinations are essential for disease prevention. The age and status of an animal is also important in determining correct treatment -- a young animal or pregnant animal is at greater risk and are treated more aggressively than an older animals. Specifically in calves, at weaning (the period in which they begin to separate from their mothers) generates stress and makes them more susceptible to catching an infection like pneumonia or diseases like blackleg. Antibiotics are commonly administered in the calves ' feed along with by injection in some cases during this time to fight the possibility and arrise of stress - induced infections. Feed antibiotics are also used to prevent illnesses in calves caused by liver abscesses that develop during their last stages of growth.
The European Union (EU) in 1999 implemented an antibiotic resistance monitoring program and phase out plan for all antibiotic use by 2006. Although the European Union banned the use of antibiotics as growth agents from 2006, its use has not changed much until recently. In Germany, 1,734 tons of antimicrobial agents were used for animals in 2011 compared with 800 tons for humans. On the other hand, Sweden banned their use in 1986 and Denmark started cutting down drastically in 1994, so that its use is now 60 % less. In the Netherlands, the use of antibiotics to treat diseases increased after the ban on its use for growth purposes in 2006. In 2011, the EU voted to ban the prophylactic use of antibiotics, alarmed at signs that the overuse of antibiotics is blunting their use for humans.
In 2011, a total of 13.6 million kilograms of antimicrobials were sold for use in food - producing animals in the United States, which represents 80 % of all antibiotics sold or distributed in the United States. Of the antibiotics given to animals from 2009 through 2013, just above 60 % distributed for food animal use are "medically - important '' drugs, that are also used in humans. The rest are drug classes like ionophores which are not used in human medicine. Due to concerns about the overuse of antibiotics in food - producing animals, the U.S. Food & Drug Administration has implemented new industry guidelines that will restrict the use of medically - important drugs to uses "that are considered necessary for assuring animal health '' and will require veterinary oversight. The food animal and veterinary pharmaceutical industries will need to phase out medically important antimicrobial use by January 1, 2017.
Eighty percent of antibiotics sold in the United States are used on livestock. The majority of these antibiotics are given to animals that are otherwise healthy. Rather, it is normal practice to mix antibiotics with fodder to promote healthier living conditions and to encourage animal growth. The use of antibiotics in animals is to a large degree involved in the emergence of antibiotic - resistant microorganisms. Antibiotics are used in food with the intention of not only preventing, controlling, and treating diseases, but also to promote growth. Antibiotic use in animals can be classified into therapeutic, prophylactic, metaphylactic, and growth promotion uses of antibiotics. All four patterns select for bacterial resistance, since antibiotic resistance is a natural evolutionary process, but the non-therapeutic uses expose larger number of animals, and therefore of bacteria, for more extended periods, and at lower doses. They therefore greatly increase the cross-section for the evolution of resistance.
Since the last third of the 20th century, antibiotics have been used extensively in animal husbandry. In 2013, 80 % of antibiotics used in the US were used in animals and only 20 % in humans; in 1997 half were used in humans and half in animals. Some antibiotics are not used and not considered significant for use in humans, because they either lack efficacy or purpose in humans, such as ionophores in ruminants, or because the drug has gone out of use in humans. Others are used in both animals and humans, including penicillin and some forms of tetracycline. Historically, regulation of antibiotic use in food animals has been limited to limiting drug residues in meat, egg, and milk products, rather than by direct concern over the development of antibiotic resistance. This mirrors the primary concerns in human medicine, where, in general, researchers and doctors were more concerned about effective but non-toxic doses of drugs rather than antibiotic resistance.
In 2001, the Union of Concerned Scientists estimated that greater than 70 % of the antibiotics used in the U.S. are given to food animals (for example, chickens, pigs, and cattle), in the absence of disease. The amounts given are termed "sub-therapeutic '', i.e., insufficient to combat disease. Despite no diagnosis of disease, the administration of these drugs (most of which are not significant to human medicine) results in decreased mortality and morbidity and increased growth in the animals so treated. It is theorized that sub-therapeutic dosages kills some, but not all, of the bacterial organisms in the animal -- likely leaving those that are naturally antibiotic - resistant. Studies have shown, however, that, in essence, the overall population levels of bacteria are unchanged; only the mix of bacteria is affected. The actual mechanism by which sub-therapeutic antibiotic feed additives serve as growth promoters is thus unclear. Some people have speculated that animals and fowl may have sub-clinical infections, which would be cured by low levels of antibiotics in feed, thereby allowing the creatures to thrive. No convincing evidence has been advanced for this theory, and the bacterial load in an animal is essentially unchanged by use of antibiotic feed additives. The mechanism of growth promotion is therefore probably something other than "killing off the bad bugs ''.
Antibiotics are used in U.S. animal feed to promote animal productivity. In particular, poultry feed and drinking water is a common route of administration of drugs, because of higher overall costs when drugs are administered by handling animals individually.
In research studies, occasional animal - to - human spread of antibiotic - resistant organisms has been demonstrated. Resistant bacteria can be transmitted from animals to humans in three ways: by consuming animal products (milk, meat, eggs, etc.), from close or direct contact with animals or other humans, or through the environment. In the first pathway, food preservation methods can help eliminate, decrease, or prevent the growth of bacteria in some food classes. Evidence for the transfer of macrolide - resistant microorganisms from animals to humans has been scant, and most evidence shows that pathogens of concern in human populations originated in humans and are maintained there, with rare cases of transference to humans.
China produces and consumes the most antibiotics of all countries. Antibiotic use has been measured by checking the water near factory farms in China as well as through animal dung. It was calculated that 38.5 million kg (or 84.9 million lbs) of antibiotics were used in China 's swine and poultry production in 2012. The abuse of antibiotics caused severe pollution of soil and surface water in Northern China.
In 2012 India manufactured about a third of the total amount of antibiotics in the world.
Brazil is the world 's largest exporter of beef and the government regulates antibiotic use in the cattle production industry.
More recently, there has been increased concern about the use of anti-microbials in animals (including pets, livestock, and companion animals) contributing to the rise in antibiotic resistant infections in humans. The use of antimicrobials has been linked to the rise of resistance in every drug and species where it has been studied, including humans and livestock. However, the role of antibiotic use in food animals -- in contrast to the use of antibiotics in humans -- in the rise of resistant infections in humans is in dispute. The use of antimicrobials in various forms is widespread throughout animal industry, and is an essential part in preventing animals from suffering from disease and economic loss to farmers. It is linked by some activist groups to the animal welfare concern, large scale commercial agriculture, international food trade, agricultural protectionist laws, environmental protection (including climate change) and other topics, which make the aims of some groups on both sides of the debate difficult to untangle.
Around 70 % of all antibiotics administered are used for livestock. Some drugs are used in livestock feed to prevent illnesses and or increase growth rates, but others are used as injection to treat illnesses to prevent death. The use of antibiotics in livestock can be harmful to humans because it can create an antibiotic resistant bacteria in humans that can be transferred through several different ways such as: raw meats, consumption of meats, as well as ingestion through airborne bacteria. Waste from food - producing animals can also contain antibiotic - resistant bacteria and is sometimes stored in lagoons. This waste is often sprayed as fertilizer and can thus contaminate crops and water with the antibiotic - resistant bacteria. Although antibiotic use in livestock can be harmful to humans, most see it as a necessary evil to prevent disease and death in out livestock. Antibiotic resistance makes humans resistant to certain types of drugs for different diseases, as well as makes it harder for them to fight off infections.
The World Health Organization has published a list of Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine with the intent that it be used "as a reference to help formulate and prioritize risk assessment and risk management strategies for containing antimicrobial resistance due to human and non-human antimicrobial use. ''
The practice of using antibiotics for growth stimulation is problematic for these reasons:
Donald Kennedy, former director of the United States Food and Drug Administration, has said "There 's no question that routinely administering non-therapeutic doses of antibiotics to food animals contributes to antibiotic resistance. '' David Aaron Kessler, another former director of the FDA, said that "We have more than enough scientific evidence to justify curbing the rampant use of antibiotics for livestock, yet the food and drug industries are not only fighting proposed legislation to reduce these practices, they also oppose collecting the data. ''
In 2013 the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a white paper discussing antibiotic resistance threats in the US and calling for "improved use of antibiotics '' among other measures to contain the threat to human health. The CDC asked leaders in agriculture, healthcare, and other disciplines to work together to combat the issue of increasing antibiotic resistance.
Some scientists have said that "all therapeutic antimicrobial agents should be available only by prescription for human and veterinary use. ''
The Pew Charitable Trusts have stated that "hundreds of scientific studies conducted over four decades demonstrate that feeding low doses of antibiotics to livestock breeds antibiotic - resistant superbugs that can infect people. The FDA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention all testified before Congress that there is a definitive link between the routine, non-therapeutic use of antibiotics in food animal production and the challenge of antibiotic resistance in humans. ''
The World Organisation for Animal Health has acknowledged the need to protect antibiotics but argued against a total ban on antibiotic use in animal production.
In 2011 the National Pork Producers Council, an American trade association, has said "Not only is there no scientific study linking antibiotic use in food animals to antibiotic resistance in humans, as the U.S. pork industry has continually pointed out, but there is n't even adequate data to conduct a study. '' The statement contradicts scientific consensus, and was issued in response to a United States Government Accountability Office report that asserts "antibiotic use in food animals contributes to the emergence of resistant bacteria that may affect humans ''.
The National Pork Board, a Government - owned corporation of the United States, has said that "the vast majority of producers use (antibiotics) appropriately. ''
When government regulation restricts use of antibiotics the negative economic impact is not often considered.
Regulation of antibiotics in livestock production would affect the business models of corporations including Tyson Foods, Cargill, and Hormel.
It is difficult to set up a comprehensive surveillance system for measuring rates of change in antibiotic resistance. The US Government Accountability Office published a report in 2011 stating that government and commercial agencies had not been collecting sufficient data to make a decision about best practices.
Currently there is no regulatory agency in the United States that systematically collects detailed data on antibiotic use in humans and animals. It is not clear which antibiotics are prescribed for which purpose and at what time. Furthermore, the world has no surveillance infrastructure to monitor emerging antibiotic resistance threats. Because of these issues, it is difficult to quantify antibiotic resistance, to regulate antibiotic prescribing practices, and to detect and respond to rising threats.
There have been many studies that document antibiotic resistant bacteria in livestock, though the impact of the different bacteria in humans is still undergoing research. At this time, the most well - documented impact on humans is foodborne gastrointestinal illness. In most cases, these illnesses are mild and do not require antibiotics; though if the infectious bacteria is drug - resistant, research has shown that these bacteria have increased virulence (ability to cause disease), leading to prolonged illness. Furthermore, in approximately 10 % of cases, the disease becomes severe, requiring more advanced treatments. These treatments can take the form of intravenous antibiotics, supportive care for blood infections, and hospital stays, leading to higher costs and greater morbidity with a trend toward higher mortality. Severe disease with this outcome is more common with drug - resistant bacteria. Though all people are susceptible, populations shown to be at higher risk for severe disease include children, the elderly, and those with chronic disease.
Over the past 20 years, the most common drug - resistant foodborne bacteria in industrialized countries have been non-typhoidal salmonella and campylobacter. Research has consistently shown the main contributing factors are bacteria sourced in livestock. One example of this was a 1998 outbreak of multidrug - resistant salmonella in Denmark linked back to two Danish swine herds. Coupled with the discovery of this link, there have been improved monitoring systems that have helped to quantify the impact. In the United States, it is estimated that there are approximately 400,000 cases and over 35,000 hospitalizations per year attributable to increasing resistant strains of salmonella and campylobacter. In terms of financial impact in the US, the treatment of non-typhoidal salmonella infections alone is now estimated to cost $365 million per year. In light of this, in its inaugural 2013 report on antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, the CDC identified resistant non-typhoidal salmonella and campylobacter as "serious threats '' and called for improved surveillance and intervention in food production moving forward.
There are other bacteria as well, where research is evolving and revealing that bacterial resistance acquired through use in livestock may be contributing to disease in humans. Examples of these include Enterococcus, E. coli 0157 and Staphylococcus Aureus. In the case of foodborne illness from E. coli, though it is still not typically treated with antibiotics because of associated risk of renal failure, increasing rates of antibiotic resistant infections have been correlated with increasing virulence of the bacteria. In the case of enterococcus and staphylococcus aureus, resistant forms of both of these bacteria have resulted in greatly increasing morbidity and mortality in the US. At this point, there have been studies, though a limited number, that definitively link antibiotic use in food production to these resistance patterns in humans and further research will help to further characterize this relationship.
Humans can be exposed to antibiotic - resistant bacteria by ingesting them through the food supply. Dairy products, ground beef and poultry are the most common foods harboring these pathogens. There is evidence that a large proportion of resistant E. coli isolates causing blood stream infections in people are from livestock produced as food.
When manure from antibiotic - fed swine is used as fertilizer elsewhere, the manure may be contaminated with bacteria which can infect humans.
Studies have also shown that direct contact with livestock can lead to the spread of antibiotic - resistant bacteria from animals to humans.,
Legislation and activism worldwide have aimed at restricting antibiotic use in livestock.
On 1 January 2006 the European Union banned the non-medicinal use of antibiotics in livestock production.
During 2007, two federal bills (S. 549 and H.R. 962) aimed at phasing out "nontherapeutic '' antibiotics in U.S. food animal production. The Senate bill, introduced by Sen. Edward "Ted '' Kennedy, died. The House bill, introduced by Rep. Louise Slaughter, died after being referred to Committee.
In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock that violated FDA regulations. On April 11, 2012 the FDA announced a voluntary program to phase out unsupervised use of drugs as feed additives and convert approved over-the - counter uses for antibiotics to prescription use only, requiring veterinarian supervision of their use and a prescription. In December 2013, the FDA announced the commencement of these steps to phase out the use of antibiotics for the purposes of promoting livestock growth. Some grocery stores have policies about voluntarily not selling meat produced by using antibiotics to stimulate growth. In 2012 in the United States advocacy organization Consumers Union organized a petition asking the store Trader Joe 's to discontinue the sale of meat produced with antibiotics.
The U.S. Animal Drug User Fee Act was passed by Congress in 2008 and requires that drug manufacturers report all sales of antibiotics into the food animal production industry.
Some proposed legislation in the US has failed to be adopted. The Animal Drug and Animal Generic Drug User Fee Reauthorization Act of 2013 proposes other regulation.
In the United States the danger of emergence of antibiotic - resistant bacterial strains due to wide use of antibiotics to promote weight gain in livestock was determined by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1977, but nothing effective was done to prevent the practice. In March, 2012 the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock which violated FDA regulations. On 11 April 2012 the FDA announced a program to phase out unsupervised use of drugs as feed additives and, on a voluntary basis, convert approved uses for antibiotics to therapeutic use only, requiring veterinarian supervision of their use and a prescription.
In response to consumer concerns about the use of antibiotics in poultry, in 2007, Perdue removed all human antibiotics from its feed and launched the Harvestland brand, under which it sold products that met the requirements for an "antibiotic - free '' label. By 2014, Perdue had also phased out ionophores (antibiotics used in animals to lower production costs by promoting growth, and preventing disease) from its hatchery and began using the "antibiotic free '' labels on its Harvestland, Simply Smart and Perfect Portions products. By 2015, 52 % of the company 's chickens were raised without the use of any type of antibiotics.
In 1970 the FDA started recommending that antibiotic use in livestock be limited but set no actual regulations governing this recommendation. Further, in 2004 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) heavily critiqued the FDA for not collecting enough information and data on antibiotic use in factory farms. From this the GAO concluded that the FDA does not have enough information to create effective policy changes regarding antibiotic use. In response to this the FDA insisted that more research was being conducted and voluntary efforts within the industry would solve the problem of antibiotic resistance.
Growing U.S. consumer concern about using antibiotics in animal feed has led to greater availability of "antibiotic - free '' animal products. For example, chicken producer Perdue removed all human antibiotics from its feed and launched products labeled "antibiotic free '' under the Harvestland brand in 2007. Consumer response was positive, and in 2014 Perdue also phased out ionophores from its hatchery and began using the "antibiotic free '' labels on its Harvestland, Simply Smart, and Perfect Portions products.
In 2012, U.S. News & World Report described the Chinese government 's regulation of antibiotics in livestock production as "weak ''.
In 2011 the Indian government proposed a "National policy for containment of antimicrobial resistance ''. Other policies set schedules for requiring that food producing animals not be given antibiotics for a certain amount of time before their food goes to market. A study released by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) on 30 July 2014 found antibiotic residues in chicken. This study claims that Indians are developing resistance to antibiotics -- and hence falling prey to a host of otherwise curable ailments. Some of this resistance might be due to large - scale unregulated use of antibiotics in the poultry industry. CSE finds that India has not set any limits for antibiotic residues in chicken and says that India will have to implement a comprehensive set of regulations including banning of antibiotic use as growth promoters in the poultry industry. Not doing this will put lives of people at risk.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria have been found in Brazilian cattle.
In 1998 some researchers reported use in livestock production was a factor in the high prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in Korea. In 2007 The Korea Times noted that Korea has relatively high usage of antibiotics in livestock production. In 2011 the Korean government banned the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in livestock.
In 1999 the New Zealand government issued a statement that they would not then ban the use of antibiotics in livestock production. In 2007 ABC Online reported on antibiotic use in chicken production in New Zealand.
Increasing concern due to the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria has led researchers to look for alternatives to using antibiotics in livestock.
Probiotics, cultures of a single bacteria strain or mixture of different strains, are being studied in livestock as a production enhancer.
Prebiotics are non-digestible carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are mainly made up of oligosaccharides which are short chains of monosaccharides. The two most commonly studied prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS). FOS has been studied for use in chicken feed. MOS works as a competitive binding site, as bacteria bind to it rather than the intestine and are carried out.
Bacteriophages are able to infect most bacteria and are easily found in most environments colonized by bacteria, and have been studied as well.
In another study it was found that using probiotics, competitive exclusion, enzymes, immunomodulators and organic acids prevents the spread of bacteria and can all be used in place of antibiotics. Another research team was able to use bacteriocins, antimicrobial peptides and bacteriophages in the control of bacterial infections. While further research is needed in this field, alternative methods have been identified in effectively controlling bacterial infections in animals. All of the alternative methods listed pose no known threat to human health and all can lead the elimination of antibiotics in factory farms. With further research it is highly likely that a cost effective and health effective alternative could and will be found.
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can you take a boat from birmingham to london | Grand Union canal - wikipedia
The Grand Union Canal in England is part of the British canal system. Its main line starts in London and ends in Birmingham, stretching for 137 miles (220 km) with 166 locks. It has arms to places including Leicester, Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Northampton.
The Grand Union Canal was also the original name for part of what is now part of the Leicester Line of the modern Grand Union: this latter is now generally referred to as the Old Grand Union Canal to avoid ambiguity.
With competition from the railways having taken a large share of traffic in the second half of the 19th century, improvements in roads and vehicle technology in the early part of the 20th century meant that the lorry was also becoming a threat to the canals. Tolls had been reduced to compete with the railways, but there was little scope for further reduction. The Regent 's Canal and the Grand Junction Canal agreed that amalgamation and modernisation were the only way to remain competitive.
The Grand Union Canal in its current form came into being on 1 January 1929, and was further extended in 1932. It was formed from the amalgamation of several different canals, and at 286.3 miles (460.8 km) (281.3 miles (452.7 km) when excluding the shared line with the Oxford Canal), is by far the longest merged canal in the UK, whilst the Leeds & Liverpool Canal for being 127 miles (204 km) and having parts of the now - extinct southern end of the Lancaster Canal, is considered the longest single Canal in the UK:
A 5 - mile (8 - km) section of the Oxford Canal forms the main line of the Grand Union between Braunston and Napton. Although the Grand Union intended to buy the Oxford Canal and Coventry Canal, this did not take place.
The section of the main line between Brentford and Braunston (formerly the Grand Junction Canal), was built as a ' wide ' or ' broad ' canal -- that is, its locks were wide enough to accommodate two narrowboats abreast (side by side) or a single wide barge up to 14 feet (4.3 m) in beam.
However, the onward sections from Braunston to Birmingham had been built as ' narrow ' canals -- that is, the locks could accommodate only a single narrowboat. An Act of Parliament of 1931 was passed authorising a key part of the modernisation scheme of the Grand Union, supported by Government grants. The narrow locks (and several bridges) between Napton and Camp Hill Top Lock in Birmingham were rebuilt to take widebeam boats or barges up to 12 feet 6 inches (3.81 m) in beam, or two narrowboats. The canal was dredged and bank improvements carried out: the depth was increased to 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) to allow heavier cargoes, and the minimum width increased to 26 feet (7.9 m) to enable two boats of 12 feet 6 inches to pass. Lock works were completed in 1934 when the Duke of Kent opened the new broad locks at Hatton, and other improvements finished by 1937.
However, these improvements to depth and width were never carried out between Braunston and London. Camp Hill Locks in Birmingham were not widened, as it would have been very expensive and of little point, since they lead only to further flights of locks not in the ownership of the Grand Union. A new basin and warehouse were constructed at Tyseley, above Camp Hill, to deal with this. Although the Grand Union company had a number of broad boats built to take advantage of the improvements, they never really caught on and the canal continued to be operated largely by pairs of narrow boats, whose journeys were facilitated by the newly widened locks in which they could breast up.
The three sections between Norton junction and the River Trent (collectively known as the ' Leicester line ') are mixed in size. From Norton to Foxton, the route is a narrow canal. From below Foxton to Leicester it is a wide canal. From Leicester to the Trent, the route is effectively the River Soar and the locks and bridges are wide. Another Act of 1931 authorised the widening of the locks at Watford and Foxton, but with Government grants for this section not forthcoming, the work was not carried out.
The Grand Union Canal was nationalised in 1948, control transferring to the British Transport Commission, and in 1962 to the British Waterways Board, later British Waterways. Commercial traffic continued to decline, effectively ceasing in the 1970s, though lime juice was carried from Brentford to Boxmoor until 1981, and aggregates on the River Soar until 1996. However, leisure traffic took over, and the canal is now as busy as it ever was, with leisure boating complemented by fishing, towpath walking and gongoozling. More recently freight traffic has returned with the carriage of aggregates from Denham to West Drayton in barges and narrow boats, and the opening of a new wharf for re-cyclables and aggregates at Old Oak Common.
One end of the Grand Union Canal (Grand Junction Canal -- Main Line) is at Brentford on the River Thames in west London, where the canal follows the engineered course of the Brent. The double Thames Lock at Brentford separates the Tideway administered by the Port of London Authority from the River Brent / Grand Union Canal, administered by the Canal & River Trust. The locks on the canal are partially numbered: numbered consecutively south of its turn - off for Leicester, Braunston Junction. Thames Lock is lock number 101.
For more than 3 miles (4.8 km) upstream of Thames Lock, the canal and the Brent are one and the same, and the waterway is semi-tidal until the double Gauging Lock (lock 100) at Brentford. Just upstream of the Gauging Lock was a large canal basin, now known as Brentford Lock, from which the canal covers more distance passing through two more locks. The river and canal part at the base of the Hanwell flight of locks (92 -- 97), before two more locks take the canal to Norwood Green. It then heads westward over level ground through Southall, Hayes and West Drayton until it reaches the gentle valley of the Colne.
Three miles (5 km) from Norwood on this long level is Bulls Bridge Junction, once the site of the Grand Union Canal Carrying Company 's main dockyard. At Bulls Bridge, the Paddington Arm branches off to the north and runs 12 miles (19 km) to join the Regents Canal at Little Venice (see below). Just before Uxbridge is Cowley Peachey Junction, where the Slough Arm branches off westward.
At suburban Cowley, before the 1930s a rural village, the canal begins to climb the valley of the River Colne north north - west into the adjoining town of Uxbridge. After Denham and Harefield villages, it passes to the south of Rickmansworth. Here it merges with the Rivers Chess, Colne and Gade. After Rickmansworth, the canal follows the valley of the Gade, passing the site of Croxley paper mill. The canal skirts Watford through Cassiobury Park, passing under the M25 motorway as it approaches Kings Langley.
Locks become more frequent as the climb into the Chiltern Hills steepens. The original four locks here were replaced in 1819 by five shallower ones to alleviate problems with water supply to the nearby paper mills. This realigned the canal to the south of its former course; the locks here are still referred to -- without irony -- as "The New ' Uns '' by traditional boaters, and the term has been passed on to a new generation of canal users.
After Kings Langley and Apsley -- the site of more former paper mills -- the canal passes the town Hemel Hempstead and Boxmoor Common. From here the canal follows the course of the River Bulbourne through Bourne End with the well - known swingbridge at Winkwell, and the "Port of Berkhamsted, a small compact town ''. At Cow Roast Lock the canal reaches the 3 - mile (5 - km) summit at Tring in the Chiltern hills, having risen through 54 locks since Brentford.
At the north - west end of the summit level is Bulbourne Works, where lock gates were manufactured until 2003 for the southern canal network. Half a mile (800 m) further on, the canal reaches the top of the Marsworth flight of seven locks, which begin the descent to the Vale of Aylesbury. A Wendover Arm branches off westwards from the summit level under a bridge adjacent to Marsworth Top Lock and is currently navigable for just over a mile to moorings and a winding hole; it has restoration project to extend it back to Wendover. This part of the canal in parlance used by natives and canal staff was "the withered arm '' and in fact was only really "opened '' to allow the pumping station there to pump water into the uppermost level. A few hundred metres beyond the bottom lock of the flight, the Aylesbury Arm branches off to the south west.
The Grand Union crosses the wide valley gradually, descending by interspersed locks past the villages of Cheddington, Horton and Slapton until it reaches Leighton Buzzard. Traditionally this section of the canal is called "Slapton Fields '' or just "The Fields '' by boaters.
A few miles further on it enters Milton Keynes at the outskirts of Bletchley at Fenny Stratford Lock, which is unusual in lowering the level by only 12 inches (30 cm). The next stretch of 11 miles (18 km) is on the level. A 21st century plan (see below) to dig a new arm from here to the Great Ouse at Bedford. North of the centre, it traverses the modern New Bradwell Aqueduct, the first on the Grand Union in over 100 years. Leaving Milton Keynes at Wolverton, the canal runs on a high embankment before passing over the Great Ouse at Cosgrove "Iron Trunk '' aqueduct.
After rising through Cosgrove Lock, (and passing the start of the abandoned Buckingham Arm) another long level section brings the canal to the bottom of the Stoke Bruerne flight of seven locks. At the top of this flight is the Stoke Bruerne Canal Museum followed shortly by Blisworth Tunnel, at 3,056 yards (2,794 m) one of the longest of UK canals.
Once clear of the tunnel, the canal passes Blisworth village and reaches Gayton Junction where the Northampton Arm branches off to the east. This arm has 17 narrow locks as it descends to join the navigable River Nene (see below). The long level stretch continues past several villages including Nether Heyford and Weedon Bec and is very rural in character.
At Whilton, the canal reaches the bottom of the Buckby flight of seven locks which raise it to Braunston summit the village of which parish is 5 miles (8.0 km) away. Beyond the top lock is Norton Junction where the Leicester line (not strictly a branch) heads off north. A few miles further on the canal passes through the 2040 - yard (1865 - m) Braunston Tunnel, which pierces a low range of hills that are part of the Northamptonshire uplands.
The canal then drops down the Braunston flight of six locks until it reaches Braunston Junction having covered just over 93 miles (150 km).
At Braunston Junction, the Oxford Canal diverges north and south. The north section leads to Rugby and Coventry; the southward fork carries both the Oxford Canal and the Grand Union for 5 miles (8.0 km) to Napton Junction. Here, the Grand Union heads north towards Birmingham, while the Oxford Canal veers south towards Banbury and Oxford.
Shortly after Napton Junction, the Grand Union reaches three locks at Calcutt, which begin the descent to the Warwickshire River Avon. After a 3 - mile (5 - km) level, the canal descends into the valley of the River Leam by the Stockton flight of 10 locks (often known as ' the Itchington Ten '). Above the eighth lock down the flight, a short arm (now used as pleasure craft moorings) used to serve Southam cement works.
From the bottom of the locks, a 3 - mile (5 - km) level leads to the four Bascote locks. The top two form a ' riser ' or staircase. Six more interspersed locks lead to Radford, after which a 5 - mile (8 - km) level takes the canal through Leamington Spa to Warwick. Between these two towns, the canal crosses the River Avon and the former Great Western Railway on aqueducts.
At Warwick, the canal rises by two locks to Budbrooke Junction (formerly the junction with the then - independent Warwick and Birmingham Canal). To the left is the restored Saltisford Canal Arm, a short stretch that used to run under the railway to the original canal basin complex and terminus of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal -- the basin was filled - in in the 1970s. The canal used to serve the oldest gas works in the world and several unusual hexagonal buildings remain opposite Sainsbury 's. After half a mile the mainline reaches the bottom of the Hatton flight of 21 locks that lift the canal up out of the Avon Valley. The first 10 locks are spaced out but from the middle lock the flight is tightly spaced.
Three miles (5 km) from Hatton Top Lock the canal passes through Shrewley Tunnel, with its separate horse tunnel, and then passes Rowington village to Kingswood Junction where a short spur connects with the Stratford - upon - Avon Canal. Another 3 miles (4.8 km) lead to the Knowle flight of five locks. Finally, an 11 - mile (18 - km) level takes the canal through Elmdon Heath, Solihull, Acocks Green and Tyseley to the heart of Birmingham.
The main line may be considered to terminate at Bordesley Junction. From here, there are two routes, both part of the Grand Union Canal. The original line of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal leads to the Digbeth Branch Canal of the Birmingham Canal Navigations at the Warwick Bar, while the later line of the Birmingham and Warwick Junction Canal leads to the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal (and Tame Valley Canal) at Salford Junction, which in turn has connections to the Coventry Canal and the Trent and Mersey Canal.
Formed by amalgamations of once - independent canals, the ' Leicester Line ' of the Grand Union Canal runs north from Norton Junction for about 35 miles (56 km) until it reaches Leicester, where it joins the River Soar to provide a link to the River Trent and to the Trent and Mersey Canal. It includes tunnels south of Crick 1,528 yd (1,397 m) and north of Husbands Bosworth 1,166 yd (1,066 m) The village of Crick is home to a popular annual boat show.
The stretch of the canal that passes through the centre of Leicester is known as the ' Mile Straight ' and is home to Leicester Rowing Club, a rowing and sculling club. The club hosts regattas on a stretch co-running with the Soar, typically held in mid-April by over 100 crews over a 770 - yard (700 m) course.
Also on this section are the Foxton Locks and Watford Locks, both staircase locks. Beside Foxton locks is the site of a long - abandoned inclined plane boat lift. This was constructed as part of a project to create a wide - beam canal route to connect the northern and southern parts of the canal system, something which does not exist to this day. Funding to deal with the narrow locks at Watford was not forthcoming and the scheme was aborted. The canal north of Foxton Junction is wide - beam to Leicester and onwards. It was originally intended to build a canal at this width all the way to the River Nene at Northampton. However, that canal never went further than the basin at Market Harborough.
The Leicester Line continues along the River Soar Navigation, and reaches the River Trent at Soar Mouth, north of Ratcliffe - on - Soar. It is possible to continue to the Trent and Mersey Canal, Coventry Canal and North Oxford Canal, to complete a circuit known as the Leicester Ring.
The Grand Union Canal has six main branches, usually termed ' arms '.
Five miles (8 km) from Brentford, the Paddington Arm runs circuitously on the flat to a lock and a junction with the Regent 's Canal, the latter running north and east of Central London. The triangular basin formed by the junction is called Little Venice, Maida Vale. The Arm 's final 500 m runs south - east to Paddington Basin.
From Cowley Peachey, the Slough Arm runs 5 miles (8.0 km) to the west.
From Marsworth, about 35 miles (56 km) by canal from Brentford, two arms diverge: one to Wendover (currently in - part navigable as being restored by the Wendover Arm Trust;) the other descends through 16 narrow locks for 4 miles (6.4 km) to Aylesbury.
From Gayton Junction, about 60 miles (97 km) from Brentford, the Northampton Arm links with the River Nene.
At Warwick the northern-most branch off of the Grand Union Canal (also known by regular users as the "GU ''), the Saltisford Canal Arm begins. The restored arm is close to the centre of Warwick. It was originally the main line of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal, 1799, leading to the terminus and a basin with wharfs for timber. When the Warwick and Napton Canal opened, this bypassed channel remained as the town 's wharf. The Saltisford Canal Trust have restored most of the surviving canal, 1990 - 2015, such as installing long lengths of sheet piling and restoring a warehouse in 2007. Its last 160 yards (150 m) were lost in the 1970s saving a disused road bridge that stands isolated in a car park. Warwick 's narrowboat moorings are on the Arm by a public park partly in view of the Castle. Over 800 visiting narrowboats cruise to Warwick each year and moor on the arm.
The Leicester Line has two modest arms of its own, see Grand Union Canal (old).
The Bedford and Milton Keynes Partnership (B&MK) plans to build a 16 - mile (26 km) canal connecting the Grand Union at Milton Keynes to the River Great Ouse at Bedford at an estimated cost of £ 170 million. The project is supported by British Waterways (and its successor, the Canal & River Trust), the Bedford & Milton Keynes Waterway Trust, other waterways campaign groups, and also local councils. The first element of the canal is an underpass under the A421, completed in 2009 and efforts are continuing to obtain funding to complete the scheme in ' bite - size chunks '. The new waterway would create a new cruising ring connecting through from the Grand Union to the waterways of East Anglia which are beneficial to leisure cruising as boat hirers are able to take circular routes. The project was first discussed in 1810 when its promoters included Samuel Whitbread.
From Milton Keynes, the canal is planned to pass beneath the M1 utilising an existing cattle creep, then cross over Brogborough Hill, and across the Marston Vale through to the River Great Ouse in Kempston.
The Buckingham Arm once ran from Cosgrove, Northamptonshire to Buckingham. It was built as an arm of the Grand Junction Canal, in two separate phases, opening in 1800 and 1801. It was disused from 1932, but was not finally abandoned until 1964. It is now the subject of a restoration project.
The predecessor to the Canal and River Trust, British Waterways, received mild financial support indications from the two local authorities covering Slough and Eton, Berkshire to extend the Slough Arm to join the Thames, via any course i.e. covering a minimum 2 miles (3.2 km); the 2008 - estimated cost was £ 30 million. The trust confirmed in 2012 this remains a long - term objective, to be actioned when the economic conditions allow.
Bulky shining sculpture or landmark, Liquidity erected 2002 at the apex Ferry Wharf, Brentford, marking a then - dry entrance to the Grand Union Canal from the River Thames 's Tideway as at low tide.
Brentford Locks, London
Confluence with the River Brent, London
Wooden bridge across the canal at Northolt, London
Bull 's Bridge Junction in the eastern distribution - centred part of Hayes, west London
Batchworth Lock No 81, (in 1977)
A lock and upstream tract to a white humpback bridge at Apsley, Hertfordshire
The canal near Bugbrooke, Northamptonshire
The canal near Nether Heyford, Northamptonshire
Saddington Tunnel, Leicestershire
Coordinates: 52 ° 03 ′ 03 '' N 0 ° 44 ′ 02 '' W / 52.05076 ° N 0.73400 ° W / 52.05076; - 0.73400
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where is the golden square mile in montreal | Golden Square Mile - wikipedia
The Square Mile and also known as the Golden Square Mile (officially in French: Le Mille Carré and also known as Mille carré doré) is the nostalgic name given to an urban neighbourhood developed principally between 1850 and 1930 at the foot of Mount Royal, in the west - central section of downtown Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The name "Square Mile '' has been used to refer to the area since the 1930s; prior to that, the neighborhood was known as ' New Town ' or ' Uptown '. The addition of ' Golden ' was coined by Montreal journalist Charlie Lazarus, and the name has connections to contemporary real - estate developments, as the historical delimitations of the Golden Square Mile overlap with Montreal 's contemporary central business district.
From the 1790s, the business leaders of Montreal looked beyond Old Montreal for spacious sites upon which to build their country homes. They developed the farmland of the slopes of Mount Royal north of Sherbrooke Street, creating a neighborhood notorious for its grandeur and architectural audacity. At the Square Mile 's peak (1850 - 1930), its residents included the owners and operators of the majority of Canadian rail, shipping, timber, mining, fur and banking industries. From about 1870 to 1900, 70 % of all wealth in Canada was held by this small group of approximately fifty men.
By the 1930s, multiple factors led to the neighborhood 's decline, including the Great Depression, the dawn of the automobile, the demand for more heat - efficient houses, and the younger generations of the families that had built these homes largely moved to Westmount. During the Quiet Revolution, some of the businesses created in Montreal, on whose fortunes the Square Mile had been built, moved to Toronto. In this period, the Square Mile evolved to gradually become the central business district, and many of grand houses were demolished. The face of the Square Mile was altered, leading to the formation of Heritage Montreal to preserve architecture in the city.
By 1983, only 30 % of the mansions in the northern half of the Square Mile had survived demolition; and only 5 % survived south of Sherbrooke Street. Many of the remaining mansions, such as the James Ross House, today known as Chancellor Day Hall, are today owned by McGill University. Nevertheless, the mansions of the Golden Square Mile represent a prosperous period during which Montreal was the cultural and financial capital of Canada.
The neighbourhood had precise borders measuring roughly a square mile, covering the area between Boulevard René - Lévesque at the southern end; Pine Avenue at the foot of Mount Royal at the northern end; University Street at the eastern end, and Guy Street at the western end. In effect, however, the ' Square Mile ' was contained within a far smaller area, between Sherbrooke Street and Pine Avenue, and Guy and University, covering scarcely nine streets on the north - south axis. From east to west: McTavish Street, Peel Street, Stanley Street, Drummond Street, Mountain Street, Ontario Avenue (now Avenue du Musée), Redpath Street, Simpson Street, and Guy Street; and three streets on the east - west axis, from south to north: Sherbrooke St. West, McGregor Street (now Doctor Penfield Avenue) and Pine Avenue.
The architects of the Square Mile included Robert Findlay, Bruce Price, Sir Andrew Taylor, William Thomas, John Hopkins and the brothers Edward and William Maxwell. The architecture was an eclectic mix of the Neo-classical, Neo-Gothic, Romanesque, Second Empire, Queen Anne and Art Nouveau, though other styles also figured prominently, sometimes within the same home. By World War I, simpler houses were built, such as Herbert Molson 's. Maison Cormier was one of only a few examples of Art deco.
Scottish sandstone and local granite were commonly used materials, and most homes had substantial grounds, atria and large conservatories. A great many of the Square Milers were keen horticulturalists and aside from their gardens, they enjoyed keeping hothouse flowers through the long winters. The streets of the Square Mile were lined with elm, spruce and maple trees, but an outbreak of Dutch elm disease in the 1970s destroyed those that had once lined Sherbrooke Street.
In 1642, a fort named Ville Marie was founded on the Island of Montreal by Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve. Ville Marie became a centre for the fur trade and French expansion into New France until 1760, when it was surrendered to the British army, following the French defeat of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. British immigration expanded the city.
The British immigrants who came to Montreal after the Conquest tended to be from well - connected mercantile families and immigrated to Canada as a means to further their fortunes, unlike earlier British immigrants who came to North America to escape religious or political persecution.
The city 's golden era of fur trading began with the advent of the locally owned North West Company. In the 1760s, the men of the Beaver Club, a gentlemen 's dining club, provided the financial backing and necessary management to take control of the fur trade. The new merchants were associated with the North West Company, the Hudson 's Bay Company and the agents of the East India Company, and eventually dominated the fur market in most of British North America.
As many of the wealthy French Canadians moved from Canada to France following the Conquest, British and Scottish merchants were able to cheaply purchase vast tracts of land upon which to build factories, and take control of the banking and finance of the new Dominion. The growing fortune of the Montreal mercantile elite of this era was consolidated through marriage and company mergers. After the collapse of the fur trade in the 1850s, the mercantile elite turned its interest to railways and shipping.
By the mid-19th century, the Montreal mercantile elite, residing in the Square Mile, firmly held the reins of Canada 's economy. The merchants successfully connected Canada by building a network of railroads and exploiting maritime routes and the port of Montreal, which l remained the principal port through which immigrants arrived, and also through which Canada 's produce was shipped to and from Britain and the Empire.
For decades, the wealth accumulated from the fur trade, finance, and other industries made of Montreal 's mercantile elite a "kind of commercial aristocracy, living in lordly and hospitable style, '' as Washington Irving observed. In 1820, John Bigsby penned his impressions of the city:
I found, but did not expect to find, at Montreal a pleasing transcript of the best form of London life -- even in the circle beneath the very first class of official families. But I may be pardoned; for I had seen in the capital of another great colony (Cape Town) considerable primitiveness of manners... (In Montreal) at an evening party at Mr Richardson 's the appointments and service were admirable; the dress, manners, and conversation of the guests, in excellent taste. Most of the persons there, though country - born, had been educated in England (Britain), and everything savoured of Kensington. There was much good music... Some of the show - shops rival those of London in their plate - glass windows, and its inns are as remarkable for their palatial exterior as they are for their excellent accommodation within... Montreal is a stirring and opulent town... Few places have so advanced in all the luxuries and comforts of high civilisation as Montreal.
Before the 1840s, the landed, political and wealthier merchant classes of Montreal lived on their seigneuries during the summers and came to the city only for Parliament or to conduct business during the winter. In 1816, Francis Hall, then a young officer with the 14th King 's Hussars, observed that Montreal 's gentry "live in a splendid style, and keep expensive tables ''. They kept townhouses on St. James Street, Notre - Dame Street and overlooking the Champ de Mars; enjoying among other entertainments the German Orchestra and Viennese dances held at the Hayes House theatre on Dalhousie Square. In 1795, Isaac Weld commented that "the people of Montreal, in general, are remarkably hospitable and attentive to strangers; they are sociable also amongst themselves, and fond in the extreme of convivial amusements ''.
But lively as it was, Old Montreal with its frequent fires and swelling population was becoming less desirable. The wealthy merchants in particular began to seek large plots of land on which to build homes worthy of their success while remaining close to their business interests; and, their eyes turned to the fertile farmland under Mount Royal. John Duncan observed in 1818 that, "a number of very splendid mansions have lately been erected on the slope of the mountain, which would be regarded as magnificent residences even by the wealthy merchants of the mother country ''. In 1820, John Bigsby described the view from Château St. Antoine, then said to be ' the most magnificent building in the whole city and standing within 200 acres of parkland roughly at the end of Dorchester Street:
I had the pleasure of dining with (William McGillivray) at his seat, on a high terrace under the mountain, looking southwards and laid out in pleasure - grounds in the English style. The view from the drawing room windows of this large and beautiful mansion is extremely fine, too rich and fair, I foolishly thought, to be out of my native England. Close beneath you are scattered elegant country retreats embowered in plantations, succeeded by a crowd of orchards of delicious apples, spreading far to the right and left, and hedging in the glittering churches, hotels, and house - roofs of Montreal...
The early residents of the Square Mile enjoyed marked benefits from being the first to settle there: The houses were surrounded by acres of parkland, with long carriage drives, vineries, orchards, fruit and vegetable gardens. The surveyor Joseph Bouchette noted that the produce from these gardens in the summer months was "excellent in quality, affording a profuse supply... in as much, or even greater perfection than in many southern climes ''. In 1822, Sir Richard Phillips commented that,
A number of handsome villas now make their appearance around the town, and there are numerous sites still unoccupied, which will probably be hereafter crowned with elegant seats. Few places in the world possess more capabilities of this kind than Quebec and Montreal; if the latter is less bold than the former in its scenery, it possesses much richness and delicate beauty, which need nothing but wealth and taste to display them to advantage; the former already exists in Montreal to a great extent, and there are also very respectable proofs of the existence and growth of the latter.
Following the strikes and the Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal, the new decade was "like the arrival of a Montreal spring, prosperity and stability invigorated the city in the early 1850s ''. Sir Hugh Allan was elected President of the Montreal Board of Trade in 1851 and work on railways and steamships was evident everywhere, bringing with it a surge of construction. There were now a dozen architects practising in the city and the newly rich competed with one another for the largest, most decorative homes.
The city 's lively reputation had not diminished, as Charles Goodrich suggested with a hint of disapproval: "If you wish to enjoy good eating, dancing, music and gayety, you will find an abundance of all (at Montreal) ''. While staying at Donegana 's Hotel in 1853, Clara Kelly wrote to her father, Sir Fitzroy Kelly, describing her impressions of the city and the Square Mile in its infancy:
The scenery I find remarkably pretty, and, moreover, the city has an air of comfort, and to a certain extent of antiquity, rarely to be seen in the States... The view from (Mount Royal 's) summit is most picturesque, - green undulating land dotted with country houses and cottages, with beautiful gardens and trees... The scene of the terrible fire which occurred here three years ago was pointed out to us. It has fearfully devastated a great part of the town. It seems difficult to understand how such a fire could have lasted so long a time and have done so much mischief, as the houses were not built of wood, which I had always imagined to be the case... (We visited) a most beautiful and wonderful garden, belonging to a Montreal merchant (probably John Torrance of St. Antoine Hall), whose name I forget but who has collected here everything which is rich and rare, in shrub or flower.
Completed in 1863, Sir Hugh Allan 's new house, Ravenscrag, was to be the jewel of the Square Mile, as he intended. He purchased fourteen acres from the decaying McTavish estate and built a sumptuous home of 72 rooms that excelled "in size and cost any dwelling - house in Canada, '' surpassing Dundurn Castle. By the 1860s, Montreal had come of age, which was recognised by three Royal visits from the future Edward VII, Prince Alfred and Prince Arthur, the most of any colony.
Following the Confederation of Canada, the mercantile elite was led by the Allan brothers (Sir Hugh and Andrew), described by the Gazette as the "pioneers of our commercial greatness ''. In 1878, the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise were posted to Canada as the new Vice-regal couple, while Montreal was attracting celebrities of the day such as Charles Dickens, Rudyard Kipling, Mark Twain and Abraham Lincoln. At the same time in London, the likes of Emma Albani and Sir Gilbert Parker were representative of Quebec 's culture.
In the 1880s, the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed under the direction of Lord Mount Stephen, Lord Strathcona and R.B. Angus, after which it was continued by Lord Shaughnessy and Sir William Cornelius Van Horne. Celebrating their success, they spared no expense on their homes, with interiors decked in detailed mahogany and private art galleries housing works of the likes of Raphael, Rembrandt, Cézanne, Constable and Gainsborough etc. Van Horne 's collection of Japanese pottery brought connoisseurs from Britain, the United States and Japan; and the Old Masters collection belonging to James Ross was frequently loaned out for public exhibition around the world.
Ashton Oxenden was Bishop of Montreal from 1869 to 1878. As an Englishman, previously well travelled in France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and Spain, he paid a high complement to "this flourishing and wealthy city '' when he stated that, "upon the whole, I prefer Montreal, as a place of residence, to almost any town that I have ever seen. '' Oxenden particularly enjoyed the "picturesque city 's cheerfulness (and the) kindness of its inhabitants '':
There is an abundance of charitable institutions at Montreal (and) all well managed... among the Roman Catholics especially there are many institutions on an enormous scale... I have hardly seen a beggar in the streets or in the country. There is a great absence of poverty, except perhaps among the lowest French population... Happily there is at present (1871) a kindly feeling between the Roman Catholics and Protestants, each pursuing their own course without molesting the other. The general cost of living (is) much the same as in an ordinary English town... Dinner parties are frequent in Montreal. There is perhaps a little too much expense devoted to them; and this prevents all but the wealthy from indulging in such hospitalities.
The Upper parts of the town are of more recent growth, and contain commodious and detached houses, belonging to the men of business and persons of fortune. The streets in this part of the town are as yet incomplete, showing at present certain gaps, which will ere long be filled up with handsome houses. They are all flanked by trees, chiefly maples (which) greatly add to the beauty of the town. The Montreal builders are excellent. They not only run up their houses at an indescribable speed, but they build them well and substantially.
Aside from the men at the very top, the CPR had also brought about another housing boom to the Square Mile: In 1885, Sir John Abbott, the company 's chief lawyer, built his new home on Sherbrooke Street and Peel, and in doing so set a trend among his boardroom colleagues, as Oxenden had correctly predicted, filling the gaps within the Square Mile.
From the 1890s into the Edwardian era the city enjoyed a gilded age. Stephen Leacock recalled, "the rich in Montreal enjoyed a prestige in that era that not even the rich deserve ''. The men of the CPR retired in the 1890s, having created "the world 's greatest transportation system, '' selling a package of cheap land (their land holdings were equal in size to the Province of Alberta) with a cheap ticket from Britain through to the Canadian West. Together they had built a nation, seeing over a million immigrants settle in the west, and by exploiting the mineral resources included in their land grants, they and their shareholders would see their net earnings grow year on year to $46 million in 1913. Unprecedented amounts of capital now flowed in from Britain to build Western Canada, and Montreal, where every major company had its headquarters, was once again at the centre of this latest web of prosperity - "those who thought that the government of Canada was in Ottawa were mistaken, it was here ''.
In perhaps no section of the Colonies have Englishmen and Scotsmen made more of their opportunities than in Montreal. There is an air of prosperity about all their surroundings which at once impresses the visitor. Taken all in all, there is perhaps no wealthier city area in the world than that comprised between Beaver Hall Hill and the foot of Mount Royal, and between the parallel lines of Dorchester and Sherbrooke Streets in the West End.
The wealth inherited and managed by the next generation of Square Milers continued to grow, but while many were successful as businessmen they were less entrepreneurial. They financed and worked closely with newcomers such as Sir Edward Beatty, Sir Herbert Samuel Holt and the last of the great Square Mile tycoons, J.W. McConnell. These men had easily integrated themselves into Square Mile society, but there was a new and hungrier generation of anglophones coming to Montreal, epitomised by Sir Henry Thornton, who were not as readily accepted by the older generation, which jealously guarded over the dominance of their cornerstones, the CPR and the Bank of Montreal. Notably, this new group included Max Aitken and Isaac Killam, who were ' pilled ' (barred) from entry into the Mount Royal Club. In 1899, finding that the St. James ' Club had become "too overcrowded, '' the Square Mile 's leading businessmen, led by the likes of Strathcona and Angus, established the Mount Royal Club that overnight became Montreal 's most prestigious. Lord Birkenhead found it to be "one of the best clubs I know in the New World, with the indefinable atmosphere about it of a good London club ''.
As much as the next generation spent their money on parties, new houses, grand refurbishments and summer homes, they also continued to pour money back into education, health, and culture; albeit for the most part to the benefit of Montreal 's anglophone community. Giving an estimated $100 million to charity in his lifetime, McConnell followed in the magnanimous steps of some of Montreal 's best remembered philanthropists, such as Lord Strathcona, to whom King Edward VII referred to as "Uncle Donald '' in recognition of his generosity towards charitable causes across the British Empire.
A strong British influence predominated in the Golden Square Mile during this era. This was recognised in London by increasingly frequent Royal visits. "The Union Jack flew from Ravenscrag (since inherited by Sir Montague Allan) '' where the Montreal Hunt now met, and Lady Drummond was heard to reflect the sentiments of the Square Mile by stating, "the Empire is my country. Canada is my home ''. The best households were not always necessarily run by Canadians, but by governesses, butlers, cooks, nursemaids and maids sourced from Britain, who were used to working in large houses.
The men associated with the Beaver Club, the predecessors of the Square Milers, had almost all served in the Canadian Militia and on the outbreak of the First World War the next generation did not hesitate to take up arms. At his own expense, Hamilton Gault raised Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry, the last privately raised regiment in the British Empire. He was injured three times leading his regiment into battle, and even after losing a leg he still returned to the Front. Lord Strathcona 's Horse, raised by that Canadian peer for the Boer War, was once again returned to action. The British Prime Minister David Lloyd George claimed to his biographer that had the war continued into 1919, he would have sought to replace Field Marshal Douglas Haig with the Square Mile 's General Sir Arthur Currie.
The Ladies of the Square Mile raised money for the troops and some like Lady Meredith, the Gaults and the Baumgartens opened their houses to injured soldiers returning from Europe. The personal services in England of the Canadian Red Cross were under the charge of Lady Julia Drummond who saw that each Canadian soldier returned to an English hospital received a visit offering sympathy and supplying any basic needs. When Martha Allan trained as a nurse and bought an ambulance which she drove in France, her mother was inspired to set up a hospital in England for Canadian soldiers.
Economically, Montreal would emerge from the war nearly unscathed, due in a large part to the steady hand of the president of the Bank of Montreal, Sir Vincent Meredith. In 1919, fifty families were said to have controlled a third of Canada 's invested wealth, and the great majority of them were based in Montreal.
The Square Mile had reached its peak in the Edwardian era, both in spirit and substance. What followed was a steady decline as aggressive American - style corporations took control of the family businesses whose origins laid with the Scots - Quebecers and the Beaver Club. ' New money ' swept into Montreal from the United States, Western Canada and, such as the Bronfman family, from different ethnic backgrounds. Similarly to the Canadiens of the Ancien Régime a century before, the Square Milers with their old - fashioned British ideals and business principles did not adapt to the changes in society and held themselves aloof. Newcomers, who neither knew nor cared about the old guard and their traditions were more often than not barred from entry into Square Mile society (such as membership to Montreal 's most prestigious men 's club, the Mount Royal), but this only served to further alieniate the declining enclave.
Changing attitudes, the war, the introduction of income tax and the invasion of commerce in the streets below Sherbrooke all played their part in the decline. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 affected a great number of Square Milers, though not as badly as it did their American counterparts. Art collections were sold and some tried to sell their houses, but there were no takers. The J.K.L. Ross House was sold for $50,000 in 1930, only a few years after it had been valued at $1 million. Those who had relied on investments moved to smaller, more heat - efficient houses in Westmount or took apartments at the Ritz - Carlton Montreal, whereas others like Sir Herbert Samuel Holt, who never dealt on margin, emerged untouched.
The Great Depression in Canada during the 1930s fueled the Quebec nationalist movement and set the course for the Quiet Revolution. The social divide between anglophones employers and French Canadian workers in Quebec had existed for a long time, but the economic turmoil of the Great Depression led to calls for change from the status quo. For the next four decades the Union Nationale government, with the support of the Catholic Church, dominated Quebec politics, undermining anglophone domination.
In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois (PQ) government passed the Charter of the French Language (known as Bill 101), making the use of French language mandatory for medium and large - scale companies when communicating with French - speaking staff. This law, the election of the PQ, and the threat of Quebec independence caused instability in the province 's business environment, and accelerated the move of some companies ' headquarters from Montreal to other Canadian cities, including Calgary and Toronto. Some companies remained in Montreal, including the Montreal Exchange North America 's oldest brewery, Molsons, but others moved their headquarters elsewhere, such as the Bank of Montreal, Sun Life Financial, the Royal Trust and The Guarantee Company of North America. Toronto had surpassed Montreal as the financial capital of Canada in 1934, and the move of these companies out of Montreal marked the end of an era.
By the end of World War II, the homes within the Square Mile were for the most part left empty or only partially occupied. Montreal 's central business district had shifted northwest toward Sherbrooke Street, in the area of the Square Mile. From 1945 to 1965, many of the great mansions were acquired by commercial and civic institutions and demolished or repurposed beyond all recognition.
The majority of the mansions were demolished and replaced with high - rise office or residential developments, but some two dozen other homes were also transformed into university or commercial offices. Ravenscrag was left by Sir Montague and Lady Allan to the Royal Victoria Hospital in 1942. The sumptuous residence was converted into the Allan Memorial Institute, and McGill University used its fourteen acres of grounds to erect subsidiary buildings.
Some demolitions were controversial. The Van Horne Mansion, the centre of Square Mile society since the 1930s was demolished by promoter David Azrieli in 1973, igniting a vigorous public debate regarding conservation of historical buildings, and the reasons for which a building should be preserved. The demolition of the Van Horne mansion led to the establishment of Heritage Montreal to protect historic buildings at the provincial level. The architectural character of the neighbourhood stabilized, but the original Square Mile as it had been had already changed beyond recoginition.
Modern architecture has emphasis the integration of older buildings with new developments. An example is Maison Alcan, formerly the home of Lord Atholstan, which became the headquarters of Alcan in the early 1980s. Another example is Lady Meredith House, home to McGill 's Centre for Medicine, Ethics and Law, which was broken into and set on fire in the 1990s. McGill subsequently renovated and retrofitted the old house to its original elegance, hiring Julia Gersovitz, a McGill graduate and professor. However, threats to the built heritage of the Square Mile remain.
The buildings formerly occupied by the Royal Victoria Hospital and the remaining property on which they stand have been empty since 2015, when the hospital itself moved into the new ' McGill Superhospital ' in the Glen Yards. The Royal Vic, a veritable Montreal landmark, has been expanded several times since it was built in 1893, and the changes have never before been cause for concern. In 1891, the public - spirited Lords Mount Stephen and Strathcona purchased the land and gave the necessary funds to the City of Montreal for which to build the hospital. However, they attached a caveat to their donation, stating that the land and its buildings must only ever be used for education and healing.
From 2010, Elspeth Angus (born in 1929), a descendant of R.B. Angus and an heir as the grand - niece of Lord Mount Stephen, has been fighting to maintain not just the wishes but the conditions set down by the founders to the city, and find use for the land and its buildings as a research facility. Heritage Montreal are also supporting her in her efforts. In 2014, McGill University released a proposal for the integration of the site into the McGill campus.
Built in 1886, it was designed by the noted architect Sir Andrew Taylor and was one of the last of his residential projects still standing in the city. In 1986, the Sochaczevski family, the new owners of Francis Redpath 's house, began demolition in order to replace it with yet another a vista - changing condominium block. A portion of the house was destroyed before a court injunction was taken out and its destruction was temporarily halted.
In 2001, Mayor Pierre Bourque granted immediate demolition of the house. In 2002, following intervention by Heritage Montreal, Projet Montréal and local citizens, the Commission d'arbitrage de la Ville de Montréal refused the demolition permit granted by the Bourque administration, on the grounds of the solidity of the house and reminding the owner of his obligation to keep it in good condition -- the Sochaczevski family had signed an agreement with the Montreal City Council to maintain the house when they bought it in 1986, but did nothing to maintain, protect or stabilize it.
As a mayoral candidate, Gérald Tremblay portrayed himself as a defender of the Redpath house and heritage buildings, but as soon as he gained office -- strongly backed by The Suburban newspaper, owned by the Sochaczevski family -- he considered a plan to allow demolition to continue. He withdrew his support after the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts stepped in to object.
In December 2013, Mayor Denis Coderre approved the final demolition permit, to be carried out in February 2014. It was demolished on March 19, 2014, just two weeks after Quebec Culture and Communications Minister Maka Kotto intervened to order a halt to the mansion 's demolition, in accordance with the Cultural Heritage Act, the Court intervened -- at the owner 's request -- to shorten the period granted in the minister 's order. Heritage Montreal expressed regret that the discussions were limited to the owner and the minister, not the community nor municipal authorities. After these talks with the owner, Kotto concluded that Redpath House "does not present a national heritage interest, '' and gave the go ahead for it to be torn down to make for way for the promoter 's development.
The Square Milers built and funded such Montreal institutions including:
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why do they put bible in hotel rooms | Gideons International - wikipedia
Gideons International is an evangelical Christian association founded in 1899 in Wisconsin. The Gideons ' primary activity is distributing copies of the Bible free of charge. This Bible distribution is a global enterprise taking place in 200 countries, territories and possessions. The association 's members focus on distributing complete Bibles, New Testaments, or portions thereof. These copies are printed in over 100 languages. The association is most widely known for its Bibles placed in hotel and motel rooms. The Gideons also distribute to hospitals and other medical offices, schools and colleges as well as jails and prisons. The association takes its name from the Biblical figure Gideon depicted in Judges 6.
The Gideons began distributing free Bibles, the endeavor for which it is chiefly known, in 1908, when the first Bibles were placed in the rooms of the Superior Hotel in Superior, Montana. Members of The Gideons International currently distribute over 80 million Scriptures annually, and the numbers are growing, especially in places like Brazil, India, and Asia. On average, more than two copies of the Bible are distributed per second through Gideons International. In late April 2015, Gideons distributed their historic two billionth Scripture. The distribution of the first one billion Bibles and New Testaments by Gideon members spanned 93 years (1908 to 2001). The second billion was attained in less than 14 years (2002 to 2015).
The headquarters of Gideons International is in Nashville, Tennessee.
The organization began in fall 1898, when two traveling salesmen, John H. Nicholson of Janesville, Wisconsin, and Samuel E. Hill of Beloit, Wisconsin, met in a hotel room they shared at the Central House Hotel in Boscobel, Wisconsin, where they discussed the formation of an association. In May 1899, the two met again in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, where they decided the goal of their association would be to unite traveling salesmen for evangelism. In July, 1899, Nicholson, Hill, and Will J. Knights met at the YMCA in Janesville. Two of them continued with the distribution of the Bibles. Gideons began distributing free Bibles, the work they are chiefly known for, in 1908, when the first Bibles were placed in the rooms of the Superior Hotel in Superior, Montana.
The organization describes its link to the story of Gideon:
Gideon was a man who was willing to do exactly what God wanted him to do, regardless of his own judgment as to the plans or results. Humility, faith, and obedience were his great elements of character. This is the standard that The Gideons International is trying to establish in all its members, each man to be ready to do God 's will at any time, at any place, and in any way that the Holy Spirit leads.
In keeping with this symbolism, the symbol of the Gideons is a two - handled pitcher and torch recalling Gideon 's victory over the Midianites as described in Judges, Chapter 7.
In addition to their well - known hotel room Bibles, members of The Gideons International also distribute Bibles to members of the military of various countries, to hospitals, nursing homes, prisons, MPs and students. A typical Bible or New Testament from The Gideons International contains:
Membership is limited to current or retired business or professional men aged 21 or older who are members in good standing of an evangelical or Protestant church. Wives of Gideons may join the Gideons International Auxiliary.
The covers of the New Testaments distributed by Gideons are color - coded based on which groups they are meant for:
During World War II there were Military Issued New Testaments, brown for Army and blue for Navy distributed by the Gideons. In addition to the Desert Camouflage and the Digital Camouflage, there are also Woodland Camouflage editions for the Military.
The distribution of Bibles on school grounds has been an issue because of the U.S. Supreme Court 's interpretation of the Establishment Clause in the Constitution. Five Supreme Court cases discuss this issue: Everson, McCollum, Zorach, Engel, and Schempp.
In 2008, Americans United for Separation of Church and State brought suit against the South Iron R - 1 School District in Missouri for allowing the Gideons to distribute Bibles during class time. In 2009, the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in St. Louis upheld a lower court ruling that found the South Iron district 's distribution of Bibles to the schoolchildren in their classrooms was unconstitutional. An "attorney representing the South Iron School District in Annapolis, Mo., said the decision allows a new policy to finally be implemented, one that allows any group to hand out literature at the rural district, including information on how children can obtain Bibles. ''
The Gideons International continues to contact youth in America through The Life Book, coordinating with churches and their youth to distribute copies of the Bible in high schools. The Alliance Defending Freedom, as of 2013, maintains that there are "constitutionally permissible ways in which Gideons Bibles may be distributed, '' and attorneys Rory Gray and Jeremy Tedesco write that the Alliance Defending Freedom sent letters to 174 school districts in Kentucky stating: "Federal caselaw overwhelmingly supports the decision to grant religious and non-religious community groups an equal opportunity to provide literature to willing students. '' In early 2014, the "Gideons International again distributed Bibles at a public elementary school in Kentucky. ''
The tradition of Gideons handing out small New Testaments continues in many British secondary schools. Some schools have banned Gideons.
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game of thrones season 6 summary by episode | Game of Thrones (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on April 24, 2016, and concluded on June 26, 2016. It consists of ten episodes, each of approximately 50 -- 60 minutes long, largely of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series. Some story elements were derived from the novels and from information Martin revealed to the show - runners. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. HBO ordered the season on April 8, 2014, together with the fifth season, which began filming in July 2015 primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Iceland and Canada. Each episode cost over $10 million.
The season follows the continuing struggle between the Starks and other noble families of Westeros for the Iron Throne. The Starks defeat the Bolton forces in battle, and Jon Snow is proclaimed the King in the North. Tyrion attempts to rule Meereen while Daenerys is held captive by a Dothraki tribe. At King 's Landing, the Tyrell army attempts to liberate Margaery and Loras, but Margaery capitulates to the High Sparrow, who becomes more powerful by influencing King Tommen. At her trial, Cersei burns the Great Sept, killing her rivals, while Tommen kills himself. Cersei is crowned Queen of the Seven Kingdoms. Ellaria Sand and three of Oberyn Martell 's daughters kill Doran and Trystane Martell and seize control of Dorne. In Essos, Daenerys Targaryen is captured by Khal Moro who takes her before the khals; she burns them alive and takes command of the Dothraki. Olenna and the Dornish ally with Daenerys.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington. The season introduced new cast members, including Max von Sydow, Pilou Asbæk and Essie Davis.
Critics praised its production values, writing, plot development, and cast. Game of Thrones received most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, with 23 nominations, and won twelve, including that for Outstanding Drama Series for the second year in a row. U.S. viewership rose compared to the previous season, and by approximately 13 % over its course, from 7.9 million to 8.9 million by the finale.
Following their escape from Winterfell, Sansa Stark journeys to the Wall, while Theon Greyjoy returns to the Iron Islands. In Winterfell, Ramsay Bolton secures his claim on the North by killing Roose and Walda Bolton and his new - born half - brother. At the Wall, Melisandre resurrects Jon Snow, who is reunited with Sansa; they gather loyalists and a battle ensues. Aided by the Knights of the Vale, the Starks defeat the Bolton forces. Sansa feeds Ramsay to his hounds and Jon is proclaimed the King in the North.
Beyond the Wall, Bran Stark trains with the Three - Eyed Raven but alerts the Night King, who launches an attack of White Walkers. Bran and Meera escape and are rescued by Benjen Stark. Bran subsequently has a vision to the Tower of Joy years prior, revealing that Jon is not Ned Stark 's bastard but rather the child of Lyanna Stark, who was believed to have been abducted and raped by crown prince Rhaegar Targaryen.
At King 's Landing, Jaime Lannister and the Tyrell army attempt to liberate Margaery and Loras, but Margaery capitulates to the High Sparrow and Tommen forges an alliance with the Faith. During Loras and Cersei 's trial, Cersei uses wildfire to burn the Great Sept, killing the High Sparrow, Margaery, Loras, Mace, Kevan, and Lancel, while Tommen kills himself after witnessing the events. Unopposed, Cersei is crowned Queen of the Seven Kingdoms. Ellaria Sand and three of Oberyn Martell 's daughters kill Doran and Trystane Martell and seize control of Dorne, and Olenna meets with Ellaria, at a summit brokered by Varys, to discuss allying with the Targaryens.
In Braavos, Arya continues her training with the Faceless Men, and soon regains her eyesight. When she refuses to accomplish a mission, the Waif is ordered to kill Arya, who kills the Waif instead. Arya reasserts her identity as a Stark and returns to Westeros.
In the Riverlands, the Hound, revealed to have survived his injuries, pursues the Brotherhood Without Banners for massacring the people who saved him. He finds Lord Beric Dondarrion executing traitorous bannermen, and is asked to join the Brotherhood traveling north. Jaime Lannister besieges Riverrun and takes the castle, killing the Blackfish after forcing Edmure Tully to order a surrender. Walder Frey celebrates the victory before being killed by Arya.
Sam Tarly, Gilly and her son travel to the Citadel at Oldtown, stopping to visit Sam 's family.
In Essos, Daenerys Targaryen is captured by Khal Moro, who takes her before the khals; she burns them alive when they refuse to serve her and takes command of the Dothraki. Tyrion Lannister brings a short - lived peace to Meereen, which is reinforced when Daenerys returns and flies her dragons into battle against the slavers. Yara and Theon arrive and pledge allegiance to Daenerys after Euron Greyjoy kills their father and usurps leadership of the Iron Islands. Jorah Mormont departs to find a cure for greyscale and Daario is left in command of Meereen, while Daenerys sails for Westeros.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 6. They are listed by the region in which they first appear:
The writing staff for the sixth season includes executive producers and showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, producer Bryan Cogman and Dave Hill. Author George R.R. Martin, who had written one episode for each of the first four seasons, did not write an episode for the sixth season, as he was working to finish writing the sixth A Song of Ice and Fire novel, The Winds of Winter. The directing staff for the sixth season was Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 2), Daniel Sackheim (episodes 3 and 4), Jack Bender (episodes 5 and 6), Mark Mylod (episodes 7 and 8), and Miguel Sapochnik (episodes 9 and 10). Sackheim and Bender were first - time Game of Thrones directors, with the rest each having directed two episodes in the previous season.
With the end of the fifth season, the content of the show has reached the plot of the latest novel in Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, A Dance with Dragons. Season 6 director Jeremy Podeswa said in August 2015: "Right now in season six, what we 're shooting currently is n't based on anything in the book. It 's fully based on discussions the writers have had with George Martin, because the series has now surpassed the books in terms of what 's available. '' Actress Natalie Dormer, who plays Margaery Tyrell, later added that the show 's writers "know where it 's got to go and what (George Martin) 's intentions for the characters are. But they are just filling in the gaps. ''
The season premiere starts off right where the fifth season ended. A plot from The Winds of Winter regarding a traveling theater troupe located in Braavos that stages a play called "The Bloody Hand '', about the events that have taken place in King 's Landing since the beginning of the series, is included in the sixth season.
Filming for season six began in July 2015, and ended on December 17, 2015. The budget for the sixth season increased compared to the previous seasons as each episode did cost over $10 million per episode, totaling over $100 million for the full season and setting a new high for the series. The season filmed in five different countries, Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Iceland and Canada.
Like the previous seasons, a large amount of production took place in Northern Ireland, mainly in Belfast and on the Causeway Coast, including film locations in the Binevenagh, Magilligan area which was used to film scenes for the Dothraki Grasslands, and Larrybane Quarry and Ballintoy Harbour, both used for scenes in the Iron Islands. The small village of Corbet was also used, for the siege of Riverrun. As in previous seasons, some of Castle Black was set at the abandoned Magheramorne quarry.
From September 3 to October 23, 2015 the show also filmed in Spain, specifically in Girona, Navarre, Peniscola, and Almería. Some filming locations in Spain included the Castle of Zafra in Guadalajara, the Bardenas Reales Natural Park in Navarre, the Alcazaba in Almería, and the Castle of Santa Florentina in Canet de Mar.
In August 2015, HBO announced that for the first time since season 1, the show would not be filming any scenes in Croatia. The Croatian city of Dubrovnik has stood in for King 's Landing since the beginning of season 2; nearby cities such as Klis, Split and Šibenik have been used to depict various other locations. Contradicting the statement by HBO, cast of the show were seen in costume in Dubrovnik in October 2015.
Only a very small portion of the season was filmed in Canada (north of Calgary, Alberta): the scenes featuring Jon Snow 's wolf Ghost (played by animal actor Quigly). However, some of the special effects were created at Montreal 's Rodeo FX studios which has won Emmy Awards previously for its work on the series.
The sixth season saw the return of Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark, Kristian Nairn as Hodor, Ellie Kendrick as Meera Reed, Gemma Whelan as Yara Greyjoy, and Rory McCann as Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane, who did not appear in the fifth season. Clive Russell, Tobias Menzies, Patrick Malahide, Richard Dormer and Paul Kaye also returned to the show as Brynden Tully, Edmure Tully, Balon Greyjoy, Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr after not appearing since the third season. Jonathan Pryce as the High Sparrow was added to the series main cast after appearing in a recurring role in the previous season.
Across the Narrow Sea, Melanie Liburd plays a Red priestess from Asshai who is in R'hllor 's service. At the Reach, House Tarly is introduced, with Freddie Stroma joining the cast as Samwell Tarly 's brother Dickon Tarly, a character who was mentioned in the novels but has yet to appear in them. Other members of House Tarly that were introduced were Randyll Tarly, played by James Faulkner; Melessa Tarly, played by Samantha Spiro and Talla Tarly, who was portrayed by Rebecca Benson.
Veteran actor Max von Sydow was cast to play the Three - Eyed - Raven, who is training Bran. The character was previously played by Struan Rodger in the fourth - season finale "The Children ''. David Bradley confirmed in August 2015, that he would be returning to the show as Walder Frey after last appearing in the third - season finale "Mhysa '', but he did not confirm when he would be returning. After the second official trailer was released, it was confirmed that Bradley would appear in the sixth season. Danish actor Pilou Asbæk joins the show as Theon Greyjoy 's uncle, pirate captain Euron Greyjoy. Members of the Icelandic band Of Monsters and Men made cameo appearances. Ricky Champ played Gatins, an outlaw who is a part of a band using religion to justify extorting the people of the countryside. A young Ned Stark was portrayed by Sebastian Croft in a flashback scene.
The sixth season also included a traveling theater troupe located in Braavos that stages a play called "The Bloody Hand '', about the events that have taken place in King 's Landing since the beginning of the series. Essie Davis and Kevin Eldon joined the cast in this theater troupe, portraying actors playing Cersei Lannister and Ned Stark, respectively, while Richard E. Grant was cast as the troupe 's manager. Members of Icelandic indie band Of Monsters and Men appear as the musicians of the Braavos theatre group.
The soundtrack for the season was digitally released on June 24, 2016, and was released on CD on July 29, 2016. The album reached # 27 on the Billboard 200, # 1 on Soundtrack chart, and # 79 on the Canadian Albums chart on its digital release, with the track from the season finale "Light of the Seven '' reaching # 1 on Billboard 's Spotify Viral 50 chart.
The season received highly positive reviews, with special praise directed at the episodes "The Door '', "Battle of the Bastards '' and "The Winds of Winter ''. On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the sixth season has a 95 % approval rating from 30 critics with an average rating of 8.33 out of 10. The season also received a 94 % episode average score on Rotten Tomatoes. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Bloody and captivating as always, Game of Thrones plunges back into the midst of a world touched by grief, dread, and precarious sexuality. ''
The season finale had 8.89 million viewers on its initial airing on HBO, up ten percent from the previous season 's finale, which was the most - watched episode prior to this episode. The average gross viewing figure per episode for the show, which include streaming, DVR recordings and repeat showings, reached over 25 million this season, and it was described as the last consensus show on television. The figure went up by 25 % compared to previous year, and viewing figures of the show this season on its on demand services HBO Now and HBO Go went up by over 90 %, which were new records for HBO. Almost 40 % of viewers of the show watched this season on HBO digital platforms. The show also broke records on pay television channels in 2016 in the United Kingdom with an average audience of more than five million across all platforms, and in Australia with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million viewers.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
For the 32nd TCA Awards, the series was nominated for Program of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Drama. For the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 23 nominations, the most of any series. It won 12 awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "Battle of the Bastards '', and Miguel Sapochnik for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for "Battle of the Bastards ''. For the 7th Critics ' Choice Television Awards, the series won for Best Drama Series.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
On November 23, 2015, a teaser poster displaying Jon Snow was released on the official Game of Thrones Twitter account. A 41 - second teaser trailer was released on December 3, featuring Jon Snow from the fifth season episode "Hardhome '', as well as many of the previous seasons ' highlights, and a voice - over from Max von Sydow as the Three - Eyed Raven and Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on December 6, 2015, showcasing scenes involving Daenerys Targaryen, Ramsay Bolton, Cersei Lannister, and Tommen Baratheon. On December 28, 2015, Entertainment Weekly released its "Exclusive First Look '' issue, featuring an image of Bran Stark, who was noticeably older from his last appearance in season four, and with shorter hair.
On January 22, 2016, three teaser trailers were released, with each teaser depicting the banners of the houses Targaryen, Lannister and Stark, and included voice - overs by Iwan Rheon as Ramsay Bolton, Jonathan Pryce as The High Sparrow and an unknown character speaking in Dothraki. On February 11, 2016, HBO released 28 exclusive photos from the sixth season, picturing several of the main characters during the season and confirming the fates of Theon, Sansa and Myrcella, while Jon Snow was notably absent. HBO released a teaser trailer on February 14, 2016, that shows the faces of a number of living as well as deceased characters such as Ned Stark, Robb Stark, Catelyn Stark, Joffrey Baratheon, Tywin Lannister, Stannis Baratheon, Ygritte and, controversially, Jon Snow in the House of Black and White. On February 24, 2016, HBO released 16 character posters of both deceased and alive characters, and two official posters featuring various characters.
A behind - the - scenes video of the sixth season was released on February 29, 2016, focusing on camera operators working on the show. The first official trailer for season 6 was released on March 8, 2016. Another behind - the - scenes video was released on March 22, 2016, focusing on the creative process of prosthetics, specifically the White Walkers. The video also contained new footage of White Walkers from the sixth season. On March 24, Entertainment Weekly revealed a series of new issues titled "Dame of Thrones '', featuring six of the female lead characters from the series and focus on the sixth season. On March 26, 2016, new photos from season six, in addition to a new promo named "March Madness '' with new footage, was released by HBO. After the screening of the season premiere "The Red Woman '', HBO released a second official trailer. As well, in July 2016, HBO released a "blooper reel '' online, a video of outtakes from season 6.
After the Thrones, a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series, airs on the stand - alone streaming service HBO Now on the Monday following each episode of the show 's sixth season.
The season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. The set includes extra background, behind - the - scenes material and deleted scenes.
Blu - ray exclusive:
The sixth season of Game of Thrones was the most - pirated TV series in 2016.
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who is aimee in swing time based on | Swing Time (novel) - wikipedia
Swing Time is a novel by British writer Zadie Smith, released in November 2016. The story takes place in London, New York and West Africa, and focusses on two girls who can tap dance.
Beginning in 2008, the novel tells the story of two mixed - race, black and white, girls who meet in 1982 in a tap class in London. The unnamed narrator, who has a white, working - class father, and a mother of Jamaican descent is immediately drawn to the precocious Tracey, who has a white mother and no father, as they have the same skin colour and are the only black children at their dance lessons. Despite the fact that the narrator 's semi-intellectual mother looks down on Tracey, the two become best friends as they live in neighbouring estate flats. While the narrator 's dance career is hampered by her flat feet, Tracey is something of a prodigy and goes on to win many awards. Tracey credits this in part to the fact that her father is one of Michael Jackson 's backup dancers, a lie she makes up to explain his prolonged absences.
When the girls are ten, a twenty - two year old Australian pop - star named Aimee becomes a world - wide sensation. At the birthday party of one of their friends the girls perform a sexualized dance, inspired by Aimee 's dancing which is caught on tape by one of the girls and which is cut short when the mother of the birthday girl walks in on Tracey and the narrator on top of each other.
In 1998 the narrator, newly graduated from college, is working at YTV, a music channel, and has a brief encounter with Aimee who comes to the station. When Aimee 's assistant quits a month later, she hires the narrator to come work for her.
When the narrator is in her 30s, Aimee decides to build an all girls school in a rural village in an unspecified country in West Africa (implied to be Gambia). The narrator is part of Aimee 's advance team along with Lamin, a young Senegalese man. Aimee builds the school but the narrator finds the work they do there questionable and often useless.
Reflecting back on her school years she recalls that, while she was identified by teachers as an advanced reader, she purposely failed her entrance exams for a grammar school. Meanwhile Tracey attended a performing arts high school and the two mostly lost touch. Occasionally seeing each other around the neighbourhood the narrator runs into Tracey a handful of times during her teenage years, once when Tracey is having a drug overdose and another time when they are recruited by their old dance instructor to handle the tickets at the children 's concert. Tracey steals the money from the concert and, when she is accused of doing so, she and her mother accuse the old piano player who accompanied the dancers as children of molesting Tracey. The narrator realizes that Tracey probably was sexually assaulted as a child by her own father.
The narrator attends college and graduates jobless. Eventually she reunites with Tracey, who has a small part in a revival of Guys and Dolls and helps the narrator secure a position as a stagehand. After four months the narrator manages to get the internship at YTV. She tells this to Tracey along with the fact that she is quitting the show. In retaliation Tracey sends her a confessional letter telling the narrator that she saw her father having sex with a black blowup doll he had dressed like a golliwog. The narrator cuts off contact with Tracey, only seeing her again roughly eight years later during a performance of Show Boat. The narrator means to say hello to Tracey after the show but she instead sees Tracey 's mother coming to pick her up with two small children, assumed to be Tracey 's, in the backseat.
In the present the narrator continues to visit the school Aimee built and hears rumours that Aimee is in love with Lamin and wants to bring him to the U.S. The rumours turn out to be true. The narrator is assigned degrading tasks which she thinks are punishment for her disapproval of Lamin and Aimee 's relationship but turn out to be because the narrator 's mother, now a Member of Parliament is openly criticizing the government of the country where Aimee 's school is located.
Visiting her mother, the narrator learns that Tracey has been in contact with her once again, at first because of a local issue involving her son being expelled and then contacting her three or more times a day to send abusive emails that are full of conspiracy theories. The narrator goes to Tracey 's childhood flat, where she is still living, to find Tracey who is now overweight and has three children by three different men.
Returning to West Africa for a final time with Aimee, the narrator witnesses an event where she and Aimee are introduced to a beautiful three day old baby. She also begins a brief sexual affair with Lamin, who is not in love with the narrator but is unhappy with his relationship with Aimee as Aimee is much older than him. Fern, one of the men who has been hired to work on the school and who is in love with the narrator discovers the relationship between the narrator and Lamin and grows jealous.
Back in London, the narrator discovers to her shock that Aimee has adopted Sankofa, the baby they met in West Africa, through somewhat illegal means. Shortly after the narrator is fired as Fern revealed to Aimee that the narrator slept with Lamin. Angry after being thrown out of her home and realizing that her entire life was attached to Aimee, the narrator sends the news of the illegal adoption to gossip rags. Aimee and her team try to counter this by creating a blind item revealing the narrator 's name, but the public is on the narrator 's side. Aimee has her sent to London. Despite not loving Lamin, the narrator pays for him to meet her there.
Once in London, the video tape of the narrator dancing provocatively with Tracey is released online by Tracey and Aimee manages to smooth over the adoption scandal by having the parents of her adopted child come forward and say they are happy.
The narrator decides to move back in with her mother but discovers that she is in hospice care. She also discovers that Tracey has been continuing to send harassing emails to her mother throughout her illness. Nevertheless, the last time the narrator and her mother meet, the narrator 's mother begs her to adopt Tracey 's children so that they will be taken care of properly. The narrator decides that rather than adopt or ignore them she will seek out a middle ground.
The book ends on the day her mother dies when, instead of going to see her mother at the hospice, she goes to Tracey 's flat and sees her and her children dancing together.
The novel references numerous Hollywood musicals as the unnamed narrator is obsessed with them as a child. It takes its title from the 1936 George Stevens movie Swing Time starring Fred Astaire and specifically references the "Bojangles of Harlem sequence '' in which Astaire sports blackface. Jeni Le Gon becomes an icon for the narrator and Tracey after they see her dancing in Ali Baba Goes to Town.
In a scene in the novel the narrator and Aimee go to Kenwood House where the narrator mentions, without naming her, Dido Elizabeth Belle and the portrait of her with her cousin Lady Elizabeth Murray.
In another scene the narrator is taken to see Chris Marker 's 1983 documentary film Sans Soleil by her boyfriend Rakim.
The novel references Smith 's debut novel White Teeth as the narrator briefly mentions going to school with Irie (Irie Jones) who, like the narrator has a Jamaican mother.
The novel received mixed reviews. Taiye Selasi writing for The Guardian called it Smith 's "finest '' novel yet. Ron Charles of The Washington Post dubbed it "a big social novel nimble enough to keep all its diverse parts moving gracefully toward a vision of what really matters in this life when the music stops. ''
Holly Bass of The New York Times criticized the "unsympathetic '' narrator. Sadiya Ansari writing for the Toronto Star had similar criticisms, disliking the narrator 's tendency "to just float ''. The Irish Times critic John Boyne was much harsher, criticizing the novel for "lacking a consistent narrative drive, an interesting voice or a compelling point of view ''.
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the deltoid muscle is innervated by the axillary nerve from c5 and c6 | Axillary nerve - wikipedia
The axillary nerve or the circumflex nerve is a nerve of the human body, that originates from the brachial plexus (upper trunk, posterior division, posterior cord) at the level of the axilla (armpit) and carries nerve fibers from C5 and C6. The axillary nerve travels through the quadrangular space with the posterior circumflex humeral artery and vein.
The nerve lies at first behind the axillary artery, and in front of the subscapularis, and passes downward to the lower border of that muscle.
It then winds backward, in company with the posterior humeral circumflex artery, through a quadrangular space bounded above by the teres minor, below by the teres major, medially by the long head of the triceps brachii, and laterally by the surgical neck of the humerus, and divides into an anterior, a posterior, and a collateral branch to the long head of the triceps brachii branch.
The axillary nerve supplies three muscles in the arm: deltoid (a muscle of the shoulder), teres minor (one of the rotator cuff muscles) and the long head of the triceps brachii. Traditionally, the axillary nerve was thought to only supply the deltoid and teres minor. However, a study conducted in 2004 determined that, in 20 cadaveric specimens and 15 surgical dissections on participants, the long head was innervated by a branch of the axillary nerve in all cases.
The axillary nerve also carries sensory information from the shoulder joint, as well as the skin covering the inferior region of the deltoid muscle - the "regimental badge '' area (which is innervated by the superior lateral cutaneous nerve branch of the axillary nerve).
The posterior cord of the brachial plexus splits inferiorly to the glenohumeral joint giving rise to the axillary nerve which wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus, and the radial nerve which wraps around the humerus anteriorly and descends along its lateral border.
The axillary nerve may be injured in anterior - inferior dislocations of the shoulder joint, compression of the axilla with a crutch or fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus. An example of injury to the axillary nerve includes axillary nerve palsy. Injury to the nerve results in:
Brachial plexus with courses of spinal nerves shown
Suprascapular and axillary nerves of right side, seen from behind.
Cutaneous nerves of right upper extremity.
Diagram of segmental distribution of the cutaneous nerves of the right upper extremity.
Axillary nerve
Axillary nerve
Axillary nerve
Axillary nerve
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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what is the x and y axis called | Cartesian coordinate system - wikipedia
A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis (plural axes) of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three - dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In general, n Cartesian coordinates (an element of real n - space) specify the point in an n - dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n. These coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes.
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes (Latinized name: Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x + y = 4.
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more. A familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering and many more. They are the most common coordinate system used in computer graphics, computer - aided geometric design and other geometry - related data processing.
The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637. It was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. The French cleric Nicole Oresme, used constructions similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes and Fermat.
Both Descartes and Fermat used a single axis in their treatments and have a variable length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes ' La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and his students. These commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes ' work.
The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a fundamental role in the development of the calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The two - coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces.
Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three - dimensional space.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one - dimensional space -- that is, for a straight line -- involves choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half - lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line "is oriented '' (or "points '') from the negative half towards the positive half. Then each point P of the line can be specified by its distance from O, taken with a + or − sign depending on which half - line contains P.
A line with a chosen Cartesian system is called a number line. Every real number has a unique location on the line. Conversely, every point on the line can be interpreted as a number in an ordered continuum such as the real numbers.
A Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system or an orthogonal coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both, thus turning each axis into a number line. For any point P, a line is drawn through P perpendicular to each axis, and the position where it meets the axis is interpreted as a number. The two numbers, in that chosen order, are the Cartesian coordinates of P. The reverse construction allows one to determine the point P given its coordinates.
The first and second coordinates are called the abscissa and the ordinate of P, respectively; and the point where the axes meet is called the origin of the coordinate system. The coordinates are usually written as two numbers in parentheses, in that order, separated by a comma, as in (3, - 10.5). Thus the origin has coordinates (0, 0), and the points on the positive half - axes, one unit away from the origin, have coordinates (1, 0) and (0, 1).
In mathematics, physics, and engineering, the first axis is usually defined or depicted as horizontal and oriented to the right, and the second axis is vertical and oriented upwards. (However, in some computer graphics contexts, the ordinate axis may be oriented downwards.) The origin is often labeled O, and the two coordinates are often denoted by the letters X and Y, or x and y. The axes may then be referred to as the X-axis and Y - axis. The choices of letters come from the original convention, which is to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate unknown values. The first part of the alphabet was used to designate known values.
A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian coordinate system Cartesian plane. In a Cartesian plane one can define canonical representatives of certain geometric figures, such as the unit circle (with radius equal to the length unit, and center at the origin), the unit square (whose diagonal has endpoints at (0, 0) and (1, 1)), the unit hyperbola, and so on.
The two axes divide the plane into four right angles, called quadrant. The quadrants may be named or numbered in various ways, but the quadrant where all coordinates are positive is usually called the first quadrant.
If the coordinates of a point are (x, y), then its distances from the X-axis and from the Y - axis are y and x, respectively; where... denotes the absolute value of a number.
A Cartesian coordinate system for a three - dimensional space consists of an ordered triplet of lines (the axes) that go through a common point (the origin), and are pair-wise perpendicular; an orientation for each axis; and a single unit of length for all three axes. As in the two - dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line. For any point P of space, one considers a plane through P perpendicular to each coordinate axis, and interprets the point where that plane cuts the axis as a number. The Cartesian coordinates of P are those three numbers, in the chosen order The reverse construction determines the point P given its three coordinates.
Alternatively, each coordinate of a point P can be taken as the distance from P to the plane defined by the other two axes, with the sign determined by the orientation of the corresponding axis.
Each pair of axes defines a coordinate plane. These planes divide space into eight trihedra, called octants.
The coordinates are usually written as three numbers (or algebraic formulas) surrounded by parentheses and separated by commas, as in (3, - 2.5, 1) or (t, u+v, π / 2). Thus, the origin has coordinates (0, 0, 0), and the unit points on the three axes are (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1).
There are no standard names for the coordinates in the three axes. The coordinates are often denoted by the letters X, Y, and Z (or x, y, and z), in which case the lines are called the X -, Y -, and Z - axis, respectively. Then the coordinate planes can be referred to as the XY -, YZ -, and XZ - planes.
In mathematics, physics, and engineering contexts, the first two axes are often defined or depicted as horizontal, with the third axis pointing up. In that case the third coordinate may be called height or altitude. The orientations are usually chosen so that the 90 degree angle from the first axis to the second axis looks counter-clockwise when seen from the point (0, 0, 1); a convention that is commonly called the right hand rule.
A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian system is called a Cartesian plane. Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with pairs of real numbers; that is with the Cartesian product R 2 = R × R (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (2) = \ mathbb (R) \ times \ mathbb (R)), where R (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R)) is the set of all reals. In the same way, the points in any Euclidean space of dimension n be identified with the tuples (lists) of n real numbers, that is, with the Cartesian product R n (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (n)).
The concept of Cartesian coordinates generalizes to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and / or different units along each axis. In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes). In such an oblique coordinate system the computations of distances and angles must be modified from that in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold (see affine plane).
The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in (10, 5) or (3, 5, 7). The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters (x, y) in the plane, and (x, y, z) in three - dimensional space. This custom comes from a convention of algebra, which uses letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities.
These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering, although other letters may be used. For example, in a graph showing how a pressure varies with time, the graph coordinates may be denoted p and t. Each axis is usually named after the coordinate which is measured along it; so one says the x-axis, the y - axis, the t - axis, etc.
Another common convention for coordinate naming is to use subscripts, as (x, x,..., x) for the n coordinates in an n - dimensional space, especially when n is greater than 3 or unspecified. Some authors prefer the numbering (x, x,..., x). These notations are especially advantageous in computer programming: by storing the coordinates of a point as an array, instead of a record, the subscript can serve to index the coordinates.
In mathematical illustrations of two - dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate (traditionally called the abscissa) is measured along a horizontal axis, oriented from left to right. The second coordinate (the ordinate) is then measured along a vertical axis, usually oriented from bottom to top. Young children learning the Cartesian system, commonly learn the order to read the values before cementing the x -, y -, and z - axis concepts, by starting with 2D mnemonics (e.g. ' Walk along the hall then up the stairs ' akin to straight across the x-axis then up vertically along the y - axis).
Computer graphics and image processing, however, often use a coordinate system with the y - axis oriented downwards on the computer display. This convention developed in the 1960s (or earlier) from the way that images were originally stored in display buffers.
For three - dimensional systems, a convention is to portray the xy - plane horizontally, with the z - axis added to represent height (positive up). Furthermore, there is a convention to orient the x-axis toward the viewer, biased either to the right or left. If a diagram (3D projection or 2D perspective drawing) shows the x - and y - axis horizontally and vertically, respectively, then the z - axis should be shown pointing "out of the page '' towards the viewer or camera. In such a 2D diagram of a 3D coordinate system, the z - axis would appear as a line or ray pointing down and to the left or down and to the right, depending on the presumed viewer or camera perspective. In any diagram or display, the orientation of the three axes, as a whole, is arbitrary. However, the orientation of the axes relative to each other should always comply with the right - hand rule, unless specifically stated otherwise. All laws of physics and math assume this right - handedness, which ensures consistency.
For 3D diagrams, the names "abscissa '' and "ordinate '' are rarely used for x and y, respectively. When they are, the z - coordinate is sometimes called the applicate. The words abscissa, ordinate and applicate are sometimes used to refer to coordinate axes rather than the coordinate values.
The axes of a two - dimensional Cartesian system divide the plane into four infinite regions, called quadrants, each bounded by two half - axes. These are often numbered from 1st to 4th and denoted by Roman numerals: I (where the signs of the two coordinates are I (+, +), II (−, +), III (−, −), and IV (+, −). When the axes are drawn according to the mathematical custom, the numbering goes counter-clockwise starting from the upper right ("north - east '') quadrant.
Similarly, a three - dimensional Cartesian system defines a division of space into eight regions or octants, according to the signs of the coordinates of the points. The convention used for naming a specific octant is to list its signs, e.g. (+ + +) or (− + −). The generalization of the quadrant and octant to an arbitrary number of dimensions is the orthant, and a similar naming system applies.
The Euclidean distance between two points of the plane with Cartesian coordinates (x 1, y 1) (\ displaystyle (x_ (1), y_ (1))) and (x 2, y 2) (\ displaystyle (x_ (2), y_ (2))) is
This is the Cartesian version of Pythagoras 's theorem. In three - dimensional space, the distance between points (x 1, y 1, z 1) (\ displaystyle (x_ (1), y_ (1), z_ (1))) and (x 2, y 2, z 2) (\ displaystyle (x_ (2), y_ (2), z_ (2))) is
which can be obtained by two consecutive applications of Pythagoras ' theorem.
The Euclidean transformations or Euclidean motions are the (bijective) mappings of points of the Euclidean plane to themselves which preserve distances between points. There are four types of these mappings (also called isometries): translations, rotations, reflections and glide reflections.
Translating a set of points of the plane, preserving the distances and directions between them, is equivalent to adding a fixed pair of numbers (a, b) to the Cartesian coordinates of every point in the set. That is, if the original coordinates of a point are (x, y), after the translation they will be
To rotate a figure counterclockwise around the origin by some angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x, y) by the point with coordinates (x ', y '), where
Thus:
(x ′, y ′) = ((x cos θ − y sin θ), (x sin θ + y cos θ)). (\ displaystyle (x ', y ') = ((x \ cos \ theta - y \ sin \ theta \,), (x \ sin \ theta + y \ cos \ theta \,)).)
If (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then (− x, y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis (the y - axis), as if that line were a mirror. Likewise, (x, − y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis (the x-axis). In more generality, reflection across a line through the origin making an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) with the x-axis, is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x, y) by the point with coordinates (x ′, y ′), where
Thus: (x ′, y ′) = ((x cos 2 θ + y sin 2 θ), (x sin 2 θ − y cos 2 θ)). (\ displaystyle (x ', y ') = ((x \ cos 2 \ theta + y \ sin 2 \ theta \,), (x \ sin 2 \ theta - y \ cos 2 \ theta \,)).)
A glide reflection is the composition of a reflection across a line followed by a translation in the direction of that line. It can be seen that the order of these operations does not matter (the translation can come first, followed by the reflection).
These Euclidean transformations of the plane can all be described in a uniform way by using matrices. The result (x ′, y ′) (\ displaystyle (x ', y ')) of applying a Euclidean transformation to a point (x, y) (\ displaystyle (x, y)) is given by the formula
where A is a 2 × 2 orthogonal matrix and b = (b, b) is an arbitrary ordered pair of numbers; that is,
where
To be orthogonal, the matrix A must have orthogonal rows with same Euclidean length of one, that is,
and
This is equivalent to saying that A times its transpose must be the identity matrix. If these conditions do not hold, the formula describes a more general affine transformation of the plane provided that the determinant of A is not zero.
The formula defines a translation if and only if A is the identity matrix. The transformation is a rotation around some point if and only if A is a rotation matrix, meaning that
A reflection or glide reflection is obtained when,
Assuming that translation is not used transformations can be combined by simply multiplying the associated transformation matrices.
Another way to represent coordinate transformations in Cartesian coordinates is through affine transformations. In affine transformations an extra dimension is added and all points are given a value of 1 for this extra dimension. The advantage of doing this is that point translations can be specified in the final column of matrix A. In this way, all of the euclidean transformations become transactable as matrix point multiplications. The affine transformation is given by:
Using affine transformations multiple different euclidean transformations including translation can be combined by simply multiplying the corresponding matrices.
An example of an affine transformation which is not a Euclidean motion is given by scaling. To make a figure larger or smaller is equivalent to multiplying the Cartesian coordinates of every point by the same positive number m. If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point on the original figure, the corresponding point on the scaled figure has coordinates
If m is greater than 1, the figure becomes larger; if m is between 0 and 1, it becomes smaller.
A shearing transformation will push the top of a square sideways to form a parallelogram. Horizontal shearing is defined by:
Shearing can also be applied vertically:
Fixing or choosing the x-axis determines the y - axis up to direction. Namely, the y - axis is necessarily the perpendicular to the x-axis through the point marked 0 on the x-axis. But there is a choice of which of the two half lines on the perpendicular to designate as positive and which as negative. Each of these two choices determines a different orientation (also called handedness) of the Cartesian plane.
The usual way of orienting the axes, with the positive x-axis pointing right and the positive y - axis pointing up (and the x-axis being the "first '' and the y - axis the "second '' axis) is considered the positive or standard orientation, also called the right - handed orientation.
A commonly used mnemonic for defining the positive orientation is the right - hand rule. Placing a somewhat closed right hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up, the fingers point from the x-axis to the y - axis, in a positively oriented coordinate system.
The other way of orienting the axes is following the left hand rule, placing the left hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up.
When pointing the thumb away from the origin along an axis towards positive, the curvature of the fingers indicates a positive rotation along that axis.
Regardless of the rule used to orient the axes, rotating the coordinate system will preserve the orientation. Switching any two axes will reverse the orientation, but switching both will leave the orientation unchanged.
Once the x - and y - axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z - axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line. The two possible coordinate systems which result are called ' right - handed ' and ' left - handed '. The standard orientation, where the xy - plane is horizontal and the z - axis points up (and the x - and the y - axis form a positively oriented two - dimensional coordinate system in the xy - plane if observed from above the xy - plane) is called right - handed or positive.
The name derives from the right - hand rule. If the index finger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed at a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the x -, y -, and z - axes in a right - handed system. The thumb indicates the x-axis, the index finger the y - axis and the middle finger the z - axis. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left - handed system results.
Figure 7 depicts a left and a right - handed coordinate system. Because a three - dimensional object is represented on the two - dimensional screen, distortion and ambiguity result. The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle '' - axis is meant to point away from the observer. The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy - plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y - axis (in both cases). Hence the red arrow passes in front of the z - axis.
Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right - handed coordinate system. Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three - dimensional coordinate system into the plane. Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out '' between a convex cube and a concave "corner ''. This corresponds to the two possible orientations of the coordinate system. Seeing the figure as convex gives a left - handed coordinate system. Thus the "correct '' way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the x-axis as pointing towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner.
A point in space in a Cartesian coordinate system may also be represented by a position vector, which can be thought of as an arrow pointing from the origin of the coordinate system to the point. If the coordinates represent spatial positions (displacements), it is common to represent the vector from the origin to the point of interest as r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)). In two dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be written as:
where i = (1 0) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (i) = (\ begin (pmatrix) 1 \ \ 0 \ end (pmatrix))), and j = (0 1) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (j) = (\ begin (pmatrix) 0 \ \ 1 \ end (pmatrix))) are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y - axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors). Similarly, in three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) (\ displaystyle (x, y, z)) can be written as:
where k = (0 0 1) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (k) = (\ begin (pmatrix) 0 \ \ 0 \ \ 1 \ end (pmatrix))) is the unit vector in the direction of the z - axis.
There is no natural interpretation of multiplying vectors to obtain another vector that works in all dimensions, however there is a way to use complex numbers to provide such a multiplication. In a two dimensional cartesian plane, identify the point with coordinates (x, y) with the complex number z = x + iy. Here, i is the imaginary unit and is identified with the point with coordinates (0, 1), so it is not the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis. Since the complex numbers can be multiplied giving another complex number, this identification provides a means to "multiply '' vectors. In a three dimensional cartesian space a similar identification can be made with a subset of the quaternions.
Cartesian coordinates are an abstraction that have a multitude of possible applications in the real world. However, three constructive steps are involved in superimposing coordinates on a problem application. 1) Units of distance must be decided defining the spatial size represented by the numbers used as coordinates. 2) An origin must be assigned to a specific spatial location or landmark, and 3) the orientation of the axes must be defined using available directional cues for all but one axis.
Consider as an example superimposing 3D Cartesian coordinates over all points on the Earth (i.e. geospatial 3D). What units make sense? Kilometers are a good choice, since the original definition of the kilometer was geospatial... 10,000 km equalling the surface distance from the Equator to the North Pole. Where to place the origin? Based on symmetry, the gravitational center of the Earth suggests a natural landmark (which can be sensed via satellite orbits). Finally, how to orient X -, Y - and Z - axis directions? The axis of Earth 's spin provides a natural direction strongly associated with "up vs. down '', so positive Z can adopt the direction from geocenter to North Pole. A location on the Equator is needed to define the X-axis, and the prime meridian stands out as a reference direction, so the X-axis takes the direction from geocenter out to (0 degrees longitude, 0 degrees latitude). Note that with 3 dimensions, and two perpendicular axes directions pinned down for X and Z, the Y - axis is determined by the first two choices. In order to obey the right - hand rule, the Y - axis must point out from the geocenter to (90 degrees longitude, 0 degrees latitude). So what are the geocentric coordinates of the Empire State Building in New York City? Using (longitude = − 73.985656, latitude = 40.748433), Earth radius = 40,000 / 2π, and transforming from spherical -- > Cartesian coordinates, you can estimate the geocentric coordinates of the Empire State Building, (x, y, z) = (1330.53 km, -- 4635.75 km, 4155.46 km). GPS navigation relies on such geocentric coordinates.
In engineering projects, agreement on the definition of coordinates is a crucial foundation. One can not assume that coordinates come predefined for a novel application, so knowledge of how to erect a coordinate system where there is none is essential to applying René Descartes ' ingenious thinking.
While spatial apps employ identical units along all axes, in business and scientific apps, each axis may have different units of measurement associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc.). Although four - and higher - dimensional spaces are difficult to visualize, the algebra of Cartesian coordinates can be extended relatively easily to four or more variables, so that certain calculations involving many variables can be done. (This sort of algebraic extension is what is used to define the geometry of higher - dimensional spaces.) Conversely, it is often helpful to use the geometry of Cartesian coordinates in two or three dimensions to visualize algebraic relationships between two or three of many non-spatial variables.
The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation. For a function of one variable, f, the set of all points (x, y), where y = f (x) is the graph of the function f. For a function g of two variables, the set of all points (x, y, z), where z = g (x, y) is the graph of the function g. A sketch of the graph of such a function or relation would consist of all the salient parts of the function or relation which would include its relative extrema, its concavity and points of inflection, any points of discontinuity and its end behavior. All of these terms are more fully defined in calculus. Such graphs are useful in calculus to understand the nature and behavior of a function or relation.
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what happened to west coast customs old crew | West Coast Customs - wikipedia
West Coast Customs (abbreviated by the company as WCC) is an automobile repair shop focusing on the customization of vehicles. It was started by co-founders Ryan Friedlinghaus and Quinton Dodson in 1994. According to Friedlinghaus, he began the business with a $5000 loan from his grandfather, but other sources claim that he raised the seed money for the business while working at his father 's liquor store. Owing to the patronage of celebrities such as Shaquille O'Neal, and Sean Combs, along with appearances in the reality television programs Pimp My Ride and Street Customs, the company has gained a high degree of notoriety and has become a multimillion - dollar business.
Besides celebrities, West Coast Customs has also created vehicles for global brands such as Virgin, Nintendo, and Microsoft. It is frequently characterized as one of the best custom car shops in the United States. However, the company has also at times been accused of missing deadlines, using aggressive sales tactics, and producing low quality and potentially unsafe customized vehicles. Some observers and past employees have also criticized the company 's employment practices.
It has had some success franchising outside of the United States with open franchises in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and Shanghai, China (as Chinese: 西海岸 汽车 定制). Other franchises, however, such as the one in Berlin, Germany, closed shortly after opening due to becoming insolvent. After a long history of different locations within the U.S. state of California, its current flagship and largest facility of 60,000 square feet (5,600 m) is headquartered in Burbank, California.
According to two contradictory statements in the Los Angeles Times, West Coast Customs was founded in either 1994 or 1998 by auto enthusiast Ryan Friedlinghaus. In a 2008 article, USA Today put the foundation year as 1997. The legal entity, West Coast Customs International, LLC, was incorporated in California on 20 October 2000. A young Friedlinghaus had gotten his custom vehicles featured on the covers auto magazines by age 14, but he became frustrated with the tedium of dealing with multiple specialty shops, which led to longer times to build the vehicles. According to Entrepreneur, this frustration, coupled with his love for custom cars, was what led to his opening of his own shop.
The company moved many times in its early years, but it is at its Inglewood location that WCC began to gain a reputation for quality, which caused celebrities to have their cars modified there. According to Friedlinghaus, one of his first customers was Shaquille O'Neal, who wanted a customized Chevrolet Suburban, and this relationship helped him get contacts with other celebrities who were looking for custom automobiles. Owing to this, Music Television (MTV) offered Friedlinghaus the opportunity to have a reality television show filmed at his business with co-founder Quinton "Q '' Dodson as the star and rapper Xzibit as the host; his acceptance of this deal led to the 2004 TV show Pimp My Ride.
Pimp My Ride was extremely successful, spawning international spin - offs, and its success increased the profile of West Coast Customs substantially. The show 's format was that the producers at MTV would find typical Americans with junk cars, they would be given a short interview with Xzibit, Friedlinghaus and the WCC crew to determine their interests and hobbies, and then WCC staff would fix their junk car and also transform it into a custom car embodying the interests and personality of its owner. In 2004, CBS News reported that the show consistently ranked first place in the 12 to 34 year old demographic for its 9: 30PM time slot.
According to a former employee of the company at the time Pimp My Ride was filmed, most of the work actually done on the vehicles was done behind the scenes. Cars and expectations for the final product would arrive on Monday, and employees had until the following Friday to complete a project, sometimes necessitating twelve hour work days. According to this employee, much of the off - screen labor was done by illegal immigrants from Mexico, around eleven in total. As the employees were of WCC and not MTV, MTV was apparently unconcerned about possible ramifications of this for them.
Owing to the popularity of Pimp My Ride, West Coast Customs was prominently featured in the 2005 street racing video game L.A. Rush as the car upgrade mechanism. According to the Chicago Tribune, Midway, the developer of the game, paid "handsomely '' to be able to use the brand.
In June 2005, Friedlinghaus took over the role of host from Dodson for the fourth season.
As early as 2005, during airing of the second season of Pimp My Ride, rumors circulated that the location of the show would change and Friedlinghaus would part with MTV to host a show on a different network. These rumors were confirmed with simultaneous announcements by MTV and Friedlinghaus in 2007, after the fourth and final season with WCC as the shop.
In a 2007 interview in the Los Angeles Times that Friedlinghaus gave after the Pimp My Ride relocation from West Coast Customs to Galpin Auto Sports, Friedlinghaus credited Pimp My Ride with helping him build his brand, but said that he felt that his focus on building cars for the television show damaged his relationships with his other customers.
Nevertheless, after leaving Pimp My Ride, Friedlinghaus would almost immediately begin a new television program that aired simultaneously on Discovery Channel and The Learning Channel, Street Customs, produced by Pilgrim Films & Television. Instead of building the cars for the people chosen by MTV, the new show followed ongoing customizations being done for consenting customers of West Coast Customs. Friedlinghaus described the difference between the two shows thus: "I want to build cars on TV, not for TV. '' While the break up was described as amicable, others at WCC were not so subdued: Sean Mahaney, a then - employee of WCC, reportedly said "Most of the MTV people are not real car guys... They pay us to build the cars, so we do what they want even if it sucks. ''
Street Customs would change names twice and networks four times, but its format remained constant. While cars would still be built for individuals, more and more episodes were devoted to brands as the show ran on. Because MTV was no longer footing the bill, all episodes of the new series were about cars built for people who could afford the high cost of customization. Some notable individuals built for in Street Customs are Carroll Shelby, a Cadillac for Shaquille O'Neal (according to Friedlinghaus, O'Neal had already had 30 cars built for him by WCC by July 2007), a modified Range Rover for an unnamed member of the royal family of Dubai, and a Cadillac CTS - V for Justin Bieber. Brands built for included Chronic Tacos and Vans.
According to Friedlinghaus in an interview with The Press - Enterprise, the 2008 global financial crisis affected his business heavily: he had to lay off half of the company 's employees, orders decreased, and customers opted to have used cars repaired instead of buying brand new cars to be customized.
In 2010, West Coast Customs designed three identical customized 1955 Ford F - 100 pick up truck s which were prominently featured in the film The Expendables. One of these cars was for Sylvester Stalone, who sold it at auction in 2011 for $132,000. In 2015, WCC created a car by combining the body of a Ford Maverick and the internals of a Ford Ranger for another film, Mad Max: Fury Road.
After the 2009 season, the show was renamed to Inside West Coast Customs. Along with this change, it was also moved to Discovery HD Theater, which later became a different specifically automotive related cable channel, Velocity. In June 2013, Fox Sports Network took over the production of the show, dropping the word "Inside '' from the show 's name, and continued to produce new seasons of the show until 2016. In March 2017, the television show moved back to Velocity with a new season; Velocity then renewed the show in January 2018.
The company has moved several times in its history, each time to larger spaces. According to Friedlinghaus, the first shop was in Laguna Niguel, Orange County, California, after which it moved to Compton, Los Angeles, in 1998. In 2000, it moved again to a location on Olive Street in Inglewood. After the first season of Pimp My Ride, the company moved yet another time to a larger location near Los Angeles International Airport that had a room specifically for the filming. After Pimp My Ride left the company, it moved to a location in Corona, California, in preparation for the Street Customs television show.
During filming of Season 5 Episode 12 "WCC 's New Zip Part 1 '' of West Coast Customs, Friedlinghaus began moving the shop to its current location, a 60,000 square feet (5,600 m) auto shop on West Empire Avenue in Burbank, Los Angeles County, California. The grand opening of the new facility occurred in January 2015.
As early as 2008, USA Today noted that Friedlinghaus 's auto shop routinely had 60 hour work weeks and employees had ' insane deadlines ' working for Friedlinghaus, a ' self - described micromanager '. One former employee, Mauricio Hernández, who would go on to co-found the Mexican franchise of WCC, claimed in an interview with NPR that during the period of his employment at the California branch (2004 - 2009), he worked ten to twelve hours per day, six days per week as an undocumented worker, without Social Security or any other benefits, and that by so doing he "missed... the childhood of (his) kids. ''
In some episodes of Inside West Coast Customs, if Friedlinghaus had agreed to a too tight deadline, employees would stay at the shop late into the night, or even overnight. In Season 1 Episode 3 "Smoothie Operator '', Ishmael, an interior designer and upholsterer, was about to have a child with his wife, but Friedlinghaus ' sole concern was on the project. After the baby was born, Ishmael left his newborn with his wife the very next day at the request of Friedlinghaus to finish a project.
In an interview with Entertainment Scoop, when asked "What does it take to be an employee at West Coast Customs? '' Friedlinghaus replied, "Not saying, ' when do I go home? ' The guys who want to stay and work and get things done... it 's hard to find people that are good... (people who will do) whatever we ask them to do. ''
On 23 April 2014, after an investigation by the United States Department of Labor (USDOL), the company was found to have violated the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. The government found that the company was not paying employees overtime or minimum wage nor keeping proper records. During the investigation, the government found that all employees were paid a weekly salary, regardless of how many hours they worked. Because employees were frequently coerced to work overtime, this resulted in a wage of $6 / hour for some employees. Furthermore, until 2011, the company attempted to skirt minimum wage and overtime laws by classifying their on - site exclusive long - term employees as independent contractors, which is illegal in the United States.
When presented with the opportunity to go to court or pay the fine assessed by USDOL, Friedlinghaus chose to pay the fine, which amounted to $ 157,592 in back wages for the wronged employees and $16,830 in civil penalties. In an interview with The Press - Enterprise after the fine was paid, Daniel Pasquil, the director for the wages and hour division of the West Covina office of the USDOL, noted that "the most important thing is that the company did correct the violations '' and stressed that the company is now in full compliance.
In 2015, The Huffington Post interviewed three people who were participants on Pimp My Ride, one of whom had a vehicle that was "pimped '' during the time that the location of the show was West Coast Customs, Jake Glazier (featured in Season 4 Episode 7, "Jake 's Buick Century '').
During the episode, the team at West Coast Customs were told that Glazier had recently graduated from a degree program in audio engineering, so they installed an MTX Jackhammer high fidelity sound system (with accompanying decibel meter and warning light, to, in the words of Xzibit, stave off deafness) and a record player inside the dashboard. Other customizations were a flat black paint job (with a red metal flake paint job on the roof with scallops on the sides and hood to match), four inch whitewall tires, removal of the muffler and installation of exhaust pipes, and black and white vinyl interior.
Besides problems caused by the long period of time that the vehicle was in the shop, for around one half of a year, Glazier claimed that the quality of the vehicle he received was also severely compromised. According to Glazier, when the muffler was removed, three "fake '' exhaust pipes were substituted instead: these were used to make the engine sound much more powerful to viewers of the television show, but they made the car needlessly loud. He also claimed that very little or no mechanical work was done to the car, to the extent that he had trouble driving it home from the show 's set. Due to all of the mechanical trouble, one month after acquiring the car from West Coast Customs, he sold it to MTX Audio for $18,000. According to Glazier, MTX did not buy the car to drive it, but merely to prevent it from falling into the hands of their competitors. Glazier further claimed that when it was time to receive the car, Dana "Big Dane '' Florence intimidated him to act more enthusiastic for the cameras, saying "Listen, we put a lot of work into this. We expect you to be a little more fucking enthusiastic. '' Larry Hochberg, an executive producer for MTV at the time, disputed Glazier 's statements, saying that in reality great lengths were taken to provide the participants in the show with automobiles in good driving condition, and that MTV even paid for free for some further repairs and tows after the cameras were rolling.
Despite the problems he faced with the vehicle, and with the caveat that he appear on a show with the same format as Pimp My Ride where MTV paid for all work done until the car was delivered (and for some afterwards, depending on who one believes), Glazier said he would happily participate in the program again if given the chance.
There have been several high - profile incidents of quality issues outside of the context of the MTV program. In 2015, Trisha Paytas, a singer - songwriter and internet personality had her three - week old 2014 Mercedez - Benz G - Wagen customized by WCC. Among other customizations, she requested that the car be painted pink, that Swarovski crystals be integrated into the headrests and steering wheel, and that the floormats be changed out with customized ones. According to Paytas, after bringing in her vehicle she was promised that it would be ready by November 17, but the company missed both that deadline and a further December 9 one. After the second deadline was missed, she uploaded a vlog to YouTube about her experience, and claims that WCC threatened her with a lawsuit if she refused to remove it. December 17 became the deadline that the company would ultimately keep, but when she came to pick up the vehicle she found that none of the electronic components worked, including ones which the non-use of is a crime in the United States besides being major safety issues, such as turn signals, headlights, and in some states, windshield wipers. Furthermore, the dashboard instruments did not function, which could cause the driver to underestimate her speed. To her complaints about these issues, Paytas claims that the company told her to drive the car home and then to the Mercedez - Benz dealership from which she bought it and ask them for an in - warranty repair. Paytas uploaded yet another vlog five days after this incident, after which point WCC uploaded its own video in the form of a scrolling text public relations statement. In the statement, besides denying that they had "talked down '' to Paytas, WCC denied that its customization was the reason for the issues with her vehicle, claimed that the vehicle was late because she had changed what she had ordered "several times '', denied that they had ignored Paytas as she claimed, and invited Paytas to contact them with any further requests or complaints for an "immediate resolution, '' noting that they had already committed to fix the problem (which, though they wrote it was "unrelated to their services '', they would do it anyway "as part of providing excellent customer service ''). The company also noted its track record, but did not provide any concrete details. As of 23 December 2016, the statement - as - YouTube video, which has had its comments disabled, had 261 "likes '' and 1,652 "dislikes '', or a ratio of 6.32 dislikes for every 1 like.
Despite the many problems her car customization had received, after the fixed vehicle was received by Paytas, she would seemingly forgive West Coast Customs, reportedly writing on Instagram "It was a bit of a struggle getting (it) but I do love my (car) so very very much. ''
In 2010, Chinese online game operator The9 Limited announced Firefall, an MMO first - person shooter to be developed by Red 5 Studios as their first game. The game would enter closed beta in 2011, and open beta in 2013. Mark Kern, a video game designer, was appointed by The9 as CEO of the new Red 5 Studios. As CEO, one of Kern 's major tasks was promoting the game, and he chose to do this in part with a custom designed tour bus worth US $ 3 million made to look like one of the vehicles in the videogame and to be converted into a game room on wheels. The customization of the bus was featured on Inside West Coast Customs in Season 3 Episode 4. While in the episode itself it is made to appear that the bus was on - time, arriving at the Los Angeles 2012 Anime Expo which took place between June 29 and July 2, in reality it arrived much later than anticipated, according to both then - CEO Mark Kern and a report by Tech in Asia. Kern also accused WCC of not delivering what he wanted and of going over budget, while Tech in Asia noted that the bus was delivered missing some of its key features, and that it missed all of the key video game conferences for the year 2011 (such as the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012, which was held between June 5 and June 7). According to their report, it now "sits in a warehouse somewhere, collecting dust. '' A Twitter parody of the bus describes itself as a "gross demonstration of capitalistic overindulgence. ''
West Coast Customs has attempted to franchise its brand to other parts of the world with limited success.
Despite these setbacks, some franchisees have created successful businesses.
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what did the billboards say in three billboards | Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri - Wikipedia
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri is a 2017 drama film written, directed, and produced by Martin McDonagh. It stars Frances McDormand as a mother who rents three billboards to call attention to her daughter 's unsolved murder. Woody Harrelson, Sam Rockwell, John Hawkes, and Peter Dinklage appear in supporting roles. It was released in the United States in November 2017 and in the United Kingdom in January 2018 by Fox Searchlight Pictures and has grossed $158 million worldwide.
At the 90th Academy Awards, Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri was nominated for seven awards and won Best Actress (McDormand) and Best Supporting Actor (Rockwell). At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, it won Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Actress -- Drama (McDormand), Best Supporting Actor (Rockwell) and Best Screenplay. It won three SAG Awards, including Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, and five BAFTA Film Awards, including Best Film and Outstanding British Film.
In the town of Ebbing, Missouri, Mildred Hayes is grieving the rape and murder of her teenage daughter, Angela, seven months earlier. Angry over the lack of progress in the investigation, Mildred rents three abandoned billboards near her home, and posts on them: "Raped While Dying '', "Still No Arrests? '', and "How Come, Chief Willoughby? '' The billboards upset the townspeople, including Chief Bill Willoughby and Officer Jason Dixon, the latter being a racist and a violent alcoholic. The open secret that Willoughby suffers from terminal pancreatic cancer adds to everyone 's disapproval. Mildred and her son Robbie are harassed and threatened, but to Robbie 's chagrin, she stays firm about keeping the billboards up.
While Willoughby is sympathetic to Mildred 's frustration, he finds the billboards an unfair attack on his character. Angered by Mildred 's lack of respect for his authority, Dixon threatens businessman Red Welby, who rented Mildred the billboards, and he arrests her friend and coworker, Denise, on trivial marijuana possession charges. Mildred is also visited by her abusive ex-husband Charlie, who blames her for their daughter 's death.
Willoughby brings Mildred in for questioning after she drills a hole in her dentist 's thumb when he threatens her. During the interview, Willoughby coughs up blood. He leaves the hospital against medical advice and spends an idyllic day with his wife Anne and their two daughters, then commits suicide due to his illness. He leaves suicide notes for several people, including Mildred, in which he explains that she was not a factor in his suicide and that he secretly paid to keep the billboards up for another month, amused at the trouble this will bring her and hope that they will keep attention on the murder. Dixon reacts to the news of Willoughby 's death by assaulting Welby and throwing him out of a window. This is witnessed by Willoughby 's replacement, Abercrombie, who fires Dixon. In the meanwhile, Mildred is threatened by a crop - haired stranger in her store.
The billboards are destroyed by arson. Mildred retaliates by tossing Molotov cocktails at the police station, which she believes is unoccupied for the night. However, Dixon is there to read Willoughby 's letter to him, which advises him to let go of hate and learn to love, as the only way to realize his wish to become a detective. Dixon escapes with Angela 's case file but suffers severe burns. Mildred 's acquaintance James witnesses the incident and provides Mildred with an alibi, claiming they were on a date. Dixon is treated for his burns, and he is temporarily confined in the same hospital room as Welby, to whom he apologizes.
Discharged from the hospital, Dixon overhears the man who threatened Mildred bragging in a bar of an incident similar to Angela 's murder. He notes the Idaho license plate number of the man 's vehicle, then provokes a fight by scratching the man 's face. At home later, he removes a sample of the man 's DNA from under his fingernails. Meanwhile, Mildred goes on a date with James to thank him for the alibi. Charlie enters with his 19 - year - old girlfriend Penelope and admits to burning the billboards while intoxicated. After accidentally causing James to leave, Mildred tells Charlie to treat Penelope well and leaves.
Though commending him, Abercrombie informs Dixon that the DNA sample does not match DNA found on Angela 's body, and that the man was overseas on military duty at the time of the murder. Dixon concludes that the man must be guilty of some other rape, and joins Mildred on a trip to Idaho in order to kill him. On the way, Mildred confesses to Dixon that she set the police station on fire. He indicates that he knew already. They express reservations about their mission but agree to decide what to do along the way.
While traveling through the Southern United States in around 1998, Martin McDonagh came across a couple of accusatory billboards about an unsolved crime, which he described as "raging and painful and tragic (sic) ''. The billboards highlighted the incompetence of police work and deeply affected McDonagh; he said that the image "stayed in my mind (...) kept gnawing at me '' and presumed that they were put up by the victim 's mother. This incident, combined with his desire to create strong female characters, inspired him to write the story for Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri. McDonagh discussed the creative process, saying that it took him about ten years to "(decide) that it was a mother who had taken these things out. It all became fiction (...) based on a couple of actual billboards ''.
The character of Mildred was written with Frances McDormand in mind, and likewise the character of Dixon was written specifically for Rockwell. McDormand initially felt that she was older than the character as it was written, and suggested that Mildred instead be Angela 's grandmother; McDonagh disagreed, feeling that it would change the story too much. McDormand 's husband Joel Coen persuaded her to take the part regardless. McDormand took inspiration for her character from John Wayne; and Rockwell, wanting to make his character "the exact opposite '' of Mildred, took inspiration for his character in part from Wayne 's co-star in The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, Lee Marvin.
Principal photography began on May 2, 2016, in Sylva, North Carolina, and ran for 33 days. Allison Outdoor Advertising of Sylva built the actual billboards, which were put in a pasture near Black Mountain, North Carolina because that location was better. Most of the time the billboards were covered because people in the area found them upsetting. David Penix of Arden, North Carolina bought the billboards and used the wood for a roof in Douglas Lake in Tennessee, though the messages are no longer in order. Town Pump Tavern in Black Mountain, which had appeared in The World Made Straight, was used as a set and was closed for three days during filming. A pool table and booths were added. The bar 's actual sign appeared in the movie.
The musical score was written by Carter Burwell, who had also supplied the score for McDonagh 's films In Bruges and Seven Psychopaths. As well as Burwell 's score, the film features songs by ABBA, Joan Baez, The Felice Brothers, the Four Tops, Monsters of Folk and Townes Van Zandt.
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri premiered in competition at the 74th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 2017. It also had screenings at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, the 2017 San Sebastián International Film Festival (where it won the Audience Award), the BFI London Film Festival, and the 2017 Zurich Film Festival. It was also screened at the Mar del Plata International Film Festival.
In the United States, the film was released, by Fox Searchlight Pictures, on November 10, 2017, beginning with a limited release, before "going wide '' on December 1. The film was released on 4K Ultra HD, Blu - ray and DVD on February 27, 2018. Six Shooter, McDonagh 's Academy Award - winning short film, is included as a bonus.
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri grossed $54.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $104.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $158.6 million.
In its limited opening weekend, the film made $322,168 from four theaters for a per - theater average of $80,542, the fourth best of 2017. The film made $1.1 million from 53 theaters in its second weekend and $4.4 million from 614 in its third, finishing a respective 9th and 10th at the box office. In the weekend following its four Golden Globe wins the film was added to 712 theaters (for a total of 1,022) and grossed $2.3 million, and increase of 226 % from the previous week 's $706,188. The weekend of January 27, 2018, following the announcement of the film 's seven Oscar nominations, it made $3.6 million (an increase of 87 % over the previous week 's $1.9 million), finishing 13th. The weekend of March 9 -- 11, following its two Oscar wins, the film made $705,000, down 45 % from the previous week 's $1.3 million.
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 317 reviews, and an average rating of 8.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri deftly balances black comedy against searing drama -- and draws unforgettable performances from its veteran cast along the way. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film had a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the film 's performances, stating "It 's Mildred 's glowering refusal to back down that defines her, and McDormand brilliantly spotlights the conflicted humanity beneath the stony façade, '' and called Rockwell 's performance a "revelation. '' Steve Pond, writing for TheWrap, praised McDonagh 's writing, calling it "Very funny, very violent and surprisingly moving. ''
Some criticized the script for McDonagh 's insincere or incorrect portrayal of small town America. The New York Times columnist Wesley Morris called McDonagh 's portrayal of America a caricature: "a set of postcards from a Martian lured to America by a cable news ticker and by rumors of how easily flattered and provoked we are. '' Tim Parks in The New Yorker praised the "magnificently photographed images '' but wrote that the plot contained "a thousand cheap coincidences ''. He concluded that the film is "empty of emotional intelligence '' and "devoid of any remotely honest observation of the society it purports to serve. '' In her review for The New York Times, Manohla Dargis wrote "(McDonagh 's) jokes can be uninterestingly glib with tiny, bloodless pricks that are less about challenging the audience than about obscuring the material 's clichés and overriding theatricality. ''
The film was also controversial for its insensitive handling of racial themes, particularly surrounding the redemptive arc of Officer Dixon. In The Daily Beast, blogger Ira Madison III called the treatment of Rockwell 's character "altogether offensive... McDonagh 's attempts to script the black experience in America are often fumbling and backward and full of outdated tropes. '' Alyssa Rosenberg noted in The Washington Post that "(Dixon 's) redemption does n't merely defang his previous venomous bigotry; it softens Mildred 's character development. ''
At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri won for Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Actress -- Drama (McDormand), Best Supporting Actor (Rockwell), and Best Screenplay, and was nominated for Best Director and Best Original Score. At the 71st British Academy Film Awards, it received nine nominations, including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Actress in a Leading Role (McDormand), and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for both Rockwell and Harrelson. It won five awards, including Best Film and Outstanding British Film (making it the only film along with The King 's Speech to win both awards since the latter category was reintroduced in 1992) while both McDormand and Rockwell won the Lead Actress and Supporting Actor awards respectively. It was nominated for four awards at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards, winning three, including Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. At the 90th Academy Awards it received seven nominations, including Best Picture, Best Actress for Frances McDormand, Best Original Screenplay for Martin McDonagh and two Best Supporting Actor nominations for both Sam Rockwell and Woody Harrelson. McDormand and Rockwell took home their respective awards.
It was named one of the top 10 films of the year by the American Film Institute. At the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, the film won its top prize, the People 's Choice Award. At the 2017 San Sebastián International Film Festival, it won the Audience Award.
On February 15, 2018, Justice4Grenfell, an advocacy group created in response to the Grenfell Tower fire, hired three vans with electronic screens in a protest against perceived inaction in response to the fire. The vans were driven around London, and displayed messages in the style of the billboards in the film: ' 71 Dead ', ' And Still No Arrests? ', ' How Come? '
In response to the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting that took place on February 14, 2018, in Parkland, Florida, activist group Avaaz had three vans circle Florida senator Marco Rubio 's offices displaying ' Slaughtered in School ', ' And Still No Gun Control? ', ' How Come, Marco Rubio? '
On the night of February 15, 2018, the movement # OccupyJustice set up three billboards and a number of banners in Malta, marking the four - month anniversary of the murder of the journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia. The billboards bore the text ' A Journalist Killed. No Justice. ', ' A Country Robbed. No Justice. ', and ' No Resignations. No Justice. ' The authorities removed the billboards the following day, stating that they were illegal. The government was criticized for this move, and a day after their removal, activists laid down banners with similar text near Auberge de Castille, the Office of the Prime Minister.
Outside the Bristol city centre on February 3, 2018, a mural was erected depicting three billboards reading ' Our NHS is dying ', ' And still no more funding ', and ' How come, Mrs May '. It was installed by the groups People 's Republic of Stokes Croft and Protect Our NHS in response to the alleged privatization of the National Health Service (NHS) and the death of a 15 - year - old girl attributed by some to a purported lack of resources by the NHS.
On February 22, 2018, the Union of Medical Care and Relief Organizations, protesting the inaction of the UN 's role within the Syrian Civil War, set up three billboards outside the United Nations building in New York that read ' 500,000 Dead in Syria ', ' And still no action? ', and ' How come, Security Council '.
On or around March 1, around the time of the 2018 Oscars, three billboards were taken out in Los Angeles, stating "WE ALL KNEW AND STILL NO ARRESTS '', "AND THE OSCAR FOR BIGGEST PEDOPHILE GOES TO... '' and "NAME NAMES ON STAGE OR SHUT THE HELL UP! '', as an attempt to protest both the Oscars and the # MeToo movement.
On March 8, on International Women 's Day, three billboards were put in downtown Pristina, Kosovo, to protest the death of two women as a result of domestic violence.
Both McDormand and McDonagh have responded positively to the protests, with McDonagh saying "You could n't ask for anything more than for an angry film to be adopted by protests, '' and McDormand saying she is "thrilled that activists all over the world have been inspired by the set decoration of the three billboards in Martin 's film. ''
On March 24, 2018, signs inspired by Three Billboards appeared at March for Our Lives gun safety rallies across the US and around the world.
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does morocco require a visa for us citizens | Visa Requirements for United States Citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for United States citizens and non-citizen nationals are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the United States.
As of February 2018, holders of a United States passport could travel to 176 countries and territories without a travel visa, or with visa on arrival, ranking the United States passport 5th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Canadian, Irish and Swiss passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.
General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens:
Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, and restricted zones:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages which oftentimes appear after the visa pages are not counted.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries including Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea and the United States demand all travellers, or all foreign travellers, to be fingerprinted on arrival.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The United States Passport Card can be used as an alternative to the booklet passport when travelling to and from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda and many Caribbean islands at sea ports - of - entry or land border crossings.
The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is meant to facilitate travel for U.S. citizens engaged in verified business in the APEC region.
The U.S. ABTC will enable access to a dedicated fast - track lane for expedited immigration processing at participating foreign some APEC member airports. U.S. APEC Business Travel Card holders may also use the Global Entry kiosks at participating airports upon their U.S. return. But the U.S. APEC Business Travel Card ca n't be used in lieu of a visa to enter an APEC member country. Other countries ' APEC cards can be used in lieu of visas. But the U.S. has decided not to participate in the visa reciprocity part of the program because the government is unwilling to waive visa interviews. Legislation authorizes the Department of Homeland Security to issue U.S. APEC Business Travel Cards only through Sept. 30, 2018, unless the law is amended to extend that date.
The United States has the most diplomatic missions out of any country in the world. See also List of diplomatic missions of the United States.
The Department of State regularly publishes travel warnings or travel alerts.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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who sings the song must be doing something right | Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right - Wikipedia
"Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right '' is a song written by Marty Dodson and Patrick Jason Matthews, and recorded by American country music singer Billy Currington. It was released in May 2005 as the first single from Currington 's album Doin ' Somethin ' Right. The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart.
The song is in the key of A major, with a main chord pattern of F ♯ m-D-A on the verses. In it, Currington sings that he "must be doin ' somethin ' right '' in the relationship with his lover.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote that the song "gets a nicely mellow, relaxed Californian vibe ''.
"Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right '' debuted at number 60 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of June 11, 2005, and peaked at No. 1 on December 31, 2005. The song has sold 1,282,000 copies in the US as of January 2016.
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leader of sanyasi and fakirs in 1857 revolt | Fakir - Sannyasi rebellion - wikipedia
The Fakir - Sannyasi rebellion or Fakir - Sannyasi revolt (Bengali: সন্ন্যাসী বিদ্রোহ, The monks ' rebellion) were the activities of sannyasis and fakirs (Hindu and Muslim ascetics, respectively) in Bengal against the East India Company rule in the late 18th century. It is also known as the Fakir - Sannyasi rebellion (ফকির - সন্ন্যাসী বিদ্রোহ) which took place around Murshidabad and Baikunthupur forests of Jalpaiguri. Historians have not only debated what events constitute the rebellion, but have also varied on the significance of the rebellion in Indian history. While some refer to it as an early war for India 's independence from foreign rule, since the right to collect tax had been given to the British East India Company after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, others categorize it as acts of violent banditry following the depopulation of the province in the Bengal famine of 1770.
At least three separate events are called the Sannyasi Rebellion. One refers to a large body of Hindu sannyasis who travelled from North India to different parts of Bengal to visit shrines. En route to the shrines, it was customary for many of these ascetics to exact a religious tax from the headmen and zamindars or regional landlords. In times of prosperity, the headmen and zamindars generally obliged. However, since the East India Company had received the diwani or right to collect tax, many of the tax demands increased and the local landlords and headmen were unable to pay both the ascetics and the English. Crop failures, and famine, which killed ten million people or an estimated one - third of the population of Bengal compounded the problems since much of the arable land lay fallow.
Majnu Shah, leader of a large group of fakirs who were travelling through Bengal, claimed in 1772 that 150 of them had been killed without cause in the previous year. Such repression was one of the reasons that caused distress leading to violence, especially in Natore in Rangpur, now in modern Bangladesh. However, some modern historians argue that the movement never gained popular support.
The other two movements involved a sect of Hindu ascetics, the Dasnami naga sannyasis who likewise visited Bengal on pilgrimage mixed with moneylending opportunities. To the British, these ascetics were looters and must be stopped from collecting money that belonged to the Company and possibly from even entering the province. It was felt that a large body of people on the move was a possible threat.
When the Company 's forces tried to prevent the sannyasis and fakirs from entering the province or from collecting their money in the last three decades of the 18th century, fierce clashes often ensued, with the Company 's forces not always victorious. Most of the clashes were recorded in the years following the famine but they continued, albeit with a lesser frequency, up until 1802. The reason that even with superior training and forces, the Company was not able to suppress sporadic clashes with migrating ascetics was that the control of the Company 's forces in the far - removed hilly and jungle covered districts like Birbhum and Midnapore on local events was weak.
The Sannyasi rebellion was the first of a series of revolts and rebellions in the Western districts of the province including (but not restricted to) the Chuar Revolt of 1799 and the Santhal Revolt of 1855 -- 56. What effect the Sannyasi Rebellion had on rebellions that followed is debatable. Perhaps, the best reminder of the Rebellion is in literature, in the Bengali novel Anandamath, written by India 's first modern novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. The song, Vande Mataram, which was written in 1876, was used in the book Anandamath in 1882 (pronounced Anondomôţh in Bengali) and the 1952 movie based on the book. Vande Mataram was later declared to be India 's National Song (not to be confused with the Indian National Anthem).
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what kind of files can windows media player play | Windows Media Player - Wikipedia
Windows Media Player (WMP) is a media player and media library application developed by Microsoft that is used for playing audio, video and viewing images on personal computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system, as well as on Pocket PC and Windows Mobile - based devices. Editions of Windows Media Player were also released for classic Mac OS, Mac OS X and Solaris but development of these has since been discontinued.
In addition to being a media player, Windows Media Player includes the ability to rip music from and copy music to compact discs, burn recordable discs in Audio CD format or as data discs with playlists such as an MP3 CD, synchronize content with a digital audio player (MP3 player) or other mobile devices, and enable users to purchase or rent music from a number of online music stores.
Windows Media Player replaced an earlier application called Media Player, adding features beyond simple video or audio playback.
Windows Media Player 11 is available for Windows XP and included in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. The default file formats are Windows Media Video (WMV), Windows Media Audio (WMA), and Advanced Systems Format (ASF), and its own XML based playlist format called Windows Playlist (WPL). The player is also able to utilize a digital rights management service in the form of Windows Media DRM.
Windows Media Player 12 is the most recent version of Windows Media Player. It was released on October 22, 2009 along with Windows 7 and has not been made available for previous versions of Windows nor has it been updated since for Windows 8, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10. Unlike Windows 8, Windows RT does not run Windows Media Player.
The first version of Windows Media Player appeared in 1991, when Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions was released. Originally called Media Player, this component was included with "Multimedia PC '' - compatible machines but not available for retail sale. It was capable of playing. mmm animation files, and could be extended to support other formats. It used MCI to handle media files. Being a component of Windows, Media Player shows the same version number as that of the version Windows with which it was included.
Microsoft continually produced new programs to play media files. In November of the following year, Video for Windows was introduced with the ability to play digital video files in an AVI container format, with codec support for RLE and Video1, and support for playing uncompressed files. Indeo 3.2 was added in a later release. Video for Windows was first available as a free add - on to Windows 3.1, and later integrated into Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0. In 1995, Microsoft released ActiveMovie with DirectX Media SDK. ActiveMovie incorporates a new way of dealing with media files, and adds support for streaming media (which the original Media Player could not handle). In 1996, ActiveMovie was renamed DirectShow. However, Media Player continued to come with Windows until Windows XP, in which it was officially renamed Windows Media Player v5. 1. ("v5. 1 '' is the version number of Windows XP.)
In 1999, Windows Media Player 's versioning broke away from that of Windows itself. Windows Media Player 6.4 came as an out - of - band update for Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 that co-existed with Media Player and became a built - in component of Windows 2000, Windows ME and Windows XP with an mplayer2. exe stub allowing to use this built - in instead of newer versions. Windows Media Player 7.0 and its successors also came in the same fashion, replacing each other but leaving Media Player and Windows Media Player 6.4 intact. Windows XP is the only operating system to have three different versions of Windows Media Player (v5. 1, v6. 4 and v8) side by side. All versions branded Windows Media Player (instead of simply Media Player) support DirectShow codecs. Windows Media Player version 7 was a large revamp, with a new user interface, visualizations and increased functionality. Windows Vista, however, dropped older versions of Windows Media Player in favor of v11.
Beginning with Windows Vista, Windows Media Player supports the Media Foundation framework besides DirectShow; as such it plays certain types of media using Media Foundation as well as some types of media using DirectShow. Windows Media Player 12 was released with Windows 7. It included support for more media formats and added new features. With Windows 8, however, the player did not receive an upgrade.
On April 16, 2012, Microsoft announced that Windows Media Player would not be included in Windows RT, the line of Windows designed to run on ARM based devices.
Windows Media Player supports playback of audio, video and pictures, along with fast forward, reverse, file markers (if present) and variable playback speed (seek & time compression / dilation introduced in WMP 9 Series). It supports local playback, streaming playback with multicast streams and progressive downloads. Items in a playlist can be skipped over temporarily at playback time without removing them from the playlist. Full keyboard - based operation is possible in the player.
Windows Media Player supports full media management, via the integrated media library introduced first in version 7, which offers cataloguing and searching of media and viewing media metadata. Media can be arranged according to album, artist, genre, date et al. Windows Media Player 9 Series introduced Quick Access Panel to browse and navigate the entire library through a menu. The Quick Access Panel was also added to the mini mode in version 10 but was entirely removed in version 11. WMP 9 Series also introduced ratings and Auto Ratings. Windows Media Player 10 introduced support for aggregating pictures, Recorded TV shows, and other media into the library. A fully featured tag editor was featured in versions 9 - 11 of WMP, called the Advanced Tag Editor. However, the feature was removed in Windows Media Player 12. Since WMP 9 Series, the player features dynamically updated Auto Playlists based on criteria. Auto Playlists are updated every time users open them. WMP 9 Series and later also supports Auto Ratings which automatically assigns ratings based on the number of times a song is played. Pre-populated auto playlists are included in Windows Media Player 9 Series. Custom Auto Playlists can be created only on Windows XP and later.
In Windows Media Player 11, the Quick Access Panel was removed and replaced with an Explorer - style navigation pane on the left which can be customized for each library to show the user selected media or metadata categories, with contents appearing on the right, in a graphical manner with thumbnails featuring album art or other art depicting the item. Missing album art can be added directly to the placeholders in the Library itself (though the program re-renders all album art imported this way into 1x1 pixel ratio, 200x200 resolution jpegs). There are separate Tiles, Icons, Details or Extended Tiles views for Music, Pictures, Video and Recorded TV which can be set individually from the navigation bar. Entries for Pictures and Video show their thumbnails. Version 11 also introduced the ability to search and display results on - the - fly as characters are being entered, without waiting for Enter key to be hit. Incremental search results are refined based on further characters that are typed. Stacking allows graphical representations of how many albums there are in a specific category or folder. The pile appears larger as the category contains more albums. The List pane includes an option to prompt the user to remove items skipped in a playlist upon save or skip them only during playback.
While playing music, Windows Media Player can show visualizations. The current three visualizations are Alchemy, which was first introduced in version 9, Bars and Waves, which has been used since version 7, and Battery, introduced version 8. "Musical Colors '' was removed starting with version 9, but is retained if Windows Media Player was upgraded from version 7 or 8. Version 11 and above refrains from having the former "Ambience '', "Particle '', "Plenoptic '', and "Spikes '' visualizations. The "Battery '' visualization was similarly removed in later editions of version 12. The reason for their removal was that the visualizations do not support full screen controls (either the visualization gets shifted to the left while there is a thick black bar to the right side of the screen, that there are no full screen controls, or that the visualization have DXE Problems). More visualizations such as "BlazingColors '', "ColorCubes '', "Softie the Snowman, '' and "Yule Log '' can be downloaded from Microsoft 's website.
The player includes intrinsic support for Windows Media codecs and also WAV and MP3 media formats. On Windows XP and above with WMP 9 Series and later, the Windows Media Audio Professional codec is included which supports multichannel audio at up to 24 - bit 192 kHz resolution. Windows Media Player 11 includes the Windows Media Format 11 runtime which adds low bitrate support (below 128 kbit / s for WMA Pro), support for ripping music to WMA Pro 10 and updates the original WMA to version 9.2.
Support for any media codec and container format can be added using specific DirectShow filters or Media Foundation codecs (Media Foundation codecs only in Windows Vista and later). The player will not play MP3 files that contain compressed ID3 headers ("tags ''); trying to do so results in a "The input media file is invalid '' error message. MP3 playback support was built - in beginning with version 6.1 and audio CD playback was natively supported with version 7.
DVD playback features minus the necessary decoders were integrated into Windows Media Player 8 for Windows XP. The player activates DVD and Blu - ray playback functionality with support for menus, titles and chapters, parental controls and audio track language selection if compatible decoders are installed. MPEG - 2 and Dolby Digital (AC - 3) decoders were included beginning with Windows Media Player 11 on Windows Vista (Home Premium and Ultimate editions only).
Windows Media Player 12 adds native support for H. 264 and MPEG - 4 Part 2 video formats, ALAC, AAC audio and 3GP, MP4 and MOV container formats. Windows Media Player 12 is also able to play AVCHD formats (. M2TS and. mts).
As of Windows 10, Windows Media Player 12 can play FLAC, HEVC, ASS and SubRip subtitle, and Matroska container formats.
Windows Media Player Mobile 10 on Windows Mobile 6.5 supports MP3, ASF, WMA and WMV using WMV or MPEG - 4 codecs.
Windows Media Player features integrated Audio CD - burning support since version 7 as well as data CD burning support since Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows XP and later. Data CDs can have any of the media formats supported by the player. While burning Data CDs, the media can, optionally, be transcoded into WMA format and playlists can be added to the CD as well. Starting with WMP 9 Series, audio CDs can be burnt with volume leveling.
Audio CDs can be ripped as WMA or WMA 10 Pro (WMA 10 Pro in WMP 11 and later) at 48, 64, 96, 128, 160 and 192 kbit / s, WMA lossless (470 to 940 kbit / s) (9 Series on XP and later), WMA variable bitrate (from 40 - 75 kbit / s up to 240 - 355 kbit / s), MP3 at 128, 192, 256 and 320 kbit / s, or uncompressed WAV (WAV ripping in WMP 11 and later). Since WMP 9 Series, 20 bit high - resolution CDs (HDCDs) are also supported, if capable audio hardware is present. Audio can be ripped using error correction and ripped audio can be protected with Windows Media DRM. Ripping to MP3 is supported only in Windows Media Player 8 for Windows XP and later if a compatible MP3 encoder is installed. Windows Media Player 10 included the Fraunhofer MP3 Professional encoder. Information on CDs such as album name, artist and track listings can optionally be automatically downloaded from the online Windows Media database when the CD is inserted. Version 11 added support for ripping audio CDs to WAV and WMA 10 Pro formats. For burning, version 11 shows a graphical bar indicating how much space will be used on the disc and introduced Disc spanning which splits a burn list onto multiple discs in case the content does not fit on one disc.
Windows Media Player allows the user to connect, share and sync data with portable handheld devices and game consoles since version 7. Media can be optionally transcoded to a format better suited for the target device, automatically, when synchronizing. When deleting playlists from devices, Windows Media Player can automatically remove their contents. Devices can be formatted using Windows Media Player 9 Series and later. Version 10 and later support the Media Transfer Protocol and Auto Sync. Auto Sync allows users to specify criteria such as recently added music or highest rated songs, by which media will be automatically synchronized with the portable device and other advanced features like setting the clock on the portable device automatically, communicating with the device to retrieve the user 's preferences. Windows Media Player 10 also introduced the UMDF - based Windows Portable Devices API.
Version 11 has improved synchronization features for loading content onto PlaysForSure - compatible portable players. WMP 11 supports reverse - synchronization, by which media present on the portable device can be replicated back to the PC. Shuffle Sync can be used to randomize content synced with the portable device, Multi PC Sync to synchronize portable device content across multiple PCs and Guest Sync to synchronize different content from multiple PCs with the portable device. Portable devices appear in the navigation pane of the library where their content can be browsed and searched.
Windows Media Player 's ' Sync ' function has options that allow it to be set to automatically down - convert (transcode) high bit - rate song files to a lower bit - rate. This down - conversion function is switched on by default. This is useful for providing low bit - rate files to those portable devices that need them, and to save space on portable devices with smaller storage capacities. For high bit - rate capable devices with sufficient storage capabilities, the down conversion process can be omitted.
In versions 11 (2006) and 12 (2009), the Quality settings that the user has selected in the Windows Media Player settings for Sync, for that specific portable device, are used to control the quality (bit - rate) of files that are copied to the portable device. Leaving the Quality settings to Automatic will often result in 192kbs files being copied to the portable device. Manual settings can also be made. 192kbs is the highest quality down - conversion bit - rate that can be manually selected when the Sync function 's down - conversion function is turned on. Lower bit - rates can also be selected.
For portable devices that can handle high bit - rate files, the best quality files are obtained by leaving the down - conversion process switched off (unchecked) for that specific device. In Windows Media Player Version 11, switching off the down - conversion function is done in the Quality tab of the Advanced Options of the Sync settings for the device. In Windows Media Player Version 12, switching off the down - conversion function is done in the Quality tab of the Properties for the device in the Select Settings for the device in the Sync Options menu.
When set up in such a way, Windows Media Player 's ' Sync ' function can be used to sync unchanged high bit - rate song files to suitable portable devices (i.e. those capable of using file formats such as WMA Lossless, mp3 - 360kbs, etc.). For example, some users have created large song libraries on their PCs containing. wma formatted song files using the high bit - rate WMA Lossless (WMA - LL) protocol, or using other high bit - rate song file formats. The WMA - LL protocol is selectable in Windows Media Player as an option when ripping songs from CDs. The resulting bit - rates seen on ripped WMA - LL files are often 3 to 6 times higher than 192kbs, and can typically fall anywhere in the range of 600kbs to 1200kbs, depending on the quality of the source file that was present on the CD in the first place. The sound quality is much improved over the default rate, although the file size is larger.
At the time that Versions 11 and 12 were released, the capabilities and capacities of portable devices typically required down - conversion of the bit - rates of the files placed on the portable devices. Thus, Sync down - conversion was turned on by default. This was to ensure playability of the files and to ensure that the file sizes were small enough to efficiently fit a reasonably large selection of songs on the portable device.
In recent years (circa 2012), portable devices became available that could natively play these Windows Media Player produced high bit - rate WMA - LL files (and others), and that have storage capacities suitable for large collections of high bit - rate song files. This made it much more practicable and desirable to use software programs such as Windows Media Player to synchronize previously PC - bound libraries of high bit - rate songs to these new portable devices.
For example, the Samsung Galaxy Note II (2012) can natively play unchanged high bit - rate Windows Media Player WMA - LL files. It can also be equipped with a micro-SDXC (flash NAND) memory card chip to expand the storage capacity to a size that is suitable for large collections of high bit - rate songs (up to 80GB total storage). By 2012, the maximum total solid - state (flash NAND) storage of such portable devices available had reached 96GB. In the case of certain models of the Samsung Galaxy S III, this is achieved with up to 32GB of NAND flash storage integrated into the device and an additional 64GB mSDXC NAND flash storage "memory card '' inserted into the micro-SD expansion card slot.
Windows Media Player features universal brightness, contrast, saturation and hue adjustments and pixel aspect ratio for supported video formats. It also includes a 10 - band graphic equalizer with presets and SRS WOW audio post-processing system. Windows Media Player can also have attached audio and video DSP plug - ins which process the output audio or video data. Video Smoothing was introduced in WMP 9 Series (Windows XP and later only) which upscales frame - rate by interpolating added frames, in effect giving a smoother playback on low - framerate videos. The player supports subtitles and closed - captioning for local media, video on demand streaming or live streaming scenarios. Typically Windows Media captions support the SAMI file format but can also carry embedded closed caption data.
The player can use video overlays or VMR (Video Mixing Renderer) surfaces, if the video card supports them. In Windows XP, it uses VMR7 by default, but can also be made to use the more advanced YUV mixing mode by enabling the "Use high quality mode '' option in Advanced Performance settings. This turns on deinterlacing, scaling and improved color accuracy. WMP 9 Series introduced native playback for deinterlacing for TV output. Version 9 introduced DXVA accelerated playback. Version 11 introduced improved support for DirectX accelerated decoding of WMV video (DXVA decoding). Up to version 11, it supported static lyrics and "Synchronized Lyrics '', by which different lines of lyrics can be time - stamped, so that they display only at those times. Synchronized Lyrics also were accessible through the Advanced Tag Editor which was removed in version 12.
Since Windows Media Player 9 Series, the player supports crossfading, audio dynamic range (Quiet Mode) for WMA Pro and WMA Lossless, and auto volume leveling for certain media which includes volume level / gain information such as MP3 or Windows Media. The player also supports extensive configurable privacy and security settings.
The player has Windows Explorer shell integration to add files and playlist to the Now Playing pane and other playlists can be controlled from the Windows Explorer shell itself, via right - click menu. The My Music folder also includes a separate My Playlists folder where playlists are maintained. When the player is closed and reopened, simply clicking the play button restores the last playlist even if it was not saved. Starting with Windows Media Player 10, the playlist pane is also visible from the Library view. AutoPlay handlers in Windows expose various Windows Media Player tasks.
Up to version 11, it featured a taskbar - mounted Mini mode in which the most common media control buttons are presented as a toolbar on the Windows taskbar. Flyout windows can display media information, the active visualization or the video being played back. Mini-mode was introduced as a shell player powertoy for Windows Media Player 8 in Windows XP and integrated later into WMP 9 Series. Mini-mode has been removed in Windows Media Player 12 in favor of controls in the taskbar 's interactive thumbnail preview which lacks volume control, a progress bar and information displayed whenever a new song is played.
The user interface has been redesigned in Windows Media Player 12 such that the Now Playing view plays media in a separate minimalist window with floating playback controls, and also gives access to the current playlist, visualizations, and enhancements. Enhancements are housed in individual undocked windows. The library view includes the rest of the media management functions. It also can preview songs from the library when users hover over the media file and click the Preview button. Windows Media Player 12 can play unprotected songs from the iTunes library. The taskbar - integrated Mini-player has been replaced with controls in the taskbar 's interactive thumbnail preview (called the Thumbnail Toolbar), albeit minus the volume control function, track and album information shown whenever a new song is played and the progress bar. The taskbar icon also supports jump lists introduced in Windows 7.
The player has had skinning support since Windows Media Player (WMP) 7 and includes a color chooser since the WMP 9 Series. Not all functions are usually exposed in skin mode. Windows Media Player 10 allows setting the video border color. Color chooser has been removed in WMP 12. It supports visualizations and Info Center View (Info Center View in WMP 9 Series and later) which displays media metadata fetched from the internet. Full screen visualizations are supported in WMP 9 Series and later. It supports Background plug - ins, window plug - ins and Now Playing plug - ins to control media playback besides DSP and renderer plug - ins. Plug - in support was introduced in WMP 9 Series.
The player integrates web - browsing support to browse online music stores, shop for music and tune to internet radio stations since version 7. It provides an embeddable ActiveX control for Internet Explorer so that developers can play Windows Media on web pages. Windows Media Player 10 and later feature integration with a large number of online music stores and selecting a music store switches the Info Center view, radio and other online features to use services from that store. Purchased music from a particular store appears in a separate library node under the respective category.
Previously, Microsoft had released Windows Media Connect for Windows XP to stream media content with its built - in UPnP media server. With version 11 of Windows Media Player, Media Sharing was integrated and allows content (Music, Pictures, Video) to be streamed to and from Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) AV enabled devices such as the PS3, Xbox 360, and Roku SoundBridge. This includes DRM protected PlaysForSure content. WMP 11 on Windows Vista can also act as a client to connect to remote media libraries using this feature; this is not available on the Windows XP version.
With version 12, media streaming was further improved. While previous versions streamed media to UPnP compliant devices (Digital Media Server role) and could play media by fetching it from a network share (Digital Media Player role), Windows Media Player 12 can access media from the shared media libraries on the network or HomeGroup, stream media to DLNA 1.5 compliant devices and allows itself (once the remote control option is turned on) to be remotely controlled by Digital Media Controller devices which stream media (Digital Media Renderer role). Similarly, the Play To feature once enabled for remote PCs, by turning on remote control of the player, allows compliant devices and computers to be discovered and controlled remotely from a computer running Windows Media Player 12 (Digital Media Controller role). If the devices do not support the streamed format, Windows Media Player 12 transcodes the format on - the - fly. Media from a home network can also be streamed over the internet using an Online ID Provider service, which handles discovery of the computer 's IP address, authorization, security, connectivity and Quality of Service issues.
Windows Media Player also features skins. Currently, Windows Media Player has two default skins: "Corporate '', which was first introduced in version 8, and "Revert '', which first shipped with version 9. In versions 7 and 8, there were many unusual skins such as "Heart '', "Headspace '', "Canvas '', "Goo '', and "Atomic '', which were removed starting with version 9, but are retained if the player is upgraded, although some can still be downloaded from an archive of the Microsoft website. "QuickSilver '', "Compact '', and "9SeriesDefault '' were removed starting with version 11, but are similarly retained if upgraded from version 9 or 10. This Corporate skin is not deletable.
Microsoft Windows Media Runtime in Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows Server contained a coding error that permitted "remote code execution if a user opened a specially crafted media file ''. Such a file would allow the attacker to "then install programs; view, change, or delete data; or create new accounts with full user rights '', if the account on which the file was played had administrator privileges. The problem was addressed in a critical update issued on September 8, 2009.
Microsoft has also released versions of Windows Media Player for other platforms including Windows Mobile, classic Mac OS, Mac OS X, Palm - size PC, Handheld PC, and Solaris. Of these, only the Windows Mobile edition continues to be actively developed and supported by Microsoft. Version 1 of the Zune software was also based on Windows Media Player; later versions are not.
Windows Media Player for Pocket PC was first announced on January 6, 2000, and has been revised on a schedule roughly similar to that of the Windows version. Currently known as "Media Player 10 Mobile '', this edition (released in October 2004) closely resembles the capabilities of the Windows version of WMP 10, including playlist capabilities, a media library, album art, WMA Lossless playback, support for DRM - protected media, video playback at 640 × 480 with stereo sound, and the same Energy Blue interface aesthetics also seen in Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005. It also supports synchronization with the desktop version of WMP 10, and additionally supports synchronizing and transcoding of recorded television shows from Media Center. Media Player 10 Mobile is not available as a download from Microsoft; distribution is done solely through OEM partners, and is typically included on devices based on Windows Mobile.
Windows Mobile 6 includes a copy of Windows Media Player 10 Mobile, but with a similar (but not quite identical) theme as Windows Media Player 11.
Version 9 was the final version of Windows Media Player to be released for Mac OS X before development was canceled by Microsoft. It was developed by the Windows Media team at Microsoft instead of the Macintosh Business Unit and released in 2003. On release the application lacked many basic features that were found in other media players such as Apple 's iTunes and QuickTime. It also lacked support for many media formats that version 9 of the Windows counterpart supported on release 10 months earlier.
The Mac version supported only Windows Media encoded media (up to version 9) enclosed in the ASF format, lacking support for all other formats such as MP4, MPEG, and Microsoft 's own AVI format. On the user interface front, it did not prevent screensavers from running during playback, it did not support file drag - and - drop, nor did it support playlists. While Windows Media Player 9 had added support for some files that use the WMV9 codec (also known as the WMV3 codec by the FourCC), in other aspects it was seen as having degraded in features from previous versions.
On January 12, 2006 Microsoft announced it had ceased development of Windows Media Player for Mac. Microsoft now distributes a third - party plugin called WMV Player (produced and maintained by Flip4Mac) which allows some forms of Windows Media to be played within Apple 's QuickTime Player and other QuickTime - aware applications.
In March 2004, the European Commission in the European Union Microsoft antitrust case fined Microsoft € 497 million and ordered the company to provide a version of Windows without Windows Media Player, claiming Microsoft "broke European Union competition law by leveraging its near monopoly in the market for PC operating systems onto the markets for work group server operating systems and for media players ''. The company has made available a compliant version of its flagship operating system under the negotiated name "Windows XP N '', though the product has not been very successful. Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8 are also available in "N '' editions. However, it is possible to either install Windows Media Player (XP / Vista) or the Media Restore Pack through Windows Update (Vista) to add the media player.
Prior to the release of Windows Media Player in Windows 98 Second Edition, separate programs, CD Player, Deluxe CD Player, DVD Player and Media Player, were included in old versions of Microsoft Windows for playback of media files.
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what was tom's wife name on the jeffersons | List of the Jeffersons supporting characters - wikipedia
The television series The Jeffersons featured several supporting characters. An incomplete list of these characters appears below.
Helen Willis (née Douglas) (portrayed by Roxie Roker, except for her first appearance in All in the Family, when she was portrayed by Kim Hamilton) is Louise 's best friend and George 's worst nightmare. She has been married to Tom Willis for 34 years. Tom is white, and Helen is black, which was a renowned aspect of the show. George, disliking racially mixed - marriages, constantly called both Helen and Tom "zebra '' or "chocolate and vanilla ''. Helen often strikes back by calling him "shorty. '' As well, George enjoys calling Tom "honky '', but he learned to get along with the two in later years during the sitcom. In the fourth season, Helen works with Louise as volunteers at a social service facility called "The Help Center '', which opened in 1977. There is also a mention that she and Louise were the editors of the center 's newsletter, a post the two decide to share after the drama of episode 67. Helen and Tom have two children: Jennifer "Jenny '' Willis (Berlinda Tolbert) and Allan Willis (Jay Hammer and Andrew Rubin).
Thomas "Tom '' Willis (portrayed by Franklin Cover, except for his first appearance in All in the Family, when he was portrayed by Charles Aidman as Louis Willis) is an author and president of his publishing company, Pelham Publishers. He lives a content life with his wife Helen. Tom is white and Helen is black. Because of this racial mixing, they are often the butt of George 's insults and jokes - often being called such things as "Chocolate '' and "Vanilla ''. Tom and Helen, however, have both learned to ignore the bigotry of their neighbor. In their initial appearance on the parent show Tom states that they had met "his '' kind -- black and white -- and they always handled it. His daughter, Jenny Willis (who is the one most resembling her mother in skin color cases), marries George 's son, Lionel, in 1976. He develops a strong relationship with Jenny, but was never close to his "white '' son, Allan Willis (Jay Hammer) because he never finished school and left New York City and stayed in Paris for two years.
As the series went on (particularly after Lionel and Jenny married), George and Tom eventually became good friends (though George still continued to make jokes about Tom 's weight as Sherman Hemsley felt that it would be insulting to continue the racially themed insults after their characters became friends).
Additionally, Tom is a caring person, but often dominated by his wife. He also is ridiculed occasionally due to his weight. He is known to be a horrible dancer, as indicated in a few episodes. He also occasionally reluctantly goes along with George 's constant schemes but for the most part prefers to be left out of them.
Portrayed by Zara Cully, "Mother Jefferson '' is Henry and George 's mother. Her first appearance was in the All in the Family episode, "Lionel 's Engagement, '' where she takes offense at being referred to as "mammy, '' by Archie Bunker, who thinks the term is a variation of "mommy. '' Mother Jefferson is a catty, disparaging, and antagonistic mother - in - law to Louise, while appearing to be a sweet old lady to everyone else. Mother Jefferson is one of the stereotypical mothers - in - law who think their daughter - in - law is n't good enough for their son. In nearly every episode she was seen in, she is usually tormenting Louise by criticizing her cooking, her age, or her overall character, but Louise frequently came back at her with a witty albeit sarcastic response. (On a couple of rare occasions, however, Mother Jefferson sides with Louise, when she takes offense at George 's boorish or sexist behavior.) A long - running gag had Mother Jefferson blissfully ignorant of how much alcohol she actually consumes, usually in the form of a Bloody Mary, which she stated she drank "for the vitamins ''.
Cully had been absent from the first 17 episodes of Season Three due to a serious case of pneumonia caused by a collapsed lung. Upon recovering she returned for a few episodes, noticeably thinner and more frail. She died early in Season Four, and the writers decided to eliminate Mother Jefferson 's character rather than replace her with a different actress. No special episode was created centering on her death, but it was briefly referenced in the second episode of the Fifth Season, "Homecoming (pt 1) ''.
Jennifer "Jenny '' Willis Jefferson (portrayed by Berlinda Tolbert, except for her first appearance in All in the Family, when she was portrayed by Lynne Moody) is the only daughter of Helen and Tom Willis, the younger of their two children. Jenny is an intelligent person, finishing college with her boyfriend, Lionel Jefferson. At first, George often disapproved of Jenny loving Lionel merely because she is, in George 's own word, a "zebra ''. George calls her this because her mother is black, but her father is white, thereby making her biracial. However, after George discovered Jenny was pregnant with his grandchild, he changed his ways and became much more accepting of her. In 1976, Jenny marries Lionel, though they divorced in 1985 after nine years of marriage. She and Lionel have a daughter named Jessica (played by Erin Hollin and Leslie Hollin (Seasons 6 -- 7) and later by Ebonie Smith (Seasons 10 -- 11).
At first, Jenny disliked her brother Allan when he came home after two years in Paris, mainly because she turned out "black '' and he turned out "white ''. But as siblings go, they reconcile and return their love for each other. Their love stayed strong, as Jenny asked Allan to be Jessica 's godfather. But since Allan was snowed in, Harry Bentley was to be the proxy.
Allan Willis (Andrew Harold Rubin / Jay Hammer) is the Willis ' only son and older brother of Jenny. Andrew Rubin appears as this character in the first season finale episode entitled "Jenny 's Low '' (aired on April 12, 1975), in which Allan returns from Europe, and is given the "Cold Shoulder '' by his sister, Jenny (Berlinda Tolbert). Jenny starts staying at the Jeffersons ' apartment as long as Allan stayed at their own home. She was somewhat jealous of Allan turning out to be "white ''. They eventually reconcile. In the 1978 -- 79 season, which is the fifth season, Allan is now portrayed by Jay Hammer, who joins the cast in a two - part episode of the season opener. Allan returns from New Mexico, while his parents return from Syracuse after Tom 's father dies. Allan is left the Fortune Warehouse in the will and the relationship between Tom and Allan becomes very cold because of his "happy - go - lucky '' attitude. Allan is well known for his sharp rebuttal against George 's insults and his well - rounded personality. After this season (1978 -- 79), Hammer was fired from the show cast, and Mike Evans returned to the series in the fall of 1979. After that, the way it was described with Allan 's writing out of the storyline that he was residing in Minnesota. Allan was also chosen to be his niece, Jessica Jefferson 's, godfather upon her birth, but Allan supposedly had gotten snowed in, so Harry Bentley was chosen as the proxy.
Florence Johnston (Marla Gibbs) is the Jeffersons ' sassy, backtalking, wisecracking maid. Her first appearance is actually in the pilot episode, when she was interviewed and hired as the housekeeper for the title - bearing characters. Although her job is supposed to take up most of her time, she is flat - out slothful, using very little energy or effort to clean the Jeffersons ' apartment. She regularly bickers with George. George, who pays Florence 's salary, repeatedly complains about her laziness (and cooking), and he gives her a very small paycheck. Several times he was on the verge of firing her, but Louise, who thinks of her as one of the family, forces him not to. Originally a recurring character, Gibbs later became the core of the series, becoming a series regular, appearing in 207 of the 253 episodes.
Despite being a decent Christian (as Gibbs is in real - life) woman, Florence never kept a long relationship with men. This was the biggest reason she gave to the Jeffersons and the Willises when she contemplated suicide in a Season Two episode. However, George incongruously told Florence not to, simply because she would be hurting everyone if she did. Louise would later credit George for convincing Florence not to take her own life, and gave that as a big reason that underneath his gruff, stubborn exterior was a man who was concerned about others.
In an early Season Three episode, she becomes the Jeffersons ' full - time maid, taking Lionel 's room after he marries Jenny Willis and finds a place of his own. George naturally refused her to do so at first, but she managed to help him escape a sham financial deal with a couple of con artists, and George was grateful. Another time she was kidnapped by a pair of criminals after they mistook her for Louise. Florence handled the hostage ordeal, and managed to give out a clue to her friends over the phone. Mr. Bentley was the only one to uncover that clue, and she was rescued gradually by the police.
Harry Bentley (Paul Benedict) is the Jeffersons ' eccentric English next - door neighbor. Bentley works as a Russian language interpreter at the United Nations. He is known to everybody as a kind, gentle fellow, but George mostly finds him a complete annoyance, especially when he shows up at his door, complaining of back spasms (which could be cured only by George walking across his back) or to borrow a household item. In nearly every episode he was in, George slams the door in his face, either in the middle of a conversation or at the beginning of one. Bentley usually tells stories about his childhood life whenever at a get - together, which almost always bore his guests, but he does n't seem to notice.
Bentley lives alone, but several times brings home a lady friend. Two of Bentley 's most - talked - about ladies are Daphne and Patricia.
Ironically in an earlier Season 3 episode, after taking ignorant advice from George, Bentley accidentally punches a police officer in the face and winds himself in jail. He was bailed out by George, but still faced charges from the whole case. The officer he punched then realized Bentley is truly an honest person, and ultimately freed him.
Paul Benedict left the series at the end of the 1980 -- 81 season, which became the seventh year of the sitcom. The character of Bentley was written out, saying he went to live in the Soviet Union for two years. Benedict returned to the show in 1983 during the show 's tenth year on television. Since then, George became much friendlier to him, but sometimes still slams the door on him.
Ralph Hart (Ned Wertimer) is the money - crazed doorman of the high - rise Colby East apartment complex. Although he appears to be a hard - working fellow with a decent attitude, he always makes sure his hand is stuffed with a reasonable amount (in his case, a lot) of money tips. He appears in the episodes usually to deliver merchandise or mail to George, and George must always give him a big tip. The same goes true for just about every other tenant focused on the sitcom. But in later seasons, they learn to stop giving Ralph a big tip, and, if necessary, tell him to get lost. In one episode Ralph was almost replaced by an automatic door before George along with several tenants told the building manager that they would all move if Ralph was replaced and he was allowed to keep his job. However it was revealed that none of the people actually lived in the building and that they all hated Ralph and only did it because he paid them. It is also hinted that the people that actually live in the building (aside from George) hate him so much that they would n't have helped him keep his job even if he did pay them. In a Season 5 nightmare dream George has of the future, Ralph has so much money from George 's tips that he has moved up from doorman to owner of the apartment building and remarks how $500.00 pays for a gallon of gasoline!
Ralph does sometimes seem to care for his tenants over his tipping, though. In one of the later Season Two episodes, after Lionel and Jenny have a big altercation and break up for a short while, George unknowingly pays a hooker to spend time with Lionel. When Ralph sees her and recognizes her instantly, he tells George the truth. George, clearly panicked, gives Ralph a $100 tip as gratitude. But Ralph turned it down, explaining that he 's "going to need it. '' He would continue to join the cast for the majority of the show 's numerous seasons.
Marcus Garvey Henderson (Ernest Harden Jr.) is George 's young employee at Jefferson Cleaners. Marcus appears in the 1977 -- 78 season (during the fourth season), and apparently, Marcus grew up in a rough neighborhood. Louise hired him to work at George 's store, but on the very first day on the job, he stole an expensive jacket. Bentley told Louise about the incident, and she and George confronted him. He admitted he stole it, but lashed out at the two about him never receiving a proper life. George retaliates by telling him he is a lucky guy to have a job, and that should he pursue a life as a swindler and altogether a ghetto person, he would end up in jail or the graveyard. Marcus then proceeds to become a better person.
When Marcus confesses his father died at a young age, Louise insists George on taking Marcus to a camp - out to give him a good, father - and - son relationship. Marcus tells George the bad times he had, and George admits his father died when he was ten years old. Marcus breaks down into tears, but both of them have a good time together. Marcus 's final appearance was in the season 6 episode "Joltin ' George ''.
Ernest Harden Jr. in fact briefly played another character in one episode in the third season.
Leroy Daniels (Vernon Washington) is George 's store manager / employee at Jefferson Cleaners. He was born around 1938 and though a wiz at managing a store and dry - cleaning, can act a little bit dim - witted at times. In one episode titled "George, Who? '' Louise, who took a bump on the head after getting attacked by a mugger, is able to find her way to the main cleaner store; In trying to remember Leroy by asking him "Do You Know Leroy? '', Leroy, thinking Louise asked him "Do I know what? '', dim - wittedly answers, "yesssss? '' In one Season 5 episode, in a dream George had, Leroy became the owner of Jefferson Cleaners in 1996 when George himself was dead by then, which George though impossible since he felt Leroy was a dingbat with no business skills. Leroy would appear in several other episodes afterward.
Hugo Mojoloweski (Irwin Keyes) is George 's occasional bodyguard, who was originally hired by George to protect him from a serial mugger and career criminal nicknamed "Larry The Loon '' in Season Seven. Hugo, upon first sight becomes infatuated with George 's daughter - in - law, the already - married Jenny, which, needless to say went unrequited. Hugo is big and very burly, but he, like Leroy may be sometimes a little dim - witted. His catchphrase was, "Hi, remember me? '' which he always greets others, in particular, the very uninterested Jenny, who he at one time kept lavishing gifts upon, namely a big poster greeting card with his image, a la "Casablanca '' style, with his catchphrase emblazoned upon it! In the two - part episode titled "The Strays '', Hugo is hired once again to help and protect George when he attempts to confront a female street gang who robbed a delivery driver at gunpoint; when the girls appear, Hugo, who was supposed to scare off the girls, is nowhere to be found. As it turns out, Hugo had left because he had gotten hungry.
Jimmy (Garrett Morris) was supposedly a child that George and Louise has sponsored and sent money to for years. However, in their first visit with Jimmy, they realize he was an adult con - man. The character Jimmy appeared in five episodes from 1983 to 1984. Jimmy was a member of the historically black fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha. Morris was exactly a year older than Sherman Hemsley who played George. In the three - part episode titled "Mission: Impossible '', Jimmy is once again enlisted by George. Jimmy and his cousin, played by Greg Morris of Mission: Impossible TV series fame, try to recover S10, 000 lost by Tom Willis to some con - men, who were ex-Navy acquaintances of George in a revenge / double - cross con.
Charlie (Danny Wells) owns a bar in the first - floor lobby of the Colby - East apartment complex. He usually likes his business and is content with his customers, especially the Jeffersons and the Willises. A recurring joke had been that either Lionel or someone else would be having a drink with George at Charlie 's bar, then to see Charlie giving them the bill either because George snuck out or he told Charlie that the drinks will be on Lionel. Once, he was supposed to be evicted because of his contract 's expiration, and George would use his bar as an expansion to his cleaner store. But George, realizing Charlie is rather like one of the family, refused and let Charlie stay. In a later episode, titled "A Secret in the Back Room '' (Season 11, episode # 17) it is revealed that Charlie, while running a successful bar, has struggled for years with a drinking problem, and is separated from his wife because of it; George and Louise try to heip him to come to grips and deal with the problem while preparing for their marriage anniversary party.
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what were the tactics of the civil war | Infantry in the American Civil War - wikipedia
The infantry in the American Civil War comprised foot - soldiers who fought primarily with small arms, and carried the brunt of the fighting on battlefields across the United States. Historians have long debated whether the evolution of tactics between 1861 and 1865 marked a seminal point in the evolution of warfare. The conventional narrative is that generals and other officers adhered stubbornly to the tactics of the Napoleonic Wars, in which armies employed linear formations and favored open fields over the usage of cover (whether constructed or natural in origin). Presumably, the greater accuracy and range of the rifle musket rendered that approach obsolete, and the Civil War armies ' transition to longer battles in 1864 is taken by numerous scholars as proof of the new technology 's transformative impact. More recently, however, academics have begun to reject this narrative. Earl J. Hess judges the tactical training of the Civil War as critical to the armies ' success, and maintains that the dearth of overwhelming victories during the conflict was actually consistent with the infrequency of such battles throughout history. Allen C. Guelzo contends that rifle muskets did not revolutionize land warfare due to a combination of inadequate firearms training and the poor visibility caused by black powder. This debate has implications not only for the nature of the soldier 's experience, but also for the broader question of the Civil War 's relative modernity. Williamson Murray and Wayne Wei - Siang Hsieh argue that the conflict was resulted from "the combination... of the Industrial Revolution and French Revolution (which) allowed the opposing sides to mobilize immense numbers of soldiers while projecting military power over great distances. '' The Civil War involved a number of other recently - introduced and new technologies, including military balloons, repeating rifles, the telegraph, and railroads.
At the start of the war, the entire United States Army consisted of 16,367 men of all branches, with infantry representing the vast majority of this total. Some of these infantrymen had seen considerable combat experience in the Mexican -- American War, as well as in the West in various encounters, including the Utah War and several campaigns against Indians. However, the majority spent their time on garrison or fatigue duty. In general, the majority of the infantry officers were graduates of military schools such as the United States Military Academy.
In some cases, individual states, such as New York, had previously organized formal militia infantry regiments, originally to fight Indians in many cases, but by 1861, they existed mostly for social camaraderie and parades. These organizations were more prevalent in the South, where hundreds of small local militia companies existed.
With the secession of eleven Southern states by early 1861 following the election of President Abraham Lincoln, tens of thousands of Southern men flocked to hastily organized companies, which were soon formed into regiments, brigades, and small armies, forming the genesis of the Confederate States Army. Lincoln responded by issuing a call for 75,000 volunteers, and later even more, to put down the rebellion, and the Northern states responded. The resulting forces came to be known as the Volunteer Army (even though they were paid), versus the Regular Army. More than seventeen hundred state volunteer regiments were raised for the Union Army throughout the war, with infantry comprising over 80 % of the manpower in these forces.
The typical infantry regiment of the early Civil War consisted of 10 companies (each with exactly 100 men, according to Hardee 's 1855 manual, and led by a captain, with associated lieutenants). Field officers normally included a colonel (commanding), lieutenant colonel, and at least one major. With attrition from disease, battle casualties, desertions and transfers, by the mid-war, most regiments averaged 300 -- 400 men. Volunteer regiments were paid by the individual states, and officers at first were normally elected by popular vote, or were appointed by the state governors (particularly the colonels, who were often the men who had raised and organized the regiment). As the war progressed, the War Department and superior officers began selecting regimental leaders, and the regimental officers normally selected the NCOs (non-commissioned officers) based on performance and merit, although the individual states retained considerable influence in the selection of the regimental officers.
Often, and always, according to Hardee 's 1855 manual, large regiments were broken into two or more battalions, with the lieutenant colonel and major (s) in charge of each battalion. The regiment may have also been divided into two wings, the left and right, for instructional purposes, only. The regimental commander exercised overall tactical control over these officers and usually relied on couriers and staff to deliver and receive messages and orders. Normally positioned in the center of the regiment in battle formation was the color guard, typically five to eight men assigned to carry and protect the regimental and / or national colors, led by a color sergeant. Most Union regiments carried both banners; the typical Confederate regiment simply had a national standard.
Individual regiments (usually three to five, although the number varied) were organized and grouped into a larger body (a brigade) which soon became the main structure for battlefield maneuvers. Generally, the brigade was commanded by a brigadier general, or senior colonel, when merit was clearly evident in that colonel and a general was not available. Two to four brigades typically comprised a division, which in theory was commanded by a major general, but theory was often not put into practical application, especially when an officer exhibited exceptional merit or the division was smaller and trusted to a more junior officer. Several divisions would constitute a corps, and multiple corps together made up an army, often commanded by a lieutenant general or full general in the Confederate forces, and by a major general in the Union forces.
Below is charted the average make - up of the infantry for both sides.
Commands were typically issued via voice, (rarely) drum (infantry only), or bugle call. Soldiers were drilled in infantry tactics, usually based upon a manual written before the war by West Point professor William J. Hardee (Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics: for the Instruction, Exercise and Maneuver of Riflemen and Light Infantry, published in 1855). Another treatise commonly used was from Winfield Scott, entitled Infantry Tactics, or Rules for Manoeuvers of the United States Infantry. Originally published in 1835, it was the standard drill manual for the U.S. Army. Other popular instruction manuals were issued early in the Civil War, including McClellan 's Bayonet Drill (1862) and Casey 's Infantry Tactics (1862).
Traditionally, historians have stated that many generals, particularly early in the war, preferred to use Napoleonic tactics, despite the increased killing power of period weaponry. They marched their men out in tightly closed formations, often with soldiers elbow - to - elbow in double - rank battle lines, usually in brigade (by mid-war numbering about 2,500 -- 3,000 infantrymen) or division (by mid-war numbering about 6,000 -- 10,000 infantrymen) strength. This large mass presented an easy target for defenders, who could easily fire several volleys before his enemy would be close enough for hand - to - hand combat. The idea was to close on the enemy 's position with this mass of soldiers and charge them with the bayonet, convincing the enemy to leave their position or be killed. At times, these soon - to - be outdated tactics contributed to high casualty lists.
However, historians such as Allen C. Guelzo reject this traditional criticism of Civil War infantry tactics. Casualty estimates compared with expended ammunition from battles indicate 1 casualty for every 250 -- 300 shots discharged, not a dramatic improvement over Napoleonic casualty rates. No contemporary accounts indicate that engagement ranges with substantial casualties between infantry occurred at ranges beyond Napoleonic engagement ranges.
To explain this seeming contradiction between technology and tactical reality, Guelzo points out that even when laboratory tests indicates accuracy with a rifled musket from 600 yards, in an actual battlefield situation, the lack of smokeless powder quickly would obscure visibility. The gunpowder of the time produced a great deal of smoke when fired. Thus, in larger battles, battles began with artillery firing for some time, and skirmishers had been firing at each other for some time. By the time the main lines of infantry began approaching each other, visibility was significantly obscured. Once the infantry began the main engagement, visibility quickly was reduced to almost nil. With the lack of visibility, only massed infantry fire was effective, and this reality is reflected in the tactics of the time. Guelzo argues that rifling only truly benefited the sharpshooters on the skirmish line, who fought before their visibility was obscured, but the main line of infantry could not take advantage of the benefits of rifling.
In Gettysburg, the Last Invasion, Guelzo also points out the technical difficulty of aiming a rifled musket at longer ranges. While rifling improved overall accuracy of muskets, the rifling also formed a trajectory that caused the bullet to quickly "drop '' from where it was aimed (in contrast to the flat trajectory of smoothbore muskets fired at close range). Thus to hit a target at distances beyond 40 -- 50 yards, the rifleman would require knowledge of trajectory and distance, aiming the rifle at a precise angle above the target. In actual battlefield situations, such precise aiming was virtually impossible. Under the stress of battle, virtually every infantryman asked about aiming on the battlefield replied that in practice, the best one could do was "simply raise his rifle to the horizontal, and fire without aiming. '' (Guelzo p. 37).
An additional limitation on unlocking the potential of the rifle was the availability of gunpowder, and the pursuant lack of training. Prior to the development of industrialized chemical plants producing copious amounts of gunpowder, in the mid-19th centuries, armies simply could not expend large amounts of gunpowder for training. As a result, the average infantryman simply did not have extensive firearms training beyond simple maintenance and loading drills. The infantryman simply did not know how to aim his rifle at long distances -- eyewitnesses report entire companies aiming their rifles at a 45 degree angle facing the sky and discharging their rifles at Bull Run (Guelzo p. 59). Such untrained soldiers could not be expected to engage an enemy much further than point blank range with any level of accuracy.
Thus Guelzo doubts that contemporary military leaders blatantly ignored technological advances. Rather, Guelzo argued that in actual battlefield conditions, until the development of smokeless powder, the benefits of rifling were largely nullified. Therefore, generals did not alter their tactics not due to ignorance, but because the battlefield had not changed substantially from the Napoleonic era.
Of particular tactical importance was the usage of skirmishers, usually small bodies of advanced troops which were often spaced several yards apart, and more specifically, five paces per man, according to Hardee 's manual. They screened a defensive line from oncoming enemy soldiers, harassed attackers, probed enemy strength in preparation for an attack, and screened the assaulting columns. However, the skirmish formation was forfeited in most cases, for a line of battle was of preference. Skirmish formation would be used to take up large distances of an open front, which rarely occurred at the larger scale battles. Nevertheless, it was drilled into the recruits, should the opportunity to take skirmish formation arise in a combat scenario.
Attacks were carried out in several manners, including single or double rank battle lines with individual regiments side - by - side in a line of battle, assault waves (with multiple regiments or brigades in successive waves spaced out loosely one behind the other), brigade columns (all regiments of a brigade in line one behind the other in close formation), and other formations.
Trained in the era of short - range smoothbore muskets, such as the Springfield Model 1842, which was issued to many units immediately prior to the war, many generals often did not fully appreciate or understand the importance and power of the new weapons introduced during the war, such as the 1861 Springfield rifled musket and comparable rifles which had longer range and were more powerful than the weapons used by the antebellum armies. Its barrel contained several rifled grooves that provided increased accuracy, and fired a. 58 caliber Minié ball (a small conical - shaped ball). This rifle had a deadly effect up to 600 yards and was capable of seriously wounding a man beyond 1,000 yards, unlike the previous muskets used during the American Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars, most of which had an effective range of only 100 yards.
However, as stated above, historians like Guelzo argue these benefits were largely nullified by the lack of visibility on a Civil War battlefield. Engagements necessarily took place with massed lines of infantry at ranges of around 100 yards, for the simple fact the enemy could not be seen at longer distances since neither side employed smokeless powder in their weapons. In many engagements, unless there was a strong wind on the battlefield, the first volley from each side would obscure the enemy 's line for a considerable time in gunsmoke. Hence, the standard doctrine on both sides to close with the enemy and fire at point - blank range for maximum effect.
Even smoothbore muskets underwent improvements: soldiers developed the technique of "buck and ball, '' loading the muskets with a combination of small pellets and a single round ball, effectively making their fire scattergun - like in effect. Other infantrymen went into combat armed with shotguns, pistols, knives, and assorted other killing instruments. Very early in the war, a few companies were armed with pikes. However, by the end of 1862, most infantrymen were armed with rifles, including imports from Great Britain, Belgium, and other European countries.
The typical Union soldier carried his musket, percussion cap box, cartridge box, a canteen, a knapsack, and other accouterments, in addition to any personal effects. By contrast, many Southern soldiers carried their possessions in a blanket roll worn around the shoulder and tied at the waist. They might have a wooden canteen, a linen or cotton haversack for food, and a knife or similar sidearm, as well as their musket.
One primary account of the typical infantryman came from James Gall, a representative of the United States Sanitary Commission, who observed Confederate infantrymen of Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in camp in the occupied borough of York, Pennsylvania, in late June 1863, sometime after the Second Battle of Winchester.
Physically, the men looked about equal to the generality of our own troops, and there were fewer boys among them. Their dress was a wretched mixture of all cuts and colors. There was not the slightest attempt at uniformity in this respect. Every man seemed to have put on whatever he could get hold of, without regard to shape or color. I noticed a pretty large sprinkling of blue pants among them, some of those, doubtless, that were left by Milroy at Winchester. Their shoes, as a general thing, were poor; some of the men were entirely barefooted. Their equipments were light, as compared with those of our men. They consisted of a thin woolen blanket, coiled up and slung from the shoulder in the form of a sash, a haversack swung from the opposite shoulder, and a cartridge - box. The whole can not weigh more than twelve or fourteen pounds. Is it strange, then, that with such light loads, they should be able to make longer and more rapid marches than our men? The marching of the men was irregular and careless, their arms were rusty and ill kept. Their whole appearance was greatly inferior to that of our soldiers... There were not tents for the men, and but few for the officers... Everything that will trammel or impede the movement of the army is discarded, no matter what the consequences may be to the men... In speaking of our soldiers, the same officer remarked: ' They are too well fed, too well clothed, and have far too much to carry. ' That our men are too well fed, I do not believe, neither that they are too well clothed; that they have too much to carry, I can very well believe, after witnessing the march of the Army of the Potomac to Chancellorsville. Each man had eight days ' rations to carry, besides sixty rounds of ammunition, musket, woollen blanket, rubber blanket, overcoat, extra shirt, drawers, socks, and shelter tent, amounting in all to about sixty pounds. Think of men, and boys too, staggering along under such a load, at the rate of fifteen to twenty miles a day.
While thousands of repeating rifles and breechloaders, such as the 7 - shot Spencer and 15 - shot Henry models, were fielded to Union cavalry in the war, no significant funds were allocated to furnish Union infantry with the same equipment. With the exception of some volunteer regiments receiving extra funding from their state or wealthy commander, the small numbers of rapid - fire weapons in service with US infantrymen, often skirmishers, were mostly purchased privately by soldiers themselves.
Despite President Lincoln 's enthusiasm for these types of weapons, the mass adoption of repeating rifles for the infantry was resisted by some senior Union officers. The most common concerns cited about the weapons were their high - cost, massive use of ammunition and the considerable extra smoke produced on the battlefield. The most influential detractor of these new rifles was 67 - year - old General James Ripley, the US Army 's ordnance chief. He adamantly opposed the adoption of, what he called, "these newfangled gimcracks, '' believing they would encourage soldiers to "waste ammunition. '' He also argued that the quartermaster corps could not field enough ammunition to keep a repeater - armed army supplied for any extended campaign.
One notable exception was Colonel John T. Wilder 's mounted infantry "Lightning Brigade. '' Col. Wilder, a wealthy engineer and foundry owner, took out a bank loan to purchase 1,400 Spencer rifles for his infantrymen. The magazine - fed weapons were quite popular with his soldiers, with most agreeing to monthly pay deductions to help reimburse the costs. During the Battle of Hoover 's Gap, Wilder 's Spencer - armed and well - fortified brigade of 4,000 men held off 22,000 attacking Confederates, and inflicted 287 casualties for only 27 losses. Even more striking, during the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga, his Spencer - armed brigade launched a counterattack against a much larger Confederate division overrunning the Union 's right flank. Thanks in large part to the Lightning Brigade 's superior firepower, they repulsed the Confederates and inflicted over 500 casualties, while suffering only 53 losses.
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what country on chinas border is mostly desert | Gobi desert - wikipedia
The Gobi Desert (/ ˈɡoʊ. bi /; Mongolian: Говь, Gowĭ, (ɢɔwj), "semidesert ''; Chinese: 戈壁; pinyin: Gēbì, Xiao'erjing: قْبِ, (kɤ́. pî), Dungan: Гәби) is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Taklamakan Desert to the west, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the southwest, and by the North China Plain to the southeast. The Gobi is notable in history as part of the great Mongol Empire, and as the location of several important cities along the Silk Road.
The Gobi is a rain shadow desert, formed by the Tibetan Plateau blocking precipitation from the Indian Ocean reaching the Gobi territory.
The Gobi measures over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from southwest to northeast and 800 km (500 mi) from north to south. The desert is widest in the west, along the line joining the Lake Bosten and the Lop Nor (87 ° -- 89 ° east). It occupies an arc of land 1,295,000 km (500,000 sq mi) in area as of 2007; it is the fifth - largest desert in the world and Asia 's second largest. Much of the Gobi is not sandy but has exposed bare rock.
In its broadest definition, the Gobi includes the long stretch of desert and semi-desert area extending from the foot of the Pamirs, 77 ° east, to the Greater Khingan Mountains, 116 ° - 118 ° east, on the border of Manchuria; and from the foothills of the Altay, Sayan, and Yablonoi mountain ranges on the north to the Kunlun, Altyn - Tagh, and Qilian mountain ranges, which form the northern edges of the Tibetan Plateau, on the south.
A relatively large area on the east side of the Greater Khingan range, between the upper waters of the Songhua (Sungari) and the upper waters of the Liao - ho, is reckoned to belong to the Gobi by conventional usage. Some geographers and ecologists prefer to regard the western area of the Gobi region (as defined above): the basin of the Tarim in Xinjiang and the desert basin of Lop Nor and Hami (Kumul), as forming a separate and independent desert, called the Taklamakan Desert.
Archeologists and paleontologists have done excavations in the Nemegt Basin in the northwestern part of the Gobi Desert (in Mongolia), which is noted for its fossil treasures, including early mammals, dinosaur eggs, and prehistoric stone implements, some 100,000 years old.
The Gobi is a cold desert, with frost and occasionally snow occurring on its dunes. Besides being quite far north, it is also located on a plateau roughly 910 -- 1,520 metres (2,990 -- 4,990 ft) above sea level, which contributes to its low temperatures. An average of approximately 194 millimetres (7.6 in) of rain falls annually in the Gobi. Additional moisture reaches parts of the Gobi in winter as snow is blown by the wind from the Siberian Steppes. These winds cause the Gobi to reached − 40 ° C or − 40 ° F in winter to 45 ° C or 113 ° F in summer.
The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined with rapid changes of temperature of as much as 35 ° C (63 ° F). These can occur not only seasonally but within 24 hours.
In southern Mongolia, the temperature has been recorded as low as − 32.8 ° C (− 27.0 ° F). In contrast, in Alxa, Inner Mongolia, it rises as high as 37 ° C (99 ° F) in July.
Average winter minimums are a frigid − 21 ° C (− 6 ° F), while summertime maximmums are a warm 27 ° C (81 ° F). Most of the precipitation falls during the summer.
Although the southeast monsoons reach the southeast parts of the Gobi, the area throughout this region is generally characterized by extreme dryness, especially during the winter, when the Siberian anticyclone is at its strongest. The southern and central parts of the Gobi Desert have variable plant growth due to this monsoon activity. The more northern areas of the Gobi are very cold and dry, making it unable to support much plant growth; this cold and dry weather is attributed to Siberian - Mongolian high pressure cells. Hence, the icy sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer plus early January (winter).
The Gobi Desert is the source of many important fossil finds, including the first dinosaur eggs.
Despite the harsh conditions, these deserts and the surrounding regions sustain many animals, including black - tailed gazelles, marbled polecats, wild Bactrian camels, Mongolian wild ass and sandplovers. They are occasionally visited by snow leopards, brown bears, and wolves. Lizards are especially well - adapted to the climate of the Gobi Desert, with approximately 30 species distributed across its southern Mongolian border. The most common vegetation in the Gobi desert are shrubs adapted to drought. These shrubs included gray sparrow 's saltwort (Salsola passerina), gray sagebrush, and low grasses such as needle grass and bridlegrass. Due to livestock grazing, the amount of shrubs in the desert has decreased. Several large nature reserves have been established in the Gobi, including Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, Great Gobi A and Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area.
The area is vulnerable to trampling by livestock and off - road vehicles (effects from human intervention are greater in the eastern Gobi Desert, where rainfall is heavier and may sustain livestock). In Mongolia, grasslands have been degraded by goats, which are raised by nomadic herders as source of cashmere wool. The economic trends of livestock privatization and the collapse of the urban economy have caused people to return to subsistence rural lifestyles, away from urbanization.
Large copper and gold deposits located at Oyuu Tolgoi, about 80 kilometres from the Chinese border into Mongolia, are being investigated for development as mining operations. The Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold mine, under construction by Rio Tinto in the South Gobi Desert, is expected to begin operation in early 2013, and is the biggest economic undertaking in the country 's history. Rio Tinto estimates that taxes, royalties and dividends generated by the Oyu Tolgoi project is expected to add a third to the country 's gross domestic product by 2020. Rio Tinto forecasts average annual production of 450,000 tonnes of copper and 330,000 ounces of gold, and with 1.4 billion tonnes of reserves and a resource of 3.1 billion tonnes, the mine is expected to last for more than 50 years.
The mine has been and remains controversial. There is significant opposition in Mongolia 's parliament to the terms under which the mine will proceed, and some are calling for the terms to be renegotiated. Specifically, the contention revolves primarily around the question of whether negotiations were fair (Rio Tinto is far better resourced) and whether Rio Tinto will pay adequate taxes on the revenues it derives from the mine (an agreement was reached whereby the operation will be exempt from windfall tax.
The Gobi Desert is expanding at an alarming rate, in a process known as desertification. The expansion is particularly rapid on the southern edge into China, which has seen 3,600 km (1,390 sq mi) of grassland overtaken every year by the Gobi Desert. Dust storms, which used to occur regularly in China, have increased in frequency in the past 20 years, mainly due to desertification. They have caused further damage to China 's agriculture economy.
The northern and eastern boundaries between desert and grassland are constantly changing. This is mostly due to the climate conditions before the growing season, which influence the rate of evapotranspiration and subsequent plant growth.
The expansion of the Gobi is attributed mostly to human activities, notably deforestation, overgrazing, and depletion of water resources. China has tried various plans to slow the expansion of the desert, which have met with some small degree of success, but no major effects. The most recent plan involves the planting of the Green Wall of China, a huge ring of newly planted forests; the government hopes the forests will help stabilize the soil, retain moisture, and act as a buffer against further desertification.
The Gobi, broadly defined, can be divided into five distinct dry ecoregions, based on variations in climate and topography.
The surface is extremely diversified, although there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Ulaanbaatar (48 ° 00 ′ N 107 ° 00 ′ E / 48.000 ° N 107.000 ° E / 48.000; 107.000) and the small lake of Iren - dubasu - nor (43 ° 45 ′ N 111 ° 50 ′ E / 43.750 ° N 111.833 ° E / 43.750; 111.833), the surface is greatly eroded. Broad flat depressions and basins are separated by groups of flat - topped mountains of relatively low elevation 150 to 180 m (490 to 590 ft)), through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 900 to 1,000 m (3,000 to 3,300 ft) above sea - level. Farther south, between Iren - dutiasu - nor and the Yellow River, comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 1000 -- 1100 m and the former at 1,070 to 1,200 m (3,510 to 3,940 ft). The slopes of the plateaus are more or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by "bays '' of the lowlands.
As the border - range of the Hyangan is approached, the country steadily rises up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft) and then to 1,630 m (5,350 ft). Here small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them is generally salt or brackish. Both here and for 320 km (199 mi) south of Ulaanbaatar, streams are frequent and grass grows more or less abundantly. Through all the central parts, until the bordering mountains are reached, trees and shrubs are utterly absent. Clay and sand are the predominant formations; the watercourses, especially in the north, being frequently excavated 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) deep. In many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south, beds of loess, 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) thick, are exposed. West of the route from Ulaanbaatar to Kalgan, the country presents approximately the same general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly east to west, west - north - west to east - south - east, and west - south - west to east - north - east.
The altitudes are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 1,000 to 1,700 m (3,300 to 5,600 ft), and those of the ranges from 200 to 500 m (660 to 1,640 ft) higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The elevations do not form continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins. But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the Han - gai (Obruchev 's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara - muren river. They are greatly intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. Water is scarce, with no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation falls seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the west and northwest, and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla Makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic, Kalidium gracile, wormwood, saxaul, Nitraria schoberi, Caragana, Ephedra, saltwort and the grass Lasiagrostis splendens. The taana wild onion Allium polyrrhizum is the main browse eaten by many herd animals, and Mongolians claim that this is essential to produce the correct, slightly hazelnut - like flavour of camel airag (fermented milk).
This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most important are those from Kalgan (at the Great Wall) to Ulaanbaatar (960 km (597 mi)); from Jiuquan (in Gansu) to Hami 670 km (416 mi); from Hami to Beijing (2,000 km (1,243 mi)); from Hohhot to Hami and Barkul; and from Lanzhou (in Gansu) to Hami.
The southwestern portion of the Gobi, known also as the Hsi - tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great north loop of the Yellow River on the east, the Ejin River on the west, and the Qilian Mountains and narrow rocky chain of Longshou, 3,200 to 3,500 m (10,500 to 11,500 ft) in altitude, on the southwest. The Ordos Desert, which covers the northeastern portion of the Ordos Plateau, in the great north loop of the Yellow River, is part of this ecoregion. It belongs to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin divides the Gobi as a whole.
"Topographically, '' says Nikolai Przhevalsky, "it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of a huge lake or inland sea. '' He concludes this based on the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saldgine clay and the sand - strewn surface and, lastly, the salt lakes which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of kilometers, nothing can be seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without a break that the Mongols call them Tengger (i.e. sky). These vast expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken stretches of yellow sand, which alternate with equally vast areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude of 1,000 to 1,500 m (3,300 to 4,900 ft), this section, like most other parts of the Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges going up 300 m higher. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses and herbs, the most conspicuous being saxaul (Haloxylon ammondendron) and Agriophyllum gobicum. The others include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood (Artemisia campestris), acacia, Inula ammophila, Sophora flavescens, Convolvulus ammanii, Peganum and Astragalus, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little but antelope, wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sandgrouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Henderson 's ground jay (Podoces hendersoni), horned lark (Eremophila alpestris), and crested lark (Galerida cristata).
The structure here is that of the mighty T'ien Shan, or Heavenly Mountains, running from west to east. It divides the northern one - third of Sinkiang from the southern two - thirds. On the northern side, rivers formed from the snow and glaciers of the high mountains break through barren foothill ranges and flow out into an immense, hollow plain. Here the rivers begin to straggle and fan out, and form great marshes with dense reed - beds. Westerners call this terrain the Dzungarian desert. The Chinese also call it a desert, but the Mongols call it a ' gobi ' -- that is, a land of thin herbage, more suitable for camels than for cows, but capable also, if herds are kept small and moved frequently, of sustaining horses, sheep, and goats. The herbage comprises a high proportion of woody, fragrant plants. Gobi mutton is the most aromatic in the world.
The Yulduz valley or valley of the Haidag - gol (43 ° N 83 ° E / 43 ° N 83 ° E / 43; 83 -- 43 ° N 86 ° E / 43 ° N 86 ° E / 43; 86) is a mini desert enclosed by two prominent members of the Shanashen Trahen Osh mountain range, namely the chucis and the kracenard pine rallies, running perpendicular and far from one another. As they proceed south, they transcend and transpose, sweeping back on east and west respectively, with Lake Bosten in between. These two ranges mark the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its northern side, the Chol - tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (130 m (427 ft) below sea level) to Hami (850 m (2,789 ft) above sea - level). To the south of the Kuruk - tagh lie the desert of Lop Nur, the Kum - tagh desert, and the valley of the Bulunzir - gol. To this great swelling, which arches up between the two border - ranges of the Chol - tagh and Kuruk - tagh, the Mongols give the name of Ghashuun - Gobi or "Salt Desert ''. It is some 130 to 160 km (81 to 99 mi) across from north to south, and is traversed by a number of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills. Down its middle runs a broad stony valley, 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) wide, at an elevation of 900 to 1,370 m (2,950 to 4,490 ft). The Chol - tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 1,800 m (5,900 ft), is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above.
The Kuruk - tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic of a mountain range which used to be of incomparably greater magnitude. In the west, between Lake Bosten and the Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a series of long; narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the east side of the transverse ridge, a cauldron - shaped depression, which some time or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt - basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs in the inter-mount latitudinal valleys of the Kunlun Mountains. The hydrography of the Ghashiun - Gobi and the Kuruk - tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges. To the highest range on the great swelling Grumm - Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge - tau, its altitude being 2,700 m (8,858 ft) above the level of the sea and some 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Choltagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk - tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Kharateken - ula (also known as the Kyzyl - sanghir, Sinir, and Singher Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Lake Bosten, though parted from it by the drift - sand desert of Ak - bel - kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a west - northwest to east - southeast strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar towards the east - northeast and at the same time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91 ° east, while the principal range of the Kuruk - tagh system wheels to the east - northeast, four of its subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a northeast bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop - nor), having over against them the écheloned terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe - shan (Boy - san) system (see below). The Kuruk - tagh is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (Haloxylon), anabasis, reeds (kamish), tamarisks, poplars, and Ephedra.
The Gobi had a long history of human habitation, mostly by nomadic peoples. By the early 20th century the region was under the nominal control of Manchu - China, and inhabited mostly by Mongols, Uyghurs, and Kazakhs. The Gobi Desert as a whole was only very imperfectly known to outsiders, information being confined to observations by individual travellers from their respective itineraries across the desert. Among the European explorers who contributed to early - 20th - century understanding of the Gobi, the most important were:
Coordinates: 42 ° 35 ′ N 103 ° 26 ′ E / 42.59 ° N 103.43 ° E / 42.59; 103.43
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who represented the us at the royal wedding | List of wedding guests of Prince William and Catherine Middleton - wikipedia
The following is the guest list for the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton
Other descendants of the Prince 's great - great - grandfather King George V and their families:
Other descendants of the prince 's great - great - great - great - grandmother Queen Victoria and their families. As is common in royalty, there has been slight intermingling of families. Where possible, the closest family title has been noted (first cousin on grandfather 's side, instead of third cousin on grandmother 's side, etc.):
Commonweath Governors - General
Prime Ministers of Commonwealth realms
Ambassadors to the United Kingdom
Lieutenant Governors of the Crown Dependencies
Delegates from the British Overseas Territories
Other dignitaries from within Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The groom 's father, Charles, Prince of Wales, released the official cadre of bridesmaids, pages and the overall makeup of the wedding party:
The following are notable people who declined their invitations for various reasons:
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when do you call an animation a claymation | Clay animation - wikipedia
Clay animation or claymation, sometimes plasticine animation, is one of many forms of stop motion animation. Each animated piece, either character or background, is "deformable '' -- made of a malleable substance, usually plasticine clay.
Traditional animation, from cel animation to stop motion, is produced by recording each frame, or still picture, on film or digital media and then playing the recorded frames back in rapid succession before the viewer. These and other moving images, from zoetrope to films to video games, create the illusion of motion by playing back at over ten to twelve frames per second. The techniques involved in creating computer - generated imagery are conversely generally removed from a frame - by - frame process.
Each object or character is sculpted from clay or other such similarly pliable material as plasticine, usually around a wire skeleton called an armature, and then arranged on the set, where it is photographed once before being slightly moved by hand to prepare it for the next shot, and so on until the animator has achieved the desired amount of film. Upon playback, the mind of the viewer perceives the series of slightly changing, rapidly succeeding images as motion.
A consistent shooting environment is needed to maintain the illusion of continuity: objects must be consistently placed and lit, and work must proceed in a calm environment.
Producing a stop - motion animation using clay is extremely laborious. Normal film runs at 24 frames per second (frame / s). With the standard practice of "doubles '' or "twos '' (double - framing, exposing two frames for each shot) 12 changes are usually made for one second of film movement. Shooting a 30 - minute movie would therefore require making approximately 21,600 stops to change the figures for the frames; a full - length (90 - minute) movie, 64,800 -- and possibly many more if some parts were shot with "singles '' or "ones '' (one frame exposed for each shot).
The object must not be altered by accident, slight smudges, dirt, hair, or dust. Feature - length productions have generally switched from clay to rubber silicone and resin cast components: Will Vinton has dubbed one foam - rubber process "Foamation ''. Nevertheless, clay remains a viable animation material where a particular aesthetic is desired.
Clay animation can take several forms:
"Freeform '' clay animation is an informal term referring to the process in which the shape of the clay changes radically as the animation progresses, such as in the work of Eliot Noyes, Jr. and Ivan Stang 's animated films. Clay can also take the form of "character '' clay animation, where the clay maintains a recognizable character throughout a shot, as in Art Clokey 's and Will Vinton 's films.
One variation of clay animation is strata - cut animation, in which a long bread - like loaf of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within. Pioneered in both clay and blocks of wax by German animator Oskar Fischinger during the 1920s and 1930s, the technique was revived and highly refined in the mid-1990s by David Daniels, an associate of Will Vinton, in his 16 - minute short film "Buzz Box ''.
Another clay - animation technique, one that blurs the distinction between stop motion and traditional flat animation, is called clay painting (also a variation of the direct manipulation animation process), wherein clay is placed on a flat surface and moved like wet oil paints (as on a traditional artist 's canvas) to produce any style of images, but with a clay look to them.
A sub variation clay animation can be informally called "clay melting ''. Any kind of heat source can be applied on or near (or below) clay to cause it to melt while an animation camera on a time - lapse setting slowly films the process. For example, consider Vinton 's early short clay - animated film "Closed Mondays '' (co produced by animator Bob Gardiner) at the end of the computer sequence. A similar technique was used in the climax scene of Raiders of the Lost Ark to "melt '' the faces of the antagonists.
The term "hot set '' is used amongst animators during production. It refers to a set where an animator is filming. The clay characters are set in a perfect position where they can continue shooting where they left off. If an animator calls his set a "hot set, '' then no one is allowed to touch the set or else the shoot would be ruined. Certain scenes must be shot rather quickly. If a scene is left unfinished and the weather is perhaps humid, then the set and characters have an obvious difference. The clay puppets may be deformed from the humidity or the air pressure could have caused the set to shift slightly. These small differences can create an obvious flaw to the scene. To avoid these disasters, scenes normally have to be shot in one day or less.
Clay - animated films were produced in the United States as early as 1908, when Edison Manufacturing released a trick film entitled The Sculptor 's Welsh Rarebit Dream (possibly referencing the comic strip "Dreams of a Rarebit Fiend ''). In 1916, clay animation became something of a fad, as an East Coast artist named Helena Smith Dayton and a West Coast animator named Willie Hopkins produced clay - animated films on a wide range of subjects. Hopkins in particular was quite prolific, producing over fifty clay - animated segments for the weekly Universal Screen Magazine. By the 1920s, cartoon animation using either cels or the slash system was firmly established as the dominant mode of animation production. Increasingly, three - dimensional forms such as clay were driven into relative obscurity as the cel method became the preferred method for the studio cartoon.
Nevertheless, in 1921, clay animation appeared in a film called "Modeling '', an Out of the Inkwell film from the newly formed Fleischer Brothers studio. "Modeling '' is one of the few known shorts using clay that was released during the 1920s. "Modeling '' included animated clay in eight shots, a novel integration of the technique into an existing cartoon series and one of the rare uses of clay animation in a theatrical short from the 1920s.
Pioneering the clay - painting technique was one - time Vinton animator Joan Gratz, first in her Oscar - nominated film The Creation (1980), and then in her Oscar - winning Mona Lisa Descending a Staircase, filmed in 1992.
In 1972, at Marc Chinoy 's Cineplast Films Studio in Munich, Germany, André Roche created a set of clay - animated German - language - instruction films (for non-German - speaking children) called Kli - Kla - Klawitter for the Second German TV - Channel; and another one for a traffic education series, Herr Daniel paßt auf ("Mr. Daniel Pays Attention '').
A variation of clay animation was developed by another Vinton animator, Craig Bartlett, for his series of Arnold short films (also made in the late - 1980s / early - 1990s), in which he not only used clay painting but sometimes built up clay images that rose off the plane of the flat support platform toward the camera lens to give a more 3 - D stop - motion look to his films.
Some of the best - known clay - animated works include the Gumby series of television show segments (created by Art Clokey), The California Raisins advertising campaign by Will Vinton Productions studio and The WB 's The PJs, produced by and featuring the voice of Eddie Murphy. Clay animation has also been used in Academy Award - winning short films such as "Closed Mondays '' (Will Vinton and Bob Gardiner, 1974), "The Sand Castle '' (1977), Creature Comforts (Aardman Animations, 1989), and all four Wallace and Gromit short films, created by Nick Park of Aardman Animations. Aardman also created The Presentators, a series of one - minute clay - animation / CGI short films aired on Nickelodeon UK. Some clay animations appear online, on such sites as Newgrounds. In addition, many of the Rankin / Bass holiday specials were clay - animated.
Several computer games have also been produced using clay animation, including The Neverhood, Clay Fighter, Platypus, Clay Moon (iPhone app), and Primal Rage. Television commercials have also utilized the clay animation, such as the Chevron Cars ads, produced by Aardman Studios. Besides commercials, clay animation has also been popularized in recent years by children 's shows such as Pingu, Shaun the Sheep and Mio Mao as well as adult - oriented shows on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim lineup, including Robot Chicken (which uses clay animation and action figures as stop - motion puppets in conjunction) and Moral Orel. Many independent young filmmakers have used clay animation features for internet viewing.
Flushed Away is a CGI replication of clay animation.
Probably the most spectacular use of model animation for a computer game was for the Virgin Interactive Entertainment Mythos game Magic and Mayhem (1998), for which stop - motion animator and special - effects expert Alan Friswell constructed over 25 monsters and mythological characters utilising both modelling clay and latex rubber, over wire and ball - and - socket skeletons. Rather than building the models in the cartoon - like style of Wallace and Gromit, Friswell constructed the figures after the designs of Willis O'Brien and Ray Harryhausen to make them more compatible with the game 's often violent playing tactics.
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who said if we do not know our history we are doomed to repeat it | George Santayana - wikipedia
Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás, known in English as George Santayana (/ ˌsæntiˈænə / or / - ˈɑːnə /; December 16, 1863 -- September 26, 1952), was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. Originally from Spain, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States from the age of eight and identified himself as an American, although he always kept a valid Spanish passport. He wrote in English and is generally considered an American man of letters. At the age of forty - eight, Santayana left his position at Harvard and returned to Europe permanently, never to return to the United States. His last wish was to be buried in the Spanish pantheon in Rome.
Santayana is popularly known for aphorisms, such as "Those who can not remember the past are condemned to repeat it '', "Only the dead have seen the end of war '', and the definition of beauty as "pleasure objectified ''. Although an atheist, he always treasured the Spanish Catholic values, practices, and worldview in which he was raised. Santayana was a broad - ranging cultural critic spanning many disciplines.
Born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás on December 16, 1863, in Madrid, he spent his early childhood in Ávila, Spain. His mother, Josefina Borrás, was the daughter of a Spanish official in the Philippines, and Jorge was the only child of her second marriage. She was the widow of George Sturgis, a Boston merchant with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She lived in Boston for a few years following her husband 's death in 1857, but in 1861 moved with her three surviving children to live in Madrid. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her years in the Philippines. They married in 1862. A colonial civil servant, Ruiz de Santayana was also a painter and minor intellectual.
The family lived in Madrid and Ávila until 1869, when Josefina Borrás de Santayana returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, as she had promised her first husband to raise the children in the United States. She left the six - year - old Jorge with his father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her in 1872, but his father, finding neither Boston nor his wife 's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila. He remained there the rest of his life. Jorge did not see him again until he entered Harvard College and took his summer vacations in Spain. Sometime during this period, Jorge 's first name was anglicized as George, the English equivalent.
Santayana attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he studied under the philosophers William James and Josiah Royce and was involved in eleven clubs as an alternative to athletics. He was founder and president of the Philosophical Club, a member of the literary society known as the O.K., an editor and cartoonist for The Harvard Lampoon, and co-founder of the literary journal The Harvard Monthly. In December, 1885, he played the role of Lady Elfrida in the Hasty Pudding theatrical Robin Hood, followed by the production Papillonetta in the spring of his senior year.
After graduating Phi Beta Kappa from Harvard in 1886, Santayana studied for two years in Berlin. He then returned to Harvard to write his dissertation on Hermann Lotze and teach philosophy, becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department. Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including T.S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, and W.E.B. Du Bois. Wallace Stevens was not among his students but became a friend. From 1896 to 1897, Santayana studied at King 's College, Cambridge.
In 1912, Santayana resigned his position at Harvard to spend the rest of his life in Europe. He had saved money and been aided by a legacy from his mother. After some years in Ávila, Paris and Oxford, after 1920, he began to winter in Rome, eventually living there year - round until his death. During his forty years in Europe, he wrote nineteen books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory. In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, The Last Puritan, had become an unexpected best - seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers, including Bertrand Russell, with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically.
Santayana never married. His romantic life, if any, is not well understood. Some evidence, including a comment Santayana made late in life comparing himself to A.E. Housman, and his friendships with people who were openly homosexual and bisexual, has led scholars to speculate that Santayana was perhaps homosexual or bisexual himself, but it remains unclear whether he had any actual heterosexual or homosexual relationships.
Santayana 's main philosophical work consists of The Sense of Beauty (1896), his first book - length monograph and perhaps the first major work on aesthetics written in the United States; The Life of Reason five volumes, 1905 -- 6, the high point of his Harvard career; Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923); and The Realms of Being (4 vols., 1927 -- 40). Although Santayana was not a pragmatist in the mold of William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Josiah Royce, or John Dewey, The Life of Reason arguably is the first extended treatment of pragmatism written.
Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was well - versed in evolutionary theory, Santayana was committed to metaphysical naturalism. He believed that human cognition, cultural practices, and social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment. Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate title to The Life of Reason, "the Phases of Human Progress, '' is indicative of this metaphysical stance.
Santayana was an early adherent of epiphenomenalism, but also admired the classical materialism of Democritus and Lucretius (of the three authors on whom he wrote in Three Philosophical Poets, Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held Spinoza 's writings in high regard, calling him his "master and model. ''
Although an atheist, he held a fairly benign view of religion. Santayana 's views on religion are outlined in his books Reason in Religion, The Idea of Christ in the Gospels, and Interpretations of Poetry and Religion. Santayana described himself as an "aesthetic Catholic. '' He spent the last decade of his life at the Convent of the Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary on the Celian Hill at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome, where he was cared for by the Irish sisters.
Santayana 's one novel, The Last Puritan, is a bildungsroman, centering on the personal growth of its protagonist, Oliver Alden. His Persons and Places is an autobiography. These works also contain many of his sharper opinions and bons mots. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals, the influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor.
While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are far more accessible and pithy. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left an ample correspondence, much of it published only since 2000.
Like Alexis de Tocqueville, Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner 's point of view. Like William James, his friend and mentor, he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Ezra Pound includes Santayana among his many cultural references in The Cantos, notably in "Canto LXXXI '' and "Canto XCV ''. Santayana is usually considered an American writer, although he declined to become an American citizen, resided in fascist Italy for decades, and said that he was most comfortable, intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford University.
Santayana is remembered in large part for his aphorisms, many of which have been so frequently used as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well. He is regarded by most as an excellent prose stylist, and Professor John Lachs (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana 's philosophy) writes, in On Santayana, that his eloquence may ironically be the very cause of this neglect.
Santayana influenced those around him, including Bertrand Russell, whom Santayana single - handedly steered away from the ethics of G.E. Moore. He also influenced many prominent people such as Harvard students T.S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, W.E.B. Du Bois, Conrad Aiken, Van Wyck Brooks, and Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, as well as Max Eastman and the poet Wallace Stevens. Stevens was especially influenced by Santayana 's aesthetics and became a friend even though Stevens did not take courses taught by Santayana.
Santayana is quoted by the Canadian - American sociologist Erving Goffman as a central influence in the thesis of his famous book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959). Religious historian Jerome A. Stone credits Santayana with contributing to the early thinking in the development of religious naturalism. English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead quotes Santayana extensively in his magnum opus Process and Reality.
Chuck Jones used Santayana 's description of fanaticism as "redoubling your effort after you 've forgotten your aim '' to describe his cartoons starring Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner.
Santayana is referenced in the lyrics to singer Billy Joel 's 1989 music single, "We Did n't Start the Fire ''.
Posthumous edited / selected works
The Works of George Santayana
Unmodernized, critical editions of George Santayana 's published and unpublished writing. The Works is edited by the Santayana Edition and published by The MIT Press.
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where do the 9 essential amino acids come from | Essential amino acid - wikipedia
An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that can not be synthesized de novo (from scratch) by the organism, and thus must be supplied in its diet. The nine amino acids humans can not synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine (i.e., FVTWMLIKH).
Six other amino acids are considered conditionally essential in the human diet, meaning their synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine (i.e., RCGQPY). Five amino acids are dispensable in humans, meaning they can be synthesized in sufficient quantities in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine (i.e., ADNES).
(*) Pyrrolysine, sometimes considered the "22nd amino acid '', is not used by humans.
Eukaryotes can synthesize some of the amino acids from other substrates. Consequently, only a subset of the amino acids used in protein synthesis are essential nutrients.
Estimating the daily requirement for the indispensable amino acids has proven to be difficult; these numbers have undergone considerable revision over the last 20 years. The following table lists the WHO and United States recommended daily amounts currently in use for essential amino acids in adult humans, together with their standard one - letter abbreviations.
+ C Cysteine
+ Y Tyrosine
The recommended daily intakes for children aged three years and older is 10 % to 20 % higher than adult levels and those for infants can be as much as 150 % higher in the first year of life. Cysteine (or sulfur - containing amino acids), tyrosine (or aromatic amino acids), and arginine are always required by infants and growing children.
Various attempts have been made to express the "quality '' or "value '' of various kinds of protein. Measures include the biological value, net protein utilization, protein efficiency ratio, protein digestibility - corrected amino acid score and complete proteins concept. These concepts are important in the livestock industry, because the relative lack of one or more of the essential amino acids in animal feeds would have a limiting effect on growth and thus on feed conversion ratio. Thus, various feedstuffs may be fed in combination to increase net protein utilization, or a supplement of an individual amino acid (methionine, lysine, threonine, or tryptophan) can be added to the feed.
Although plants tend to have less protein per weight than animal sources such as eggs or milk, they are nevertheless "complete '' in that, as a whole, they contain all of the amino acids essential in human nutrition. The same is true for algae and marine phytoplankton. Eating various plant foods in combination can provide a protein of higher biological value. Certain native combinations of foods, such as corn and beans, soybeans and rice, or red beans and rice, contain the essential amino acids necessary for humans in adequate amounts.
It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per Calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. For example, while 100 g of raw broccoli only provides 28 cal and 3 g of protein, it has over 100 mg of protein per cal. An egg contains five times as many calories (143 cal) but only four times as much protein, roughly 90 mg of protein per cal. However, a carrot has only 23 mg protein per cal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10 -- 35 % of their calories as protein, or roughly 11 -- 39 mg of protein per cal per day (22 -- 78 g for 2000 cal). The US FDA daily reference value of 50 g protein per 2000 cal is 25 mg / cal per day.
Scientists had known since the early 20th century that rats could not survive on a diet whose only protein source was zein, which comes from maize (corn), but recovered if they were fed casein from cow 's milk. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine. Through manipulation of rodent diets, Rose was able to show that ten amino acids are essential for rats: lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, valine, and arginine, in addition to threonine. Rose 's later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for adult human beings, with histidine also being essential for infants. Longer term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans.
The distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear, as some amino acids can be produced from others. The sulfur - containing amino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized de novo in humans. Likewise, cysteine can be made from homocysteine but can not be synthesized on its own. So, for convenience, sulfur - containing amino acids are sometimes considered a single pool of nutritionally equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Likewise arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the urea cycle, are considered a single group.
If one of the essential amino acids is less than needed for an individual the utilization of other amino acids will be hindered and thus protein synthesis will be less than what it usually is, even in the presence of adequate total nitrogen intake.
Protein deficiency has been shown to affect all of the body 's organs and many of its systems, including the brain and brain function of infants and young children; the immune system, thus elevating risk of infection; gut mucosal function and permeability, which affects absorption and vulnerability to systemic disease; and kidney function. The physical signs of protein deficiency include edema, failure to thrive in infants and children, poor musculature, dull skin, and thin and fragile hair. Biochemical changes reflecting protein deficiency include low serum albumin and low serum transferrin.
The amino acids that are essential in the human diet were established in a series of experiments led by William Cumming Rose. The experiments involved elemental diets to healthy male graduate students. These diets consisted of cornstarch, sucrose, butterfat without protein, corn oil, inorganic salts, the known vitamins, a large brown "candy '' made of liver extract flavored with peppermint oil (to supply any unknown vitamins), and mixtures of highly purified individual amino acids. The main outcome measure was nitrogen balance. Rose noted that the symptoms of nervousness, exhaustion, and dizziness were encountered to a greater or lesser extent whenever human subjects were deprived of an essential amino acid.
Essential amino acid deficiency should be distinguished from protein - energy malnutrition, which can manifest as marasmus or kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor was once attributed to pure protein deficiency in individuals who were consuming enough calories ("sugar baby syndrome ''). However, this theory has been challenged by the finding that there is no difference in the diets of children developing marasmus as opposed to kwashiorkor. Still, for instance in Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) maintained by the USDA, lack of one or more of the essential amino acids is described as protein - energy malnutrition.
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how long do you rent vudu movies for | Vudu - wikipedia
Vudu, Inc. is an American content delivery and media technology company responsible for Vudu - branded interactive media services and devices. Vudu distributes full - length movies over the Internet to televisions in the United States of America. It does this with a content delivery network that uses a hybrid peer - to - peer TV technology. Vudu was acquired by Walmart in March 2010.
Vudu began by only making its own set - top boxes (the Vudu Box and the Vudu XL), but Vudu now primarily markets its software as a smart TV / connected TV platform and video on demand (VoD) distribution service to third - party consumer electronics devices. Vudu is also available via PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iPad, Android TV, Apple TV (4th gen and 4K), TiVo Roamio, and Roku devices (such as Roku 2, Roku 3, Roku 4 and Roku Stick), as well as most smartphones via the Vudu app (Android and iOS) which also supports Chromecast use. As of December 2011, the Vudu app within the downloadable version of the Boxee media player is no longer supported, due to DRM and certification requirements.
Vudu Box requires a home broadband Internet connection to deliver movies. Users are given the option of watching a selected movie now or watching it later. The first couple of seconds of every movie within the catalog are loaded onto the Vudu Box 's hard drive, ensuring instant playback when the user chooses to watch a given film. The remainder of the movie is delivered to the box via an exclusive peer - to - peer network. This process begins instantaneously while the user views the loaded portion of the movie, allowing for seamless viewing. The movie then finishes downloading to the box 's hard drive. Users are able to set the amount of bandwidth the box uses, with settings at 1 Mbit / s (Delayed movies), 2 Mbit / s (Instant standard - definition movies), and 4 Mbit / s (Instant high - definition movies).
In 2012, Vudu began partnering with the movie - industry - backed UltraViolet to offer users a digital locker as well as digital versions to some DVD and Blu - ray purchased in retail stores.
In 2014, Vudu became a participating provider in Disney Movies Anywhere (DMA), Disney 's digital locker service that is separate from Ultraviolet.
Vudu is currently one of only two U.S. streaming providers to be compatible with both UltraViolet and Movies Anywhere, the successor to DMA.
Movies are encoded in MPEG - 4 video and Dolby Digital Plus audio. Vudu offers movies in three formats: standard - definition (480p and 480i), high - definition (1080p and 1080i) and ultra high - definition (2160p) or commonly known as UHD or 4k. Standard - definition movies are up - scaled to higher 1080i / p resolution and high - definition movies can be output at 1080p24. Audio is sourced in Dolby Digital Plus and output in Dolby Digital 5.1, with the option of stereo output. Audio is limited to stereo playback on HTPC / PC / Mac platforms. Users are able to adjust video to display in stretched, boxed, or zoomed format as well as adjusting overscan settings depending on their television format.
As of January 2015, there were over 18,000 movies in the Vudu catalog, and 5,000 television shows. Titles range from major motion pictures, independent films, documentaries, children 's programming, anime, musicals, recorded musical performances, cartoons and television series. Over 13,000 of these titles are available in high - definition, the largest for any service of its kind. Vudu has established content licensing contracts with all major movie studios as well as over 50 smaller and independent studios. Movies are available to rent in standard - definition, high - definition, and HDX format. A rented title can be stored on the Vudu Box for 30 days before being watched. Once a user begins watching a rented title they have 24 hours to finish. After this 24 - hour period, rentals can be extended for a discounted price. The majority of movies and television shows are available for purchase in standard - definition format only. This policy is consistent with studio standards and other digital retailers concerning digital purchases. Movies from FirstLook Studios, Kino, and Magnolia Pictures are available to purchase in high - definition format. On February 25, 2010, to comply with the policies of its parent corporation, Vudu discontinued operating the AVN After Dark channel which provided users with adult movies.
Vudu is capable of downloading and playing movies in HDX format, a format created by Vudu which encodes titles in 1080p HD at 24 frames - per - second. This technology is similar to a movie on a Blu - ray Disc. However, Blu - ray Discs will have better video and audio quality because of their higher bitrates. Vudu utilizes the H. 264 (MPEG - 4 Part 10) encoding process along with proprietary encoding techniques dubbed TruFilm. TruFilm is composed of four main technologies designed to maximize the H. 264 encoding standard:
Vudu Internet applications have been developed using Vudu 's rich Internet application platform that allow users access to online content. Via the Vudu Box, users can access and watch videos, view photos on Flickr and Picasa, and play casual games. Vudu Internet applications also contain access to on - demand television shows, some of which are available in HD. In May 2009, Vudu partnered with Brightcove to bring ad - supported content to the Vudu Box. The first application available from the partnership is the ability to watch Sony music videos through the MyPlay service.
Vudu has apps available on iOS 's App Store and the Google Play Store. Movies can be streamed to the device itself or sent to a second screen via the application 's Chromecast integration.
Vudu allows users to explore the catalog in a multitude of ways. Users are able to search by movie title or actor or director name. Users can also browse through genres and add filters to the results to narrow down their results. Users are able to select a genre or multiple genres together and add a filter such as a critic 's rating, release date, and whether the movie is available for rent or to purchase. The Vudu system also links the directors and casts of movies together, similar to IMDb, allowing a user to see all of an actor or director 's movies available on Vudu.
Vudu was founded by Tony Miranz and Alain Rossmann (the creator of WAP). The Vudu Box had been secretly in development since 2004, but on April 29, 2007, The New York Times revealed that Vudu had signed deals with many movie studios and independent distributors to deliver access to nearly 5,000 films.
As of April 2007, Vudu had received $21 million in venture capital funding from Greylock Partners and Benchmark Capital. The company is based in Santa Clara, California.
In May 2008, Vudu began displaying and selling its set - top box in Best Buy stores. Before this time, the box was only available via online retailers.
On February 24, 2009, Vudu became the first on - demand service to offer high - definition movies for download to own. Prior to Vudu allowing users to purchase high - definition movies, studios only allowed their films to be purchased in standard - definition format. LG was the first to integrate Vudu into its HDTVs, with access beginning in August 2009 though the TV 's NetCast application.
On January 8, 2010, (the second day of Consumer Electronics Show 2010), Vudu announced it was no longer shipping its set top boxes and would provide its service to select HDTVs and Blu - ray players from LG, Magnavox, Mitsubishi, Samsung, Sanyo, Sharp, Toshiba, and Vizio. The company also announced its Vudu Apps platform for delivering internet services including embedding Wikipedia links in its movie descriptions
On February 22, 2010, Walmart announced that it was acquiring the company for a reported $100 million.
Vudu became the official sponsor of the 2017 WWE Royal Rumble pay - per - view event on January 29, 2017.
Following the General Data Protection Regulation in June 2018 the site is no longer accessible from the EU.
The Vudu Box was capable of connecting to standard - definition (SD), enhanced - definition, and high - definition (HD) televisions. The box connected to a television by HDMI, component, S - Video, or composite video cables. An HDMI cable and a composite video and analog stereo cable were included; any other connections must be provided by the user. Audio was provided through HDMI, digital coax, digital optical ports, or stereo analog. The box connected to the Internet through an Ethernet port with the provided Ethernet cable. Wireless was not supported directly from the player but Vudu offered an optional wireless kit for purchase using 802.11 g and 128 - bit WEP security encryption.
There were two USB ports present on the Vudu Box. One can be used to power the wireless kit that the company sells but usage for the other is unknown.
The Vudu Box was separate from both a computer and cable / satellite television system. A user must only provide a broadband Internet connection to use the service. Users do not pay a monthly subscription fee; instead they add a selected amount to an online account which is depleted depending on how many movies the user rents or purchases. Users can purchase and rent movies via the set - top box or through the company 's website.
Movies were stored on the box 's hard drive. The Vudu Box was capable of storing about 50 purchased films in standard - definition format. There was no limit for film rentals. Vudu also allowed for the remote "archiving '' of purchased movies.
Vudu made an XL version of the Vudu Box. The XL featured one terabyte of storage, which can store approximately 500 standard - definition movies. The XL features technology typically used for home automation and is designed for use in home theater systems.
The Vudu remote control features five buttons and is designed to fit in the palm of either hand. Users browse through the menus using a scroll wheel which doubles as a button for making selections. The scroll - wheel is also used to move through movies similar to fast - forward and rewind. The remote also provides a play / pause button, a back button, a more button, and a Vudu button which takes users to the main Vudu screen. The provided Vudu remote uses radio frequency, allowing the user to control the Vudu Box without having to point the remote directly at the box. Using off the shelf external Infrared dongles a Vudu Box can be integrated into a universal IR remote.
Competitors include Apple iTunes, Amazon Video, Hulu, Google Play, Netflix, FandangoNow, Movies Anywhere, Tubi and Sony Crackle.
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what is another name for the large intestines | Large intestine - Wikipedia
The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation.
Most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Some other sources exclude the anal canal.
In humans, the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum, via the ileocecal valve. It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon, and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal. Overall, in humans, the large intestine is about 1.5 metres (5 ft) long, which is about one - fifth of the whole length of the gastrointestinal tract.
The colon is the last part of the digestive system. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora - aided (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.
The length of the adult human male colon is 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm), on average, for females it is 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm).
In mammals, the colon consists of five sections: the cecum plus the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the rectum.
Sections of the colon are:
The parts of the colon are either intraperitoneal or behind it in the retroperitoneum. Retroperitoneal organs in general do not have a complete covering of peritoneum, so they are fixed in location. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile. Of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal. This is important as it affects which organs can be easily accessed during surgery, such as a laparotomy.
The average inner diameter of sections of the colon in centimeters (with ranges in parentheses) are cecum 8.7 (8.0 - 10.5), ascending colon 6.6 (6.0 - 7.0), transverse colon 5.8 (5.0 - 6.5), descending / sigmoid colon 6.3 (6.0 - 6.8) and rectum near rectal / sigmoid junction 5.7 (4.5 - 7.5).
The cecum is the first section of the colon and involved in the digestion, while the appendix which develops embryologically from it, is a structure of the colon, not involved in digestion and considered to be part of the gut - associated lymphoid tissue. The function of the appendix is uncertain, but some sources believe that the appendix has a role in housing a sample of the colon 's microflora, and is able to help to repopulate the colon with bacteria if the microflora has been damaged during the course of an immune reaction. The appendix has also been shown to have a high concentration of lymphatic cells.
The ascending colon is the first of four sections of the large intestine. It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches (20 cm).
One of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the ileocecal valve, it will move into the cecum and then to the ascending colon where this process of extraction starts. The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the action of peristalsis. The ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlach 's valve. In ruminants, the ascending colon is known as the spiral colon. Taking into account all ages and sexes, colon cancer occurs here most often (41 %).
The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the hepatic flexure, also known as the right colic, (the turn of the colon by the liver) to the splenic flexure also known as the left colic, (the turn of the colon by the spleen). The transverse colon hangs off the stomach, attached to it by a large fold of peritoneum called the greater omentum. On the posterior side, the transverse colon is connected to the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery known as the transverse mesocolon.
The transverse colon is encased in peritoneum, and is therefore mobile (unlike the parts of the colon immediately before and after it).
The proximal two - thirds of the transverse colon is perfused by the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), while the latter third is supplied by branches of the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). The "watershed '' area between these two blood supplies, which represents the embryologic division between the midgut and hindgut, is an area sensitive to ischemia.
The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be emptied into the rectum. It is retroperitoneal in two - thirds of humans. In the other third, it has a (usually short) mesentery. The arterial supply comes via the left colic artery. The descending colon is also called the distal gut, as it is further along the gastrointestinal tract than the proximal gut. Gut flora are very dense in this region.
The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before the rectum. The name sigmoid means S - shaped (see sigmoid; cf. sigmoid sinus). The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular, and contract to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.
The sigmoid colon is supplied with blood from several branches (usually between 2 and 6) of the sigmoid arteries, a branch of the IMA. The IMA terminates as the superior rectal artery.
Sigmoidoscopy is a common diagnostic technique used to examine the sigmoid colon.
The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting elimination via defecation.
The cecum -- the first part of the large intestine
The taenia coli run the length of the large intestine. Because the taenia coli are shorter than the large bowel itself, the colon becomes sacculated, forming the haustra of the colon which are the shelf - like intraluminal projections.
Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). Flow between these two systems communicates via a "marginal artery '' that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, it has been believed that the arc of Riolan, or the meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz), is a variable vessel connecting the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA that can be extremely important if either vessel is occluded. However, recent studies conducted with improved imaging technology have questioned the actual existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of the terms from future medical literature.
Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vein draining into the splenic vein, and the superior mesenteric vein joining the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein that then enters the liver.
Lymphatic drainage from the ascending colon and proximal two - thirds of the transverse colon is to the colic lymph nodes and the superior mesenteric lymph nodes, which drain into the cisterna chyli. The lymph from the distal one - third of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper rectum drain into the inferior mesenteric and colic lymph nodes. The lower rectum to the anal canal above the pectinate line drain to the internal iliac nodes. The anal canal below the pectinate line drains into the superficial inguinal nodes. The pectinate line only roughly marks this transition.
One variation on the normal anatomy of the colon occurs when extra loops form, resulting in a colon that is up to five metres longer than normal. This condition, referred to as redundant colon, typically has no direct major health consequences, though rarely volvulus occurs, resulting in obstruction and requiring immediate medical attention. A significant indirect health consequence is that use of a standard adult colonoscope is difficult and in some cases impossible when a redundant colon is present, though specialized variants on the instrument (including the pediatric variant) are useful in overcoming this problem.
The wall of the large intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelium with invaginations. The invaginations are called the intestinal glands or colonic crypts.
The colon crypts are shaped like microscopic thick walled test tubes with a central hole down the length of the tube (the crypt lumen). Four tissue sections are shown here, two cut across the long axes of the crypts and two cut parallel to the long axes. In these images the cells have been stained by immunohistochemistry to show a brown - orange color if the cells produce a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI). The nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue - gray with haematoxylin. As seen in panels C and D, crypts are about 75 to about 110 cells long. Baker et al. found that the average crypt circumference is 23 cells. Thus, by the images shown here, there are an average of about 1,725 to 2530 cells per colonic crypt. Nooteboom et al. measuring the number of cells in a small number of crypts reported a range of 1500 to 4900 cells per colonic crypt. Cells are produced at the crypt base and migrate upward along the crypt axis before being shed into the colonic lumen days later. There are 5 to 6 stem cells at the bases of the crypts.
As estimated from the image in panel A, there are about 100 colonic crypts per square millimeter of the colonic epithelium. Since the average length of the human colon is 160.5 cm and the average inner circumference of the colon is 6.2 cm, the inner surface epithelial area of the human colon has an average area of about 995 sq cm, which includes 9,950,000 (close to 10 million) crypts.
In the four tissue sections shown here, many of the intestinal glands have cells with a mitochondrial DNA mutation in the CCOI gene and appear mostly white, with their main color being the blue - gray staining of the nuclei. As seen in panel B, a portion of the stem cells of three crypts appear to have a mutation in CCOI, so that 40 % to 50 % of the cells arising from those stem cells form a white segment in the cross cut area.
Overall, the percent of crypts deficient for CCOI is less than 1 % before age 40, but then increases linearly with age. Colonic crypts deficient for CCOI in women reaches, on average, 18 % in women and 23 % in men by 80 -- 84 years of age.
Crypts of the colon can reproduce by fission, as seen in panel C, where a crypt is fissioning to form two crypts, and in panel B where at least one crypt appears to be fissioning. Most crypts deficient in CCOI are in clusters of crypts (clones of crypts) with two or more CCOI - deficient crypts adjacent to each other (see panel D).
About 150 of the many thousands of protein coding genes expressed in the large intestine, some are specific to the mucous membrane in different regions and include CEACAM7.
The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), thiamine and riboflavin. It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation. The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl -. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis. Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.
The appendix is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development. The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.
By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90 % of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.
The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment. No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10 % of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet; in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes -- chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).
Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid. Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.
The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet. The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered '' or in other words, the "forgotten organ ''.
The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short - chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.
These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin - deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease - causing bacteria.
Other bacterial products include gas (flatus), which is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the gases hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. Bacterial fermentation of undigested polysaccharides produces these. Some of the fecal odor is due to indoles, metabolized from the amino acid tryptophan. The normal flora is also essential in the development of certain tissues, including the cecum and lymphatics.
They are also involved in the production of cross-reactive antibodies. These are antibodies produced by the immune system against the normal flora, that are also effective against related pathogens, thereby preventing infection or invasion.
The two most prevalent phyla of the colon are firmicutes and bacteroides. The ratio between the two seems to vary widely as reported by the Human Microbiome Project. Bacteroides are implicated in the initiation of colitis and colon cancer. Bifidobacteria are also abundant, and are often described as ' friendly bacteria '.
A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.
Following are the most common diseases or disorders of the colon:
Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large intestine and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. Colonoscopy can remove polyps as small as one millimetre or less. Once polyps are removed, they can be studied with the aid of a microscope to determine if they are precancerous or not. It takes 15 years or less for a polyp to turn cancerous.
Colonoscopy is similar to sigmoidoscopy -- the difference being related to which parts of the colon each can examine. A colonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (1200 -- 1500 mm in length). A sigmoidoscopy allows an examination of the distal portion (about 600 mm) of the colon, which may be sufficient because benefits to cancer survival of colonoscopy have been limited to the detection of lesions in the distal portion of the colon.
A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a full colonoscopy, often done in conjunction with a fecal occult blood test (FOBT). About 5 % of these screened patients are referred to colonoscopy.
Virtual colonoscopy, which uses 2D and 3D imagery reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scans or from nuclear magnetic resonance (MR) scans, is also possible, as a totally non-invasive medical test, although it is not standard and still under investigation regarding its diagnostic abilities. Furthermore, virtual colonoscopy does not allow for therapeutic maneuvers such as polyp / tumour removal or biopsy nor visualization of lesions smaller than 5 millimeters. If a growth or polyp is detected using CT colonography, a standard colonoscopy would still need to be performed. Additionally, surgeons have lately been using the term pouchoscopy to refer to a colonoscopy of the ileo - anal pouch.
The large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon.
In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse colon is typically present only in primates. However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the "rectum '' found in these species.
In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.
Intestines
Colon. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1177 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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what happened when the indian plate collided with the eurasian plate | Indian Plate - wikipedia
The Indian Plate or India Plate is a major tectonic plate straddling the equator in the eastern hemisphere. Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana, India broke away from the other fragments of Gondwana 100 million years ago and began moving north. Once fused with the adjacent Australia to form a single Indo - Australian Plate, recent studies suggest that India and Australia have been separate plates for at least 3 million years and likely longer. The Indian plate includes most of South Asia -- i.e. the Indian subcontinent -- and a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and western Indonesia, and extending up to but not including Ladakh, Kohistan and Balochistan.
Until roughly 140 million years ago, the Indian Plate formed part of the supercontinent Gondwana together with modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and South America. Gondwana broke up as these continents drifted apart at different velocities, a process which led to the opening of the Indian Ocean.
In the late Cretaceous, approximately 100 million years ago and subsequent to the splitting off from Gondwana of conjoined Madagascar and India, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar. It began moving north, at about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) per year, and is believed to have begun colliding with Asia as early as 55 million years ago, in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic. However, some authors suggest that the collision between India and Eurasia occurred much later, around 35 million years ago. If the collision occurred between 55 and 50 Mya, the Indian Plate would have covered a distance of 3,000 to 2,000 kilometres (1,900 to 1,200 mi), moving faster than any other known plate. In 2012, paleomagnetic data from the Greater Himalaya was used to propose two collisions to reconcile the discrepancy between the amount of crustal shortening in the Himalaya (~ 1300 km) and the amount of convergence between India and Asia (~ 3600 km). These authors propose a continental fragment of northern Gondwana rifted from India, traveled northward, and initiated the "soft collision '' between the Greater Himalaya and Asia at ~ 50 Ma. This was followed by the "hard collision '' between India and Asia occurred at ~ 25 Ma. Subduction of the resulting ocean basin that formed between the Greater Himalayan fragment and India explains the apparent discrepancy between the crustal shortening estimates in the Himalaya and paleomagnetic data from India and Asia.
In 2007, German geologists suggested that the reason the Indian Plate moved so quickly is that it is only half as thick (100 kilometres or 62 miles) as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwana. The mantle plume that once broke up Gondwana might also have melted the lower part of the Indian subcontinent, which allowed it to move both faster and further than the other parts. The remains of this plume today form the Marion Hotspot (Prince Edward Islands), the Kerguelen hotspot, and the Réunion hotspots. As India moved north, it is possible that the thickness of the Indian plate degenerated further as it passed over the hotspots and magmatic extrusions associated with the Deccan and Rajmahal Traps. The massive amounts of volcanic gases released during the passage of the Indian Plate over the hotspots have been theorised to have played a role in the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, generally held to be due to a large asteroid impact.
The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the boundary between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya Mountains, as sediment bunched up like earth before a plow.
The Indian Plate is currently moving north - east at 5 centimetres (2.0 in) per year, while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 centimetres (0.79 in) per year. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 millimetres (0.16 in) per year.
The westerly side of the Indian Plate is a transform boundary with the Arabian Plate called the Owen Fracture Zone, and a divergent boundary with the African Plate called the Central Indian Ridge (CIR). The northerly side of the Plate is a convergent boundary with the Eurasian Plate forming the Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains.
Coordinates: 34 ° 25 ′ 55 '' N 73 ° 32 ′ 13 '' E / 34.43194 ° N 73.53694 ° E / 34.43194; 73.53694
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what episode of victorious is the song finally falling in | List of songs in Victorious - wikipedia
The following is a list of songs featured in the television series Victorious.
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who is the shortest player to ever play in the mlb | Eddie Gaedel - wikipedia
Edward Carl Gaedel (June 8, 1925 -- June 18, 1961) was an American with dwarfism who became famous for participating in a Major League Baseball game.
Gaedel (some sources say the family name may actually have been Gaedele) gained recognition in the second game of a St. Louis Browns doubleheader on August 19, 1951. Weighing 65 pounds (29 kg) and standing 3 feet 7 inches (1.09 m) tall, he became the shortest player in the history of the Major Leagues. Gaedel made a single plate appearance and was walked with four consecutive balls before being replaced by a pinch - runner at first base. His jersey, bearing the uniform number "⁄ '', is displayed in the St. Louis Cardinals Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.
St. Louis Browns owner Bill Veeck, in his 1962 autobiography Veeck -- As in Wreck, said of Gaedel, "He was, by golly, the best darn midget who ever played big - league ball. He was also the only one. ''
Due to his size, Gaedel had worked as a riveter during World War II, and was able to crawl inside the wings of airplanes. He was a professional performer, belonging to the American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA). After the war, Gaedel was hired in 1946 by Mercury Records as a mascot to portray the "Mercury Man. '' He sported a winged hat similar to the record label 's logo, to promote Mercury recordings. Some early Mercury recordings featured a caricature of him as its logo.
Browns ' owner Bill Veeck, a showman who enjoyed staging publicity stunts, found Gaedel through a booking agency. Secretly signed by the Browns, he was added to the team roster and put in uniform (with the number "1 / 8 '' on the back). The uniform was that of current St. Louis Cardinals managing partner and chairman William DeWitt, Jr. who was a 9 - year - old batboy for the Browns at the time.
Gaedel came out of a papier - mache cake between games of a doubleheader at Sportsman 's Park in St. Louis to celebrate the American League 's 50th anniversary. The stunt was also billed as a Falstaff Brewery promotion. Falstaff, and the fans, had been promised a "festival of surprises '' by Veeck. Before the second game got underway, the press agreed that the "midget - in - a-cake '' appearance had not been up to Veeck 's usual promotional standard. Falstaff personnel, who had been promised national publicity for their participation, were particularly dissatisfied. Keeping the surprise he had in store for the second game to himself, Veeck just meekly apologized.
Although Veeck denied the stunt was directly inspired by it, the appearance of Gaedel was unmistakably similar to the plot of "You Could Look It Up, '' a 1941 short story by James Thurber. Veeck later insisted he got the idea from listening to the conversations of Giants manager John McGraw decades earlier when Veeck was a child.
Gaedel entered the second half of the doubleheader between the Browns and Detroit Tigers in the bottom of the first inning as a pinch - hitter for leadoff batter Frank Saucier. Immediately, umpire Ed Hurley called for Browns manager Zack Taylor. Veeck and Taylor had the foresight to have a copy of Gaedel 's contract on hand, as well as a copy of the Browns ' active roster, which had room for Gaedel 's addition.
The contract had been filed late in the day on Friday, August 17. Veeck knew the league office would summarily approve the contract upon receipt, and that it would not be scrutinized until Monday, August 20. Upon reading the contract, Hurley motioned for Gaedel to take his place in the batter 's box. (As a result of Gaedel 's appearance, all contracts must now be approved by the Commissioner of Baseball before a player can appear in a game.) The change to that day 's St. Louis Browns scorecard, listing Gaedel and his uniform number, had gone unnoticed by everyone except Harry Mitauer, a writer for the St. Louis Globe - Democrat. The Browns ' publicity man shunted Mitauer 's inquiry aside.
Gaedel was under strict orders not to attempt to move the bat off his shoulder. When Veeck got the impression that Gaedel might be tempted to swing at a pitch, the owner warned Gaedel that he had taken out a $1 million insurance policy on his life, and that he would be standing on the roof of the stadium with a rifle prepared to kill Gaedel if he even looked like he was going to swing. Veeck had carefully trained Gaedel to assume a tight crouch at the plate; he had measured Gaedel 's strike zone in that stance and claimed it was just one and a half inches high. However, when Gaedel came to the plate, he abandoned the crouch he had been taught for a pose that Veeck described as "a fair approximation of Joe DiMaggio 's classic style, '' leading Veeck to fear he was going to swing. (In the Thurber story, the player with dwarfism can not resist swinging at a 3 - 0 pitch, grounds out, and the team loses the game).
With Bob Cain on the mound - laughing at the absurdity that he actually had to pitch to Gaedel - and catcher Bob Swift catching on his knees, Gaedel took his stance. The Tigers catcher offered his pitcher a piece of strategy: "Keep it low. '' Cain delivered four consecutive balls, all high (the first two pitches were legitimate attempts at strikes; the last two were half - speed tosses). Gaedel took his base (stopping twice during his trot to bow to the crowd) and was replaced by pinch - runner Jim Delsing. The 18,369 fans gave Gaedel a standing ovation.
Veeck had hoped that Delsing would go on to score in a one - run Browns victory, but he ended up stranded at third base and the Tigers went on to win the game 6 -- 2. American League president Will Harridge, saying Veeck was making a mockery of the game, voided Gaedel 's contract the next day. In response, Veeck threatened to request an official ruling on whether Yankees shortstop and reigning MVP Phil Rizzuto was a short ballplayer or a tall dwarf.
Initially, Major League Baseball struck Gaedel from its record book, as if he had not been in the game. He was relisted a year later, as a right - handed batter and left - handed thrower (although he did not play the field). Eddie Gaedel finished his major league career with an on - base percentage of 1.000. His total earnings as a pro athlete were $100, the scale price for an AGVA appearance. However, he was able to parlay his baseball fame into more than $17,000 by appearing on several television shows.
Gaedel 's major league career lasted just the one plate appearance, but Veeck continued to employ Gaedel in non-playing promotions over the years: in 1959, Gaedel and three other dwarfs dressed as spacemen were seen presenting "ray guns '' to White Sox players Nellie Fox and Luis Aparicio at Comiskey Park. (Gaedel reportedly said, "I do n't want to be taken to your leader. I 've already met him. '') In 1961, Veeck (who by that time had become owner of the White Sox) hired several dwarfs and midgets, including Gaedel, as vendors, so as not to "block the fans ' view '' of the game.
On June 18, 1961, the unemployed Gaedel, who had just turned 36, was at a bowling alley in Chicago, his birthplace and hometown. Gaedel was followed home and beaten. His mother discovered Eddie lying dead in his bed. He had bruises about his knees and on the left side of his face. A coroner 's inquest determined that he also had suffered a heart attack. Bob Cain, who 'd pitched to Gaedel, was the only Major League Baseball figure to attend the funeral. Gaedel was interred at Saint Mary Catholic Cemetery and Mausoleum in Cook County, Illinois (plot: section G, gravestone number X-363B).
Gaedel is one of only five Major League players who drew a walk in their only plate appearance and never played the field. The first three all played in the 1910s: Dutch Schirick (Sep 17, 1914 with the Browns), Bill Batsch (Sep 9, 1916 with Pittsburgh) and Joe Cobb (April 25, 1918 with Detroit; although recent research shows that Cobb may have actually struck out in his only plate appearance). On June 24, 2007, Kevin Melillo of the Oakland Athletics, became the first player in over half a century to walk in his only plate appearance without taking the field, against the New York Mets. Other than Gaedel, the other four players pinch - hit for pitchers; all five appeared in games their teams ultimately lost.
Gaedel 's one - day career has been the subject of programs on ESPN and the Baseball Network. He was mentioned by name in the lyrics of Terry Cashman 's homage to 1950s baseball, "Talkin ' Baseball (Willie, Mickey, and the Duke). '' His at - bat was the No. 1 choice on a 1999 list of "Unusual and Unforgettable Moments '' in baseball history published by the Sporting News.
In 1994, Veeck 's son Mike Veeck owned the minor league St. Paul Saints team. He brought the then 69 - year - old Bob Cain to the park to "reenact '' the at - bat, by pitching to the 10 - year - old son of the Saints manager.
Due to its scarcity, Gaedel 's autograph now sells for more than Babe Ruth 's.
The song "St Louis Browns '' by Skip Battin erroneously adds 16 inches to his height, saying, "he stood about 4 - foot - 11 ''.
Gaedel 's grandnephew Kyle Gaedele is also a ballplayer, drafted in the 32nd round by the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 out of high school. The 6 - foot - 4 Gaedele chose instead to attend Valparaiso University; after hitting. 373 as a sophomore in 2010, he was invited to play for the Madison Mallards of the summer collegiate Northwoods League. Kyle led the Mallards in home runs (9) and RBI (38) and went 3 - for - 4 in the league 's All - Star Game. In the June 2011 MLB Draft, the San Diego Padres picked up Gaedele in the sixth round and assigned him to the Eugene Emeralds of the Northwest League. Despite a. 203 average in 63 games, the Padres promoted Kyle to the Fort Wayne TinCaps of the Midwest League in 2012, where he hit. 258, with 53 walks and 23 stolen bases. In 2013, Gaedele played for the Advanced - A Lake Elsinore Storm, three steps below the majors, and batted. 256 with thirteen home runs.
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who made the movie charlie and the chocolate factory | Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film) - wikipedia
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 musical fantasy comedy film directed by Tim Burton and written by John August, based on the 1964 British novel of the same name by Roald Dahl. The film stars Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka and Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket. The storyline follows Charlie, who wins a contest and is along with four other contest winners, subsequently led by Wonka on a tour of his chocolate factory, the most magnificent in the world.
Development for another adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory in 1971) began in 1991, which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control. Prior to Burton 's involvement, directors such as Gary Ross, Rob Minkoff, Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved, while actors Bill Murray, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Adam Sandler, and many others, were either in discussion with or considered by the studio to play Wonka.
Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Depp and Danny Elfman aboard. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas that Elfman contributed to a film score using written songs and his vocals. Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to positive critical reception and was a box office success, grossing $475 million worldwide.
Charlie Bucket (Freddie Highmore) is a kind and loving boy living in poverty with his parents (Noah Taylor and Helena Bonham Carter) and four bedridden grandparents. They all rely on his father for income, employed at a toothpaste factory, responsible for putting the caps on the tubes. However, Mr. Bucket eventually loses his job because the factory replaced him with a machine that puts the caps on the tubes. Down the street is Willy Wonka 's (Johnny Depp) chocolate factory, which reopened after industrial espionage forced him into seclusion and sacking his employees. Charlie 's Grandpa Joe (David Kelly) worked for Wonka before the termination.
Wonka announces a contest whereby children that find Golden Tickets hidden in five Wonka bars will be given a tour of the factory and a lifetime supply of chocolate, and one a chance to be presented with an unknown grand prize. Four tickets are quickly found: the greedy and gluttonous Augustus Gloop (Philip Wiegratz) from Düsseldorf; the spoiled and rotten Veruca Salt (Julia Winter) from Buckinghamshire; the competitive and boastful Violet Beauregarde (AnnaSophia Robb) from Atlanta; and the arrogant and aggressive Mike Teavee (Jordan Fry) from Denver. Charlie hopes to find a ticket but his chances are small as money is tight, and the best has to be made of his annual birthday present of one Wonka bar and a bar bought by Grandpa Joe 's money, both of which yield no tickets. All hope is seemingly crushed when the last ticket is apparently claimed in Russia. Charlie, on finding some money in the street, just intends to enjoy one chocolate bar when news breaks that the Russian ticket was fake. To Charlie 's surprise, he finds the bar he just bought has the real last Golden Ticket. Bystanders attempt to separate him from it, only for the shopkeeper (Oscar James) to see that he keeps the ticket and gets back home with it.
When Grandpa Joe sees the ticket, he jumps out of bed and dances with joy. He offers to accompany Charlie on the tour, but Charlie explains how he was offered money for the ticket and intends to sell it. Grandpa George (David Morris) reminds Charlie that money is far more common than the tickets, and convinces Charlie to keep it. Upon meeting him on the day of the tour, the visitors find Wonka to be peculiar, lonely and acting odd at the mention of "parents ''. The tour shows how the fantastical factory operates under the efforts of the short humans called Oompa - Loompas. The other four children succumb to temptation, and end up being caught in the factory workings and have to be safely recovered by the Oompa - Loompas, albeit in worse shape than at the start of the tour: Augustus falls into a river of chocolate and is sucked up by a pipe before being rescued from the fudge processing center; Violet expands into an oversized blueberry when she tries an experimental piece of chewing gum despite Wonka 's warning; Veruca is thrown away as a "bad nut '' by trained squirrels down the garbage chute; and Mike is shrunk down to a few inches in height after being the first person transported by Wonka 's new television advertising invention. During the tour, Wonka has flashbacks from his childhood where he remembers that he had a troubled relationship with his father, Wilbur. Due to his father being a dentist he was forbidden from candy consumption, but after managing to sneak a taste, he became hooked and later ran away from home to live his dream. He then returned several days later to find his father and home completely gone.
When the other children leave the factory, Augustus is covered in chocolate, Violet is still blue all over but no longer a blueberry and much more flexible, Veruca and her father are covered in garbage, and Mike is taller than his father and thin as paper after being stretched with the "taffy puller ''.
Upon arriving home in the Great Glass Elevator, Charlie is congratulated as the only remaining child and the winner of the grand prize: Wonka 's heir to the factory. Unfortunately, Wonka stipulates that Charlie 's family has to stay behind; therefore, to Wonka 's dismay, Charlie rejects the offer. Wonka then sadly flies back to the factory in his great glass elevator, leaving a hole in the roof.
Some days later, Wonka 's candies are selling poorly, and he comes to associate his unhappiness with the financial state of his company, so he makes an effort to find Charlie. After discovering Wonka ` s troubled relationship, Charlie helps him locate his father. When they visit, it appears that despite his strict avoidance of candy, the dentist has followed Willy 's success and they reconcile. Wonka allows Charlie 's family to move into the factory while he and Charlie plan new product lines to produce.
Author Roald Dahl disapproved of the 1971 film adaptation and declined the film rights to produce the sequel, Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. Warner Bros. and Brillstein - Grey Entertainment entered discussions with the Dahl estate in 1991, hoping to purchase the rights to produce another film version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The purchase was finalized in 1998, with Dahl 's widow, Felicity ("Liccy ''), and daughter, Lucy, receiving total artistic control and final privilege on the choices of actors, directors and writers. The Dahl Estate 's subsequent protection of the source material was the main reason that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had languished in development hell since the 1990s.
Scott Frank was hired to write the screenplay in February 1999, after approaching Warner Bros. for the job. Frank, a recent Oscar nominee for the R - rated crime film Out of Sight, wanted to work on a film that his children could enjoy. As an enthusiastic fan of the book, he intended to remain more truthful to Dahl 's vision than the 1971 film had been. Nicolas Cage was under discussions for Willy Wonka, but lost interest. Gary Ross signed to direct in February 2000, which resulted in Frank completing two drafts of the screenplay, before leaving with Ross in September 2001. Both Warner Bros. and the Dahl Estate wanted Frank to stay on the project, but he faced scheduling conflicts and contractual obligations with Minority Report (2002) and The Lookout (2007).
Rob Minkoff entered negotiations to take the director 's position in October 2001, and Gwyn Lurie was hired to start from scratch on a new script in February 2002. Lurie said she would adapt the original book and ignore the 1971 film adaptation. Dahl 's estate championed Lurie after being impressed with her work on another Dahl adaptation, a live - action adaptation of The BFG, for Paramount Pictures, which was never made (Paramount distributed the earlier 1971 film version of Charlie, and later sold the rights to WB). In April 2002, Martin Scorsese was involved with the film, albeit briefly, but opted to direct The Aviator instead. Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn wanted Tom Shadyac to direct Jim Carrey as Willy Wonka, believing the duo could make Charlie and the Chocolate Factory relevant to mainstream audiences, but Liccy Dahl opposed this.
After receiving enthusiastic approval from the Dahl Estate, Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct in May 2003. Burton compared the project 's languishing development to Batman (1989), which he directed, in how there had been varied creative efforts with both films. He said, "Scott Frank 's version was the best, probably the clearest, and the most interesting, but they had abandoned that. '' Liccy Dahl commented that Burton was the first and only director the estate was happy with. He had previously produced another of the author 's adaptations with James and the Giant Peach (1996), and, like Roald and Liccy, disliked the 1971 film because it strayed from the book 's storyline.
During pre-production Burton visited Dahl 's former home in the Buckinghamshire village of Great Missenden. Liccy Dahl remembers Burton entering Dahl 's famed writing shed and saying, "This is the Buckets ' house! '' and thinking to herself, "Thank God, somebody gets it. '' Liccy also showed Burton the original handwritten manuscripts, which Burton discovered were more politically incorrect than the published book. The manuscripts included a child named Herpes, after the sexually transmitted disease. Burton immediately thought of Johnny Depp for the role of Willy Wonka, who in August 2003 joined the film, his fourth collaboration with the director.
Lurie 's script received a rewrite by Pamela Pettler, who worked with Burton on Corpse Bride, but the director hired Big Fish screenwriter John August in December 2003 to start from scratch. Both August and Burton were fans of the book since their childhoods. August first read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory when he was eight years old, and subsequently sent Dahl a fan letter. He did not see the 1971 film prior to his hiring, which Burton believed would be fundamental in having August stay closer to the book. The writer updated the Mike Teavee character into an obsessive video game player, as compared to the novel, in which he fantasized about violent crime films. The characters Arthur Slugworth and Prodnose were reduced to brief cameo appearances, while Mr. Beauregarde was entirely omitted.
Burton and August also worked together in creating Wilbur Wonka, Willy 's domineering dentist father. Burton thought the paternal character would help explain Willy Wonka himself and that otherwise he would be "just a weird guy ''. The element of an estranged father - son relationship had previously appeared in Big Fish, similarly directed by Burton and written by August. Warner Bros. and the director held differences over the characterizations of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka. The studio wanted to entirely delete Mr. Bucket and make Willy Wonka the idyllic father figure Charlie had longed for his entire life. Burton believed that Wonka would not be a good father, finding the character similar to a recluse. Burton said, "In some ways, he 's more screwed up than the kids. '' Warner Bros. also wanted Charlie to be a whiz kid, but Burton resisted the characterization. He wanted Charlie to be an average child who would be in the background and not get in trouble.
Prior to Burton 's involvement, Warner Bros. considered or discussed Willy Wonka with Bill Murray, Christopher Walken, Steve Martin, Robin Williams, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Robert De Niro, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Mike Myers, Ben Stiller, Leslie Nielsen, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Michael Palin, Patrick Stewart, and Adam Sandler. Dustin Hoffman and Marilyn Manson reportedly wanted the role as well. Pitt 's production company, Plan B Entertainment, however, stayed on to co-finance the film with Warner Bros. Coincidentally, Cleese, Idle and Palin (as well as the other three Monty Python members) had all previously expressed interest in playing Wonka in the 1971 film adaptation. Johnny Depp was the only actor Burton considered for the role, although Dwayne Johnson was Burton 's second choice in case Depp was unavailable. Depp signed on without reading the script under the intention of going with a completely different approach than what Gene Wilder did in the 1971 film adaptation. Depp said regardless of the original film, Gene Wilder 's characterization of Willy Wonka stood out as a unique portrayal.
Depp and Burton derived their Willy Wonka from children 's television show hosts such as Bob Keeshan (Captain Kangaroo), Fred Rogers, and Al Lewis from The Uncle Al Show, and Depp also took inspiration from various game show hosts. Burton recalled from his childhood that the characters were bizarre but left lasting impressions. He said, "It was kind of a strange amalgamation of these weird children 's TV show hosts. '' Depp based Wonka 's look (over-exaggerated bob cut and sunglasses) on Vogue magazine editor Anna Wintour.
Comparisons were drawn between Willy Wonka and Michael Jackson. Burton disagreed with the comparisons and said Jackson, unlike Wonka, liked children. Depp said the similarities with Jackson never occurred to him. Instead, he compared Wonka to Howard Hughes due to his "reclusive, germaphobe, controlling '' nature. Burton agreed with the similarity to Hughes. He also cited Charles Foster Kane from Citizen Kane as an inspiration for Wonka, as Kane is "somebody who was brilliant but then was traumatized and then retreats into their own world ''. Depp wanted to sport prosthetic makeup for the part and have a long, elongated nose, but Burton believed it would be too outrageous. During production, Gene Wilder, in an interview with The Daily Telegraph, accused the filmmakers of only remaking the 1971 film for the purpose of money. Depp said he was disappointed by Wilder 's comment, and responded that the film was not a remake, but a new adaptation of Dahl 's 1964 book.
The casting calls for Charlie Bucket, Violet Beauregarde, Veruca Salt, and Mike Teavee took place in the United States and United Kingdom, while Augustus Gloop 's casting took place in Germany. Burton said he sought actors "who had something of the character in them '', and found Mike Teavee the hardest character to cast. Burton was finding trouble casting Charlie, until Depp, who had worked with Freddie Highmore on Finding Neverland, suggested Highmore for the part. Highmore had already read the book before, but decided to read it once more prior to auditioning. The actor did not see the original film adaptation, and chose not to see it until after Burton 's production, so his portrayal would not be influenced.
Before Adam Godley was officially cast as Mr. Teavee, Dan Castellaneta, Tim Allen, Ed O'Neill, Bob Saget, and Ray Romano were all considered for the role.
It has been rumored that Gregory Peck was considered for the role of Grandpa Joe. Other actors that were considered for Grandpa Joe included Richard Attenborough, Kirk Douglas, Albert Finney, Anthony Hopkins, Paul Newman, Max von Sydow, David Warner, Christopher Lloyd and Peter Ustinov.
Principal photography for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory started on June 21, 2004 at Pinewood Studios in England. Director Tim Burton and composer Danny Elfman found filming somewhat difficult because they were simultaneously working on Corpse Bride. The Wonka Factory exterior was coincidentally constructed on the same backlot Burton had used for Gotham City in Batman (1989). The ceremonial scene required 500 local extras. The Chocolate Room / River setpiece filled Pinewood 's 007 Stage. As a consequence of British Equity rules, which state that children can only work four and a half hours a day, filming for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory took six months, ending in December 2004.
The architecture of the Bucket family home was influenced by Burton 's visit to Roald Dahl 's writing hut. Like the book, the film has a "timeless '' setting and is not set in a specific country. "We 've tried not to pinpoint it to any place, '' production designer Alex McDowell explained. "The cars, in fact, drive down the middle of the road. '' The town, whose design was shaped by the black and white urban photography of Bill Brandt, as well as Pittsburgh and Northern England, is arranged like a medieval village, with Wonka 's estate on top and the Bucket shack below. The filmmakers also used fascist architecture for Wonka 's factory exterior, and designed most of the sets on 360 ° sound stages, similar to cycloramas. Burton biographer Mark Salisbury wrote that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory "melds 1950s and ' 70s visuals with a futuristic sensibility that seems straight out of a 1960s sense of the future. '' The "TV Room '' was patterned after photographs from the films 2001: A Space Odyssey, Danger: Diabolik, and THX 1138. Danger Diabolik also served as inspiration for the Nut Room and Inventing Room.
Tim Burton avoided using too many digital effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment. As a result, forced perspective techniques, oversized props and scale models were used to avoid computer - generated imagery (CGI). Deep Roy was cast to play the Oompa - Loompas based on his previous collaborations with Burton on Planet of the Apes and Big Fish. The actor was able to play various Oompa - Loompas using split screen photography, digital and front projection effects. "Tim told me that the Oompa - Loompas were strictly programmed, like robots -- all they do is work, work, work, '' Roy commented. "So when it comes time to dance, they 're like a regiment; they do the same steps. ''
A practical method was considered for the scene in which Violet Beauregarde turns blue and swells up into a giant 10 - foot blueberry. A suit with an air hose was considered at one point for the beginnings of the swelling scene, before the decision was made to do the entire transformation in CGI. The visual effects house Cinesite was recruited for this assignment. In some shots of AnnaSophia Robb 's head, a facial prosthetic was worn to give the impression that her cheeks had swelled up as well. Because this decision was made late in the film 's production, any traces of Violet 's blueberry scene were omitted from trailers or promotional material.
Rather than rely on CGI, Burton wanted the 40 squirrels in the Nut Room to be real. The animals were trained every day for 10 weeks before filming commenced. They began their coaching while newborns, fed by bottles to form relationships with human trainers. The squirrels were each taught how to sit upon a little blue bar stool, tap and then open a walnut, and deposit its meat onto a conveyor belt. "Ultimately, the scene was supplemented by CGI and animatronics, '' Burton said, "but for the close - ups and the main action, they 're the real thing. '' Wonka 's Viking boat for the Chocolate River sequence floats down a realistic river filled with 192,000 gallons of faux melted chocolate. "Having seen the first film, we wanted to make the chocolate river look edible, '' McDowell said. "In the first film, it 's so distasteful. '' The production first considered a CGI river, but Burton was impressed with the artificial substance when he saw how it clung to the boat 's oars. Nine shades of chocolate were tested before Burton settled on the proper hue.
The original music score was written by Danny Elfman, a frequent collaborator with director Tim Burton. Elfman 's score is based around three primary themes: a gentle family theme for the Buckets, generally set in upper woodwinds; a mystical, string - driven waltz for Willy Wonka; and a hyper - upbeat factory theme for full orchestra, Elfman 's homemade synthesizer samples and the diminutive chanting voices of the Oompa - Loompas.
Elfman also wrote and performed the vocals for four songs, with pitch changes and modulations to represent different singers. The lyrics to the Oompa - Loompa songs are adapted from the original book, and are thus credited to Roald Dahl. Following Burton 's suggestion, each song in the score is designed to reflect a different archetype. "Wonka 's Welcome Song '' is a maddeningly cheerful theme park ditty, "Augustus Gloop '' a Bollywood spectacle (per Deep Roy 's suggestion), "Violet Beauregarde '' is 1970s funk, "Veruca Salt '' is 1960s bubblegum pop / psychedelic pop, and "Mike Teavee '' is a tribute to late 1970s hard rock (such as Queen) and early 1980s hair bands.
The original motion picture soundtrack was released on July 12, 2005 by Warner Bros. Records.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had its premiere at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, on July 10, 2005, where money for the Make - a-Wish Foundation was raised. The film was released in the United States on July 15, 2005 in 3,770 theaters (including IMAX theaters).
Early in the development of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in February 2000, Warner Bros. announced their intention of marketing the film with a Broadway theatre musical after release. The studio reiterated their interest in May 2003, however, the idea was postponed by the time filming began in June 2004. The main tie - in for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory focused on The Willy Wonka Candy Company, a division of Nestlé. A small range of Wonka Bars were launched, utilizing their prominence in the film. The release of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory also rekindled public interest in Roald Dahl 's 1964 book, and appeared on the New York Times Best Seller list from July 3 to October 23, 2005.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory earned $56,178,450 in its opening weekend, the fifth - highest opening weekend gross for 2005, and stayed at # 1 for two weeks. The film eventually grossed $206,459,076 in US totals and $268,509,687 in foreign countries, coming to a worldwide total of $474,968,763. It was the fifty - eighth highest - grossing film of all time when released, as well as seventh - highest for the US and eighth - highest worldwide for the year of 2005.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 83 % based on 222 reviews, with an average rating 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Closer to the source material than 1971 's Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is for people who like their Chocolate visually appealing and dark. '' On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, writing "Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka may be a stone freak, but he is also one of Burton 's classic crackpot conjurers, like Beetlejuice or Ed Wood. '' Roger Ebert gave an overall positive review and enjoyed the film. He was primarily impressed by Tim Burton 's direction of the younger cast members, but was disappointed with Depp 's performance: "What was Depp thinking of? In Pirates of the Caribbean he was famously channeling Keith Richards, which may have primed us to look for possible inspirations for this performance. '' Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle found Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Burton 's "best work in years. If all the laughs come from Depp, who gives Willy the mannerisms of a classic Hollywood diva, the film 's heart comes from Highmore, a gifted young performer whose performance is sincere, deep and unforced in a way that 's rare in a child actor. '' Peter Travers wrote in Rolling Stone magazine that "Depp 's deliciously demented take on Willy Wonka demands to be seen. Depp goes deeper to find the bruises on Wonka 's secret heart than what Gene Wilder did. Depp and Burton may fly too high on the vapors of pure imagination, but it 's hard to not get hooked on something this tasty. And how about that army of Oompa - Loompas, all played by Deep Roy, in musical numbers that appear to have been choreographed by Busby Berkeley on crack. ''
Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post criticized Depp 's acting. "The cumulative effect is n't pretty. Nor is it kooky, funny, eccentric or even mildly interesting. Indeed, throughout his fey, simpering performance, Depp seems to be straining so hard for weirdness that the entire enterprise begins to feel like those excruciating occasions when your parents tried to be hip. Aside from Burton 's usual eye - popping direction, the film 's strenuous efforts at becoming a camp classic eventually begin to wear thin. ''
In 2007, Gene Wilder said he chose not to see the film. "The thing that put me off... I like Johnny Depp, I like him, as an actor I like him very much... but when I saw little pieces in the promotion of what he was doing, I said I do n't want to see the film, because I do n't want to be disappointed in him. '' In 2013, when Wilder was asked about the Burton remake, he said "I think it 's an insult. It 's probably Warner Bros. ' insult. '' He also criticized the choices that Burton made as a director, saying "I do n't care for that director. He 's a talented man, but I do n't care for him doing stuff like he did. ''
Costume designer Gabriella Pescucci received an Academy Award nomination, but lost to Colleen Atwood for Memoirs of a Geisha. Johnny Depp lost the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy to Joaquin Phoenix in Walk the Line. More nominations followed from the British Academy Film Awards for Visual Effects, Costume Design (Pescucci), Makeup & Hair (Peter Owen and Ivana Primorac) and Production Design (Alex McDowell). Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, as well as Performance by a Younger Actor (Freddie Highmore), Music (Danny Elfman) and Costume (Pescucci). Elfman and screenwriter John August were nominated for a Grammy Award with "Wonka 's Welcome Song ''.
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how many times has alec baldwin hosted saturday night live | List of Saturday Night Live guests - wikipedia
Saturday Night Live (abbreviated as SNL) is a late - night sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels. It premiered on NBC, a terrestrial television network, on October 11, 1975 under the title NBC 's Saturday Night. The show often satirizes contemporary American popular culture and politics. Saturday Night Live features a two - tiered cast: the repertory members, also known as the "Not Ready for Prime - Time Players '', and newer cast members, known as "Featured Players. ''
A typical episode of SNL will feature a single host, who delivers the opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast. While the format also features a musical guest, and a number of episodes have featured celebrity cameos, the focus of this article is the guest host.
George Carlin was first to host the show; Candice Bergen was the first woman to host the show a few weeks later and again hosted only six weeks after that. Guests that host five times (or more) are members of the Five - Timers Club (see below) -- a term that originated on December 8, 1990, when Tom Hanks became the seventh person to host their fifth episode. Every so often, a host will also be the musical guest, such as first seen with Paul Simon on October 18, 1975, and, most recently, Donald Glover in 2018.
Saturday Night Live has featured a wide array of hosts and musical guests. George Carlin served as the show 's first host in October 1975; three episodes later, Candice Bergen became the first female host and the first to host more than once. Actor Alec Baldwin holds the record for most times hosting, having performed the duty on seventeen different occasions since 1990; Baldwin took the record from actor Steve Martin who has hosted fifteen times since 1976.
Several former cast members have returned to take on hosting duties. Original cast member Chevy Chase has hosted the most times, eight in total. Bill Murray and Tina Fey follow behind, having hosted five times. On December 11, 1982, Eddie Murphy became the only person to host while still a member of the cast, filling the role at the last minute when the scheduled host (his 48 Hours co-star Nick Nolte) became ill.
Musical guests can be solo acts or bands, who perform two to three musical numbers. Occasionally, the musical guest has also simultaneously served as the host. Paul Simon was the first example, hosting and performing on the second episode on October 18, 1975. As of May 19, 2012, Dave Grohl is the most frequent musical guest, performing on eleven shows since 1992.
In 1982, at age 7, Drew Barrymore became the youngest person to host the show. Actress Betty White is the oldest person to host, having done so at 88 years of age on May 8, 2010. Concerned about White 's age and possible fatigue, her episode had Tina Fey, Molly Shannon, Maya Rudolph, Rachel Dratch and Amy Poehler on standby to replace her; White went on to appear in every sketch. In 2000, singer Britney Spears became the youngest person to both host and simultaneously serve as the show 's musical guest, at 18 years and 161 days old.
In addition to making cameo appearances, political figures have also hosted the show. Al Gore hosted in 2002, the only former Vice President to do so. Presidential candidates, either former, current, or future, have served as hosts: Ralph Nader in 1977, George McGovern in 1984, Steve Forbes in 1996, Rudy Giuliani in 1997, John McCain in 2002, Al Sharpton in 2003, and Donald Trump in 2004 (promoting the reality TV hit The Apprentice) and again in 2015 as a presidential hopeful.
The Five - Timers Club is the group of performers who have hosted SNL at least five times. The club was first mentioned on the show on December 8, 1990 by Tom Hanks who, in his monologue, touched upon the fact that it was his fifth appearance as host:
Believe it or not, this is the fifth Saturday Night Live I have been lucky enough to host. Now, the first time you do the show, you ca n't believe you 're here. You just ca n't believe it. Your head buzzes with excitement. The second time you do the show, it means you were funny enough to be asked back - and you 're pushing a movie. The third time you do the show, the second time did n't go so well, and you have something to prove to yourself. The fourth time you do the show, you 're just blatantly pushing a movie. But the fifth time you do the show is the most special time of all, because you get this (holds up a card)... a membership card in the Five - Timers Club. Come with me... (walks off the stage) I 'm gon na give you a chance to look in on one of the most exclusive clubs in the world.
After Hanks gave his monologue, the show segued to a sketch featuring Hanks, Steve Martin, Elliott Gould, and Paul Simon in the richly appointed club. Martin and Gould were both five - time hosts; Simon had only hosted four episodes, but was accepted as a member due to his numerous appearances as a musical guest. The Five - Timers Club was mentioned to have a swimming pool with perfect 80 degree waters. The food that is served there is named after SNL performers. Then - Saturday Night Live writer Conan O'Brien portrayed Sean, the doorman of the club. Jon Lovitz appears as a club waiter. Ralph Nader appears as a former SNL host trying to get into the Five - Timers Club only for Lovitz to tell him and his group to leave.
The second time the Five - Timers Club was mentioned was when Danny DeVito was inducted in 1993. The Club was mentioned again after the mark was reached by hosts Alec Baldwin (1994), John Goodman (1994), Christopher Walken (2001), Drew Barrymore (2007), Justin Timberlake (2013), Ben Affleck (2013), Scarlett Johansson (2017), Melissa McCarthy (2017), and Dwayne Johnson (2017); Steve Martin appeared at the end of McCarthy 's fifth episode to present her with a jacket, while Alec Baldwin did the same for Dwayne Johnson in the monologue of the season finale. McCarthy had previously mentioned the club on her fourth appearance, when she claimed to be eligible because she had also been in the 40th anniversary special.
Justin Timberlake 's monologue from March 9, 2013 featured the reappearance of the richly appointed club. The sketch features Paul Simon, Steve Martin, Chevy Chase, Alec Baldwin, Tom Hanks, and Candice Bergen. There were portraits of John Goodman and Drew Barrymore in the Five - Timers Club 's Hall of Portraits. The staff at the Five - Timers Club are former cast members, with Dan Aykroyd (1975 -- 79) and Martin Short (1984 -- 85) appearing as the club 's bartender and waiter, respectively. Future cast member Mike O'Brien makes an appearance as the doorman who greets Justin. The entertainment at the Five - Timers Club involves making the current SNL performers fight each other to the death, with Bobby Moynihan shown fighting Taran Killam. When Melissa McCarthy hosted for show for the fifth time, five - timers club member Steve Martin appeared in the goodnights to welcome her to the club. When Dwayne Johnson hosted the show for the fifth time, five - timers club members Tom Hanks and Alec Baldwin appeared in the monologue to welcome him to the club.
Steve Martin was the fastest to join the Five - Timers club, hosting five times in only 546 days. Buck Henry is the only other member to join in less than four years, hosting five times in 671 days, although, in keeping with his persona on the show of being an undesirable or boring host, is said not to have been told about the club itself. The following people are members of the Five - Timers Club.
Simon has only guest - hosted four times but has been included in both Five - Timers Club sketches. The show credits him as co-host of the 100th episode even though a host is not officially credited in the opening sequence. His fifth appearance on the show was as a musical guest appearance.
Out of his four appearances as host, Simon acted as both host and musical guest during one episode.
Out of his five appearances as host, Timberlake acted as both host and musical guest during three episodes. During his most recent appearance on December 21, 2013, he was the musical guest while Jimmy Fallon hosted.
The Five - Timers Club has been referenced in other media since its creation in 1990. The entertainment channel E! placed it at No. 22 on its list of SNL top moments. The club was also referenced by Fox Sports as the basis behind the creation of the "Favre Backup Club '' which seeks to be the "NFL 's equivalent '' to the Five - Timers Club.
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in what episode of bones does brennan get pregnant | Temperance "Bones '' Brennan - wikipedia
Temperance "Bones '' Brennan, Ph. D. (born Joy Keenan) is a fictional character portrayed by Emily Deschanel in the American Fox television series Bones. An anthropologist, forensic anthropologist, and kinesiologist, she is described in the series as a leading authority in the field of forensic anthropology. Brennan first appeared on television, along with other series characters, in the "Pilot '' episode of Bones on September 13, 2005. She is the main protagonist of the series along with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth (David Boreanaz).
Brennan is loosely based on author Kathy Reichs. Her name originates from the heroine in Reichs 's crime novel series, also named Temperance Brennan. The main similarity the two share is their occupation as forensic anthropologists. Brennan appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters. She was included in AfterEllen.com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. Her relationship with Seeley Booth was listed in Entertainment Weekly 's "30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They? ' TV Couples ''.
Temperance "Bones '' Brennan is a forensic anthropologist who works in the Medico - Legal lab at the Jeffersonian Institute in Washington, D.C. She received her Ph. D. from Northwestern University, as stated in "The Girl in the Fridge ''. She has three doctorates, as referred to by Dr. Jack Hodgins in the episode "The Parts of the Sum in the Whole '', in anthropology, forensic anthropology and kinesiology; it is implied that most of her work at the lab was related to either long - dead bodies or victims of genocide.
Her occasional contract work for the FBI shifted the focus of her work. She was paired with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth, and helped to solve two difficult cases; since then, they have worked together almost exclusively on modern - day murder cases.
Brennan works with a group of other well - qualified colleagues, including the entomologist Jack Hodgins, her boss and forensic pathologist Camille Saroyan, forensic artist Angela Montenegro, and a host of eager graduate students. Booth refers to her crew of colleagues as "squints '', because they come to crime scenes and squint at evidence. He is also responsible for her nickname, "Bones '', which she initially detested.
In the first - season finale (which aired on May 17, 2006), Brennan stated that she was born in 1976, which would have made her either 29 or 30 (approximately the same age as Deschanel, who was born on October 11, 1976). In the fifth - season episode "The Death of the Queen Bee '' (which aired nearly four years later, on April 15, 2010), it is implied that her then - current age was 33 years (based on Brennan 's identification of a former high school classmate as the victim and statement that the classmate was 33).
First mentioned in season 1, Brennan has a love of dolphins, which she shared with her late mother: in the season one finale, "The Woman in Limbo '', Brennan examines a custom - made belt with a dolphin on the buckle, which had belonged to her mother, and which she mentions having once borrowed without asking first. Brennan 's love of dolphins is highlighted again in season 2 episodes "The Titan on the Tracks '', "The Killer in the Concrete '' and "Stargazer in a Puddle '', when she mentions the constellation Delphinus, (the Dolphin), her and her mother 's favorite. In season 6, "The Doctor in the Photo '', she is shown to wear a dolphin ring.
In "Mummy in the Maze '', Brennan exhibited ophidiophobia when confronted with snakes, but later only shows a moment of fright when confronted with another snake in "The Mastodon in the Room ''. She takes note of this, voicing her observation that she only seems to lose her head around snakes when Booth is also "there to be jumped upon '', and also she mentions that she once had a pet snake during high school. It should also be noted that, in "The Man in the Morgue, '' Brennan handled a snake without any trace of fear, even while Booth is in the room.
In season one, in "A Man on Death Row '', Dr. Brennan expresses her stance on the death penalty; "I believe in the death penalty. There are certain people who should n't be in this world. The people who hacked hundreds of innocent children to death in Rwanda; beheaded them at their desks at school! The people who did that, they should be executed. '' In "The Woman at the Airport '', Dr. Brennan is shown to have a strong dislike for plastic surgeons, believing them to be no more than "glorified butchers with medical degrees '', and this dislike is voiced again in season 4, in "Cinderella in the Cardboard ''. In "The Woman in the Car '', Dr. Brennan reveals that her third doctorate is in kinesiology, a field that would allow her and Angela to unravel how one of the bodies that had been found had been killed.
In season two, she expressed the desire to get a pet pig, whom she would have named "Jasper ''. Brennan 's expertise in kinesiology would again prove its worth in "The Truth in the Lye '' (she could tell that one of the murder suspects was pregnant just from having observed her gait), in "The Girl with the Curl '' (she could tell if one of the young beauty pageant contestants was suffering from scoliosis just by watching them perform on stage), and in "The Woman in the Sand '' (while undercover with Booth, she was able to tell Booth exactly how to beat his opponent from just having watched his moves). In "Judas on a Pole '', she and her brother are identified as having the same blood type, blood type O. In "Glowing Bones in the Old Stone House '', she is shown to be a good cook: Booth 's comment on her mac and cheese is that he 'd "like to be alone with it ''.
In the season 3 episode, "Mummy in the Maze '', it is revealed that Brennan 's favorite superhero is Wonder Woman, and that she always goes as Wonder Woman to the Jeffersonian 's Halloween party. In "The Baby in the Bough '', it is revealed that Brennan is a registered foster parent, at her brother 's request, to take in his stepdaughters in case anything should happen to him and his girlfriend. In the season 3 episode, "Intern in the Incinerator '', Booth reveals that Brennan 's favorite flower is a Daffodil, her second favorite flower is a Daisy, and her favorite planet is Jupiter.
In season 5, in "The Death of the Queen Bee '', when asked if she 'd had a pet rat, Brennan discloses that she, in fact, had a pet mouse, snake and some spiders. During her time at Burtonsville high school, her only friend was the school custodian, Ray Buxley, with whom she would enjoy long, in - depth conversations on life and death, and who would also provide her with dead animals to dissect (Brennan having set out to become a forensic anthropologist,) and who would later be one of her books ' biggest fans (she having named the killer in her first book, Bred in the Bone, after him). According to the Burtonsville high school on - line yearbook entry on Brennan, in her senior year, she was a member of the Chemistry club and Math club, her interests were chemistry and mathematics, and she was a National Merit Scholar and an Academic All Star.
In the season 6 episode, "The Blackout in the Blizzard '', Brennan mentions her pet iguana for the first time. This same episode show that one of the number of scientific publications that Brennan reads is Medicinal Physics Quarterly, with one article on electrostatics and triboluminescence proving useful during the lab 's power outage. Further concerning her pet iguana in "The Truth in the Myth '', as a part of his rehab from alcohol abuse, Vincent Nigel - Murry made apologies for, among other things, having borrowed her iguana one night, wearing him as a hat for a party. She comments that he must have taken good care of her iguana as she has observed nothing wrong with him and further expresses some surprise that Vincent Nigel - Murry was able to get her iguana to stay perched atop his head, to which he replies that he was good with ribbons.
In season 8, "The Tiger in the Tale '', Booth mentions to Sweets that Dr. Brennan once took Peyote with Native Americans.
In season 11, "The Senator in the Street Sweeper '', Dr. Brennan is mentioned to be a member of the Green Party of the United States along with Dr. Hodgins.
Although Brennan seemed to have a relatively normal childhood, her parents disappeared when she was 15 years old. Her older brother Russ, himself still an adolescent, was unable to care for her and she was put in the foster care system. By the time she started college she had been to twelve different schools and has specifically said that she hated the lack of consistency.
There has been contradictory evidence about her time in the system; in one episode, Brennan stated that her grandfather got her out of the foster system, but in a later episode, she indicates that she never knew her grandparents (possibly the two references are to two separate sets of grandparents, paternal and maternal). However, taking into consideration the fact that Brennan 's parents had assumed new identities when she was 3 - years - old, the grandfather who had taken her in from her time in the foster system may not have been her biological grandfather.
Her time in foster care was quite traumatic and abusive; Brennan indicated that she was once locked in the trunk of a car for two days because she broke a plate, and in the episode "The Finger in the Nest '', she reveals to Booth that she walked into her elderly neighbor 's house to find the woman dead. In the same episode, she also mentions to Booth that her parents were very concerned about her afterwards, because she started faking her own death. In Season 2, she mentions that during her time in the foster care system, she kept a list of foster homes she had been kicked out of on the bottom of her shoe.
In the first season she hands Booth the file on her parents ' disappearance and he agrees to look into it as a personal favor. It is later revealed in Season 2 that her parents, who were bank robbers specializing in safety deposit boxes, changed the family 's identity after they stole some damaging FBI documents regarding the murder of an FBI agent and the false imprisonment of civil rights activist Marvin Beckett. Brennan 's birth name was Joy Keenan. Her mother (real name Ruth Keenan, known under the assumed identity of Christine Brennan) had hoped to someday return to her children and family, but made a tape for Brennan to watch on her 16th birthday in case that never happened. Brennan later discovered that Ruth / Christine was murdered in 1993, two years after she and her husband went on the run.
Her father Max Keenan re-entered Brennan 's life when she and her brother were being threatened by an old acquaintance, who turned out to be Booth 's boss, Deputy Director Kirby. Max evades capture after killing Kirby, and takes Russ into hiding to protect him. Later, Max allows Booth to arrest him in order to improve his relationship with his daughter. At trial, Max is acquitted of murdering Director Kirby (due in large part to a defense Booth indirectly came up with, positing an alternate theory of the crime in which Temperance was the killer instead, creating reasonable doubt), and he begins to rebuild his life.
He temporarily works at the Jeffersonian as a guide for children visiting the place and demonstrates his brilliant talent as a former science teacher. However, Brennan is concerned about a convicted felon having access to a lab that investigates crimes. Max also introduces Brennan to her cousin Margaret Whitesell, portrayed by Deschanel 's real - life sister Zooey Deschanel.
Brennan is best friends with her coworker, Angela, saying in the 6th - season premiere she loves Angela "like a sister '' and is going to be an aunt to Hodgins ' and Angela 's newborn child. It is revealed at the end of the season six finale "The Change in the Game '' that Brennan is pregnant and the father is Booth.
In Season 7, episode 2 "The Hot Dog in the Competition '', Brennan and Booth found out they were having a baby girl. Their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named for Brennan 's mother and her best friend), was born in a stable during the episode "The Prisoner in the Pipe ''. In the Season 7 finale, "The Past in the Present '', key evidence in the death of her friend, Ethan Sawyer, is linked to Brennan. Max convinces her to go on the run along with Christine, saying that if she is arrested, even if she is found innocent, she may never see her daughter again.
In Season 8 premiere, it is revealed that while on the run, Brennan was communicating with Angela, via flowers, and eventually used this as a way to communicate with Booth. Despite being on the run, Brennan risks her safety and decides to meet directly with Booth in a hotel room after months of being a single mother. Eventually, they arrest Christopher Pelant, who was the real murderer of Ethan Sawyer, and Brennan is allowed to return to her family. Although Pelant blackmails Booth to prevent him from accepting Brennan 's proposal by threatening to kill five innocent people if Booth accepted, also warning Booth not to give a reason for his refusal, this threat is removed when the team manage to kill Pelant, and Booth and Brennan marry in the Season 9 episode ' The Woman in White '.
In the Season 10 episode, "The Eye in the Sky '', Brennan learns that she is pregnant with her and Booth 's second child.
Throughout the course of the series, Brennan is portrayed as a straightforward, brilliant anthropologist, who lacks social skills. Her social ineptitude is especially apparent when it comes to sarcasm, metaphors which she often interprets literally, and pop culture jokes and is often the source of comedy in the show. An example of this is when she mistakes Colin Farrell for Will Ferrell. In earlier seasons, she was characterized as straightforward and unable to detect social cues -- she states that Booth once told her that she "stinks at non-verbal communication '' -- and was well - known within the FBI for being extremely difficult to work with. She began to acknowledge her lack of sensitivity after Booth bluntly told her outright that she was "bad with people '' in "A Boy in a Tree ''. Her lack of "political savvy '' and social skills was also a reason why she was passed over for Dr. Camille Saroyan as head of the Jeffersonian in Season 2. Other characters have described her as "no fun '' and "a rigid traditionalist ''.
She had a difficult adolescence, and it is implied, often by Sweets, that her withdrawn social tendencies are a defense mechanism. She also sometimes struggles in identifying and explaining her emotions, and takes comfort in the rationality of her anthropological discipline. Although it has been stated that Brennan was based on a person with Asperger syndrome, this has never been confirmed in the plot of the series. The creator of the series has stated that the character was never labeled as having the syndrome in order to increase the appeal of the show on network television. This influence on her character also helps to explain her extreme rationality in early seasons, as well as some of her social difficulties. Brennan is a self - proclaimed atheist and often points out what she believes to be the irrationality of religious and spiritual beliefs. This has led to more than one argument with Booth, who is a devout Roman Catholic; he becomes particularly irate when she compares less common religions, such as voodoo, to Christianity. During the Sleepy Hollow crossover episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales '', Sleepy Hollow protagonist Ichabod Crane notes that Brennan is so sceptical that she would dismiss the demon Moloch -- the primary antagonist in the first two seasons of Sleepy Hollow -- as nothing more than a tall man with a skin condition, although this does leave him reassured that she will not realise the nature of the secret tomb they have uncovered underneath the White House.
Brennan is a bestselling author, who has been on the New York Times Best Seller List for 18 weeks. She is trained in three types of martial arts, has hunting licenses in four states, and has a legally registered gun as well as a diving certificate. She promised to consider becoming a vegetarian after seeing how pigs were slaughtered (which was also the way her mother had been killed). However, in "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken '' (season 5, episode 6) Angela cites health reasons for Brennan 's vegetarian diet. Brennan is also a trained amateur highwire performer, and speaks at least seven other languages, including Spanish, French, Latin, Chinese, Pashto Japanese, Norwegian (although she says only "skull '' and avers that, as a forensic anthropologist, this is a word she knows "in just about every language ''), Farsi, and German. She has also admitted to knowing a bit of Russian. She often says she does not "put much stock in psychology '' and makes a point of noting that Dr. Sweets is not a real scientist as he "bases his life on the vagary of psychology and emotions ''.
Brennan 's personality undergoes significant changes throughout the course of the series. Her thinking becomes less rigid in later seasons, something which is observed by Dr. Gordon Wyatt, who notes that she is now able to distinguish the difference between accuracy and truth. In season 4, Booth takes her along to his interrogations and helps her learn how to set aside her scientific perspective and relate with the victim 's family and suspects on a more interpersonal level. She is also able to put aside her rationality to support her friends in sometimes irrational pursuits, such as Angela 's quest to raise money to save a pig from slaughter, and to comfort Booth, even using science or quoting directly from the Bible to rationalize his religious beliefs. Her sensitivity and empathy towards others are also much improved, seen quite strongly when she comforts his grandfather, and when she attends a funeral so that the victim 's single mother wo n't be alone. She also displays more "typical '' human emotions when in extreme stress. One example of this is her fear of snakes in "The Mummy in the Maze, '' when a girl is in the process of being scared to death in a room, the floor teeming with snakes. This goes against her empirical nature, as, when Booth tells her that the snakes are n't venomous, she states that she is aware, but still refuses to step in the room, causing Booth to carry her on his back.
Brennan begins to feel both dissatisfaction and discomfort with her work toward the end of the fifth season. She also sees some futility in her work, stating that no matter how many killers they catch, there will always be more. To help her gain new perspective, she later decides to head up an anthropological expedition to Indonesia for a year to identify some ancient proto - human remains, after mulling it over during the episode. However, 7 months later, she and everyone else return to D.C. in order to save Cam 's job, and they all decide to stay.
As season 6 progresses, Brennan must confront her feelings for Booth, whom she rejected in the 100th episode from the previous season. Having returned from 7 months of introspection, she has come to terms with her romantic affection towards him, even admitting that she regretted not having given them a chance together, midway through the season. However, Booth returns from Afghanistan with a new love interest, war correspondent Hannah Burley, whom Brennan befriends. When Hannah rejects Booth 's marriage proposal, Brennan must help him through the emotional fallout.
In the second to last episode of season 6 Booth and Brennan had sex, consummating their relationship, and it is revealed in the last few moments of the season finale that as a result, Brennan has become pregnant, with Booth the father. Throughout the episode ("The Change in the Game '') Brennan has been seen asking Angela questions and making comments that make her seem excited and apprehensive; when she sees that Booth is happy with the news, she also seems overjoyed. This reflects her earlier desire to become a mother, circa season 4, as well as her desire that Booth be the father of the baby.
In the Season 8 episode "The Shot in the Dark '', Brennan is shot while working in the lab late at night. While undergoing emergency surgery, she experiences a vision of meeting with her deceased mother, Christine Brennan. Initially dismissing this as a hallucination, Brennan experiences several more visions throughout the episode. During these discussions, it 's revealed that Brennan 's hyper rationalization originates from the very last piece of advice her mother gave to her (before going on the run) which was to use her brain instead of her heart. While that advice enabled Brennan to survive all these years, the vision of her mother explains, it 's now time for Brennan to do more than just survive.
Since entering a relationship with and marrying Booth and then having children, the character has undergone development personally and is shown to be a caring wife and protective mother. She would often put aside her own atheistic views and uses her hyper - rationality to justify Booth 's religious beliefs, as shown in season 8 where she references the Bible in order to persuade Booth to forgive his mother and in the season finale where she agrees to a church wedding, rationalizing that she could appreciate the "beauty '' of the ceremony and its significance to Booth.
Brennan has had a number of relatively short relationships, including an ill - fated date with a man who turned out to be a murderer and the re-kindling of a romance with her former thesis supervisor. She has stated that although she does not always feel the need for a committed emotional relationship, she has engaged in casual relationships to "satisfy biological urges ''. In one episode, she was spending time with two men, one for his intelligence and the other for his sexual skills. In Season 5, episode "The Plain in the Prodigy '', she tells Booth she lost her virginity at the age of 22 and when asked why she waited so long, she said it was because the decision was "important to her ''. FBI psychologist Lance Sweets postulates in a number of episodes that Brennan 's apprehension over having relationships is largely due in part to the abandonment and abuse she experienced as a teenager after her parents disappeared. It is said that she "hides '' herself behind a front of hyper - rationalism and she always keeps people at arms ' length, except for those closest to her (namely FBI partner Seeley Booth and best friend Angela Montenegro). After much character growth, Temperance Brennan is now married to her principal love interest of the series Seeley Booth, and they have a daughter (Season 7) and a son together.
FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth is Brennan 's husband and partner, and the principal liaison between the Jeffersonian and law enforcement agencies. Prior to their marriage, he is also Brennan 's principal love interest throughout the series. Although his working style initially clashed with Brennan 's, they have since become full - fledged partners. Their compatibility has become one of the central points of the show, with many new characters mistaking them for a couple and co-workers, especially Angela, constantly speculating that they were "more than partners ''. Booth and Brennan have repeatedly risked their safety to save each other, including when Booth took a bullet meant for Brennan. After Booth rescues Brennan from the corrupt Agent Kenton, Booth lifts her off the hook she was hung on by putting her tied hands around his neck even though he himself was severely injured. In "Two Bodies in the Lab '', in season 1, and in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle '', in season 5, Brennan and Booth 's mutual love for Foreigner 's Hot Blooded is mentioned; Booth even refers to it as ' their song ' in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle ''. Brennan once commented to Dr. Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) that she "(could n't) think of anything (she) would n't do to help Booth. '' Brennan 's novels are also dedicated to him and the character Special Agent Andy Lister is based on him even though she still denies it.
Initially Brennan was mostly dismissive of Booth due to their opposing worldviews and work styles -- which is a source of friction and banter between them. Although she refused to admit it at first, Brennan enjoyed working with him from the beginning, even after their falling out when Booth got her drunk and "fired '' her, and, in Season 1, she cajoled him into launching an investigation after finding three bone fragments on a golf course so he could work with the Jeffersonian team on the case despite the fact that the FBI technically had no jurisdiction. She often unknowingly offends him on a number of occasions during the first few seasons with her tactlessness, only realizing after being gently admonished by Angela or another member of the team. She comes to admire his ability to connect with people and read behavioral cues when interrogating suspects after coming to terms with her own lack of social skills. After finding out about his abusive childhood and haunted past in the Army, she also begins to respect him as a person. Booth, who is particularly taciturn in revealing emotions or speaking about his past, begins to open up to and confide in her. Since entering a relationship with (and eventually marrying) Booth, she is shown to be extremely supportive of him, even at the expense of her friendship with Angela. Additionally, she put aside her own misgivings several times for Booth 's benefit; for example, she agrees to have Christine christened into the Catholic church and referenced the Bible when trying to talk Booth into forgiving his mother.
Brennan acquired the nickname "Bones '' from Booth. She initially disliked it but comes to regard it with affection. Booth and his son Parker are the only characters in the show she permits to use it and the former rarely addresses her by her first name or "Tempe ''.
In Season 2 Brennan shot and killed a person for the first time while working on a string of murders connected to serial killer Howard Epps. She was forced to pull the trigger after Epps ' accomplice attacked and injured Booth with a pipe. At the end of the episode she confides in Booth of her conflicted feelings and finds comfort in the fact that Booth understood how she felt.
The relationship between Brennan and Booth has often become strained when either partner has a significant other. For example, Booth was quite irritable when Brennan dated Agent Sully, and their relationship was also strained when Booth 's brother Jared was showing an interest in Brennan. Brennan constantly needled Booth while he was dating Tessa.
When Brennan decided that she wanted to have a baby, she asked Booth if he would be the sperm donor. He agrees to Brennan 's request at first, but subsequently struggles with the thought of not being involved in the life of his prospective child. Eventually he tells Brennan he can not let her have his child if he is not allowed to be a father to it. Soon thereafter, it is discovered that he has a (benign) brain tumour. He has to undergo surgery, and though the surgery is successful, a poor reaction to anesthesia left him in a coma for several days. While in his coma, Brennan reads to him from her new novel, and he has an elaborate dream in which Brennan is his wife and that she is pregnant, and that the staff at the Jeffersonian play the characters in the novel. When he awakens, he initially suffers from amnesia, not recognizing Brennan.
Although for the majority of the series Booth and Brennan denied that their relationship was anything more than friendly professionalism, they admitted to Dr. Sweets that they kissed and nearly spent the night together after their very first case together. After this discussion, Booth attempted to convince Brennan to give a relationship a try. However, she declined, telling him that she, unlike him, is not a gambler, and is n't able to take that kind of a chance. They have subsequently attempted to date other people, although the fact that Booth once comments that he regards Brennan as his "standard '' for other women suggests that he, at least, has not completely moved on. Brennan does admit to her best friend Angela Montenegro that as time has gone on, she is unsure if she wants to keep doing consulting work for the FBI, citing that she is tired of murderers and victims, and is constantly worried that something will happen to Booth and she will be unable to save him. In the climax of Season Five, Brennan and Booth part ways for a year -- he goes to Afghanistan while she leaves for the Maluku Islands in Indonesia -- but they promise to meet, one year from that day, at the Lincoln Memorial.
In the beginning of season six (7 months later), they reunite in the stated place. Booth came back from Afghanistan, along with everyone else from various places, to help save Cam 's job. They all decided to stay. Booth has a serious new girlfriend, Hannah, and despite the hints of her colleagues at Brennan 's unconscious jealousy of their relationship, she vehemently denies feeling uncomfortable with the new situation. Through subsequent episodes her jealousy and resentfulness began becoming more apparent as Hannah and Booth started becoming more serious. In the episode "The Doctor in the Photo '', Brennan realizes she is in love with Booth and confronts him, but she is let down when Booth says that he loves Hannah and she is not a "consolation prize '', prompting Brennan to conclude that she has missed her chance, later reflecting that she should move on. In episode 10 of the sixth season "The Body in the Bag '', Booth tells his girlfriend about the incident, stating that it (his love for Temperance) was all in the past and whatever he felt, he does not feel it anymore, except for Hannah. However it was clear in the following episode that he still has feelings for Brennan.
Despite her apparent resolve to move on, Brennan later showed sorrow when her father noted that he always thought she and Booth would end up together. During a subsequent case involving a polygamist who would spend the night with his first wife on the night he was scheduled to sleep alone, Booth commented that, while you can love several people, there is only ever one person you love the most, prompting Brennan to ask what happens when you push that person away, something Booth answered saying that it never truly leaves, adding further weight to the implication that he still has feelings for Brennan. Following Hannah 's departure, the two have begun to reconnect, to the point that, during a case that saw the two trapped in an elevator during a blackout for several hours, Booth and Brennan admitted that they are each interested in a relationship, but require more time to sort out their own feelings before they make such a commitment.
In episode 22 of season 6, "The Hole in the Heart '', which saw the death of Vincent Nigel - Murray (Brennan 's favorite intern) at the hands of renegade sniper Jacob Broadsky, Booth has Brennan stay at his apartment for her safety. Later that night, Brennan, still overcome with shock and grief over Vincent 's death, goes into Booth 's bedroom and they talk about the events of that day, and then allows Booth to hold her in bed. It is implied in the following day that they had sex. In the last scene of the season 6 finale, "The Change in the Game '', after the birth of Angela and Hodgins ' son, Brennan tells Booth that she is pregnant and that he is the father.
At the start of Season 7, a very pregnant Brennan and Booth are a couple but are going back and forth between apartments. Booth suggests that they should have their own place, whereas Brennan wants Booth to move into her apartment. It causes a minor rift between them, but is resolved when Booth admits why he wants to move into a new house and Brennan having some time to think over it says it 's a good idea because she 'd need him practically, emotionally and sexually. In episode 6, "The Crack in the Code, '' they decide to buy a two - story house in the suburbs -- which they jokingly called "The Mighty Hut '' -- that Booth found at a police auction and renovate it, (according to a mailed check sent to Brennan in "The Heiress in the Hill '', in season 9, the "Mighty Hut '' 's address is "1297 Janus Street, Washington DC, 20002 ''). In episode 7, "The Prisoner in the Pipe '', Brennan goes into labor inside a prison just as she discovers who killed in an inmate there and Booth rushes her out with the intention to take her to the nearest hospital, but they both know she wo n't make it in time. This leads them to driving to an inn close to the prison. At first, they are rejected and are told to leave, but after some desperate pleading from an agonized Brennan, the two of them are led to a stall where she gives birth to their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named after Temperance 's mother, Christine Brennan, and Temperance 's best friend Angela Montenegro). Some time after the delivery, Temperance and Seeley both go back to their home where they celebrate with their friends from the Jeffersonian, who brought dinners that would last a few nights as well as a few baby supplies. In "The Past in the Present '', Brennan becomes the prime suspect in the murder of her schizophrenic friend, Ethan Sawyer, after supposedly threatening to kill Christine. Max advises Brennan to get off the grid and go into hiding, but she and Booth do not follow up at this suggestion. However, at the end of the episode, after Christine is christened in a Catholic church, it is revealed Brennan decided to take her father 's advice and flee with her daughter until her name is cleared. Just before Brennan flees town with Christine, she tells Booth she loves him and not just because of their daughter. After she is cleared of Sawyer 's murder, Brennan, Booth and Christine resume their family life.
At the end of Season 8, Brennan finally decides to marry Booth. However, their plans are ruined when a vengeful Christopher Pelant blackmails Booth, threatening to kill five random people if Booth marries Brennan. Booth calls off the wedding, but does not explain the real reason to Brennan. Brennan is devastated but pretends to be fine with this. In the season 9 premiere, Brennan fears that since Booth turned down her proposal, she fears that the love from their life is fading. After talking with bartender Aldo Clemens, a former priest and Army chaplain Booth confessed to, she realizes that it was uncharacteristic for Booth to suddenly cancel the wedding as he believed in marriage and that he likely had a legitimate reason to do so. Despite her colleagues ' anger at Booth, she decides to stay with him, telling him that she understands that he has his reasons and has faith that he will resolve the issue. In the episode 4, "The Sense in the Sacrifice '', after Booth singlehandedly tracks Pelant down through an abandoned building and kills him with a single gunshot, he reveals to her that Pelant had blackmailed him. Pelant had threatened to kill five innocent people if Booth continued with the wedding or went to the police or FBI. At the end of the episode he proposes and she happily accepts; unknown to them, Caroline, Angela and Hodgins witnessed it via the security cameras. In "The Woman in White '', Booth and Brennan marry at a small garden ceremony outside the Jeffersonian.
Their infant son Hank Jr. (named after Booth 's grandfather) was born off - screen sometime after season 10 and before the beginning of season 11.
Brennan had a brief relationship with FBI Agent Tim Sullivan (Eddie McClintock), also known as Sully, whom she met while on a case when Booth was in therapy due to his grief - induced rage over his self - perceived role in the death of serial killer Howard Epps. Sully asked Dr. Brennan out on a date after their case was completed, and they began a relationship. Their relationship ended, however, when Sully decided to sail a boat down to the Caribbean, and Brennan declined to leave the Jeffersonian to go with him despite Angela trying to persuade her to follow him; psychiatrist Doctor Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) speculated that this was due to Brennan being unable to live a life without purpose. Despite Dr. Wyatt 's original perception as to why she stayed, there exist strong indications, especially through Angela 's observations of the situation, that the real reason she stayed was because of Booth. Sully returns in Season 12.
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when was you give love a bad name made | You Give Love a Bad Name - wikipedia
"You Give Love a Bad Name '' is a song by American rock band Bon Jovi, released as the first single from their 1986 album Slippery When Wet. Written by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Desmond Child about a woman who has jilted her lover, the song reached No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on November 29, 1986 and became the band 's first number one hit. In 2007, the song reentered the charts at No. 29 after Blake Lewis performed it on American Idol. In 2009 it was named the 20th greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1. Despite the lyrics of the chorus, the song should not be confused with "Shot Through the Heart '', an unrelated song from Bon Jovi 's 1984 self - titled debut album.
"You Give Love a Bad Name '' was originally written for Bonnie Tyler under the title "If You Were a Woman (And I Was a Man) '' with different lyrics. Dissatisfied with its success in the US and the UK, Desmond Child re-wrote the song with Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora.
The song was written with several catchy repeated lines and associated hooks to appeal to mainstream audiences including the chorus as well as several bridges.
This song is written in the key of C minor and has a tempo of 123 BPM.
The album version of the song ends with the title being repeated until it fades.
The music video for the song used all - color concert footage (the only all - color video song from Slippery When Wet) and photogenic shots primarily of Jon Bon Jovi, as well as other band members in concert. This video was filmed at the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, California.
Bon Jovi was now being managed by Doc McGee, who realized that Bon Jovi needed a video for MTV. Doc hired video director Wayne Isham, who had directed videos for Doc 's other band, Mötley Crüe. The two bands were competitive with each other and Mötley Crüe felt betrayed that Wayne would direct one of Bon Jovi 's videos.
Wayne had the band 's name painted on the stage and made sure that the band did not see it until they began shooting.
Bon Jovi had been opening for 38 Special, but became a headlining act after the video debuted.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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ano ang act for the better government of india | Government of India Act 1858 - wikipedia
The Government of India Act 1858 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & 22 Vict. c. 106) passed on August 2, 1858. Its provisions called for the liquidation of the British East India Company (who had up to this point been ruling British India under the auspices of Parliament) and the transference of its functions to the British Crown. Lord Palmerston, then - Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, introduced a bill for the transfer of control of the Government of India from the East India Company to the Crown, referring to the grave defects in the existing system of the government of India. However, before this bill was to be passed, Palmerston was forced to resign on another issue. Later Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby (who would later become the first Secretary of State for India) introduced another bill which was originally titled as "An Act for the Better Government of India '' and it was passed on August 2, 1858. This act provided that India was to be governed directly and in the name of the Crown.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced the British Government to pass the Act. The Act was followed a few months later by Queen Victoria 's proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India, '' which, among other things, stated, "'' We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects. '' (p. 2)
The Act ushered in a new period of Indian history, bringing about the end of Company rule in India. The era of the new British Raj would last until Partition of India in August 1947, at which time all of the territory of the British Raj was granted dominion status within the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India.
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how does a tumor grow teeth and hair | Teratoma - wikipedia
A teratoma is a tumor made up of several different types of tissue, such as hair, muscle, or bone. They typically form in the ovaries, testicles, or tailbone and less commonly in other areas. Symptoms may be minimal if the tumor is small. A testicular teratoma may present as a painless lump. Complications may include ovarian torsion, testicular torsion, or hydrops fetalis.
They are a type of germ cell tumor (a tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs). They are divided into two types mature and immature. Mature teratomas include dermoid cysts and are generally benign. Immature teratomas may be cancerous. Most ovarian teratomas are mature. In adults, testicular teratomas are generally cancerous. Definitive diagnosis is based on a tissue biopsy.
Treatment of tailbone, testicular, and ovarian teratomas is generally by surgery. Testicular and immature ovarian teratomas are also frequently treated with chemotherapy.
Teratomas occur in the tailbone in about 1 in 30,000 newborns making them the most common tumor in this age group. Females are affected more often than males. Ovarian teratomas represent about a quarter of ovarian tumors and are typically noticed during middle age. Testicular teratomas represent almost half of testicular cancers. They can occur in both children and adults. The term comes from the Greek words for "monster '' and "tumor ''.
Teratomas maybe found in babies, children, and adults. Teratomas of embryonal origin are most often found in babies at birth, in young children, and, since the advent of ultrasound imaging, in fetuses.
The most commonly diagnosed fetal teratomas are sacrococcygeal teratoma (Altman types I, II, and III) and cervical (neck) teratoma. Because these teratomas project from the fetal body into the surrounding amniotic fluid, they can be seen during routine prenatal ultrasound exams. Teratomas within the fetal body are less easily seen with ultrasound; for these, MRI of the pregnant uterus is more informative.
Teratomas are not dangerous for the fetus unless there is either a mass effect or a large amount of blood flow through the tumor (known as vascular steal). The mass effect frequently consists of obstruction of normal passage of fluids from surrounding organs. The vascular steal can place a strain on the growing heart of the fetus, even resulting in heart failure, and thus must be monitored by fetal echocardiography.
Teratomas can cause an autoimmune illness called Anti N - methyl - D - aspartate (NMDA) Receptor Encephalitis. After surgery, there is a risk of regrowth in place, or in nearby organs.
A mature teratoma is a grade 0 teratoma. Mature teratomas are highly variable in form and histology, and may be solid, cystic, or a combination of solid and cystic. A mature teratoma often contains several different types of tissue such as skin, muscle, and bone. Skin may surround a cyst and grow abundant hair (see dermoid cyst). Mature teratomas generally are benign; malignant mature teratomas are of several distinct types.
A dermoid cyst is a mature cystic teratoma containing hair (sometimes very abundant) and other structures characteristic of normal skin and other tissues derived from the ectoderm. The term is most often applied to teratoma on the skull sutures and in the ovaries of females.
Fetus in fetu and fetiform teratoma are rare forms of mature teratoma that include one or more components resembling a malformed fetus. Both forms may contain or appear to contain complete organ systems, even major body parts such as torso or limbs. Fetus in fetu differs from fetiform teratoma in having an apparent spine and bilateral symmetry.
Most authorities agree that fetiform teratomas are highly developed mature teratomas; the natural history of fetus in fetu is controversial. There also may be a cultural difference, with fetiform teratoma being reported more often in ovarian teratomas (by gynecologists) and fetus in fetu being reported more often in retroperitoneal teratomas (by general surgeons). Fetus in fetu has often been interpreted as a fetus growing within its twin. As such, this interpretation assumes a special complication of twinning, one of several grouped under the term parasitic twin. In this regard, it is noteworthy that in many cases the fetus in fetu is reported to occupy a fluid - filled cyst within a mature teratoma. Cysts within mature teratoma may have partially developed organ systems; reports include cases of partial cranial bones, long bones and a rudimentary beating heart.
Regardless of whether fetus in fetu and fetiform teratoma are one entity or two, they are distinct from and not to be confused with ectopic pregnancy.
A struma ovarii (literally: goitre of the ovary) is a rare form of mature teratoma that contains mostly thyroid tissue.
Teratomas belong to a class of tumors known as nonseminomatous germ cell tumor (N.S.G.C.T.). All tumors of this class are the result of abnormal development of pluripotent cells: germ cells and embryonal cells. Teratomas of embryonic origin are congenital; teratomas of germ cell origin may or may not be congenital (this is not known). The kind of pluripotent cell appears to be unimportant, apart from constraining the location of the teratoma in the body.
Teratomas derived from germ cells occur in the testes in men and ovaries in women. Teratomas derived from embryonic cells usually occur on the subject 's midline: in the brain, elsewhere in the skull, in the nose, in the tongue, under the tongue, and in the neck (cervical teratoma), mediastinum, retroperitoneum, and attached to the coccyx. Teratomas may also occur elsewhere: very rarely in solid organs (most notably the heart and liver) and hollow organs (such as the stomach and bladder), and more commonly on the skull sutures.
Rarely more complicated body parts such as teeth, brain matter, eyes, or torso may occur.
Concerning the origin of teratomas, there exist numerous hypotheses. These hypotheses are not to be confused with the unrelated hypothesis that fetus in fetu (see below) is not a teratoma at all but rather a parasitic twin.
Teratomas are thought to originate in utero, and therefore can be considered congenital tumors. Many teratomas are not diagnosed until much later in childhood or in adulthood. Large tumors are more likely to be diagnosed early on. Sacrococcygeal and cervical teratomas are often detected by prenatal ultrasound. Additional diagnostic methods may include prenatal MRI. In rare circumstances, the tumor is so large that the fetus may be damaged or die. In the case of large sacrococcygeal teratomas, a significant portion of the fetus ' blood flow is redirected toward the teratoma (a phenomenon called steal syndrome), causing heart failure, or hydrops, of the fetus. In certain cases, fetal surgery may be indicated.
Beyond the newborn period, symptoms of a teratoma depend on its location and organ of origin. Ovarian teratomas often present with abdominal or pelvic pain, caused by torsion of the ovary or irritation of its ligaments. A recently discovered condition where ovarian teratomas cause encephalitis associated with antibodies against the N - methyl - D - aspartate receptor (NMDAR) - often simply referred to as "Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis '', was identified as a serious complication. Patients develop a multistage illness that progresses from psychosis, memory deficits, seizures, and language disintegration into a state of unresponsiveness with catatonic features often associated with abnormal movements, and autonomic and breathing instability. Testicular teratomas present as a palpable mass in the testis; mediastinal teratomas often cause compression of the lungs or the airways and may present with chest pain and / or respiratory symptoms.
Some teratomas contain yolk sac elements, which secrete alpha - fetoprotein (AFP). Detection of AFP may help to confirm the diagnosis and is often used as a marker for recurrence or treatment efficacy, but is rarely the method of initial diagnosis. (Maternal serum alpha - fetoprotein, or MSAFP, is a useful screening test for other fetal conditions, including Down syndrome, spina bifida and abdominal wall defects such as gastroschisis.)
Regardless of location in the body, a teratoma is classified according to a cancer staging system. This indicates whether chemotherapy or radiation therapy may be needed in addition to surgery. Teratomas commonly are classified using the Gonzalez - Crussi grading system: 0 or mature (benign); 1 or immature, probably benign; 2 or immature, possibly malignant (cancerous); and 3 or frankly malignant. If frankly malignant, the tumor is a cancer for which additional cancer staging applies.
Teratomas are also classified by their content: a solid teratoma contains only tissues (perhaps including more complex structures); a cystic teratoma contains only pockets of fluid or semi-fluid such as cerebrospinal fluid, sebum, or fat; a mixed teratoma contains both solid and cystic parts. Cystic teratomas usually are grade 0 and, conversely, grade 0 teratomas usually are cystic.
Grade 0, 1 and 2 pure teratomas have the potential to become malignant (grade 3), and malignant pure teratomas have the potential to metastasize. These rare forms of teratoma with malignant transformation may contain elements of somatic (non germ cell) malignancy such as leukemia, carcinoma or sarcoma. A teratoma may contain elements of other germ cell tumors, in which case it is not a pure teratoma but rather is a mixed germ cell tumor and is malignant. In infants and young children, these elements usually are endodermal sinus tumor, followed by choriocarcinoma. Finally, a teratoma can be pure and not malignant yet highly aggressive: this is exemplified by growing teratoma syndrome, in which chemotherapy eliminates the malignant elements of a mixed tumor, leaving pure teratoma which paradoxically begins to grow very rapidly.
A "benign '' grade 0 (mature) teratoma nonetheless has a risk of malignancy. Recurrence with malignant endodermal sinus tumor has been reported in cases of formerly benign mature teratoma, even in fetiform teratoma and fetus in fetu. Squamous cell carcinoma has been found in a mature cystic teratoma at the time of initial surgery.
A grade 1 immature teratoma that appears to be benign (e.g., because AFP is not elevated) has a much higher risk of malignancy, and requires adequate follow - up. This grade of teratoma also may be difficult to diagnose correctly. It can be confused with other small round cell neoplasms such as neuroblastoma, small cell carcinoma of hypercalcemic type, primitive neuroectodermal tumor, Wilm 's tumor, desmoplastic small round cell tumor, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
A teratoma with malignant transformation (TMT) is a very rare form of teratoma that may contain elements of somatic (non germ cell) malignant tumors such as leukemia, carcinoma or sarcoma. Of 641 children with pure teratoma, nine developed TMT: five carcinoma, two glioma, and two embryonal carcinoma (here, these last are classified among germ cell tumors).
Extraspinal ependymoma, usually considered to be a glioma (a type of non-germ cell tumor), may be an unusual form of mature teratoma.
The treatment of choice is complete surgical removal (i.e., complete resection). Teratomas are normally well - encapsulated and non-invasive of surrounding tissues, hence they are relatively easy to resect from surrounding tissues. Exceptions include teratomas in the brain, and very large, complex teratomas that have pushed into and become interlaced with adjacent muscles and other structures.
Prevention of recurrence does not require en bloc resection of surrounding tissues.
For malignant teratomas, usually, surgery is followed by chemotherapy.
Teratomas that are in surgically inaccessible locations, or are very complex, or are likely to be malignant (due to late discovery and / or treatment) sometimes are treated first with chemotherapy.
Although often described as benign, a teratoma does have malignant potential. In a UK study of 351 infants and children diagnosed with "benign '' teratoma reported 227 with MT, 124 with IT. Five years after surgery, event - free survival was 92.2 % and 85.9 %, respectively, and overall survival was 99 % and 95.1 %. A similar study in Italy reported on 183 infants and children diagnosed with teratoma. At 10 years after surgery, event free and overall survival were 90.4 % and 98 %, respectively.
Depending on which tissue (s) it contains, a teratoma may secrete a variety of chemicals with systemic effects. Some teratomas secrete the "pregnancy hormone '' human chorionic gonadotropin (βhCG), which can be used in clinical practice to monitor the successful treatment or relapse in patients with a known HCG - secreting teratoma. This hormone is not recommended as a diagnostic marker, because most teratomas do not secrete it. Some teratomas secrete thyroxine, in some cases to such a degree that it can lead to clinical hyperthyroidism in the patient. Of special concern is the secretion of alpha - fetoprotein (AFP); under some circumstances AFP can be used as a diagnostic marker specific for the presence of yolk sac cells within the teratoma. These cells can develop into a frankly malignant tumor known as yolk sac tumor or endodermal sinus tumor.
Adequate follow - up requires close observation, involving repeated physical examination, scanning (ultrasound, MRI, or CT), and measurement of AFP and / or βhCG.
Embryonal teratomas most commonly occur in the sacrococcygeal region: sacrococcygeal teratoma is the single most common tumor found in newly born humans.
Of teratomas on the skull sutures, approximately 50 % are found in or adjacent to the orbit. Limbal dermoid is a choristoma, not a teratoma.
Teratoma qualifies as a rare disease, but is not extremely rare. Sacrococcygeal teratoma alone is diagnosed at birth in one out of 40,000 humans. Given the current human population and birth - rate, this equals five per day or 1800 per year. Add to that number sacrococcygeal teratomas diagnosed later in life, and teratomas in other locales, and the incidence approaches ten thousand new diagnoses of teratoma per year.
In light of the ethical issues surrounding the source of human stem cells, teratomas are being looked at as an alternative source for research because they lack the potential to grow into functional human beings.
As is true throughout oncology (the study of tumors, malignant and benign), the nomenclature for these tumors continually evolves on the basis of threads of consensus in the scientific literature regarding the tumors classification (which is based on shared embryologic origins, clinicopathologic characteristics, and so on). As science advances, more is understood about how one can differentiate tumors that formerly seemed alike. For example, the scientific knowledge of tumor markers, genomics, and proteomics regularly advances. In this environment, tumor names may slip over the years between synonymity, hyponymy and hypernymy, and deprecation. Some terms that have been synonymous with teratoma include dysembryoma, teratoblastoma, organoid tumor, and teratoid tumor.
The words "teratoma '' and "mature teratoma '' both have been used to refer to a benign growth, while the word "teratoma '' may also refer to "immature teratoma '', a cancerous growth. Avoiding misunderstanding due to such polysemy is part of why tumor nomenclature changes over decades. The nomenclatural changes are voluntary, based on scientists agreeing or debating in the literature regarding what to call particular neoplastic entities (types of tumors).
The term "malignant teratoma '' has sometimes been used as a synonym for nonseminomatous germ cell tumor.
Ovarian teratomas have been reported in mares, mountain lions, and in canines. Teratomas also occur, rarely, in other species.
This article incorporates public domain material from the U.S. National Cancer Institute document "Dictionary of Cancer Terms ''.
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where was the universal declaration of human rights made | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.
The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual 's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law. However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law. '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law.
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles:
These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights.
In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.
Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P.C. Chang of the Republic of China. Humphrey provided the initial draft that became the working text of the Commission.
According to Allan Carlson, the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik.
Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain.
The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief ''; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.
The 48 countries that voted in favour of the Declaration are:
8 countries abstained:
2 countries did not vote:
Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote, and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles.
The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us ''.
In 1948, the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 (III) (A) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian and Spanish. In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's "Most Translated Document '' (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures that secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
For the first time in international law, the term "the rule of law '' was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law. ''
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms '' and "human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance '', while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere. '' In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community. ''
Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law. Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie - Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '', without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations ''.
Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights.
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.
Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights. ''
Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination.
Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but -- to date (2017) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill '. ''
The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '', "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '', and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. ''
During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights -- in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles.
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up! '' event.
The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world.
The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights. Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.
In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles:
The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians.
The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice.
The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom.
Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.
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who did the woodman fall in love with | Tin Woodman - wikipedia
The Tin Woodman, better known as either the Tin Man or (incorrectly) the Tin Woodsman (the third name appears only in adaptations, the first -- and in rare instances, the second -- was used by Baum), is a character in the fictional Land of Oz created by American author L. Frank Baum. Baum 's Tin Woodman first appeared in his classic 1900 book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, and reappeared in many other Oz books. In late 19th - century America, men made out of various tin pieces were used in advertising and political cartoons. Baum, who was editing a magazine on decorating shop windows when he wrote The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, was reportedly inspired to invent the Tin Woodman by a figure he had built out of metal parts for a shop display.
Originally an ordinary man by the name of Nick Chopper (the name first appearing in The Marvelous Land of Oz), the Tin Woodman used to make his living chopping down trees in the forests of Oz, as his father had before him. The Wicked Witch of the East enchanted his axe to prevent him from marrying his sweetheart, after being bribed by the lazy old woman who kept the Munchkin maiden as a servant, and did not wish to lose her. (In a later book of the series, The Tin Woodman of Oz, the woman is said to be the Witch 's servant, and it is the Witch herself who decides to enchant Nick 's axe.) The enchanted axe chopped off his limbs, one by one. Each time he lost a limb, Ku - Klip the tinsmith replaced it with a prosthetic limb made of tin. Finally, nothing was left of him but tin. However, Ku - Klip neglected to replace his heart. Once Nick Chopper was made entirely of tin, he was no longer able to love the lady he had fallen for.
In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy Gale befriends the Tin Woodman after they find him rusted in the forest, as he was caught in rain, and use his oil can to release him. He follows her to the Emerald City to get a heart from The Wizard. They are joined on their adventure by the Scarecrow and the Cowardly Lion. The Wizard sends Dorothy and her friends to the Winkie Country to kill the Wicked Witch of the West. The Tin Woodman 's axe proves useful in this journey, both for chopping wood to create a bridge or raft as needed, and for chopping the heads off animals that threaten the party. When the Winged monkeys are sent by the Witch of the West against the group, they throw the Tin Woodman from a great height, damaging him badly. However Winkie Tinsmiths are able to repair him after the death of the Witch.
His desire for a heart notably contrasts with the Scarecrow 's desire for brains, reflecting a common debate between the relative importance of the mind and the emotions. This occasions philosophical debate between the two friends as to why their own choices are superior; neither convinces the other, and Dorothy, listening, is unable to decide which one is right. Symbolically, because they remain with Dorothy throughout her quest, she is provided with both and need not select. The Tin Woodman states unequivocally that he has neither heart nor brain, but cares nothing for the loss of his brain. Towards the end of the novel, though, Glinda praises his brain as not quite that of the Scarecrow 's.
The Wizard turns out to be a "humbug '' and can only provide a placebo heart made of velvet and filled with sawdust. However, this is enough to please the Tin Woodman, who, with or without a heart, was all along the most tender and emotional of Dorothy 's companions (just as the Scarecrow was the wisest and the Cowardly Lion the bravest). When he accidentally crushes an insect, he is grief - stricken and, ironically, claims that he must be careful about such things, while those with hearts do not need such care. This tenderness remains with him throughout the series, as in The Patchwork Girl of Oz, where he refuses to let a butterfly be maimed for the casting of a spell.
When Dorothy returns home to her farm in Kansas, the Tin Woodman returns to the Winkie Country to rule as emperor. Later, he has his subjects construct a palace made entirely of tin -- from the architecture all the way down to the flowers in the garden.
Baum emphasized that the Tin Woodman remains alive, in contrast to the windup mechanical man Tik - Tok Dorothy meets in a later book. Nick Chopper was not turned into a machine, but rather had his flesh body replaced by a metal one. Far from missing his original existence, the Tin Woodman is proud (perhaps too proud) of his untiring tin body.
A recurring problem for the Tin Woodman in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and afterward was his tendency to rust when exposed to rain, tears, or other moisture. For this reason, in The Marvelous Land of Oz the character has himself nickel - plated before helping his friend the Scarecrow fight to regain his throne in the Emerald City. Even so, the Tin Woodman continues to worry about rusting throughout the Oz series.
This is inaccurate, in that tin does not rust; only iron does. This may reflect the usage where an object made of iron or steel but coated with tin (in order to prevent rusting) is called a "Tin '' object, as a "tin bath '', a "tin toy '', or a "tin can ''; thus, the Tin Woodman might be interpreted (in English, at least) as being made of steel with a tin veneer. One passage in The Road to Oz, by Baum himself, wherein the Woodman attends Ozma 's birthday party accompanied by a Winkie band playing a song called "There 's No Plate Like Tin, '' strongly implies that this is the case. Another explanation may be that the Woodman is chiefly made of tin, with iron joints; in some of the illustrations, his joints are a different color from the rest of his body. In Alexander Volkov 's Russian adaptation of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Volkov avoided this problem by the translation of "The Tin Woodman '' as the "Iron Woodchopper ''.
The Tin Woodman appeared in most of the Oz books that followed. He is a major character in the comic page Baum wrote with Walt McDougall in 1904 - 05, Queer Visitors from the Marvelous Land of Oz. In Ozma of Oz, he commands Princess Ozma 's army, and is briefly turned into a tin whistle. In Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz, he serves as defense counsel in the trial of Eureka. He affects the plot of a book most notably in The Patchwork Girl of Oz, in which he forbids the young hero from collecting the wing of a butterfly needed for a magical potion because his heart requires him to protect insects from cruelty. Baum also wrote a short book titled The Scarecrow and the Tin Woodman, part of the Little Wizard Stories of Oz series for younger readers.
In The Tin Woodman of Oz, Nick Chopper finally sets out to find his lost love, Nimmie Amee, but discovers that she has already married Chopfyt, a man constructed partly out of his own dismembered and discarded limbs. For the Tin Woodman, this encounter with his former fiancée is almost as jarring as his experiences being transformed into a tin owl, meeting another tin man, Captain Fyter, and conversing with his ill - tempered original head.
Baum 's successors in writing the series tended to use the Tin Woodman as a minor character, still ruling the Winkie Country but not governing the stories ' outcome. Two exceptions to this pattern are Ozoplaning with the Wizard of Oz, by Ruth Plumly Thompson, and Lucky Bucky in Oz, by John R. Neill. The biggest exception is in Rachel Cosgrove 's The Hidden Valley of Oz, in which the Tin Woodman leads the forces in the defeat of Terp the Terrible and cuts down the Magic Muffin Tree that gives Terp his great size.
The fact that Nick includes the natural deaths of his parents in the story of how he came to be made of tin has been a major element of debate. In his eponymous novel, he proclaims that no one in Oz ever died as far back as Lurline 's enchantment of the country, which occurred long before the arrival of any outsiders such as the Wizard. (It should be noted, however, that although the living creatures of Oz do not die of age or disease, they may die of accidents or be killed by others.)
In the 1998 novel The Tin Man, by Dale Brown, the eponymous protagonist is a power - armored vigilante whom the media and police have dubbed The Tin Man for his physical resemblance to the Wizard of Oz character.
The Tin Woodman is a minor character in author Gregory Maguire 's 1995 revisionist novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, its 2003 Broadway musical adaptation and Maguire 's 2005 sequel Son of a Witch. In the book, Nessarose - the Wicked Witch of the East - is seen enchanting the axe to swing around and chop off Nick Chopper 's limbs. She does this for a peasant woman who wishes to stop her servant, probably Nimmie Amee, from marrying Nick Chopper. This seems to be close to the Tin Man 's origin in the original books, but from the Witch 's perspective.
In the musical adaptation of Wicked the Tin Man is revealed to be Boq, a Munchkin whom Nessarose, the Wicked Witch of the East, fell in love with when they were at school together. When she discovered his heart belonged to Glinda, she botched a spell that was meant to make him fall in love with her by taking his heart, but instead shrunk his heart to nothing by taking it away without ' giving ' it to Nessa. To save his life, Elphaba, the Wicked Witch of the West, was forced to turn him into tin. Not understanding her reasons, he pursues Elphaba with a single - minded vengeance for his current form. The Tin Man 's humble origin in the novel conflicts with his having been the aristocratic Boq.
In Oz Squad, Nick was shown in a sexual relationship with "Rebecca Eastwitch '' in order to get closer to Nimmie Amee and attempt to elope with her.
A darker twist to the beloved woodman is made by author James A. Owen in the fourth installment of his series, The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica when his identity is revealed to be Roger Bacon.
The Tin Woodman appears in the 2011 TV series Once Upon a Time episode "Where Bluebirds Fly '' portrayed by Austin Obiajunwa (as a teenager) and by Alex Désert (as an adult). In this version he goes by the name Stanum (derived from the Latin world "stannum '', which means "tin '').
Since youth, Stanum has been a woodcutter and one day when he first met Zelena, the daughter of another woodsman, he finds out that Zelena has magic and befriends her, regardless of whatever the children say about Zelena, who they see as a freak. Many years later, Stanum, now a man, is punished by the Wicked Witch of the North for chopping down a tree in her domain, and his body slowly begins to transform into tin. To prevent himself from completely becoming tin, Stanum seeks out help from Zelena (now the Wicked Witch of the West) at the Emerald City of Oz. Zelena agrees to help him seek out the Crimson Heart, which can save him. During their quest, Stanum tells Zelena that she does n't have to be lonely but she is doing her best to deny his advice. Suddenly, a lion comes of nowhere to attack Stanum, and Zelena uses her magic to make the lion go away (at this point the lion has become as Zelena would put it, cowardly). When they finally arrived to the location of the Crimson Heart, the two learned that the only way to make it work is through the absorption of another person 's magic. Unfortunately Zelena 's actions and selfish greed for magic causes her to betray Stanum, whom she suspect was aligned with Dorothy by keeping the Crimson Heart for herself, leaving Stanum to transform into the Tin Man permanently. Some time later, when Robin Hood arrives in Oz in the episode "Heart of Gold '', the Tin Man is seen on the side of the Yellow Brick Road, torn apart.
Economics and history professors have published scholarly studies that indicate the images and characters used by Baum and Denslow closely resembled political images that were well known in the 1890s. They state that Baum and Denslow did not simply invent the Lion, Tin Woodman, Scarecrow, Yellow Brick Road, Silver Slippers, cyclone, monkeys, Emerald City, little people, Uncle Henry, passenger balloons, witches and the wizard. These were all common themes in the editorial cartoons of the previous decade. The notion of a "Tin Man '' has deep roots in European and American history, according to Green (2006), and often appeared in cartoons of the 1880s and 1890s. Baum and Denslow, like most writers and illustrators, used the materials at hand that they knew best. They built a story around them, added Dorothy, and added a series of lessons to the effect that everyone possesses the resources they need (such as brains, a heart and courage) if only they had self - confidence. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz was a children 's book, of course, but as Baum warned in the preface, it was a "modernized '' fairy tale as well.
The Tin Man -- the human turned into a machine -- was a common feature in political cartoons and in advertisements in the 1890s. Indeed, he had been part of European folk art for 300 years. In political interpretations of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the Tin Woodman is supposedly described as a worker, dehumanized by industrialization. The Tin Woodman little by little lost his natural body and had it replaced by metal; so he has lost his heart and can not move without the help of farmers (represented by the Scarecrow); in reality he has a strong sense of cooperation and love, which needs only an infusion of self - confidence to be awakened. In the 1890s many argued that to secure a political revolution a coalition of Farmers and Workers was needed.
The 1890 editorial cartoon to the right shows President Benjamin Harrison wearing improvised tin armor because he wanted a tariff on tin. Such images support the argument that the figure of a "tin man '' was in use as political allegory in the 1890s. The man on the right is politician James G. Blaine.
The oil needed by the Tin Woodman had a political dimension at the time because Rockefeller 's Standard Oil Company stood accused of being a monopoly (and in fact was later found guilty by the Supreme Court). In the 1902 stage adaptation, which is full of topical references that do not appear either in the novel or in any of the film adaptations (unless they are satirical), the Tin Woodman wonders what he would do if he ran out of oil. "You would n't be as badly off as John D. Rockefeller, '' the Scarecrow responds, "He 'd lose six thousand dollars a minute if that happened. ''
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what is the type of particle formed by covalent bonds | Covalent bond - wikipedia
A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration.
Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including σ - bonding, π - bonding, metal - to - metal bonding, agostic interactions, bent bonds, and three - center two - electron bonds. The term covalent bond dates from 1939. The prefix co - means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond '', in essence, means that the atoms share "valence '', such as is discussed in valence bond theory.
In the molecule H 2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized.
The term covalence in regard to bonding was first used in 1919 by Irving Langmuir in a Journal of the American Chemical Society article entitled "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules ''. Langmuir wrote that "we shall denote by the term covalence the number of pairs of electrons that a given atom shares with its neighbors. ''
The idea of covalent bonding can be traced several years before 1919 to Gilbert N. Lewis, who in 1916 described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. He introduced the Lewis notation or electron dot notation or Lewis dot structure, in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots around the atomic symbols. Pairs of electrons located between atoms represent covalent bonds. Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as double bonds and triple bonds. An alternative form of representation, not shown here, has bond - forming electron pairs represented as solid lines.
Lewis proposed that an atom forms enough covalent bonds to form a full (or closed) outer electron shell. In the diagram of methane shown here, the carbon atom has a valence of four and is, therefore, surrounded by eight electrons (the octet rule), four from the carbon itself and four from the hydrogens bonded to it. Each hydrogen has a valence of one and is surrounded by two electrons (a duet rule) -- its own one electron plus one from the carbon. The numbers of electrons correspond to full shells in the quantum theory of the atom; the outer shell of a carbon atom is the n = 2 shell, which can hold eight electrons, whereas the outer (and only) shell of a hydrogen atom is the n = 1 shell, which can hold only two.
While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative picture of covalent bonding, quantum mechanics is needed to understand the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple molecules. Walter Heitler and Fritz London are credited with the first successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond (molecular hydrogen) in 1927. Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the atomic orbitals of participating atoms.
Atomic orbitals (except for s orbitals) have specific directional properties leading to different types of covalent bonds. Sigma (σ) bonds are the strongest covalent bonds and are due to head - on overlapping of orbitals on two different atoms. A single bond is usually a σ bond. Pi (π) bonds are weaker and are due to lateral overlap between p (or d) orbitals. A double bond between two given atoms consists of one σ and one π bond, and a triple bond is one σ and two π bonds.
Covalent bonds are also affected by the electronegativity of the connected atoms which determines the chemical polarity of the bond. Two atoms with equal electronegativity will make nonpolar covalent bonds such as H -- H. An unequal relationship creates a polar covalent bond such as with H − Cl. However polarity also requires geometric asymmetry, or else dipoles may cancel out resulting in a non-polar molecule.
There are several types of structures for covalent substances, including individual molecules, molecular structures, macromolecular structures and giant covalent structures. Individual molecules have strong bonds that hold the atoms together, but there are negligible forces of attraction between molecules. Such covalent substances are usually gases, for example, HCl, SO, CO, and CH. In molecular structures, there are weak forces of attraction. Such covalent substances are low - boiling - temperature liquids (such as ethanol), and low - melting - temperature solids (such as iodine and solid CO). Macromolecular structures have large numbers of atoms linked by covalent bonds in chains, including synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and nylon, and biopolymers such as proteins and starch. Network covalent structures (or giant covalent structures) contain large numbers of atoms linked in sheets (such as graphite), or 3 - dimensional structures (such as diamond and quartz). These substances have high melting and boiling points, are frequently brittle, and tend to have high electrical resistivity. Elements that have high electronegativity, and the ability to form three or four electron pair bonds, often form such large macromolecular structures.
Bonds with one or three electrons can be found in radical species, which have an odd number of electrons. The simplest example of a 1 - electron bond is found in the dihydrogen cation, H + 2. One - electron bonds often have about half the bond energy of a 2 - electron bond, and are therefore called "half bonds ''. However, there are exceptions: in the case of dilithium, the bond is actually stronger for the 1 - electron Li + 2 than for the 2 - electron Li. This exception can be explained in terms of hybridization and inner - shell effects.
The simplest example of three - electron bonding can be found in the helium dimer cation, He + 2. It is considered a "half bond '' because it consists of only one shared electron (rather than two); in molecular orbital terms, the third electron is in an anti-bonding orbital which cancels out half of the bond formed by the other two electrons. Another example of a molecule containing a 3 - electron bond, in addition to two 2 - electron bonds, is nitric oxide, NO. The oxygen molecule, O can also be regarded as having two 3 - electron bonds and one 2 - electron bond, which accounts for its paramagnetism and its formal bond order of 2. Chlorine dioxide and its heavier analogues bromine dioxide and iodine dioxide also contain three - electron bonds.
Molecules with odd - electron bonds are usually highly reactive. These types of bond are only stable between atoms with similar electronegativities.
There are situations whereby a single Lewis structure is insufficient to explain the electron configuration in a molecule, hence a superposition of structures are needed. The same two atoms in such molecules can be bonded differently in different structures (a single bond in one, a double bond in another, or even none at all), resulting in a non-integer bond order. The nitrate ion is one such example with three equivalent structures. The bond between the nitrogen and each oxygen is a double bond in one structure and a single bond in the other two, so that the average bond order for each N -- O interaction is 2 + 1 + 1 / 3 = 4 / 3.
In organic chemistry, when a molecule with a planar ring obeys Hückel 's rule, where the number of π electrons fit the formula 4n + 2 (where n is an integer), it attains extra stability and symmetry. In benzene, the prototypical aromatic compound, there are 6 π bonding electrons (n = 1, 4n + 2 = 6). These occupy three delocalized π molecular orbitals (molecular orbital theory) or form conjugate π bonds in two resonance structures that linearly combine (valence bond theory), creating a regular hexagon exhibiting a greater stabilization than the hypothetical 1, 3, 5 - cyclohexatriene.
In the case of heterocyclic aromatics and substituted benzenes, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring may dominate the chemical behaviour of aromatic ring bonds, which otherwise are equivalent.
Certain molecules such as xenon difluoride and sulfur hexafluoride have higher co-ordination numbers than would be possible due to strictly covalent bonding according to the octet rule. This is explained by the three - center four - electron bond ("3c -- 4e '') model which interprets the molecular wavefunction in terms of non-bonding highest occupied molecular orbitals in molecular orbital theory and ionic - covalent resonance in valence bond theory.
In three - center two - electron bonds ("3c -- 2e '') three atoms share two electrons in bonding. This type of bonding occurs in electron deficient compounds like diborane. Each such bond (2 per molecule in diborane) contains a pair of electrons which connect the boron atoms to each other in a banana shape, with a proton (nucleus of a hydrogen atom) in the middle of the bond, sharing electrons with both boron atoms. In certain cluster compounds, so - called four - center two - electron bonds also have been postulated.
After the development of quantum mechanics, two basic theories were proposed to provide a quantum description of chemical bonding: valence bond (VB) theory and molecular orbital (MO) theory. A more recent quantum description is given in terms of atomic contributions to the electronic density of states.
In COOP, COHP and BCOOP, evaluation of bond covalency is dependent on the basis set. To overcome this issue, an alternative formulation of the bond covalency can be provided in this way.
The center mass cm (n, l, m, m) of an atomic orbital n, l, m, m ⟩, with quantum numbers n, l, m, m, for atom A is defined as
where gA n, l, m, m ⟩ (E) is the contribution of the atomic orbital n, l, m, m ⟩ of the atom A to the total electronic density of states g (E) of the solid
where the outer sum runs over all atoms A of the unit cell. The energy window (E, E) is chosen in such a way that it encompasses all relevant bands participating in the bond. If the range to select is unclear, it can be identified in practice by examining the molecular orbitals that describe the electron density along the considered bond.
The relative position C of the center mass of n, l ⟩ levels of atom A with respect to the center mass of n, l ⟩ levels of atom B is given as
where the contributions of the magnetic and spin quantum numbers are summed. According to this definition, the relative position of the A levels with respect to the B levels is
where, for simplicity, we may omit the dependence from the principal quantum number n in the notation referring to C.
In this formalism, the greater the value of C, the higher the overlap of the selected atomic bands, and thus the electron density described by those orbitals gives a more covalent A -- B bond. The quantity C is denoted as the covalency of the A -- B bond, which is specified in the same units of the energy E.
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cyber crime act 2015 challenges to the development of ict in tanzania | Cybercrimes Act in Tanzania - wikipedia
The Tanzania Cybercrimes Act of 2015, was enacted by the National Assembly of Tanzania in April 2015, and signed into law by the fourth president of the United Republic of Tanzania, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete on 25 April 2015. The law makes provisions for criminalizing offences related to computer systems and Information Communication Technologies; provides for investigation, collection, and use of electronic evidence in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar except to article 50 which do not operate on the Zanzaibar. The Law further criminalizes and penalizes a number of cyber activities such as data espionage, publication of child pornography, publication of pornography, publication of false, deceptive, misleading or inaccurate information, production and dissemination of racist and xenophobic material, initiating transmission of or re-transmission of unsolicited messages and violation of intellectual property rights and other types of cybercrimes. This long - awaited law came after significant impacts such as financial loss, fraud and cyber bullying to the public and other stakeholders.
The official statistics about the trend of cybercrimes in Tanzania are hard to find but some Tanzania government officials have claimed reduction of the high rate of cybercrime, theft or fraud in the country since the government enacted the legislation in 2015. As a result of the law, statements from government officials in the news media claim that the number of suspected criminals arrested has rapidly increased. However a section of the media and activists have complained that the law gives power to the police than the common citizen
Several complaints about the enforcement of Tanzania Cybercrimes law have been expressed by Tanzania civil society groups, scholars development partners, and the opposition parties in Tanzania. Specifically, the opposition political parties in Tanzania have voiced their concern about the government 's use of the law to suppress the fundamental rights on freedom of expression and using the law to target the opposition political parties. Several instances have been reported on people being arrested for expressing their opinions on social media, for example one citizen deemed to have insulted the president of Tanzania through social media. Another case that underscores the perception of suppression of freedom of expression by the government is the arrest and subsequent charging under the Cybercrimes law, of a Tanzanian web based social forum founder for failing to reveal the identities of the commenters on his forum.
After enacting the law, the government embarked on various awareness campaigns. Despite of the efforts, a common citizen in Tanzania may have heard of the law because several cases frequently feature in the news media. However, according to one survey on Cybercrimes in Tanzania majority of the cybercrimes incidents go unreported to the police.
There have been attempts to challenge parts of the Cybercrimes Act through the courts and through the parliamentary process (1) by several stakeholders. The news media frequently reports about the governments willingness to review the law and come up with future regulations relating to cybercrimes.
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when did the catholic church stop allowing priests to marry | Clerical celibacy (Catholic Church) - wikipedia
Clerical celibacy is the discipline within the Catholic Church by which only unmarried men are ordained to the episcopate, to the priesthood (as a rule to which exceptions are sometimes made for individuals) in some autonomous particular Churches, and similarly to the diaconate, though in this last case exceptions exist not only for single individuals but for whole categories of people. In other autonomous particular Churches, the discipline applies only to ordination to the episcopate.
Chief of the Catholic particular Churches that follow this discipline is the Latin Church, but among the Eastern Catholic Churches, at least the Ethiopic Catholic Church applies it also.
In this context, "celibacy '' retains its original meaning of "unmarried ''. Though even the married may observe continence, abstaining from sexual intercourse, the obligation to be celibate is seen as a consequence of the obligation to observe perfect and perpetual continence for the sake of the Kingdom of heaven. Advocates see clerical celibacy as "a special gift of God by which sacred ministers can more easily remain close to Christ with an undivided heart, and can dedicate themselves more freely to the service of God and their neighbour. ''
Throughout the Catholic Church, East as well as West, a priest may not marry. To become a married priest, one must therefore marry before being ordained.
The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, without exception, rule out ordination of married men to the episcopate, and marriage after priestly ordination (clerical marriage).
The Church considers the law of clerical celibacy to be not a doctrine, but a discipline. Exceptions are sometimes made, especially in the case of married Protestant clergymen who convert to the Catholic Church, and the discipline could in theory be changed for all ordinations to the priesthood.
Theologically, the Church teaches that priesthood is a ministry conformed to the life and work of Jesus Christ. Priests as sacramental ministers act in persona Christi, that is in the person of Christ. Thus the life of the priest conforms, the Church believes, to the chastity of Christ himself. The sacrifice of married life is for the "sake of the Kingdom '' (Luke 18: 28 -- 30, Matthew 19: 27 -- 30), and to follow the example of Jesus Christ in being "married '' to the Church, viewed by Catholicism and many Christian traditions as the "Bride of Christ '' (following Ephesians 5: 25 - 33 and Revelation 21: 9, together with the spousal imagery at Mark 2: 19 - 20; cf. Matthew 9: 14 - 15).
Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) in Salt of the Earth saw this practice as based on Jesus ' words in Matthew 19: 12: "Some are eunuchs because they were born that way; others were made that way by men; and others have renounced marriage because of the kingdom of heaven. The one who can accept this should accept it. '' He linked this celibacy "because of the kingdom of heaven '' with God 's choice to confer the Old Testament priesthood on a specific tribe, that of Levi, which unlike the other tribes received no land from God, but which had "God himself as its inheritance '' (Numbers 1: 48 -- 53).
Paul, within a context of having "no command from the Lord '' (1 Cor 7: 25), recommends celibacy, but acknowledges that it is not God 's gift to all within the church: "For I wish that all men were even as I myself. But each one has his own gift from God, one in this manner and another in that. But I say to the unmarried and to the widows: It is good for them if they remain even as I am,... I want you to be without care. He who is unmarried cares for the things of the Lord -- how he may please the Lord. But he who is married cares about the things of the world -- how he may please his wife. There is a difference between a wife and a virgin. The unmarried woman cares about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spirit. But she who is married cares about the things of the world -- how she may please her husband. And this I say for your own profit, not that I may put a leash on you, but for what is proper, and that you may serve the Lord without distraction '' (1 Corinthians 7: 7 -- 8, 7: 32 -- 35). Peter Brown and Bart D. Ehrman speculate that for early Christians celibacy had to do with the "imminent end of the age '' (1 Corinthians 7: 29 - 31).
In the earliest years of the church, the clergy were largely married men. CK Barrett points to 1 Cor 9: 5 as clearly indicating that "apostles, like other Christians, have a right to be (and many of them are) married '' and the right for their wife to be "maintained by the communities in which they (the apostles) are working. '' However, Paul himself was celibate, and there is no consensus that inclusion among the requirements for candidacy to the office of "overseer '' of being "the husband of one wife '' meant that celibate Christians were excluded.
Studies by some Catholic scholars, such as the Ukrainian Roman Cholij and Christian Cochini, have argued for the theory that, in early Christian practice, married men who became priests -- they were often older men, "elders '' -- were expected to live in complete continence, refraining permanently from sexual relations with their wives. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western Church limited ordination to unmarried men and required a commitment to lifelong celibacy, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, whose separation, along with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, came slightly later, allows deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry after ordination, but not priests: any future priests who wish to marry must do so before becoming priests. The Armenian Apostolic Church, which also belongs to Oriental Orthodoxy, while technically prohibiting, like the Eastern Orthodox Church, marriage after ordination to the sub-diaconate, has generally let this rule fall into disuse and allows deacons to marry up to the point of their priestly ordination, thus continuing to maintain the traditional exclusion of marriage by those who are priests. This theory would explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.
Some Catholic scholars, such as Jesuits Peter Fink and George T. Dennis of Catholic University of America, have argued that we can not know if priests in early Christianity practised sexual abstinence. Dennis says "there is simply no clear evidence of a general tradition or practice, much less of an obligation, of priestly celibacy - continence before the beginning of the fourth century. '' Fink says that a primary book used to support apostolic origins of priestly celibacy "remains a work of interpretation. There are underlying premises that seem to hold firm in this book but which would not stand up so comfortably to historical scrutiny. ''
The earliest textual evidence of the forbidding of marriage to clerics and the duty of those already married to abstain from sexual contact with their wives is in the fourth - century decrees of the Council of Elvira and the later Council of Carthage (390). According to some writers, this presumed a previous norm, which was being flouted in practice.
Among the early Church statements on the topic of sexual continence and celibacy are the Directa and Cum in unum decretals of Pope Siricius (c. 385), which asserted that clerical sexual abstinence was an apostolic practice that must be followed by ministers of the church.
The writings of Saint Ambrose (died 397) also show that the requirement that priests, whether married or celibate, should be continent was the established rule. To the married clergy who, "in some out - of - the - way places '', claimed, on the model of the Old Testament priesthood, the right to father children, he recalled that in Old Testament times even lay people were obliged to observe continence on the days leading to a sacrifice, and commented: "If such regard was paid in what was only the figure, how much ought it to be shown in the reality! '' Yet more sternly he wrote: "(Saint Paul) spoke of one who has children, not of one who begets children. ''
Beyond the fact that clerical celibacy functioned as a spiritual discipline, it also was guarantor of the independence of the Church and of its essential dimension as a spiritual institution ordered toward ends beyond the competence and authority of temporal rulers.
During the decline of the Roman Empire, Roman authority in western Europe completely collapsed. However, the city of Rome, under the guidance of the Catholic Church, still remained a centre of learning and did much to preserve classical Roman culture in Western Europe. The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. Philosopher Will Durant argues that certain prominent features of Plato 's ideal community were discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of the medieval Church in Europe:
The clergy, like Plato 's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled (800 AD onwards), the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire (for such guardians)... (Clerical) Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them... In the latter half of the period in which they ruled, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire.
In his book The Ruling Class, Gaetano Mosca wrote of the medieval Church and its structure:
... the Catholic Church has always aspired to a preponderant share in political power, it has never been able to monopolize it entirely, because of two traits, chiefly, that are basic in its structure. Celibacy has generally been required of the clergy and of monks. Therefore no real dynasties of abbots and bishops have ever been able to establish themselves... Secondly, in spite of numerous examples to the contrary supplied by the warlike Middle Ages, the ecclesiastical calling has by its very nature never been strictly compatible with the bearing of arms. The precept that exhorts the Church to abhor bloodshed has never dropped completely out of sight, and in relatively tranquil and orderly times it has always been very much to the fore.
It is sometimes claimed that celibacy became mandatory for Latin Church priests only in the eleventh century; but others say, for instance: "(I) t may fairly be said that by the time of St. Leo the Great (440 -- 61) the law of celibacy was generally recognized in the West, '' and that the eleventh - century regulations on this matter, as on simony, should obviously not be interpreted as meaning that either non-celibacy or simony were previously permitted.
Celibacy as a requirement for ordination to the priesthood (in the Western Church) and to the episcopate (in East as well as in West) and declaring marriages of priests invalid (in both East and West) were important points of disagreement during the Protestant Reformation, with the Reformers arguing that these requirements were contrary to Biblical teaching in 1 Timothy 4: 1 - 5, Hebrews 13: 4, and 1 Corinthians 9: 5, and implied a degradation of marriage, and were one reason for "many abominations '' and for widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation. The doctrinal view of the Reformers on this point was reflected in the marriages of Zwingli in 1522, Luther in 1525, and Calvin in 1539; in England, the married Thomas Cranmer was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533. Both of these actions, marriage after ordination to the priesthood and consecration of a married man as a bishop, went against the long - standing tradition of the Church in the East as well as in the West. See Clerical marriage.
Following recommendations made at the Second Vatican Council, the Latin Church now admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, to remain permanently as deacons and not as part of the process by which aspirants are temporarily deacons on their way to priestly ordination. The change was effected by Pope Paul VI 's motu proprio Sacrum diaconatus ordinem of 18 June 1967. A candidate for ordination to the permanent diaconate must have reached a certain minimum age and must have the written consent of his wife.
Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage (for example, if a man who was already married by the time of ordination to the diaconate subsequently becomes a widower), though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.
Garry Wills, in his book Papal Sin: Structures of Deceit, argued that the imposition of celibacy among Catholic priests played a pivotal role in the cultivation of the Church as one of the most influential institutions in the world. In his discussion concerning the origins of the said policy, Wills mentioned that the Church drew its inspiration from the ascetics, monks who devote themselves to meditation and total abstention from earthly wealth and pleasures in order to sustain their corporal and spiritual purity, after seeing that its initial efforts in propagating the faith were fruitless. The rationale behind such strict policy is that it significantly helps the priests perform well in their religious services while at the same time following the manner in which Jesus Christ lived his life. Moreover, the author also mentioned that although the said policy insists on helping priests focus more on ecclesiastical duties, it also enabled the Church to control the wealth amassed by the clerics through their various religious activities, hence contributing to the growing power of the institution.
The Latin Church discipline continues to be debated for a variety of reasons.
First, many believe celibacy was not required of the apostles. Peter himself had a wife at the time of Jesus ' ministry, whose mother Jesus healed of a high fever. And 1 Corinthians 9: 5 is commonly interpreted as saying that years later, Peter and other apostles were accompanied by their wives. However, on the basis especially of Luke 18: 28 - 30, others think the apostles left their wives, and that the women mentioned in 1 Corinthians as accompanying some apostles were "holy women, who, in accordance with Jewish custom, ministered to their teachers of their substance, as we read was the practice with even our Lord himself. ''
Second, this requirement excludes a great number of otherwise qualified men from the priesthood, qualifications which according to the defenders of celibacy should be determined not by merely human hermeneutics but by the hermeneutics of the divine. Supporters of clerical celibacy answer that God only calls men to the priesthood if they are capable. Those who are not called to the priesthood should seek other paths in life since they will be able to serve God better there. Therefore, to the supporters of celibacy no one who is called is excluded.
Third, some say that resisting the natural sexual impulse in this way is unrealistic and harmful for a healthy life. Sexual scandals among priests, especially homosexuality and pedophilia, the defenders say, are a breach of the Church 's discipline, not a result of it, especially since only a small percentage of priests have been involved.
Fourth, it is said that mandatory celibacy distances priests from this experience of life, compromising their moral authority in the pastoral sphere, although its defenders argue that the Church 's moral authority is rather enhanced by a life of total self - giving in imitation of Christ, a practical application of the Vatican II teaching that "man can not fully find himself except through a sincere gift of himself. ''
In 1970, nine German theologians, including Joseph Ratzinger (the future Pope Benedict XVI), signed a letter calling for a new discussion of the law of celibacy, though refraining from making a statement as to whether the law of celibacy should in fact be changed.
In 2011, hundreds of German, Austrian, and Swiss theologians (249 as of 15 February 2011) signed a letter calling for married priests, as well as for women in Church ministry.
During and after the Council, the Magisterium of the Catholic Church has repeatedly re-affirmed the permanent value of the discipline of obligatory clerical celibacy in the Latin Church. Pope John Paul II wrote in 1992:
The synod fathers clearly and forcefully expressed their thought on this matter in an important proposal which deserves to be quoted here in full: "While in no way interfering with the discipline of the Oriental churches, the synod, in the conviction that perfect chastity in priestly celibacy is a charism, reminds priests that celibacy is a priceless gift of God for the Church and has a prophetic value for the world today. This synod strongly reaffirms what the Latin Church and some Oriental rites require, that is that the priesthood be conferred only on those men who have received from God the gift of the vocation to celibate chastity (without prejudice to the tradition of some Oriental churches and particular cases of married clergy who convert to Catholicism, which are admitted as exceptions in Pope Paul VI 's encyclical on priestly celibacy, no. 42). The synod does not wish to leave any doubts in the mind of anyone regarding the Church 's firm will to maintain the law that demands perpetual and freely chosen celibacy for present and future candidates for priestly ordination in the Latin rite.
He added that the "unchanging '' essence of ordination "configures the priest to Jesus Christ the Head and Spouse of the Church. '' Thus, he said, "The Church, as the Spouse of Jesus Christ, wishes to be loved by the priest in the total and exclusive manner in which Jesus Christ her Head and Spouse loved her. ''
There has never been any doubt, however, that it is an ecclesiastical discipline, as the Council Fathers explicitly recognised when they stated that "it is not demanded by the very nature of the priesthood. '' Pope John Paul II took up this theme when he said at a public audience on 17 July 1993 that celibacy "does not belong to the essence of priesthood. '' He went on to speak of its aptness for, and its congruence with, the requirements of sacred orders, asserting that the discipline "enters into the logic of (priestly) consecration. ''
Yet some commentators have argued for the possibility that married men of proven seriousness and maturity (viri probati, taking up a phrase which appears in the first - century First Epistle of Clement in a different context) might be ordained to a localized and modified form of the priesthood. The topic of viri probati was raised by some participants in discussions at Ordinary General Assembly XI of the Synod of Bishops held at the Vatican in October 2005 on the theme of the Eucharist, but it was rejected as a solution for the insufficiency of priests.
Pope Francis shared his views on celibacy, and the possibility of church discussion on the topic, when he was the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, recorded in the book On Heaven and Earth, a record of conversations conducted with a Buenos Aires rabbi. He commented that celibacy "is a matter of discipline, not of faith. It can change '' but added: "For the moment, I am in favor of maintaining celibacy, with all its pros and cons, because we have ten centuries of good experiences rather than failures... Tradition has weight and validity. '' He said that now the rule must be strictly adhered to, and any priest who can not obey it "has to leave the ministry. '' National Catholic Reporter Vatican analyst, Jesuit Thomas J. Reese, called Bergoglio 's use of "conditional language '' regarding the rule of celibacy "remarkable. '' He said that phrases like "for the moment '' and "for now '' are "not the kind of qualifications one normally hears when bishops and cardinals discuss celibacy. ''
In a conversation with Bishop Erwin Krautler about mandatory celibacy on 4 April 2014, the Pope also spoke about a possible mechanism for a change starting with national bishop conferences. These conferences would
seek and find consensus on reform and we should then bring up our suggestions for reform in Rome.... The pope explained that he could not take everything in hand personally from Rome. We local bishops, who are best acquainted with the needs of our faithful, should be ' corajudos, ' that is ' courageous ' in Spanish, and make concrete suggestions... It was up to the bishops to make suggestions, the pope said again.
In 2018 Francis showed that he wanted the topic discussed, beginning with remote areas like Amazonia that have a shortage of priests.
Exceptions to the rule of celibacy for priests of the Latin Church are sometimes granted by authority of the Pope, when married Protestant clergy become Catholic. Thus married Anglicans have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood in personal ordinariates and through the United States Pastoral Provision. Because the rule of celibacy is an ecclesiastical law and not a doctrine, it can, in principle, be changed at any time by the Pope. Nonetheless, both Pope Benedict XVI and his predecessors have spoken clearly of their understanding that the traditional practice was not likely to change.
Father Richard McBrien, a controversial voice within the Church, argued that the existence of these exceptions, coupled with a declining number of priests in active ministry (per McBrien 's North America and in Europe) and reported cases of non-observance of the norm will keep the subject in the spotlight. However, the number of priests worldwide has been increasing in the past two decades, reversing the downward tendency of the 1970s and 1980s.
In general, the Eastern Catholic Churches allow ordination of married men as priests. Within the lands of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the largest Eastern Rite Catholic Church, priests ' children often became priests and married within their social group, establishing a tightly - knit hereditary caste. In North America, by the provisions of the decree Cum data fuerit, and for fear that married priests would create scandal among Latin Church Catholics, Eastern Catholic bishops were directed to ordain only unmarried men. This ban, which some bishops determined to be null in various circumstances or at times or simply decided not to enforce, was finally rescinded by a decree of June 2014.
A condition for becoming an Eastern Catholic bishop is to be unmarried or a widower.
The mainly Lebanese Maronite Church does n't demand celibacy vows from its deacons or parish priests; their monks, however, are celibate, as well as their bishops who are normally selected from the monasteries.
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when did michael jackson rock with you come out | Rock with You - wikipedia
"Rock with You '' is a song written by English songwriter Rod Temperton, produced by Quincy Jones and recorded by Michael Jackson. It was released on November 3, 1979, and was the second release, and second number 1 single, from Jackson 's fifth solo album Off the Wall (1979). It was also the third number 1 hit of the 1980s, a decade whose pop singles chart would soon be dominated by Jackson.
It reached number 1 on both the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and R&B singles charts. On the former, "Rock with You '' spent four consecutive weeks at number one starting January 19, 1980. According to Billboard, the song was the fourth biggest single of 1980. It is also considered one of the last hits of the disco era.
It was re-released as a single on February 27, 2006, as part of the Visionary: The Video Singles box set.
This song is written in the key of G ♭ major. Meter is 4 / 4 at 114 bpm.
AllMusic highlighted the song on the album itself. Robert Christgau called it a "smooth ballad ''.
A music video was released for the song, using the shorter single version. It features Michael in a sparkly sequined suit singing the song with a bright laser behind him. The video was directed by Bruce Gowers.
The music video was included on the video albums: Video Greatest Hits - HIStory, Number Ones and Michael Jackson 's Vision.
Michael performed the song on the Jacksons ' Triumph Tour and Victory Tour. He performed the song on his solo tour the Bad World Tour. He also performed the song during the HIStory World Tour, but only a part of the Off the Wall medley on certain concerts. "Rock with You '' was rehearsed for the Dangerous World Tour, but was n't performed. Jackson also would have performed it for the This Is It concert series, but the shows were canceled, due to his sudden death.
The song is also featured in the game Michael Jackson: The Experience.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who has the highest power in the united states | Wind power in the United States - wikipedia
Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years. For the twelve months through November 2017, wind power in the United States amounted to 254.2 terawatt - hours, or 6.33 % of all generated electrical energy.
As of January 2017, the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts (MW). This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union. Thus far, wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012, when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed, representing 26.5 % of new power capacity.
In 2016, Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity. Texas, with over 20,000 MW of capacity, had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016. Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed. The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa. North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation. The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW. GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer.
The first municipal use of multiple wind - electric turbines in the USA may have been a five turbine system in Pettibone, North Dakota in 1940. These were commercial Wincharger units on guyed towers.
In 1980 the world 's first wind farm, consisting of twenty 30 kW wind turbines was installed at Crotched Mountain, in New Hampshire.
From 1974 through the mid-1980s the United States government worked with industry to advance the technology and enable large commercial wind turbines. A series of NASA wind turbines were developed under a program to create a utility - scale wind turbine industry in the U.S., with funding from the National Science Foundation and later the United States Department of Energy (DOE). A total of 13 experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine designs. This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine technologies in use today, including: steel tube towers, variable - speed generators, composite blade materials, partial - span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities.
Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind power. These rebates funded the first major use of wind power for utility electric power. These machines, gathered in large wind parks such as at Altamont Pass would be considered small and un-economic by modern wind power development standards. In 1985 half of the world 's wind energy was generated at Altamont Pass. By the end of 1986 about 6,700 wind turbines, mostly less than 100 kW, had been installed at Altamont, at a cost of about $1 billion, and generated about 550 million kWh / year.
The U.S., as of 2017, has over 82 GW of installed wind power capacity. Only China has more installed capacity.
The five states with the most wind capacity installed at the start of 2017 were:
Fourteen states now have 10 percent or more of their generation coming from wind power. Most of these are in the central plains. These states include North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, Maine, Vermont, Oregon, and Idaho.
The top five states according to percentage of generation by wind in 2016 were:
Ten of the largest wind farms in the United States are:
A 2012 report by a clean energy consulting group concluded that new wind farms can produce electric power in the 5 - 8 cents per kWh range, making wind power cost - competitive with fossil fuels in many areas. As of 2013, the US Energy Information Administration estimates the "levelized cost '' of wind energy from new installations as 7 to 10 cents per kWh, depending on the geographic area, but cautioned that levelized costs of non-dispatchable sources such as wind should be compared to the avoided energy cost rather than the levelized cost of dispatchable sources such as natural gas, or baseload sources such as coal or geothermal. In 2015, a Koch - funded institute of Utah State University stated that the cost of wind energy is higher than most cost estimates calculate. Renewable portfolio standards require renewable energy to exist (most of them intermittent such as wind and solar), but at the expense of utilities and consumers. The production tax credit makes wind power cheaper for utilities and consumers, but at the expense of taxpayers. The American Wind Energy Association has criticized the study of lacking comparison with pollution and subsidies incurred by other electric power sources, and for counting transmission as a cost rather than a benefit.
Wind power has increased dramatically over the past years. In 2010, however, newly installed generating capacity was about half of the previous year due to various factors, including the financial crisis, and recession. In 2013 there was a 92 % reduction in newly installed generating capacity compared to 2012, due to the late extension of the PTC (see image on the right). The graph at left shows the growth in installed wind generation capacity in the United States based on data from the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. In 2008, installed capacity in the U.S. increased by 50 % over the prior year. The world average growth rate that year was 28.8 %.
By 2014, the wind industry in the USA was able to produce more power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades, capturing the faster winds at higher elevations. This opened up new opportunities and in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground competed with conventional fossil fuels like coal. Prices had fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt - hour in some cases and utilities had been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option. For power contracts made in the year 2014, the average price of wind power fell to 2.5 ¢ / kWh.
The capacity factor is the ratio of power actually produced divided by the nameplate capacity of the turbines. The overall average capacity factor for wind generation in the US increased from 31.7 % in 2008, to 32.3 % in 2013.
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the contiguous United States has the potential for 10,459 GW of onshore wind power. The capacity could generate 37 petawatt - hours (PW h) annually, an amount nine times larger than current total U.S. electricity consumption. The U.S. also has large wind resources in Alaska, and Hawaii.
In addition to the large onshore wind resources, the U.S. has large offshore wind power potential, with another NREL report released in September 2010 showing that the U.S. has 4,150 GW of potential offshore wind power nameplate capacity, an amount 4 times that of the country 's 2008 installed capacity from all sources, of 1,010 GW.
The U.S. Department of Energy 's 2008 report 20 % Wind Energy by 2030 envisioned that wind power could supply 20 % of all U.S. electric power, which included a contribution of 4 % to the nation 's total electric power from offshore wind power. In order to achieve this, however, significant advances in cost, performance and reliability are needed, based on a 2011 report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future. Obtaining 20 % from wind requires about 305 GW of wind turbines, an increase of 16 GW / year after 2018, or an average increase of 14.6 % / year, and transmission line improvements. Analysts estimate around 25 GW of added US wind power in 2016 - 18, depending on the Clean Power Plan and PTC extensions. After the current PTC phase - out in 2021, additional wind power capacity is expected to be around 5 GW per year.
In 2015, electric power generation from wind power was 10 percent or more in twelve U.S. states: Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Dakota, Vermont, and Texas. Iowa, South Dakota, and Kansas each had more than 20 percent of their electric power generation come from wind. Twenty states now have more than five percent of their generation coming from wind.
In 2016 Texas surpassed the 20,000 MW mark by adding over 1800 MW of generating capacity. In 2011, Texas had become the first state to surpass the 10,000 MW mark.
In July 2008, Texas approved a $4.93 billion expansion of the state 's electric grid to bring wind energy to its major cities from western areas of the state. Transmission companies will recoup the cost of constructing the new power lines, expected to be completed in 2013, from fees estimated at $4 per month for residential customers. A lack of transmission capacity forced wind turbines to be shut down at times and reduced wind power generation in Texas by 17 % in 2009.
The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, Texas 's largest wind farm with 627 wind turbines and a total installed capacity of 781.5 MW, surpassed the nearby 735.5 MW Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center. It is located about 200 miles (320 km) west of Fort Worth and the wind farm area spans parts of four Texas counties.
Wind power in California has doubled in capacity since 2002. With a total of nearly 4,000 megawatts installed, as of the end of 2011, wind energy now supplies about 5 % of California 's total electric power needs, or enough to power more than 400,000 households. The amount varies greatly from day to day. In 2011, 921.3 megawatts were installed. Most of that activity occurred in the Tehachapi area of Kern County, with some big projects in Solano, Contra Costa and Riverside counties as well. After 2014, California ranked second nationwide in terms of capacity, behind Texas with a capacity of 5,917 MW.
Large portions of California 's wind output, are located in three primary regions: Altamont Pass Wind Farm (east of San Francisco); Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm (south east of Bakersfield), and San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm (near Palm Springs, east of Los Angeles). The giant new Alta Wind Energy Center, is also located within the Tehachapi Pass region.
More than 35 percent of the electric power generated in Iowa now comes from wind power. Iowa had over 6900 megawatts (MW) of generation capacity at the end of 2016. Electrical energy generated in Iowa by wind in 2014 amounted to over 16 million Megawatt - hours. Since Iowa adopted a renewable energy standard in 1983, the wind power industry has generated over $10 billion in investment. The second concrete wind turbine tower to be built in the U.S., and also the country 's tallest (377 feet) at the time built, is in Adams county. The tower was completed in the spring of 2016.
Oklahoma has one of the best resources in the United States. Bergey Windpower, a leading manufacturer of small wind turbines is located in Oklahoma. Programs leading to careers in the wind power industry are provided at tech schools, community colleges and universities in Oklahoma. The Oklahoma Wind Power Initiative supports the development of wind power in the state.
Wind power has been supported by a renewable portfolio standard, passed in 2007, and strengthened in 2009, which requires 10 % renewable energy from electric companies by 2010 and 25 % by 2025. Illinois has the potential for installing up to an estimated 249,882 MW of wind generation capacity at a hub height of 80 meters.
In 2012, Kansas saw a large number of wind projects completed making it among the largest and fastest growing wind energy markets. At the end of 2014 the total capacity sits at 2,967 MW. Kansas has high potential capacity for wind power, second behind Texas. The most recent estimates are that Kansas has a potential for 950 GW of wind power capacity. Kansas could generate 3,900 TW h of electric power each year, which represents more than all the electric power generated from coal, natural gas and nuclear combined in the United States in 2011.
Since 2005 many turbine manufacturing leaders have opened U.S. facilities; of the top 10 global manufacturers in 2007, seven -- Vestas, GE Energy, Gamesa, Suzlon, Siemens, Acciona, and Nordex -- have an American manufacturing presence. REpower is another manufacturer with notable usage in the United States.
Plans for 30 new manufacturing facilities were announced in 2008, and the wind industry expects to see a continued shift towards domestic manufacturing in the coming years. In total, 70 manufacturing facilities have begun production, been expanded, or announced since January 2007.
As of April 2009, over 100 companies are producing components for wind turbines, employing thousands of workers in the manufacture of parts as varied as towers, composite blades, bearings and gears. Many existing companies in traditional manufacturing states have retooled to enter the wind industry. Their manufacturing facilities are spread across 40 states, employing workers from the Southeast to the Steel Belt, to the Great Plains and on to the Pacific Northwest.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working with six leading wind turbine manufacturers towards achieving 20 % wind power in the United States by 2030. The DOE announced the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with GE Energy, Siemens Power Generation, Vestas Wind Systems, Clipper Windpower, Suzlon Energy, and Gamesa Corporation. Under the MOU, the DOE and the six manufacturers will collaborate to gather and exchange information relating to five major areas: research and development related to turbine reliability and operability; siting strategies for wind power facilities; standards development for turbine certification and universal interconnection of wind turbines; manufacturing advances in design, process automation, and fabrication techniques; and workforce development.
In 2014, GE had 60 %, Siemens had 26 %, and Vestas had 12 % of US market share. Combined, they had 98 %. Most new turbines were designed for low wind. The turbine manufacturers compete with each other and cause decreasing turbine prices.
The DOE 's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has announced a number of wind technology projects, including a new state - of - the - art wind turbine blade test facility to be built in Ingleside, Texas. The Texas - NREL Large Blade Research and Test Facility will be capable of testing blades as long as 70 meters (230 feet). It will be built and operated through a partnership among NREL, DOE, and a state consortium led by University of Houston, with the university owning and operating the facility 's buildings, DOE funding up to $2 million in capital costs, and NREL providing technical and operational assistance. The blade test facility is estimated to cost between $12 million and $15 million and should be completed by 2010. Located on the Gulf Coast, the Texas facility will complement a similar facility that is being built on the coast of Massachusetts.
NREL has also recently signed agreements with Siemens Power Generation and First Wind, a wind power developer. Siemens is launching a new research and development facility in nearby Boulder, Colorado, and has agreed to locate and test a commercial - scale wind turbine at NREL 's National Wind Technology Center (NWTC). First Wind (formerly called UPC Wind Partners, LLC) owns and operates the 30 - megawatt Kaheawa Wind Power farm in West Maui, Hawaii, and has agreed to let the NWTC establish a Remote Research Affiliate Partner Site at the facility. The Maui satellite of NWTC will collaborate with First Wind on studies to develop advanced wind energy technologies, including energy storage and integration of renewable electric power into Maui 's electrical grid.
In 2010, the DOE awarded $60 million for a study of transmission requirements. Beginning in 2006, the DOE is required to provide a transmission congestion report once every three years.
Recent U.S. policy has generally been to provide an inflation - adjusted federal production tax credit (PTC) of $15 per MW h (in 1995 dollars) generated for the first ten years of operation for wind energy sold. As of 2015, the credit was $23 per MW h. Renewable portfolio standards mandating a certain percentage of electric power sales come from renewable energy sources, which are in place in about half of the states, also have boosted the development of the wind industry.
Each time Congress has allowed the production tax credit has expired, wind power development has slowed as investors wait for the credit to be restored. Each year it is renewed development has expanded. The tax credit expired at the end of 2012, bringing wind power development activity to a near halt. A short term, one year policy was enacted at the beginning of 2013 which provides a tax credit to projects under construction by the end of 2013 and completed before the end of 2014. The PTC was first introduced in 1992. When it was allowed to expire, development dropped 93 %, 73 %, and 77 % the following year.
The Energy Information Administration has reported that wind power received the largest share of direct federal subsidies and support in fiscal year 2013 (the latest year for which statistics are available), accounting for 37 % ($5.936 billion) of total electric power related subsidies. Almost three - quarters of wind energy subsidies in that year were direct expenditures and largely resulted from the ARRA programs. These figures do not include subsidies and supports from other levels of government.
The development of wind power in the United States has been supported primarily through a production tax credit (PTC), which pays producers on the amount of electric power produced. On January 1, 2013 the production tax credit was extended for another year.
In late 2015 authorities provided an extension of the Production Tax Credit. The extension phases out the credit over a period of five years. The 30 percent wind and solar tax credit will extend through 2019 and then taper to 10 percent in 2022.
The average price of Power purchase agreements was $23.5 / MWh in 2014. Operating expenses were estimated to $10 / MWh.
There is competition for wind farms among farmers in places like Iowa or ranchers in Colorado. Farmers, with no investment on their part, typically receive $3,000 -- 5,000 per year in royalties from the local utility for siting a single, large, advanced - design wind turbine.
Landscape and ecological issues may be significant for some wind farm proposals, and environmental issues are a consideration in site selection.
Worldwide experience has shown that community consultation and direct involvement of the general public in wind farm projects has helped to increase community approval, and some wind farms overseas have become tourist attractions, like the Ten Mile Lagoon wind farm.
Offshore development is hindered by relatively high cost compared to onshore facilities. Several projects are under development with some at advanced stages of development. The United States, though, has very large offshore wind energy resources due to strong, consistent winds off the long U.S. coastline.
The 2011 NREL report, Large - Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States, analyzes the current state of the offshore wind energy industry. According to the report, offshore wind resource development would help the country to achieve 20 % of its electric power from wind by 2030 and to revitalize the manufacturing sector. Offshore wind could supply 54 gigawatts of capacity to the nation 's electrical grid, thereby increasing energy security. It could also generate an estimated $200 billion in new economic activity and create thousands of permanent jobs. NREL 's report concludes that "the development of the nation 's offshore wind resources can provide many potential benefits, and that offshore wind energy could play a vital role in future U.S. energy markets ''.
Coastal residents have opposed offshore wind farms because of fears about impacts on marine life, the environment, electric power rates, aesthetics, and recreation such as fishing and boating. However, residents also cite improved electric power rates, air quality, and job creation as positive impacts they would expect from wind farms. Because the bases of offshore turbines function as artificial reefs, studies have shown that after the initial disturbance of construction, local fish and shellfish are positively affected. Because wind turbines can be positioned at some distance from shore, impacts to recreation and fishing can be managed by careful planning of wind farm locations.
Five exploratory leases for wind power production on the Outer Continental Shelf offshore from New Jersey and Delaware were issued in June 2009 by the Secretary of the Interior. The leases authorize data gathering activities, allowing for the construction of meteorological towers on the Outer Continental Shelf from six to 18 miles (29 km) offshore. Four areas are being considered. On February 7, 2011, Salazar and Stephen Chu announced a national strategy to have offshore wind power of 10 GW in 2020, and 54 GW in 2030.
Projects are under development in areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Gulf coast.
Rhode Island and Massachusetts state officials picked Deepwater Wind to build a $1.5 - billion, 385 - megawatt wind farm in federal waters off Block Island. The 100 - turbine project could provide 1.3 terawatt - hours (TW h) of electric power per year -- 15 percent of all electric power used in the state of Rhode Island. In 2009, Deepwater signed an agreement with National Grid to sell the power from a $200 - million, 30 - MW wind farm off Block Island, at an initial price of 24.4 ¢ / kW h. Construction of the Block Island Wind Farm, a five turbine project began in April 2015.
Cape Wind started development around 2002, but faced opposition and eventually ceased before being realized. The floating VolturnUS operated in a Maine river in 2013.
To promote wind power in New Jersey, in 2007 the state awarded a $4.4 million contract to conduct an 18 - month Ocean / Wind Power Ecological Baseline Study, becoming the first state to sponsor an ocean and wind power study before allowing renewable energy developers to study and build off its shores. The study focused on a designated area off the coast to determine the current distribution, abundance and migratory patterns of avian species, fish, marine resources and sea turtle use of the existing ecological resources. The results of the study were released in June 2010. The study concluded that the effects of developing offshore windfarms would be negligible.
In 2008, new federal rules greatly expanded the territory offshore wind parks can be built. Previously, projects were only allowed in shallow state waters within 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) of shore. The edge of U.S. territory is about 200 nautical miles (370 km) out. Increased distance from the coast diminishes their visibility. Waters off the coast of the United States are deeper than in Europe, requiring different designs.
Atlantic Wind Connection is a proposed electrical transmission backbone to be built off the Atlantic Coast of the United States to serve off - shore wind farms. The transmission line, proposed by Trans - Elect Development Company, would deliver power ashore in southern Virginia, Delaware, southern New Jersey and northern New Jersey. As a first of its kind project, it poses significant risks of encountering unexpected technological challenges and cost overruns. Such an offshore backbone is an element in the national electric power strategy. Bechtel has been selected as the EPC contractor and Alstom as technical advisor for the first phase of the development for the project. Google and Good Energies, an investment firm, are the major investors in the $5 billion project.
Winds in the Central plains region of the U.S. are variable on both short (minutes) and long (days) time scales. Variations in wind speed result in variations in power output from wind farms, which poses difficulties incorporating wind power into an integrated power system. Wind turbines are driven by boundary layer winds, those that occur near the surface of the earth, at around 300 feet. Boundary layer winds are controlled by wind in the higher free atmosphere and have turbulence due to interaction with surface features such as trees, hills, and buildings. Short term or high frequency variations are due to this turbulence in the boundary layer.
Long term variations are due to the passage of transient waves in the atmosphere, with a characteristic time scale of several days. The transient waves that influence wind in the Central U.S. are large scale and this results in the power output from wind farms in the region being somewhat correlated and not entirely independent. Large scale distribution of wind farms significantly reduce short term variability, limiting the relative standard deviation of the capacity factor to about 45 %. The correlation is highest in summer and lowest in winter.
The US federal government has jurisdiction to prevent bird and bat deaths by wind turbines, under the Endangered Species Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Under the 2009 Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, the Interior Department could issue permits to allow "non-purposeful take '' for activities where eagle deaths were considered unavoidable; however, as of December 2013, no take permits had been issued to wind energy developers.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has published voluntary guidelines for design and siting of wind turbines to minimize bird and bat deaths. Interim guidelines were published in 2003, and the latest version in 2012. The document recognizes that even the best management practices may not prevent wind turbine bird deaths in violation of federal law, but stated: "However, if a violation occurs the Service will consider a developer 's documented efforts to communicate with the Service and adhere to the Guidelines. ''
In 2013, the Obama administration was accused of having a double standard to protect the wind industry from Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act prosecutions, while vigorously pursuing violations by oil companies and owners of power lines. The administration refused to divulge the number of raptor deaths reported to it by wind companies, saying that to do so would reveal trade secrets. The government also ordered federal law enforcement field agents not to pursue bird - death prosecutions against wind companies without prior approval from Washington. The policy was said to be an environmental trade - off to promote renewable energy.
In November 2013, the federal government obtained its first criminal conviction of a wind power operator for killing protected birds in violation of the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Duke Energy plead guilty, and was fined $1 million, for the deaths of 160 birds, including 14 golden eagles, at two wind farms in Wyoming. The Justice Department charged that Duke had designed and sited the turbines knowing that they would kill birds; Duke noted that it had self - reported the bird deaths, and that US Fish and Wildlife Service guidelines for reducing bird deaths by wind turbines had not been issued when the turbines were built. After they were charged, Duke implemented a radar detection system, at a cost of $600,000 per year, designed to turn off turbines when approached by large birds; the company noted that the system was working, as no golden eagle deaths had been observed in more than a year of operation since the radar was installed.
In December 2013 the US Fish and Wildlife Service announced that it would issue 30 - year permits to wind energy projects to allow for eagle deaths; previously, permits had been available for only 5 years, but none were issued to wind projects. Under the 30 - year permits, wind power developers would be required to report eagle deaths, and the permits would be reviewed every 5 years. The measure was intended to remove what was seen as legal uncertainty discouraging wind energy investments. The government said that an environmental review was not needed for the change, because it was only an administrative change. The new regulation was welcomed by the American Wind Energy Association, which said that wind power caused less than two percent of human - caused eagle fatalities, and pointed out that the rules would require extensive mitigation and monitoring of eagle deaths. The extension of eagle taking permits from 5 to 30 years was opposed by a number of conservation groups, including the American Bird Conservancy, the Nature Conservancy, the Sierra Club, the Audubon Society, and the Humane Society of the United States.
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bird with silent p changes colour in winter | Little auk - wikipedia
The little auk or dovekie (Alle alle) is a small auk, the only member of the genus Alle. Alle is the Sami name of the long - tailed duck; it is onomatopoeic and imitates the call of the drake duck. Linnaeus was not particularly familiar with the winter plumages of either the auk or the duck, and appears to have confused the two species.
It breeds on islands in the high Arctic. There are two subspecies: A. a. alle breeds in Greenland, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya and Svalbard, and A. a. polaris on Franz Josef Land. A small number of individuals breed on Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait with additional breeding individuals thought to occur on King Island, St. Lawrence Island, St. Matthew Island and the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea.
This is the only Atlantic auk of its size, half the size of the Atlantic puffin at 19 -- 21 cm in length, with a 34 -- 38 cm wingspan. Adult birds are black on the head, neck, back and wings, with white underparts. The bill is very short and stubby. They have a small rounded black tail. The lower face and fore neck become white in winter.
The flight is direct, with fast whirring wing beats due to the short wings. These birds forage for food like other auks by swimming underwater. They mainly eat crustaceans, especially copepods, but also other small invertebrates along with small fish. They collect in large swarms before leaving their breeding rocks to head out to sea for food as well as when they return.
Little auks produce a variety of twitters and cackling calls at the breeding colonies, but are silent at sea.
Little auks breed in large colonies on marine cliffsides. They nest in crevices or beneath large rocks, usually laying just a single egg. They move south in winter into northern areas of the north Atlantic. Late autumn storms may carry them south of their normal wintering areas, or into the North Sea. The species is also commonly found in the Norwegian Sea.
The glaucous gull and the Arctic fox are the main predators on little auks. In some cases, the polar bear has also been reported to feed on little auk eggs.
Although populations appear to be decreasing, this is not currently thought to be rapid enough to be of concern for the species in the medium term, especially as global little auk numbers are generally rather fluid. Little auks have been shown to be able to buffer fluctuations in prey availability, caused by climate change, via plasticity in their foraging behavior, which is likely to make accurate conservation assessments more difficult.
Kiviaq is an Inuit dish from Greenland. It is made by stuffing a seal skin with 300 to 500 little auks. Once full and airtight, the skin is sealed with seal fat and the little auks are left to ferment for 3 to 18 months under a pile of rocks. Caught in spring, little auks are a human food resource in winter.
Knud Rasmussen 's death is attributed to food poisoning by kiviaq.
Little auk in winter plumage
Little auks on Svalbard
Egg
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which is related to ipconfig in microsoft windows | Ipconfig - wikipedia
In computing, ipconfig (internet protocol configuration) in Microsoft Windows is a console application that displays all current TCP / IP network configuration values and can modify Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings.
In most cases, the ipconfig command is used with the command - line switch / all. This results in more detailed information than ipconfig alone.
An important additional feature of ipconfig is to force refreshing of the DHCP IP address of the host computer to request a different IP address. This is done using two commands in sequence. First, ipconfig / release is executed to force the client to immediately give up its lease by sending the server a DHCP release notification which updates the server 's status information and marks the old client 's IP address as "available ''. Then, the command ipconfig / renew is executed to request a new IP address. Where a computer is connected to a cable or DSL modem, it may have to be plugged directly into the modem network port to bypass the router, before using ipconfig / release and turning off the power for a period of time, to ensure that the old IP address is taken by another computer.
The / flushdns parameter can be used to clear the Domain Name System (DNS) cache to ensure future requests use fresh DNS information by forcing hostnames to be resolved again from scratch.
ipconfig in Mac OS X serves as a wrapper to the IPConfiguration agent, and can be used to control the BootP and DHCP client from the command - line interface. Like most UNIX - based operating systems, Mac OS X also uses ifconfig for more direct control over network interfaces, such as configuring static IP addresses.
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dcfc i will follow you into the dark lyrics | I Will Follow You into the Dark - wikipedia
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' is a song by indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie, the third single from their fifth album Plans, released on August 30, 2005.
Written and performed by Ben Gibbard, it is an acoustic solo ballad, and was recorded in monaural with a single microphone and little editing.
The single was released on Atlantic Records, becoming one of Death Cab for Cutie 's lowest - charting singles, peaking number 28 on the Modern Rock Tracks, number 66 on the UK Singles Chart and failing to chart on the Billboard Hot 100; however, "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was certified as gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and is the band 's best - selling single to - date. Despite charting lower than other singles, the single is still one of the band 's most played songs on commercial radio stations. The song 's popularity has led it to be featured in a various television shows and movies, and has been covered by numerous artists.
The song was written entirely by Death Cab for Cutie 's lead singer and guitarist Ben Gibbard.
Nearing age 29, Gibbard had never lost anyone really special in his life. Growing older during an ideal and comfortable time of his life led him to begin obsessing over death, the afterlife, and the weight of his relationships. He started to take stock of the importance of the people in his life and felt a need to say something about it, writing the song to deal with his problems of focusing on life by expanding his scope to include death and what comes afterward.
"It 's just this idea that what if somebody dies and we 're just floating, just stumbling around in infinite darkness, and I 'm just trying to find some kind of spiritual kind of peace with myself, and the world. ''
Originally planned to be recorded later in the sessions for Plans, technical issues arose with one set of headphones while tracking the vocals for a different song. Producer and guitarist Chris Walla told Gibbard to take a break while the issues were being addressed. Gibbard picked up his guitar and began playing "I Will Follow You into the Dark '', which was still going through the vocal microphone. Walla was impressed by the sound, leading him to suggest they do a quick tracking of the performance. It was this mono recording, with the only editing being mild compression and de-essing, that was eventually featured on the album and released as a single. Due to the impromptu nature of the recording, the vocals on the track are mixed louder than the guitar, and Gibbard 's breathing can be heard at the start of the song.
Two music videos were created for "I Will Follow You into the Dark '':
The main music video, filmed in Romania and directed by Jamie Thraves, features Ben Gibbard in a small sparsely decorated apartment, playing the song while sitting on his bed when he notices a hole in the wooden floor. Gibbard goes about daily activities while avoiding the constantly expanding hole, eventually rolling out of bed into it, hanging on by his fingertips. He finally lets go, only to land unharmed on solid ground within the void about as deep as his height. The song ends with Gibbard walking into the darkness, then pans to show the entire room again with the floor restored to its original, intact state.
An alternative video, directed by Monkmus, appears on the Death Cab for Cutie 's DVD Directions: The Plans Video Album. In this video, a picture - book takes up the center of the video frame, and the pages turn as the song progresses. Within the book, two rabbits meet and fall in love. Time passes until one of the rabbits apparently dies. There are other references to death throughout the video, such as a rotten bowl of fruit and an elderly man who appears to die, leaving his grandson behind. The video ends with a picture of the two rabbits together, presumably in eternal happiness together.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' has two separate United Kingdom - exclusive, colored vinyl 7 '' releases with B - sides recorded as part of the band 's Rolling Stone originals session. The part - one release is printed on teal vinyl with "Photobooth '' from The Forbidden Love EP as the B - side, and the part - two release is printed on clear orange vinyl with a B - side of "Brothers on a Hotel Bed ''. The CD single was also only released in the UK and contains the same "Brothers on a Hotel Bed '' B - side.
Critical response to "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was generally positive. In their reviews for the album Plans, Robert Christgau selected the song as his "choice cut '', Pitchfork Media called it the album 's "quiet centerpiece '' and praised its "unexpected turns of phrase '', PopMatters called it "one of the best written pop songs of the year -- if not of the past five years '', and Tiny Mix Tapes stated that it was "one of the band 's best songs to date. '' Rolling Stone however, said that the song "demonstrates how wise Gibbard is to let the band mess with his pristine melodies, which would sound wispy and ignorable on their own. ''
The song was nominated for the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, but lost to "My Humps '' by The Black Eyed Peas. By being nominated in this category, instead of for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, it credited the entire band for Gibbard 's solo performance.
The song achieved gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2009, for over 500,000 sales. "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' became Death Cab for Cutie 's best - selling single to date, and their overall second best - selling release after the album Plans itself.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was featured on the soundtrack of the 2007 film The Invisible, a remake of the 2002 Swedish film Den Osynlige. In 2008 it was featured in the television series 90210, in the episode "That Which We Destroy ''. The song was featured in the sitcom Scrubs, in the season eight episode entitled "My Last Words '', first broadcast in January 2009. The same year it was also the title of an episode of Grey 's Anatomy in the fifth season, originally airing in March 2009. It was used in the 2011 Nikita episode "Into the Dark '' (of which it was also the namesake), and was also used in the film Friends With Benefits the same year. An instrumental version of the song was featured in the 2011 film Crazy, Stupid, Love. The song was also used for the end credits of Mike Birbiglia 's Netflix comedy special My Girlfriend 's Boyfriend.
The 2012 film Into the Dark, originally titled I Will Follow You Into the Dark, derives its name from the song.
The book series, "ghostgirl '', references the song in the books.
A parody of the song, entitled "I Will Follow You into the Abyss of Death '', is featured in the 2007 film Alvin and the Chipmunks. In the movie, protagonist Dave Seville (Jason Lee) pitches the tune to record company executive Ian Hawke (David Cross), who pans it after hearing only a few seconds, and then encourages Seville to abandon his songwriting career.
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where does out of my mind take place | Out of My Mind (Draper novel) - wikipedia
Out of My Mind is a novel by Sharon M. Draper, a New York Times bestselling author. The cover illustration of the fifth edition is by Daniel Chang, and the cover photography is by Cyril Bruneau / Jupiter Images. A reading group guide is enclosed. The book is recommended for ages 10 and up and for grades 5 - 8. The story was written in first person, featuring Melody Brooks, a girl with cerebral palsy.
Melody Brooks is an eleven - year - old girl who was born with Cerebral Palsy. Her parents have done everything they can to help her live a normal life, but life is often frustrating for Melody since she can not speak, move, or communicate her wishes. As a result, Melody has to fight to get her wishes. At age five, Melody is even diagnosed as profoundly retarded. Despite this, Melody 's mom enrolls her in Spualding Street Elementary school to get the education she needs. However, the class she is put in is like a baby class, learning the same things every day. Melody is frustrated by this. Her neighbor, Mrs. V., is a kind, but tough woman. She pushes Melody to do the best she can. When Melody was three, Mrs. V. was n't impressed for Melody to rely on her parents for everything. Because of this, Mrs. V. forced her to learn how to crawl and roll on the ground. She even taught Melody how to catch herself whenever she fell from her wheelchair. These things helped Melody become self - sufficient, but she continues to be reliant on her parents to help feed her and help her go to the bathroom. When Melody turns eight, her mother becomes pregnant. During this time, Melody overhears them talking about the new baby and their fears that it will suffer the same disabilities. Melody feels ashamed when she hears this. However, Melody is happy when the baby, Penny, is born perfectly healthy. Melody feels jealous as Penny grows and matures since she 'll never be able to do the things Penny can do. However, Melody loves her little sister, and the pleasures Melody brings to her parents. When Melody enters fifth grade, she gets a communication device that allows her to talk with other people. At school, her new teacher starts an inclusion program that allows the special needs students to participate in the standard classes. Melody also gets an aide, Catherine, to help her. Melody enjoys her classes but dislikes the way other students assume that she is stupid. Two girls named Molly and Claire bully Melody. They think that Melody is so twisted and backwards that she ca n't hear them call her dumb. But Melody can hear and understand everything. Even her teacher, Mr. Dimming, believes that Melody can not participate, but is surprised that not only does Melody join, but passes a test exam of a trivia competition with a perfect score. Melody is then involved in the qualifying exam to be part of the trivia game and once again surprises everyone when she makes the team. Melody then helps the team win the qualifying competition to earn a trip to Washington D.C. for the national competition. However, on the day the group is to fly to Washington, Melody learns that her flight has been canceled due to weather, but the rest of the team has made an earlier flight without her. The next day, Melody insists on going to school. It is raining, and Melody 's mother is sick, tired, and frustrated. As they are about to leave, however, Melody realizes that Penny has gotten into the path of the car. Therefore, Melody kicks, screams, and hits to warn her mother. Her mother fails to understand, and Penny gets run over and is injured. Melody blames herself for not being able to inform her mom, even though everyone, especially Mrs. V., tells her it 's not her fault. Melody is terrified that Penny will have a brain injury like her and be like her. In the end, Melody learns that Penny is going to be okay, and just has a cast on her leg. Her class also apologizes for their lack of being considerate towards her by giving her their 9th place trophy. Melody in reply says, "No you keep it. ''
The cover shows a goldfish jumping out of a bowl. This cover represents Melody going out of her mind when being stuck in her head so long. The goldfish represents Melody, and the bowl symbolizes her mind.
There is also a scene in the book where Melody watches her pet goldfish jump out of the fish bowl to freedom. The cover of the book is both literal and a metaphor for how Melody feels trapped in her mind.
Critical reception has been positive and seen as a well - written novel. Out of My Mind has received reviews from The Denver Post, The Columbus Dispatch, Publishers Weekly, Children 's Literature, Washington Post, The Horn Book, and The Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books. The novel received starred reviews from School Library Journal, Booklist, and Kirkus Reviews. Kirkus Reviews praised the book was "rich in detail of both the essential normalcy and the difficulties of a young person with cerebral palsy '', and "descriptions of both Melody 's challenges -- "Going to the bathroom at school just plain sucks '' -- and the insensitivities of some are unflinching and realistic ". Publishers Weekly criticized that there was a "lack of tension in the plot '', although it was "resolved halfway through ''. Booklist stated that Out of My Mind is "a book that defies age categorization, an easy enough read for upper - elementary students yet also a story that will enlighten and resonate with teens and adults ''. The Bulletin said the novel "(Will make) students think twice about their classmates, acquaintances, and siblings with special needs ''. The Columbus Dispatch (Ohio) and Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (Pennsylvania) stated "Draper challenges those who read her story to become activists for those who are different ''. The Denver Post powerfully concluded: "if there 's only one book teens and parents (and everyone else) can read this year, Out of My Mind should be it. '' VOYA Magazine praised "Melody 's triumphs and setbacks as she strives to become a socially accepted classmate and team member are vividly described in this inspirational novel, which will appeal not only to middle school readers but also to anyone who wonders what might be going on in the minds of individuals with severe physical handicaps ''. The Horn Book exclaimed that the novel is "a powerfully eye - opening book with both an unforgettable protagonist and a rich cast of fully realized, complicated background characters ''. Children 's Literature said "this is a genuinely moving novel ''. The Washington Post commented "author Sharon Draper creates an authentic character who insists, through her lively voice and indomitable will, that the reader become fully involved with the girl in the pink wheelchair ''.
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why battle of plassey famous in the history of india | Battle of Plassey - wikipedia
Great Britain
Mughal Empire
Colonel Robert Clive
Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah
The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757. The battle consolidated the Company 's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years.
The battle took place at Palashi (Anglicised version: Plassey) on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad, then capital of Bengal (now in Nadia district in West Bengal). The belligerents were the Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company. Siraj - ud - daulah had become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, and he ordered the English to stop the extension of their fortification. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander in chief of the Nawab 's army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal. He defeated the Nawab at Plassey in 1757 and captured Calcutta.
The battle was preceded by the attack on British - controlled Calcutta by Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah and the Black Hole massacre. The British sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson from Madras to Bengal and recaptured Calcutta. Clive then seized the initiative to capture the French fort of Chandernagar. Tensions and suspicions between Siraj - ud - daulah and the British culminated in the Battle of Plassey. The battle was waged during the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), and, in a mirror of their European rivalry, the French East India Company (La Compagnie des Indes Orientales) sent a small contingent to fight against the British. Siraj - ud - Daulah had a numerically superior force and made his stand at Plassey. The British, worried about being outnumbered, formed a conspiracy with Siraj - ud - Daulah 's demoted army chief Mir Jafar, along with others such as Yar Lutuf Khan, Jagat Seths (Mahtab Chand and Swarup Chand), Omichund and Rai Durlabh. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan thus assembled their troops near the battlefield but made no move to actually join the battle. Siraj - ud - Daulah 's army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons and 10 war elephants was defeated by 3,000 soldiers of Col. Robert Clive, owing to the flight of Siraj - ud - daulah from the battlefield and the inactivity of the conspirators. The battle was ended in 11 hours.
This is judged to be one of the pivotal battles in the control of Indian subcontinent by the colonial powers. The British now wielded enormous influence over the Nawab and consequently acquired significant concessions for previous losses and revenue from trade. The British further used this revenue to increase their military might and push the other European colonial powers such as the Dutch and the French out of South Asia, thus expanding the British Empire.
The British East India Company had a strong presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a president and a council, appointed by the Court of Directors in England. The British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security. By the 18th century all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese counterparts. The French had also established an East India Company under Louis XIV and had two important stations in India -- Chandernagar in Bengal and Pondicherry on the Carnatic coast, both governed by the presidency of Pondicherry. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they quickly established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 1748) marked the beginning of the power struggle between Britain and France and of European military ascendancy and political intervention in the Indian subcontinent. In September 1746, Mahé de La Bourdonnais landed off Madras with a naval squadron and laid siege to the port city. The defences of Madras were weak and the garrison sustained a bombardment of three days before surrendering. The terms of the surrender agreed by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be ransomed back for a cash payment by the British East India Company. However, this concession was opposed by Joseph François Dupleix, the governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des Indes Orientales. When Bourdonnais left India in October, Dupleix reneged on the agreement. The Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and the combined forces advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers, the army was easily crushed by the French. As retaliation to the loss of Madras, the British, under Major Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, laid siege to Pondicherry but were forced to raise it after thirty - one days. The Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle in 1748 forced Dupleix to yield Madras back to the British in return for Louisbourg and Cape Breton Island in North America.
The Treaty of Aix - La - Chapelle prevented direct hostilities between the two powers but soon they were involved in indirect hostilities as the auxiliaries of the local princes in their feuds. The feud Dupleix chose was for the succession to the positions of the Nizam of the Deccan and the Nawab of the dependent Carnatic province. The British and the French both nominated their candidates for the two posts. In both cases, Dupleix 's candidates usurped both thrones by manipulation and two assassinations. In mid-1751, the French candidate for the Nawab 's post, Chanda Sahib, laid siege to the British candidate Mohammed Ali 's last stronghold Trichinopoly, where Ali was holed up with his British reinforcements. He was aided by a French force under Charles, Marquis de Bussy.
On 1 September 1751, 280 Europeans and 300 sepoys under the command of Captain Robert Clive attacked and seized Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, finding that the garrison had fled the night before. It was hoped that this would force Chanda Sahib to divert some of his troops to wrest the city back from the British. Chanda Sahib sent a force of 4,000 Indians under Raza Sahib and 150 Frenchmen. They besieged the fort and breached the walls in various places after several weeks. Clive sent out a message to Morari Rao, a Maratha chieftain who had received a subsidy to assist Mohammed Ali and was encamped in the Mysore hills. Raza Sahib, learning of the imminent Maratha approach, sent a letter to Clive asking him to surrender in return for a large sum of money but this offer was refused. In the morning of 24 November, Raza Sahib tried to mount a final assault on the fort but was foiled in his attempt when his armoured elephants stampeded due to the British musketry. They tried to enter the fort through the breach several times but always repulsed with loss. The siege was raised the next day and Raza Sahib 's forces fled from the scene, abandoning guns, ammunition and stores. With success at Arcot, Conjeeveram and Trichinopoly, the British secured the Carnatic and Mohammed Ali succeeded to the throne of the Nawab in accordance with a treaty with the new French governor Godeheu.
Alwardi Khan ascended to the throne of the Nawab of Bengal after his army attacked and captured the capital of Bengal, Murshidabad. Alivardi 's attitude to the Europeans in Bengal is said to be strict. During his wars with the Marathas, he allowed the strengthening of fortifications by the Europeans and the construction of the Maratha Ditch in Calcutta by the British. On the other hand, he collected large amounts of money from them for the upkeep of his war. He was well - informed of the situation in southern India, where the British and the French had started a proxy war using the local princes and rulers. Alwardi did not wish such a situation to transpire in his province and thus exercised caution in his dealings with the Europeans. However, there was continual friction; the British always complained that they were prevented from the full enjoyment of the farman of 1717 issued by Farrukhsiyar. The British, however, protected subjects of the Nawab, gave passes to native traders to trade custom - free and levied large duties on goods coming to their districts -- actions which were detrimental to the Nawab 's revenue.
In April 1756, Alwardi Khan died and was succeeded by his twenty - three - year - old grandson, Siraj - ud - daulah. His personality was said to be a combination of a ferocious temper and a feeble understanding. He was particularly suspicious of the large profits made by the European companies in India. When the British and the French started improving their fortifications in anticipation of another war between them, he immediately ordered them to stop such activities as they had been done without permission. When the British refused to cease their constructions, the Nawab led a detachment of 3,000 men to surround the fort and factory of Cossimbazar and took several British officials as prisoners, before moving to Calcutta. The defences of Calcutta were weak and negligible. The garrison consisted of only 180 soldiers, 50 European volunteers, 60 European militia, 150 Armenian and Portuguese militia, 35 European artillery - men and 40 volunteers from ships and was pitted against the Nawab 's force of nearly 50,000 infantry and cavalry. The city was occupied on 16 June by Siraj 's force and the fort surrendered after a brief siege on 20 June.
The prisoners who were captured at the siege of Calcutta were transferred by Siraj to the care of the officers of his guard, who confined them to the common dungeon of Fort William known as The Black Hole. This dungeon, 18 by 14 feet (5.5 m × 4.3 m) in size with two small windows, had 146 prisoners thrust into it -- originally employed by the British to hold only six prisoners. On 21 June, the doors of the dungeon were opened and only 23 of the 146 walked out, the rest died of asphyxiation, heat exhaustion and delirium. It appears that the Nawab was unaware of the conditions in which his prisoners were held which resulted in the unfortunate deaths of most of the prisoners. Meanwhile, the Nawab 's army and navy were busy plundering the city of Calcutta and the other British factories in the surrounding areas.
When news of the fall of Calcutta broke in Madras on 16 August 1756, the Council immediately sent out an expeditionary force under Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson. A letter from the Council of Fort St. George, states that "the object of the expedition was not merely to re-establish the British settlements in Bengal, but also to obtain ample recognition of the Company 's privileges and reparation for its losses '' without the risk of war. It also states that any signs of dissatisfaction and ambition among the Nawab 's subjects must be supported. Clive assumed command of the land forces, consisting of 900 Europeans and 1500 sepoys while Watson commanded a naval squadron. The fleet entered the Hooghly River in December and met with the fugitives of Calcutta and the surrounding areas, including the principal Members of the Council, at the village of Falta on 15 December. The Members of Council formed a Select Committee of direction. On 29 December, the force dislodged the enemy from the fort of Budge Budge. Clive and Watson then moved against Calcutta on 2 January 1757 and the garrison of 500 men surrendered after offering a scanty resistance. With Calcutta recaptured, the Council was reinstated and a plan of action against the Nawab was prepared. The fortifications of Fort William were strengthened and a defensive position was prepared in the north - east of the city.
On 9 January 1757, a force of 650 men under Captain Coote and Major Kilpatrick stormed and sacked the town of Hooghly, 23 miles (37 km) north of Calcutta. On learning of this attack, the Nawab raised his army and marched on Calcutta, arriving with the main body on 3 February and encamping beyond the Maratha Ditch. Siraj set up his headquarters in Omichund 's garden. A small body of their army attacked the northern suburbs of the town but were beaten back by a detachment under Lieutenant Lebeaume placed there, returning with fifty prisoners.
Clive decided to launch a surprise attack on the Nawab 's camp on the morning of 4 February. At midnight, a force of 600 sailors, a battalion of 650 Europeans, 100 artillery - men, 800 sepoys and 6 six - pounders approached the Nawab 's camp. At 6: 00, under the cover of a thick fog, the vanguard came upon the Nawab 's advanced guard, who after firing with their matchlocks and rockets, ran away. They continued forward for some distance till they were opposite Omichund 's garden, when they heard the galloping of cavalry on their right. The cavalry came within 30 yards (27 m) of the British force before the line gave fire, killing many and dispersing the rest. The fog hampered visibility beyond walking distance. Hence, the line moved slowly, infantry and artillery firing on either side randomly. Clive had intended to use a narrow raised causeway, south of the garden, to attack the Nawab 's quarters in the garden. The Nawab 's troops had barricaded the passage. At about 9: 00, as the fog began to lift, the troops were overwhelmed by the discharge of two pieces of heavy cannon from across the Maratha Ditch by the Nawab 's artillery. The British troops were assailed on all sides by cavalry and musket - fire. The Nawab troops then made for a bridge a mile further on, crossed the Maratha Ditch and reached Calcutta. The total casualties of Clive 's force were 57 killed and 137 wounded. The Nawab 's army lost 22 officers of distinction, 600 common men, 4 elephants, 500 horses, some camels and a great number of bullocks. The attack scared the Nawab into concluding the Treaty of Alinagar with the Company on 5 February, agreeing to restore the Company 's factories, allow the fortification of Calcutta and restoring former privileges. The Nawab withdrew his army back to his capital, Murshidabad.
Concerned by the approach of de Bussy to Bengal and the Seven Years ' War in Europe, the Company turned its attention to the French threat in Bengal. Clive planned to capture the French town of Chandernagar, 20 miles (32 km) north of Calcutta. Clive needed to know whose side the Nawab would intervene on if he attacked Chandernagar. The Nawab sent evasive replies and Clive construed this to be assent to the attack. Clive commenced hostilities on the town and fort of Chandernagar on 14 March. The French had set up defences on the roads leading to the fort and had sunk several ships in the river channel to prevent passage of the men of war. The garrison consisted of 600 Europeans and 300 sepoys. The French expected assistance from the Nawab 's forces from Hooghly, but the governor of Hooghly, Nandkumar had been bribed to remain inactive and prevent the Nawab 's reinforcement of Chandernagar. The fort was well - defended, but when Admiral Watson 's squadron forced the blockade in the channel on 23 March, a fierce cannonade ensued with aid from two batteries on the shore. The naval squadron suffered greatly due to musket - fire from the fort. At 9: 00 on 24 March, a flag of truce was shown by the French and by 15: 00, the capitulation concluded. After plundering Chandernagar, Clive decided to ignore his orders to return to Madras and remain in Bengal. He moved his army to the north of the town of Hooghly.
Furthermore, Siraj - ud - Daula believed that the British East India Company did not receive any permission from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II to fortify their positions in the territories of the Nawab of Bengal.
The Nawab was infuriated on learning of the attack on Chandernagar. His former hatred of the British returned, but he now felt the need to strengthen himself by alliances against the British. The Nawab was plagued by fear of attack from the north by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and from the west by the Marathas. Therefore, he could not deploy his entire force against the British for fear of being attacked from the flanks. A deep distrust set in between the British and the Nawab. As a result, Siraj started secret negotiations with Jean Law, chief of the French factory at Cossimbazar, and de Bussy. The Nawab also moved a large division of his army under Rai Durlabh to Plassey, on the island of Cossimbazar 30 miles (48 km) south of Murshidabad.
Popular discontent against the Nawab flourished in his own court. The Seths, the traders of Bengal, were in perpetual fear for their wealth under the reign of Siraj, contrary to the situation under Alivardi 's reign. They had engaged Yar Lutuf Khan to defend them in case they were threatened in any way. William Watts, the Company representative at the court of Siraj, informed Clive about a conspiracy at the court to overthrow the ruler. The conspirators included Mir Jafar, paymaster of the army, Rai Durlabh, Yar Lutuf Khan and Omichund, a merchant and several officers in the army. When communicated in this regard by Mir Jafar, Clive referred it to the select committee in Calcutta on 1 May. The committee passed a resolution in support of the alliance. A treaty was drawn between the British and Mir Jafar to raise him to the throne of the Nawab in return for support to the British in the field of battle and the bestowal of large sums of money upon them as compensation for the attack on Calcutta. On 2 May, Clive broke up his camp and sent half the troops to Calcutta and the other half to Chandernagar.
Mir Jafar and the Seths desired that the confederacy between the British and himself be kept secret from Omichund, but when he found out about it, he threatened to betray the conspiracy if his share was not increased to three million rupees (£ 300,000). Hearing of this, Clive suggested an expedient to the Committee. He suggested that two treaties be drawn -- the real one on white paper, containing no reference to Omichund and the other on red paper, containing Omichund 's desired stipulation, to deceive him. The Members of the Committee signed on both treaties, but Admiral Watson signed only the real one and his signature had to be counterfeited on the fictitious one. Both treaties and separate articles for donations to the army, navy squadron and committee were signed by Mir Jafar on 4 June.
Clive testified and defended himself thus before the House of Commons of Parliament on 10 May 1773, during the Parliamentary inquiry into his conduct in India:
Omichund, his confidential servant, as he thought, told his master of an agreement made between the English and Monsieur Duprée (may be a mistranscription of Dupleix) to attack him, and received for that advice a sum of not less than four lacks of rupees. Finding this to be the man in whom the nabob entirely trusted, it soon became our object to consider him as a most material engine in the intended revolution. We therefore made such an agreement as was necessary for the purpose, and entered into a treaty with him to satisfy his demands. When all things were prepared, and the evening of the event was appointed, Omichund informed Mr. Watts, who was at the court of the nabob, that he insisted upon thirty lacks of rupees, and five per cent. upon all the treasure that should be found; that, unless that was immediately complied with, he would disclose the whole to the nabob; and that Mr. Watts, and the two other English gentlemen then at the court, should be cut off before the morning. Mr. Watts, immediately on this information, dispatched an express to me at the council. I did not hesitate to find out a stratagem to save the lives of these people, and secure success to the intended event. For this purpose we signed another treaty. The one was called the Red, the other the White treaty. This treaty was signed by every one, except admiral Watson; and I should have considered myself sufficiently authorised to put his name to it, by the conversation I had with him. As to the person who signed admiral Watson 's name to the treaty, whether he did it in his presence or not, I can not say; but this I know, that he thought he had sufficient authority for so doing. This treaty was immediately sent to Omichund, who did not suspect the stratagem. The event took place, and success attended it; and the House, I am fully persuaded, will agree with me, that, when the very existence of the Company was at stake, and the lives of these people so precariously situated, and so certain of being destroyed, it was a matter of true policy and of justice to deceive so great a villain.
On 12 June, Clive was joined by Major Kilpatrick with the rest of the army from Calcutta at Chandernagar. The combined force consisted of 613 Europeans, 171 artillery - men controlling eight field pieces and two howitzers, 91 topasses, 2100 sepoys (mainly dusadhs) and 150 sailors. The army set out for Murshidabad on 13 June. Clive sent out the Nawab 's messengers with a letter declaring his intention to march his army to Murshidabad to refer their complaints with regard to the treaty of 9 February with the principal officers of the Nawab 's government. The Indian troops marched on shore while the Europeans with the supplies and artillery were towed up the river in 200 boats. On 14 June, Clive sent a declaration of war to Siraj. On 15 June, after ordering an attack on Mir Jafar 's palace in suspicion of his alliance with the British, Siraj obtained a promise from Mir Jafar to not join the British in the field of battle. He then ordered his entire army to move to Plassey, but the troops refused to quit the city until the arrears of their pay were released. The delay caused the army to reach Plassey only by 21 June.
By 16 June, the British force had reached Paltee, 12 miles (19 km) north of which lay the strategically important town and fort of Katwa. It contained large stores of grain and military supplies and was covered by the river Aji. On 17 June, Clive despatched a force of 200 Europeans, 500 sepoys, one field piece and a small howitzer under Major Coote of the 39th Foot to capture the fort. The detachment found the town abandoned when they landed at midnight. At daybreak on 19 June, Major Coote went to the bank of the river and waved a white flag, but was met only by shot and a show of defiance by the governor. Coote split his Anglo - Indian force; the sepoys crossed the river and fired the ramparts while the Europeans crossed farther up from the fort. When the garrison saw the advancing troops, they gave up their posts and fled north. Hearing of the success, Clive and the rest of the army arrived at Katwa by the evening of 19 June.
At this juncture, Clive faced a dilemma. The Nawab had reconciled with Mir Jafar and had posted him on one flank of his army. Mir Jafar had sent messages to Clive, declaring his intention to uphold the treaty between them. Clive decided to refer the problem to his officers and held a council of war on 21 June. The question Clive put before them was whether, under the present circumstances, the army, without other assistance, should immediately cross into the island of Cossimbazar and attack the Nawab or whether they should fortify their position in Katwa and trust to assistance from the Marathas or other Indian powers. Of the twenty officers attending the council, thirteen including Clive were against immediate action, while the rest including Major Coote were in favour citing recent success and the high spirits of the troops. The council broke up and after an hour of deliberation, Clive gave the army orders to cross the Bhagirathi River (another name for the Hooghly River) on the morning of 22 June.
At 1: 00, on 23 June, they reached their destination beyond the village of Plassey. They quickly occupied the adjoining mango grove, called Laksha Bagh, which was 800 yards (730 m) long and 300 yards (270 m) wide and enclosed by a ditch and a mud wall. Its length was angled diagonally to the Bhagirathi River. A little to the north of the grove at the bank of the river stood a hunting lodge enclosed by a masonry wall where Clive took up his quarters. The grove was about a mile from the Nawab 's entrenchments. The Nawab 's army had been in place 26 hours before Clive 's. A French detachment under Jean Law would reach Plassey in two days. Their army lay behind earthen entrenchments running at right angles to the river for 200 yards (180 m) and then turning to the north - eastern direction for 3 miles (4.8 km). There was a redoubt mounted by cannon at this turning along the entrenchment. There was a small hill covered by trees 300 yards (270 m) east of the redoubt. 800 yards (730 m) towards the British position was a small tank (reservoir) and 100 yards (91 m) further south was a larger tank, both surrounded by a large mound of earth.
At daybreak on 23 June, the Nawab 's army emerged from their camp and started advancing towards the grove. Their army consisted of 30,000 infantry of all sorts, armed with matchlocks, swords, pikes and rockets and 20,000 cavalry, armed with swords or long spears, interspersed by 300 pieces of artillery, mostly 32, 24 and 18 - pounders. The army also included a detachment of about 50 French artillerymen under de St. Frais directing their own field pieces. The French took up positions at the larger tank with four light pieces advanced by two larger pieces, within a mile of the grove. Behind them were a body of 5,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantry commanded by the Nawab 's faithful general Mir madan Khan and Diwan Mohanlal. The rest of the army numbering 45,000 formed an arc from the small hill to a position 800 yards (730 m) east of the southern angle of the grove, threatening to surround Clive 's relatively smaller army. The right arm of their army was commanded by Rai Durlabh, the centre by Yar Lutuf Khan and the left arm closest to the British by Mir Jafar.
Clive watched the situation unfolding from the roof of the hunting lodge, anticipating news from Mir Jafar. He ordered his troops to advance from the grove and line up facing the larger tank. His army consisted of 750 European infantry with 100 Topasses, 2100 sepoys (dusadhs) and 100 artillery - men assisted by 50 sailors. The artillery consisted of eight 6 - pounders and two howitzers. The Europeans and Topasses were placed in the centre of the line in four divisions, flanked on both sides by three 6 - pounders. The sepoys were placed on the right and left in equal divisions. Clive posted two 6 - pounders and two howitzers behind some brick - kilns 200 yards (180 m) north of the left division of his army to oppose the French fire.
At 8: 00, the French artillery at the larger tank fired the first shot, killing one and wounding another from the grenadier company of the 39th Regiment. This, as a signal, the rest of the Nawab 's artillery started a heavy and continuous fire. The advanced field pieces of the British opposed the French fire, while those with the battalion opposed the rest of the Nawab 's artillery. Their shots did not serve to immobilize the artillery but hit the infantry and cavalry divisions. By 8: 30, the British had lost 10 Europeans and 20 sepoys. Leaving the advanced artillery at the brick kilns, Clive ordered the army to retreat back to relative shelter of the grove. The rate of casualties of the British dropped substantially due to the protection of the embankment.
At the end of three hours, there was no substantial progress and the positions of both sides had not changed. Clive called a meeting of his staff to discuss the way ahead. It was concluded that the present position would be maintained till after nightfall, and an attack on the Nawab 's camp should be attempted at midnight. Soon after the conference, a heavy rainstorm occurred. The British used tarpaulins to protect their ammunition, while the Nawab 's army took no such precautions. As a result, their gunpowder got drenched and their rate of fire slackened, while Clive 's artillery kept up a continuous fire. As the rain began to subside, Mir Madan Khan, assuming that the British guns were rendered ineffective by the rain, led his cavalry to a charge. However, the British countered the charge with heavy grape shot, mortally wounding Mir Madan Khan and driving back his men.
Siraj had remained in his tent throughout the cannonade surrounded by attendants and officers assuring him of victory. When he heard that Mir Madan was mortally wounded, he was deeply disturbed and attempted reconciliation with Mir Jafar, flinging his turban to the ground, entreating him to defend it. Mir Jafar promised his services but immediately sent word of this encounter to Clive, urging him to push forward. Following Mir Jafar 's exit from the Nawab 's tent, Rai Durlabh urged Siraj to withdraw his army behind the entrenchment and advised him to return to Murshidabad leaving the battle to his generals. Siraj complied with this advice and ordered the troops under Mohan Lal to retreat behind the entrenchment. He then mounted a camel and accompanied by 2,000 horsemen set out for Murshidabad.
At about 14: 00, the Nawab 's army ceased the cannonade and began turning back north to their entrenchments, leaving St. Frais and his artillery without support. Seeing the Nawab 's forces retiring, Major Kilpatrick, who had been left in charge of the British force while Clive was resting in the hunting lodge, recognised the opportunity to cannonade the retiring enemy if St. Frais ' position could be captured. Sending an officer to Clive to explain his actions, he took two companies of the 39th Regiment and two field pieces and advanced towards St. Frais ' position. When Clive received the message, he hurried to the detachment and reprimanded Kilpatrick for his actions without orders and commanded to bring up the rest of the army from the grove. Clive himself then led the army against St. Frais ' position which was taken at 15: 00 when the French artillery retreated to the redoubt of the entrenchment, setting up for further action.
As the British force moved towards the larger tank, it was observed that the left arm of the Nawab 's army had lingered behind the rest. When the rear of this division reached a point in a line with the northern point of the grove, it turned left and marched towards the grove. Clive, unaware that it was Mir Jafar 's division, supposed that his baggage and stores were the intended target and sent three platoons under Captain Grant and Lieutenant Rumbold and a field piece under John Johnstone, a volunteer, to check their advance. The fire of the field piece halted the advance of the division, which remained isolated from the rest of the Nawab 's army.
Meanwhile, the British field pieces began a cannonade on the Nawab 's camp from the mound of the larger tank. As a result, many of the Nawab 's troops and artillery started coming out of the entrenchment. Clive advanced half of his troops and artillery to the smaller tank and the other half to a rising ground 200 yards (180 m) to the left of it and started bombarding the entrenchment with greater efficiency, throwing the approaching trains into confusion. The Nawab 's troops shot their matchlocks from holes, ditches, hollows and from bushes on the hill east of the redoubt while St. Frais kept up his artillery fire from the redoubt. Cavalry charges were also repulsed by the British field pieces. However, the British force sustained most of its casualties in this phase.
At this point, Clive realised that the lingering division was Mir Jafar 's and concentrated his efforts at capturing the redoubt and hill east of it. Clive ordered a three - pronged attack with simultaneous attacks by two detachments on the redoubt and the hill supported by the main force in the centre. Two companies of grenadiers of the 39th Regiment, under Major Coote took the hill at 16: 30 after the enemy fled without firing a shot. Coote pursued them across the entrenchment. The redoubt was also taken after St. Frais was forced to retreat. By 17: 00, the British occupied the entrenchment and the camp left by a dispersing army. The British troops marched on and halted 6 miles (9.7 km) beyond Daudpur at 20: 00.
The British losses were estimated at 22 killed and 50 wounded. Of the killed, three were of the Madras Artillery, one of the Madras Regiment and one of the Bengal European Regiment. Of the wounded, four were of the 39th Regiment, three of the Madras Regiment, four of the Madras Artillery, two of the Bengal European Regiment, one of the Bengal Artillery and one of the Bombay Regiment. Of the losses by the sepoys, four Madras and nine Bengal sepoys were killed while nineteen Madras and eleven Bengal sepoys were wounded. Clive estimates that the Nawab 's force lost 500 men, including several key officers.
In the evening of 23 June, Clive received a letter from Mir Jafar asking for a meeting with him. Clive replied that he would meet Mir Jafar at Daudpur the next morning. When Mir Jafar arrived at the British camp at Daudpur in the morning, Clive embraced him and saluted him as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. He then advised Mir Jafar to hasten to Murshidabad to prevent Siraj 's escape and the plunder of his treasure. Mir Jafar reached Murshidabad with his troops on the evening of 24 June. Clive arrived at Murshidabad on 29 June with a guard of 200 European soldiers and 300 sepoys in the wake of rumours of a possible attempt on his life. Clive was taken to the Nawab 's palace, where he was received by Mir Jafar and his officers. Clive placed Mir Jafar on the throne and acknowledging his position as Nawab, presented him with a plate of gold rupees.
Siraj - ud - daulah had reached Murshidabad at midnight on 23 June. He summoned a council where some advised him to surrender to the British, some to continue the war and some to prolong his flight. At 22: 00 on 24 June, Siraj disguised himself and escaped northwards on a boat with his wife and valuable jewels. His intention was to escape to Patna with aid from Jean Law. At midnight on 24 June, Mir Jafar sent several parties in pursuit of Siraj. On 2 July, Siraj reached Rajmahal and took shelter in a deserted garden but was soon discovered and betrayed to the local military governor, the brother of Mir Jafar, by a man who was previously arrested and punished by Siraj. His fate could not be decided by a council headed by Mir Jafar and was handed over to Mir Jafar 's son, Miran, who had Siraj murdered that night. His remains were paraded on the streets of Murshidabad the next morning and were buried at the tomb of Alivardi Khan.
According to the treaty drawn between the British and Mir Jafar, the British acquired all the land within the Maratha Ditch and 600 yards (550 m) beyond it and the zamindari of all the land between Calcutta and the sea. Besides confirming the firman of 1717, the treaty also required the restitution, including donations to the navy squadron, army and committee, of 22,000,000 rupees (£ 2,750,000) to the British for their losses. However, since the wealth of Siraj - ud - daulah proved to be far less than expected, a council held with the Seths and Rai Durlabh on 29 June decided that one half of the amount was to be paid immediately -- two - thirds in coin and one third in jewels and other valuables. As the council ended, it was revealed to Omichund that he would receive nothing with regard to the treaty, hearing which he went insane.
As a result of the war of Plassey, the French were no longer a significant force in Bengal. In 1759, the British defeated a larger French garrison at Masulipatam, securing the Northern Circars. By 1759, Mir Jafar felt that his position as a subordinate to the British could not be tolerated. He started encouraging the Dutch to advance against the British and eject them from Bengal. In late 1759, the Dutch sent seven large ships and 1400 men from Java to Bengal under the pretext of reinforcing their Bengal settlement of Chinsura even though Britain and Holland were not officially at war. Clive, however, initiated immediate offensive operations by land and sea and defeated the much larger Dutch force on 25 November 1759 in the Battle of Chinsura. The British then deposed Mir Jafar and installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal. The British were now the paramount European power in Bengal. When Clive returned to England due to ill - health, he was rewarded with an Irish peerage, as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey and also obtained a seat in the British House of Commons.
The struggle continued in areas of the Deccan and Hyderabad such as Arcot, Wandewash, Tanjore and Cuddalore, culminating in 1761 when Col. Eyre Coote defeated a French garrison under de Lally, supported by Hyder Ali at Pondicherry. The French were returned Pondicherry in 1763 by way of the Treaty of Paris but they never again regained their former stature in India. The British would, in effect, emerge as rulers of the subcontinent in subsequent years.
The Battle of Plassey and the resultant victory of the British East India company led to puppet governments instated by them in various states of India. This led to an unleashing of excesses, malpractices and atrocities by the British East India Company in the name of tax collection.
A monument was established in the battlefield, called Palashi Monument.
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causes of hyperinflation in germany during the 1920s | Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic - wikipedia
During a period between 1918 and January 1924, the German mark suffered hyperinflation. It caused considerable internal political instability in the country, the occupation of the Ruhr by foreign troops as well as misery for the general populace.
To pay for the large costs of the ongoing First World War, Germany suspended the gold standard (the convertibility of its currency to gold) when the war broke out. Unlike the French Third Republic, which imposed its first income tax to pay for the war, German Emperor Wilhelm II and the German parliament decided unanimously to fund the war entirely by borrowing, a decision criticized by financial experts such as Hjalmar Schacht as a dangerous risk for currency devaluation.
The government believed that it would be able to pay off the debt by winning the war, and it would be able to annex resource - rich industrial territory in the west and east. Also, it would be able to impose massive reparations on the defeated Allies. The exchange rate of the mark against the US dollar thus steadily devalued from 4.2 to 7.9 marks per dollar, a preliminary to the extreme postwar inflation.
The strategy failed when Germany lost the war. The new Weimar Republic was saddled with a massive war debt that it could not afford. That was worsened by the fact that it was printing money without economic resources to back it. The Treaty of Versailles further accelerated the decline in the value of the mark, so that 48 paper marks were required to buy a US dollar by late 1919.
German currency was relatively stable at about 90 marks per dollar during the first half of 1921. Because the Western Front was mostly in France and Belgium, Germany came out of the war with most of its industrial infrastructure intact. It was in a better position to become the dominant economic force on the European continent.
The London Ultimatum in May 1921, demanded World War I reparations in gold or foreign currency to be paid in annual installments of 2 billion gold marks, plus 26 % of the value of Germany 's exports.
The first payment was made when it came due in June 1921. It marked the beginning of an increasingly rapid devaluation of the mark, which fell in value to approximately 330 marks per dollar. The total reparations demanded were 132 billion gold marks, but Germany had to pay only 50 billion marks.
Since reparations were required to be repaid in hard currency, not the rapidly depreciating paper mark, one strategy that Germany used was the mass printing of bank notes to buy foreign currency, which was then used to pay reparations. That greatly exacerbated the inflation of the paper mark.
From August 1921, Germany began to buy foreign currency with marks at any price, but that only increased the speed of breakdown in the value of the mark. As the mark sank in international markets, more and more marks were required to buy the foreign currency that was demanded by the Reparations Commission.
In the first half of 1922, the mark stabilized at about 320 marks per dollar. International reparations conferences were being held. One, in June 1922, was organized by US investment banker J.P. Morgan, Jr. The meetings produced no workable solution, and inflation erupted into hyperinflation, the mark falling to 7,400 marks per US dollar by December 1922. The cost - of - living index was 41 in June 1922 and 685 in December, a 15-fold increase.
By fall 1922, Germany found itself unable to make reparations payments. The mark was by now practically worthless, making it impossible for Germany to buy foreign exchange or gold using paper marks. Instead, reparations were to be paid in goods such as coal. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the industrial region of Germany in the Ruhr valley to ensure reparations payments. Inflation was exacerbated when workers in the Ruhr went on a general strike and the German government printed more money to continue paying for their passive resistance. By November 1923, the US dollar was worth 4,210,500,000,000 German marks.
50,000 marks, Aachen, 1923
500,000 marks, Leipzig, 1923
5,000,000 marks, Danzig, 1923
50,000,000 marks, Trier, 1923
500,000,000 marks, Dresden, 1923
5,000,000,000 marks, Berlin, 1923
50,000,000,000 marks, Plauen, 1923
500,000,000,000 marks, Berlin, 1923
5,000,000,000,000 marks, Stuttgart, 1923
50,000,000,000,000 marks Eschweiler, 1923
The hyperinflation crisis led prominent economists and politicians to seek a means to stabilize German currency. In August 1923, an economist, Karl Helfferich, proposed a plan to issue a new currency, the "Roggenmark '' ("rye mark ''), to be backed by mortgage bonds indexed to the market price of rye grain. The plan was rejected because of the greatly fluctuating price of rye in paper marks.
Agriculture Minister Hans Luther proposed a plan that substituted gold for rye and led to the issuance of the Rentenmark ("mortgage mark ''), backed by bonds indexed to the market price of gold. The gold bonds were defined at the rate of 2790 gold marks per kilogram of gold, the same as the prewar gold marks. Rentenmarks were not redeemable in gold but only indexed to the gold bonds. The plan was adopted in monetary reform decrees, on October 13 -- 15, 1923. A new bank, the Rentenbank, was set up and controlled by new German Finance Minister Hans Luther.
After November 12, 1923, when Hjalmar Schacht became currency commissioner, Germany 's central bank (the Reichsbank) was not allowed to discount any further government Treasury bills, which meant the corresponding issue of paper marks also ceased. The discounting of commercial trade bills was allowed and the amount of Rentenmarks expanded, but the issue was strictly controlled to conform to current commercial and government transactions. The Rentenbank refused credit to the government and to speculators who were not able to borrow Rentenmarks, because Rentenmarks were not legal tender.
On November 16, 1923, the new Rentenmark was introduced to replace the worthless paper marks issued by the Reichsbank. Twelve zeros were cut from prices, and the prices quoted in the new currency remained stable.
When the president of the Reichsbank, Rudolf Havenstein, died on November 20, 1923, Schacht was appointed to replace him. By November 30, 1923, there were 500,000,000 Rentenmarks in circulation, which increased to 1,000,000,000 by January 1, 1924 and to 1,800,000,000 Rentenmarks by July 1924. Meanwhile, the old paper Marks continued in circulation. The total paper marks increased to 1.2 sextillion (1,200,000,000,000,000,000,000) in July 1924 and continued to fall in value to a third of their conversion value in Rentenmarks.
On August 30, 1924, a monetary law permitted the exchange of a 1 - trillion paper mark note to a new Reichsmark, worth the same as a Rentenmark. By 1924 one dollar was equivalent to 4.2 Rentenmark.
Eventually, some debts were reinstated to compensate creditors partially for the catastrophic reduction in the value of debts that had been quoted in paper marks before the hyperinflation. A decree of 1925 reinstated some mortgages at 25 % of face value in the new currency, effectively 25,000,000,000 times their value in the old paper marks, if they had been held for at least five years. Similarly, some government bonds were reinstated at 2.5 % of face value, to be paid after reparations were paid.
Mortgage debt was reinstated at much higher rates than government bonds were. The reinstatement of some debts and a resumption of effective taxation in a still - devastated economy triggered a wave of corporate bankruptcies.
One of the important issues of the stabilization of a hyperinflation is the revaluation. The term normally refers to the raising of the exchange rate of one national currency against other currencies. As well, it can mean revalorization, the restoration of the value of a currency depreciated by inflation. The German government had the choice of a revaluation law to finish the hyperinflation quickly or of allowing sprawling and the political and violent disturbances on the streets. The government argued in detail that the interests of creditors and debtors had to be fair and balanced. Neither the living standard price index nor the share price index was judged as relevant.
The calculation of the conversion relation was considerably judged to the dollar index as well as to the wholesale price index. In principle, the German government followed the line of market - oriented reasoning that the dollar index and the wholesale price index would roughly indicate the true price level in general over the period of high inflation and hyperinflation. In addition, the revaluation was bound on the exchange rate mark and United States dollar to obtain the value of the Goldmark.
Finally, the Law on the Revaluation of Mortgages and other Claims of 16 July 1925 (Gesetz über die Aufwertung von Hypotheken und anderen Ansprüchen or Aufwertungsgesetze) included only the ratio of the paper mark to the gold mark for the period from January 1, 1918, to November 30, 1923, and the following days. The galloping inflation thus caused the end of a principle, "a mark is worth a mark '', which had been recognized, the nominal value principle.
The law was challenged in the Supreme Court of the German Reich (Reichsgericht), but its 5th Senate ruled, on November 4, 1925, that the law was constitutional, even according to the Bill of Rights and Duties of Germans (Articles 109, 134, 152 and 153 of the Constitution). The case set a precedent for judicial review in German jurisprudence.
The hyperinflation episode in the Weimar Republic in the early 1920s was not the first or even the most severe instance of inflation in history (the Hungarian pengő and Zimbabwean dollar, for example, have been even more inflated). However, it has been the subject of the most scholarly economic analysis and debate. The hyperinflation drew significant interest, as many of the dramatic and unusual economic behaviors now associated with hyperinflation were first documented systematically: exponential increases in prices and interest rates, redenomination of the currency, consumer flight from cash to hard assets and the rapid expansion of industries that produced those assets.
German monetary economics was at that time heavily influenced by Chartalism and the German Historical School, which conditioned the way the hyperinflation was analyzed.
John Maynard Keynes described the situation in The Economic Consequences of the Peace: "The inflationism of the currency systems of Europe has proceeded to extraordinary lengths. The various belligerent Governments, unable, or too timid or too short - sighted to secure from loans or taxes the resources they required, have printed notes for the balance. ''
It was during then that French and British economic experts began to claim that Germany deliberately destroyed its economy to avoid war reparations, but both governments had conflicting views on how to handle the situation. The French declared that Germany should keep paying reparations, but Britain sought to grant a moratorium to allow financial reconstruction.
Reparations accounted for about a third of the German deficit from 1920 to 1923 and so were cited by the German government as one of the main causes of hyperinflation. Other causes cited included bankers and speculators (particularly foreign). Hyperinflation reached its peak by November 1923 but ended when a new currency (the Rentenmark) was introduced. To make way for the new currency, banks "turned the marks over to junk dealers by the ton '' to be recycled as paper.
Since the hyperinflation, German monetary policy has retained a central concern with the maintenance of a sound currency, a concern that still affects Germany 's attitude to the European sovereign debt crisis from 2009.
The hyperinflated, worthless marks became widely collected abroad. The Los Angeles Times estimated in 1924 that more of the decommissioned notes were spread about the US than existed in Germany.
The cause of the immense acceleration of prices seemed unclear and unpredictable to those who lived through it, but in retrospect, it was relatively simple. The Treaty of Versailles imposed a huge debt on Germany that could be paid only in gold or foreign currency. With its gold depleted, the German government attempted to buy foreign currency with German currency, equivalent to selling German currency in exchange for payment in foreign currency, but the resulting increase in the supply of German marks on the market caused the German mark to fall rapidly in value, which greatly increased the number of marks needed to buy more foreign currency.
That caused German prices of goods to rise rapidly, increasing the cost of operating the German government, which could not be financed by raising taxes because those taxes would be payable in the ever - falling German currency. The alternative was some combination of running a budget deficit and simply creating more money, both increasing the supply of German currency on the market and reduced that currency 's price. When the German people realized that their money was rapidly losing value, they tried to spend it quickly. That increased monetary velocity and caused an ever - faster increase in prices, creating a vicious cycle.
The government and the banks had two unacceptable alternatives. If they stopped inflation, there would be immediate bankruptcies, unemployment, strikes, hunger, violence, collapse of civil order, insurrection and possibly even revolution. If they continued the inflation, they would default on their foreign debt.
However, attempting to avoid both unemployment and insolvency ultimately failed when Germany had both.
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what is the name of the last hunger games | The Hunger Games (film series) - wikipedia
The Hunger Games film series consists of four science fiction dystopian adventure films based on The Hunger Games trilogy of novels, by the American author Suzanne Collins. Distributed by Lionsgate and produced by Nina Jacobson and Jon Kilik, it stars Jennifer Lawrence as Katniss Everdeen, Josh Hutcherson as Peeta Mellark, Liam Hemsworth as Gale Hawthorne, Woody Harrelson as Haymitch Abernathy, Elizabeth Banks as Effie Trinket, Stanley Tucci as Caesar Flickerman, and Donald Sutherland as President Snow. Gary Ross directed the first film, while Francis Lawrence directed the next three films.
The first three films set records at the box office. The Hunger Games (2012) set records for the opening day and the biggest opening weekend for a non-sequel film. The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013) set the record for biggest opening weekend in the month of November. The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014) had the largest opening day and weekend of 2014. The films, including The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (2015), received a positive reception from critics, with praise aimed at its themes and messages, as well as Jennifer Lawrence 's portrayal of the main protagonist, Katniss Everdeen.
The Hunger Games is the 18th highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over US $2.9 billion worldwide.
Following the release of Suzanne Collins ' novel The Hunger Games, on September 14, 2008, Hollywood film studios began looking to adapt the book into film. In March 2009, Color Force, an independent studio founded by producer Nina Jacobson, bought the film rights to the book. Jacobson then sought out production company Lionsgate to help her produce the film. Collins was also attached to adapt the novel; she began the first draft after completing the third novel in the series, Mockingjay (2010). The search for a director began in 2010 with three directors in the running; David Slade, Sam Mendes, and Gary Ross. Ross was ultimately chosen to direct. By the time Collins had finished the script, Ross decided to go through the script with Collins and screenwriter Billy Ray.
In October 2010, scripts were sent to the actors, and casting occurred between March and May 2011. The first role cast was of the protagonist, Katniss Everdeen. As many as 30 actresses were in talks to play the part, with Jennifer Lawrence, Hailee Steinfeld, Abigail Breslin, and Chloë Grace Moretz being mentioned most. The role was given to Lawrence.
The roles of Peeta Mellark, Katniss ' fellow tribute, and Gale Hawthorne, her best friend, began casting later that month. Top contenders for Peeta included Josh Hutcherson, Alexander Ludwig (later cast as Cato), Hunter Parrish, Evan Peters, and Lucas Till. Contenders for Gale included Robbie Amell, Liam Hemsworth, David Henrie, and Drew Roy. On April 4, it was reported that Hemsworth had been cast as Gale, and Hutcherson had been cast as Peeta.
Filming for the franchise began on May 23, 2011 and finished on June 20, 2014.
Suzanne Collins and Louise Rosner acted as executive producers on the first two films. Other executive producers of the first film include Robin Bissell and Shantal Feghali. Co-producers are Diana Alvarez, Martin Cohen, Louis Phillips, Bryan Unkeless, and Aldric La'auli Porter. Color Force and Lionsgate collaborated on all four films. It was announced on November 1, 2012 that the studio had decided to split the final book, Mockingjay (2010), into two films: The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014) and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (2015), much like Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 (2010) and 2 (2011), and The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 (2011) and 2 (2012).
Gary Ross directed the first film (The Hunger Games), and despite initially stating otherwise on April 10, 2012, Lionsgate announced that Ross would not return to direct the sequel. On April 19, 2012, it was confirmed that Francis Lawrence would direct the sequel instead, and on November 1, 2012, it was confirmed that he would return and direct the final two films in the series, based on the novel Mockingjay.
Suzanne Collins began adapting the first book to film after she finished writing Mockingjay. Collins had experience in writing screenplays after writing Clifford 's Puppy Days and other children 's television shows. When Gary Ross was announced as director for the film in 2010, he began to work with Collins and veteran writer Billy Ray to bring the novel to life. The script was large and resulted in a two - hour and 20 minute film.
After Francis Lawrence took over as director, he brought in Simon Beaufoy and Michael Arndt to write the script for Catching Fire.
The final two films of the series were written by Danny Strong and Peter Craig.
Once the three leads were cast, casting shifted to the other tributes. Jack Quaid was cast as Marvel, Leven Rambin as Glimmer, Amandla Stenberg as Rue, and Dayo Okeniyi as Thresh. Alexander Ludwig (who auditioned for Peeta) was cast as Cato, Isabelle Fuhrman (who auditioned for Katniss) as Clove, and Jacqueline Emerson as Foxface. Following the casting of tributes, the adult cast began to come together. Elizabeth Banks was cast as Effie Trinket, the District 12 escort. Woody Harrelson was cast as Haymitch Abernathy, District 12 's mentor. Lenny Kravitz was cast as Cinna, Katniss ' stylist. Wes Bentley was cast as game maker Seneca Crane. Stanley Tucci was cast as Caesar Flickerman, Panem 's celebrity host. Donald Sutherland was cast as Coriolanus Snow, Panem 's President. Willow Shields was cast as Primrose Everdeen, Katniss ' younger sister.
In July 2012, the cast for the second film was announced. Jena Malone would play Johanna Mason. Philip Seymour Hoffman would play Plutarch Heavensbee, Sam Claflin would play Finnick Odair. It was later announced that Jeffrey Wright was cast as Beetee, Alan Ritchson as Gloss, Lynn Cohen as Mags, and Amanda Plummer as Wiress.
In August and September 2013, it was revealed that Stef Dawson would play Annie Cresta, Natalie Dormer would play Cressida, Evan Ross would play Messalla, and Julianne Moore would play President Alma Coin in the final two films.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games began on May 24, 2011 and concluded on September 15, 2011. The entirety of filming for the first movie took place in North Carolina including the following cities; Asheville, Barnardsville, Black Mountain, Cedar Mountain, Charlotte, Concord, Hildebran and Shelby. All of the Games scenes were filmed on location. All of the Capitol scenes were filmed in a studio in Shelby and Charlotte, North Carolina.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games: Catching Fire began on September 10, 2012 in Atlanta, Georgia and concluded in April 2013. In November 2012, production moved to Hawaii to film the arena scenes. Filming took a Christmas break before filming resumed for two weeks in mid-January. In March 2013, the film went back to Hawaii for re-shoots. Atlanta was used for all the Capitol scenes, Hawaii for the arena scenes, and Oakland, New Jersey for District 12 scenes.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games: Mockingjay began on September 23, 2013 and concluded on June 20, 2014. The majority of filming for the Mockingjay films was filmed in soundstages in a studio in Atlanta, until April 18, 2014. Production then moved to Paris, France, with filming beginning there on May 5, 2014.
Philip Seymour Hoffman, who portrays Plutarch Heavensbee, was found dead on February 2, 2014. At the time of his death, he had completed filming his scenes for The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 and had a week left of shooting for Part 2. Lionsgate released a statement stating that, since the majority of Hoffman 's scenes were completed, the release date for Part 2 would not be affected.
Every year, in the ruins of what was once North America, the Capitol of the nation of Panem forces each of its 12 districts to send a teenage boy and girl, between the ages of 12 and 18, to compete in the Hunger Games: a nationally televised event in which ' tributes ' fight each other within an arena, until one survivor remains. When Primrose Everdeen is ' reaped ', her older sister Katniss Everdeen volunteers in her place to enter the games and is forced to rely upon her sharp instincts when she 's pitted against highly trained tributes.
Along with fellow District 12 victor Peeta Mellark, Katniss Everdeen returns home safely after winning the 74th Annual Hunger Games. Winning means that they must leave their loved ones behind and embark on a Victory Tour throughout the districts. Along the way Katniss senses a rebellion simmering - one that she and Peeta may have sparked - but the Capitol is still in control as President Snow prepares the 75th Hunger Games - the Quarter Quell - that could change Panem forever.
Katniss Everdeen finds herself in District 13 after she shatters the games forever. Under the leadership of President Alma Coin and the advice of her trusted friends, Katniss spreads her wings as she fights to save Peeta, along with other victors and a nation moved by her courage.
Realizing the stakes are no longer just for survival, Katniss Everdeen teams up with her closest friends and allies, including Peeta, Gale, and Finnick, for the ultimate mission. Together, they leave District 13 to liberate the citizens of war - torn Panem and assassinate President Snow.
All the Hunger Games films finished first at the North American box office during both their opening and second weekend. In North America, The Hunger Games film series is the second highest - grossing film series based on young adult books, after the Harry Potter series, earning over $1.4 billion. Worldwide, it is the third highest - grossing film series based on young - adult books after the film series of Harry Potter and The Twilight Saga, respectively, having grossed over $2.9 billion. In North America, it is the eighth highest - grossing film franchise of all time. Worldwide, it is the 15th or 16th highest - grossing film franchise of all time.
All The Hunger Games films received a "Fresh Rating '' in the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with the first two films receiving a "Certified Rating '' stub.
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who is the drummer of the red hot chili peppers | Chad Smith - wikipedia
Chadwick Gaylord Smith (born October 25, 1961) is an American musician and the current drummer of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, which he joined in 1988. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2012. Smith is also the drummer of the hard rock supergroup Chickenfoot, formed in 2008, and is currently the all - instrumental outfit Chad Smith 's Bombastic Meatbats, who formed in 2007. As one of the most highly sought - after drummers, Smith has recorded with Glenn Hughes, Johnny Cash, John Fogerty, The Dixie Chicks, Jennifer Nettles, Kid Rock, Jake Bugg, and The Avett Brothers. In 2010, joined by Dick Van Dyke and Leslie Bixler, he released Rhythm Train, a critically acclaimed children 's album which featured Smith singing and playing various instruments.
Widely regarded as one of rock music 's best drummers, Spin magazine placed Smith at # 10 on their list of the "100 Greatest Drummers of Alternative Music '' in May 2013. Readers of UK - based Rhythm magazine ranked Smith and Red Hot Chili Pepper bassist Flea the fourth - greatest rhythm section of all time in their June 2013 issue. The drummer is also known for his charity work especially with young musicians. He has been a lobbyist in support of music education in U.S. public schools. Smith is also widely known for the strong resemblance between himself and comedian Will Ferrell, which has led to various comparisons over the years and eventually led to a joking public feud and drum battle for charity on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. Smith is also the host of the PBS concert series, Landmarks Live in Concert, which began in January 2017.
Smith was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, the third child of Curtis and Joan Smith. He spent most of his childhood in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where he graduated from Lahser High School in 1980. He started to play drums at age seven and grew up listening mainly to bands such as Rush, The Rolling Stones, Humble Pie, Pink Floyd, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple, The Who, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, and Kiss. He also cites Ian Paice, Mitch Mitchell, Bill Ward, John Bonham, Keith Moon, Stewart Copeland, and Neil Peart as early influences on his drumming.
Chad did not receive formal drum lessons, and gained drumming experience by playing in school bands.
Smith ran away from home when he was 15, but returned home after a summer.
Smith spent his early years in various rock bands including Pharroh and Michigan - based band Toby Redd. Pharroh 's percussionist Larry Fratangelo, who also worked with Parliament - Funkadelic, introduced Smith to R&B and funk music and taught him how to play funk. Smith said, "I think up until then, I was a drummer. Once I studied with Larry, I turned into a musician. '' Funk drummers like David Garibaldi, Jabo Starks, Clyde Stubblefield, and Greg Errico caught his attention and influenced his style a lot. Later, Smith decided to move to California to pursue his musical aspirations.
In 1988, the Red Hot Chili Peppers were looking for a replacement for their drummer D.H. Peligro, who had recently been fired. Already into the process of working on their fourth studio album and hiring new guitarist, John Frusciante, the band held open auditions for a new drummer. Smith was one of the last drummers to audition for the band and the band felt that on looks alone, Smith would be the wrong fit as he looked more hair - metal than punk. Nonetheless, the band was blown away by his audition. Singer Anthony Kiedis admired Smith and found his persistence impressive. Smith joined the Chili Peppers in December 1988 and within a few months was recording his first album with the band, Mother 's Milk. Smith reflected on joining the band in a 2012 interview by saying "I remember thinking, ' Oh, cool, they have a record deal. Great! I 'd love to be in a band that has a record deal. We started playing, and right away we just hit it off musically. I was like, ' Man, this is a blast! These guys are great! '... We were just doing what we do. We just jammed, which is what we still do today. It 's very similar. ''
After a successful worldwide tour in support of Mother 's Milk the band released their debut for Warners, 1991 's Blood Sugar Sex Magik which was hugely successful upon its release peaking at number three on the Billboard charts, and went on to sell thirteen million copies worldwide. It went on to be nominated and win several awards and is listed on many critics lists of the best albums of the year. Shortly into the tour for the album, Frusciante quit the band in 1992 and was replaced by Arik Marshall for the remainder of the tour. Marshall was fired following the tour and briefly replaced by Jesse Tobias who was let go in favor of Dave Navarro in 1994. With Navarro intact, the band would release 1995 's One Hot Minute. Navarro too would end up being fired in 1998 following the tour to support the album and replaced with a returning John Frusciante. With Frusciante back, the band released 1999 's Californication, their biggest selling album to date. That album was followed by 2002 's By the Way and 2006 's Stadium Arcadium, the band 's first number one album in the United States. Frusciante again quit the band in 2008 and was replaced by Josh Klinghoffer in 2009. With Klinghoffer, the band released their tenth studio album (and Smith 's seventh with the band), I 'm with You in 2011.
In April 2012, the Chili Peppers were inducted by Chris Rock into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Smith and the Chili Peppers wrapped up I 'm With You World Tour in April 2013. The Chili Peppers launched another lengthy tour in May 2013 and it kept them on the road until June 2014. During this time, the band appeared alongside Bruno Mars at the halftime for the Super Bowl in February 2014. Smith confirmed that the Chili Peppers would begin work on their eleventh studio album that same month. Production eventually began in January 2015 with Danger Mouse replacing Rick Rubin as the band 's producer. A month later, bassist Flea was injured during a skiing accident delaying production until August 2015. The Getaway was released on June 17, 2016.
In 2007, Smith, along with fellow Glenn Hughes alumni, guitarist Jeff Kollman and keyboardist Ed Roth, formed an all - instrumental band inspired by their shared love of 1970s funk and fusion. Still unnamed at the time, the group, rounded out by bassist Kevin Chown, debuted at the 2008 NAMM show in Anaheim, California. The band has released two studio albums and a double live disc as Chad Smith 's Bombastic Meatbats since its inception.
Following a lengthy world tour in support of Stadium Arcadium, the Chili Peppers decided to take a break in 2008. During this break, Smith joined the hard rock supergroup Chickenfoot, whose other members are Sammy Hagar, Joe Satriani and Michael Anthony. The group has released two studio albums, a live album and a box set to date with Smith. Due to touring commitments with the Chili Peppers in 2011, Smith was unable to tour with Chickenfoot and was replaced by Kenny Aronoff. In 2012, Smith rejoined Chickenfoot for a four - song encore and the band briefly reunited for only two shows on May 7, and May 8, 2016 at Harrah 's Showroom at South Lake Tahoe. During the show, the band debuted a brand new song titled "Divine Termination. '' In June 2016, Smith discussed the future of Chickenfoot touring and recording new music saying that "everyone has different things going on. We really enjoy playing together, but with my schedule I do n't see us playing too much. I would love to make some new music with those guys, but we 'd have to be in the same room at the same time. I just do n't know. It 's up in the air. I love playing with those guys, though. It 's a real treat.
Smith is highly sought after as one of the industry 's top session musicians. Smith has worked with many big name artists including Johnny Cash, John Fogerty, Dixie Chicks, Jennifer Nettles, Kid Rock and Jake Bugg among many others. Smith has also performed on four albums and one live album with Glenn Hughes.
In 2008, Smith was a judge for the 7th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists ' careers that same year.
Smith released 2010 's Rhythm Train, a critically acclaimed children 's album which he recorded with Dick Van Dyke and Leslie Bixler. In April 2010, MTV named Rhythm Train one of the best children 's records of all time.
Smith released The Chad Smith Drum App in March 2012, which is free mobile application for iPhone, iPad and Android devices and features his "Drummer GPS ''. The GPS section of the app spotlights drummers Smith has been influenced by and those he regards as some of the best drummers around today. The Chad Smith Drum App has received great praise from both fans and from fellow drummers... In May 2013, Smith launched In Conversation with Chad Smith, his own podcast through MusicRadar where he interviews other musical artists.
Smith joined Sammy Hagar in the studio to work on music for his twelfth studio album. They were joined by guitarist Neal Schon and bassist Michael Anthony and according to Hagar it was the rebirth of his 1980s band HSAS, which featured Schon and two other members. In 2013, Smith joined jazz musician Jon Batiste and bassist / producer Bill Laswell to create a unique musical group to score a film that had yet to be written and will never be made. The album, The Process, was released on November 4, 2014.
Smith appeared on Late Night with Seth Meyers from June 15 -- 19 sitting in on drums with The 8G Band.
Starting on January 20, 2017, Smith began hosting Landmarks Live in Concert, an eight - episode concert series on PBS in which Smith will sit down and discuss music with various artists. The first two episodes featured Alicia Keys and Brad Paisley.
Smith performs drums on the Lorne Balfe composed score for The Lego Batman Movie. The soundtrack for the animated film was released on February 3, 2017.
Smith is widely known for his strong resemblance to actor and comedian Will Ferrell, who is almost six years his junior, which he has acknowledged by wearing shirts reading "I Am Not Will Ferrell '' in live performances. Smith said that the two first met during the premiere of the film The Ladies Man. He said, "I 'm looking at Will and thinking, ' People really think I look like him? I do n't fucking look like that. He looks me up and down and says, ' You 're very handsome, ' and walks away. Totally deadpan. I was like, ' You 're funny. You 're funny. ' ''
Smith has two older siblings, Bradley and sister Pamela. Smith lives in Malibu, California with his second wife, architect Nancy Mack whom he married in 2004 and with whom he has three sons, Cole (born 2005), Beckett (born 2009) and Dashiell (born 2012). From 1996 -- 1997, Smith was married to Maria St John with whom Smith had a daughter, Manon (born 1996). He also has two other children, Justin (born 1997) and Ava (born 2000) through other relationships and spends time also living in New York to help raise his other children. When discussing his relationships and marriages Smith said "I 'm the dumper. I fall in love easily, but I get restless. I 'll figure it out one day. Can we talk about something else? '' Smith is also an avid fan of his hometown Michigan sports teams. Following the Chili Peppers May 14, 2017 performance in Columbus, OH, Smith sang the University of Michigan fight song "The Victors ''. Smith 's singing of the fight song made national news as the University of Michigan and Ohio State are longtime sports rivals. At shows in Ohio, Smith 's drumset has sometimes featured the Michigan Wolverines logo.
Smith is an active supporter of a number of non-profit organizations including Surfer 's Healing, SeriousFun Network, MusiCares, Silverlake Conservatory of Music, Guitar Mash NY, Camp Korey and Little Kids Rock which he discussed in an interview with Making Music Magazine.
In April 2013, Smith was asked by NAMM, the National Association of Music Merchants, to represent the music community by going to Washington, D.C. as a lobbyist in support of music education in US public schools. While in DC, Smith had the opportunity to meet with congressional leaders and share his experience as a student who learned his craft entirely within the public school system. Smith has since been invited back to lobby in April 2014 in support of public school music education.
In 2014, Smith joined Bystander Revolution a group that speaks out against bullying in schools and tries to find solutions. Smith released a few videos discussing his own childhood being bullied along with his son 's recent experiences with bullies.
On May 21, 2014, Smith appeared along with other celebrities in Washington, D.C. at a White House talent show held by Michelle Obama which was organized to raise awareness for Turnaround Arts, a program enacted under the guidance of the President 's Committee on the Arts and Humanities (PCAH) to increase performance and achievement at some of the lowest - ranked schools in the country through arts education. Students from eight schools around the country participated in the show which featured musical theatre, spoken word and interpretative dance. President Barack Obama made a surprise appearance at the event. Smith adopted a school in Greenfield, California also lobbied Speaker of the House of Representatives John Boehner for increased funding for arts education and that it is a personal issue for him. Smith said "I did n't give a shit about science, math or English when I was in school and music was the only reason I wanted to go. It got me interested in other subjects and I would 've never graduated without it. If kids can connect with some sort of art in some way, it will enrich their lives in ways they probably ca n't fully comprehend at the time. '' Earlier in the week, Smith was joined by former New York Yankee and musician, Bernie Williams at Savoy Elementary School in Washington, D.C. where together they taught a music class. "These are schools where the kids look down at their feet and have no hope and do n't feel like they mean anything. They have no self - worth. They need something. This is not a photo - op and just throwing some money. You really roll your sleeves up and immerse yourself in the school. '' Smith said.
Smith appeared at Sammy Hagar and James Hetfield 's 2nd annual Acoustic - 4 - A-Cure benefit concert in San Francisco, California on May 15, 2015. The benefit was held to raise money and awareness for the Pediatric Cancer Program at UCSF Benioff Children 's Hospital. Smith was joined onstage by Pat Monahan of the band Train and comedian Adam Sandler for a performance of Aerosmith 's "Dream On '' and Led Zeppelin 's "Ramble On ''.
The following day on May 16, 2015, Smith was honored by national nonprofit, Little Kids Rock at its annual Family Jam benefit at Facebook 's Menlo Park campus for his work to help expand public schoolchildren 's access to music education with the "Livin ' The Dream Award ''. In a statement on receiving the award Smith said "It is such an honor for me to be recognized by an amazing charity like Little Kids Rock for supporting their work to keep music education thriving in our schools. Music has made such a tremendous impact in my life and I am blessed to be able to give that gift back to the next generation of music makers! ''
Smith along with his Chili Peppers bandmates announced in September 2015 that they would be supporting Bernie Sanders in his campaign for the 2016 presidential election. In February 2016, the Chili Peppers performed on behalf of Sanders at his "Feel the Bern '' campaign fundraiser.
Smith blends rock with funk. He mixes funk, rock, metal and jazz to his beats.
He is recognized for his ghost notes, his beats and his fast right foot.
Smith cites Buddy Rich, John Bonham, Ian Paice, Mitch Mitchell, Bill Ward, Keith Moon, Stewart Copeland, and Neil Peart as influences on his drumming.
In March 2016 Smith began endorsing DW Drums after previously endorsing Pearl Drums for many years.
He also currently endorses Sabian Cymbals, Vater Drumsticks, and Remo Drumheads.
Sabian Cymbals:
Vater Percussion sticks:
Remo Drumheads: Gon Bops Percussion:
Latin Percussion:
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when was the last time france hosted the olympics | France at the Olympics - wikipedia
France has competed in every modern Olympic Games, although its participation at the 1904 Games is questionable, with Albert Corey 's appearance being credited by different sources to either the United States or France. However the IOC as the final arbiter has determined that his affiliation was to the United States of America.
French athletes have won 716 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, with fencing and cycling as the top medal - producing sports. France has won an additional 109 medals at the Winter Olympic Games, mostly in alpine skiing.
France has hosted the Games on five occasions and is planning to host the sixth.
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where does dan go to college in gossip girl | Dan Humphrey - Wikipedia
Daniel Randolph "Dan '' Humphrey is a fictional character in the best selling Gossip Girl series of novels. He is one of the central male characters in the television adaptation of the same name, where he is portrayed by Penn Badgley. Dan Humphrey is the son of Rufus Humphrey and has a younger sister, Jenny, while his mother remains absent for the majority of the series. Dan and his family live in Brooklyn, New York, the alternative of the old - moneyed and conservative Upper East Side. He attends St. Jude 's Preparatory School for Boys on the West Side as a scholarship student. His life changed dramatically when his father, Rufus Humphrey, married the wealthy Lily van der Woodsen, moving the family to the Upper East Side.
He is described as being attractive and sensitive, loves to write poetry, and one of his poems, "Sluts, '' was featured in The New Yorker. He revealed his favorite word is death and drinks copious amounts of dark coffee. He over analyses and is easily frustrated. Dan is very close and protective of little sister Jenny who attends an exclusive private school, called the Constance Billard School for Girls, a small, elite, all - girls school located at 93rd and Madison Avenue.
Daniel Humphrey lives with his father Rufus, and sister Jenny in Brooklyn. He is tall, pale, quite neurotic, quite "intense '' and enjoys drinking coffee. He is considered to be an intellectual when it comes to writing and literature, and was in fact an intern for The Strand one summer. His favorite past time is writing on his black journals. He goes to St. Jude 's Preparatory School for Boys, on the Upper East Side, with Chuck Bass and Nate Archibald.
In the first part of the books, he is in love with Serena Van Der Woodsen because of a party he threw at their apartment before he went to boarding school. When Serena returned to the Upper East Side, she was ostracized by her peers, so she made friends with Dan and Jenny. Dan later realizes that he has feelings for Vanessa, so he begins a relationship with her.
They have a fight when a video of Jenny without her pants is leaked onto the internet, and she apologizes by sending his poem to The New Yorker. Dan gets published, and they make up. He gets an agent called Rusty Klien who claims he is "the next Keats. '' Rusty introduces Dan to Mystery Craze, a novelist. They hook up on stage at a poetry reading which Vanessa sees, effectively ending their relationship. He gets an internship at Red Letter, which he leaves once he realizes they do n't want him there for his talent.
He gets back together with Vanessa after he sends her a small, pink singing toy from Japan to film, and at a party at her house, a band called The Raves make him their new front man because of his poems, which they thought were lyrics. He hooks up with one of the instrumentalist 's wife, which ends his stint with them. He later meets Bree while working at The Strand one summer while he was still dating Vanessa.
Dan explores his sexuality later in the books by starting a relationship with his co-worker, Greg, in the Strand by making literary salons with him, which were, in actuality, giant orgies. He breaks up with Greg, who becomes Chuck 's boyfriend instead. Dan realizes that he truly loved Vanessa. He went to The Evergreen State College for bachelor studies.
Dan "Lonely Boy '' Humphrey is the son of rocker Rufus Humphrey, and is the older sibling of Jenny Humphrey. His best friend is Vanessa Abrams, who is secretly in love with him. Dan and his family reside in Brooklyn. He is a writer and attends the St. Jude 's School for boys. He has longed for Serena van der Woodsen since a party when they were fifteen and she was the only person who was nice to him. During the beginning of the show Dan has had somewhat of a disgust towards Serena 's childhood best friend Blair Waldorf, however as the seasons progressed he develops a close friendship with her.
His mother lives away from home, in Hudson, as an artist. He is financially strained compared to his wealthy classmates at St. Jude 's.
Dan is one of the first people to see Serena back in person. He accidentally bumps into her, causing her to fall and spill the contents of her purse and leave behind her cellphone. In an attempt to see her again, he returns the phone to The New York Palace Hotel where she lives. He runs into Serena there and ends up on a date that with her so she does not have to go to the "Kiss On The Lips '' party which Blair is throwing. They have a rocky first date, going to his dad 's concert. The date is ended early because he gets a text from Jenny saying that she needs help at the party. Serena helps Jenny and saves her from Chuck Bass. Dan is highly embarrassed after this, as at the end of the date he only waves to her from a taxi. He and Serena end up going out again but he leaves her after Blair tells him about Serena and Nate hooking up at a party when Nate and Blair were a couple. They make up and become a constant source of attention.
At the Ivy Mixer, Blair tells the whole school and Ivy scouts that Serena is a patient at the Ostroff Centre, presumably for alcoholism. Serena then goes on stage and lies to protect the real patient at the Centre: her brother. Dan is surprised at Serena 's apparent problem, especially after it seems that Serena has been making a real effort to change from her old partying ways. However, Jenny reveals that Eric is the actual patient, which then causes Dan to respect Serena for protecting her family. This event actually strengthens their relationship, instead of weakening it like Blair had intended it to do.
Behind the scenes, though, is Dan 's childhood best friend Vanessa, who is clearly jealous of Serena and very much in love with Dan. Dan is oblivious to this. Despite Dan 's clear preference for Serena, Serena can not help but feel jealous of how close Dan is with Vanessa, such as when Dan tells Vanessa that his mother came home, while Serena learns this from Vanessa instead of Dan himself.
When he learns from the Gossip Girl site that Serena was seen buying pregnancy tests he freaks out knowing that the child could very well be his as they 've slept together. His father sees this as well and is extremely upset that his son may be a teenage father. Dan explains he will stay with Serena no matter what she does because he loves her. He tells this to Serena who says she 's not having a child. Later on, he tells her that he loves her, and she responds with, "Okay, '' which is not the response he was looking for. She later asks him why he loves her and he tells her a list he made of the reasons. She believes him and says she loves him as well, but she needs to help Blair. When he asks why, she says "one of the many reasons you love me. ''
When Georgina Sparks arrives on the Upper East Side with the intent on making Serena 's life hell, she gets to know Dan behind Serena 's back. Pretending to be "Sarah '' and accidentally - on - purpose letting her dog run off its leash in the park, Georgina gets an excuse to talk to Dan. It is later seen that Dan and Vanessa have taken "Sarah '' under their wing as they believe she is a new girl to the Upper East Side who does n't know her way around.
Eventually, Dan breaks up with Serena, because he believes that she has slept with someone else and he is tired of her holding secrets from him. A few hours after he breaks up with Serena, he kisses Georgina, believing that she is a helpless girl who is running away from a psychotic ex-boyfriend. Soon thereafter, Dan is convinced that Georgina is lying to him by being told the truth by Serena. He and Blair manage to fool Georgina into thinking that Dan would like to meet up with her. The real purpose of the plan, though, is to get Georgina to meet with her parents and then get sent to a Christian boot camp. Dan and Serena rekindle what is left of their relationship before Dan ultimately ends it entirely. He is last seen spending some time with Vanessa during the start of the summer holidays.
According to Gossip Girl, over the summer Dan went from "Lonely Boy to Playboy. '' Dan occupied himself by having continuous dates throughout the summer, with Serena still on his mind. Due to Dan 's emotional complications, he is unable to complete an essay he was to submit. This ultimately results in his being fired due to his lack of commitment. Upon being fired from his summer job, he heads to the Hamptons upon realizing that he has been missing Serena. He hopes that by seeing Serena he will realize that they made the right decision, and he can move on.
He arrives in the Hamptons, at the annual White Party, to find Serena and Nate Archibald in a passionate kiss. This reveals his true feelings for Serena as he shows obvious anger towards Serena 's "cheating. '' Serena tries to convince him that she kissed Nate so as to make Nate 's girlfriend (an older, married woman) jealous. Dan goes to leave, when he is confronted by a pair of girls he had dated throughout the summer. The girls, having found out about one another 's relationships with Dan, pour their drinks on Dan and leave. Having been caught out by Serena for his hypocrisy, Dan and Serena retreat into the house to talk. They decide to meet up later at the beach, where they spend the night together.
The following morning, Serena and Dan decide to halt any discussions on their relationships until they are back in the city. After some confusion between who was to take the train and who was to take the bus, they both ended traveling back to the city on the bus. This creates tension between the two, and as Serena gets up to use the bus bathroom, she trips and falls on Dan. She pulls up Dan and the two go into the bathroom to have some fun. The two decide to keep their rekindled relationship a secret until they were sure of themselves. Back in the city at Blair 's "Welcome Back '' party, Nate discovers the two in an embrace, revealing publicly that their relationship is "back on. ''
In "The Dark Night, '' during the citywide blackout, Dan and Serena talk about their problems while they were both trapped in an elevator. After a long talk (and a bit of arguing), they realized they keep having the same fight, and break up.
During their return to school, Serena and Dan are now friends until he meets a transfer student named Amanda Lasher. They share the same interests and have perfect chemistry. Blair attempts to keep them separate by making her one of her entourage so that Serena would n't have to suffer seeing them together and so she also would n't have to lose the competition of rebounding. Serena meets Amanda and nearly makes a fool out of herself. Blair forces Amanda to join them for lunch. Dan, thinking that Serena is trying to keep him away from Amanda gets Serena, who was reasoning with Dan why it happened, irritated when he kept implying that she was the one who forced her to lunch. Dan and Amanda 's relationship goes public much to Serena 's irritation. Serena then invites Dan and Amanda to go out later that night which turns into as disaster as Dan and Amanda continue to make her feel out of place. Isabel and Penelope, after witnessing Dan go out with Amanda that led to the relationship getting public, offers Serena several suitors, one in particular is a Dalton lacrosse team captain. Serena 's new suitor fails to impress Dan. Dan thinks that Serena used the lacrosse team to rub it into his face. Later on, Penelope ruins Amanda 's hair with a little help from Chuck. Dan runs to Amanda 's aid who brushes him off saying that she no longer wants to see him. Dan gets into an argument with Serena and leaves. The next day, he is shunned because of Serena 's rise to Queen Bee status.
Dan 's recommendation from Noah Shapiro, a writer, leads him to find new inspiration in the form of Chuck Bass. Noah suggests he use Chuck to fuel a new story. Dan does so and loses his shoes in the process. He ends up creating the character of "Charlie Trout, '' a character that impresses Noah and asks him to find out what makes him tick. That night, Chuck mistakes a woman of being a prostitute and nearly gets punched until Dan defends him. The two end up in jail and Chuck confesses that he thinks his father hates him because he thinks he killed his mother at Chuck 's birth. Chuck gets out a jail with some help from his lawyers and discovers Dan 's reason as to why he was hanging out with him. Chuck gets angry at Dan and leaves him, saying that he lied about his mother 's death and that she died in the Andes in a plane accident. Dan calls Noah Shapiro who bails him out. Dan confesses that he thinks it 's wrong to exploit people for art and that he 'd rather be safe. The two part ways and in bad terms.
During a visit to Yale, Dan 's recommendation for Yale admission goes awry as his only recommendation came from J.L. Hall. Jeremiah Harris and Noah Shapiro likely declined to write for Dan 's recommendation. The Dean of Admissions suggests that he find someone to read his work. Dan then finds out Nate used his name to get into a fling with Jordan, a co-ed girl who eventually helps Dan get his work to other literature professors. Dan is stripped of his clothes and tied to a statue by members of the Skull & Bones after Chuck fools them into thinking he is Nate. Chuck 's revenge on Dan then backfires on Chuck who loses Nate as a friend after Nate finds out about what he did to Dan.
Dan and Nate begin a friendship much to Chuck 's chagrin. During an invite to play soccer, Dan tries to visit Nate at his house and finds out about Nate 's financial situation. Nate has been squatting in his own house that got seized amongst other property of the Archibalds. Dan invites Nate to a family dinner and tells Nate that he knows about Nate squatting in his own house. Nate leaves angry. Rufus talks to Dan and tells him that Nate needs help even if he does n't want it, seeing as Nate has no one to turn to for help. Dan finds Serena outside Nate 's house and repair their relationship. The two become friends. Dan convinces Nate, who moves in after his house got seized.
With Blair 's situation with Chuck now out of hand, Serena gets Dan to help Blair and tells her that wearing him down would help her situation. Later on, he continues to help Blair by telling her that she should intercept him at home. With Blair desperate, he tells Blair that she should take a risk and say those "3 words, 8 letters '' anyway. During Aaron 's opening at Rufus ' gallery, Vanessa confesses that Blair and Chuck used her in one of their sick games. Dan ruins Blair 's opportunity to tell Chuck that she loves him and tells Serena what happened. He said that the two were bound to break up eventually and that what they did to Vanessa was sick. Serena says that Vanessa 's matter is different and that Chuck and Blair do love each other. He later apologizes to Serena and get into an honest conversation. Serena confesses her feelings for Aaron and Dan gives her his blessing to date other people.
Aaron and Serena start to date each other while Dan realizes that he still has feelings for Serena. Aaron has been concerned that Serena leans emotionally more on Dan than him. He asks her to come with him to Buenos Aires for Christmas. Serena asks Dan for his opinion, and he tells her to go. At Eleanor 's wedding however, Dan confronts Serena about his feelings for her. Because she knows about her mother and Rufus ' relationship, and because she has already said yes to Aaron, Serena turns Dan down and goes ahead with Aaron 's trip. Serena breaks up with Aaron during the holiday and Dan and Serena meet with each other and they both decide there are better off back together. Dan soon learns he shares a sibling brother with Serena and becomes ridden with guilt when Rufus asks him to let Lily tell Serena the news.
Serena and Dan attempt to return to normal, but find this difficult with Lily and Rufus, who have decided to go public with their relationship. Dan, and Serena both get acceptance letters to Yale but Serena decides that Yale is n't for her and applies to Brown and gives her spot to Blair who was wait - listed. A new teacher named Ms. Carr teaches at Constance Billard and there is an obvious attraction between them. Blair is so willing to get back at Ms. Carr for giving her a B on a paper that she sends in a rumor to Gossip girl concerning a secret relationship going on between Dan and Ms. Carr. Serena herself is becoming suspicious when she sees Dan and Ms. Carr discussing Dan 's paper together but believes Dan when he says nothing is going on between the two of them. Serena then sees Dan and Ms. Carr in a coffee shop together. She can not hear what they are saying but in fact Dan is only comforting Ms. Carr who is in tears about the slanderous teacher - student relationship rumor. Serena captures a photo of Dan touching Ms. Carr 's face in an intimate way and shares the photo with Blair although she has doubts about the authenticity of the situation.
Blair enters a parent - teacher meeting at Constance Billard and presents the incriminating photo at hand. Dan explains to Serena nothing happened between him and Ms. Carr but it is too late. Ms. Carr is fired. Serena and Dan 's relationship hits another dead end when things become too much for them to take. First their parents start dating, then they find out they shared a half brother together, and now the mess of the rumor.
Serena goes to apologize to Ms. Carr while admitting regretfully that she was the one who gave the photo to Blair. Later Dan visits Ms. Carr and starts to apologize for how things went down but then she kisses him. Dan, at first, is surprised at her actions. Ms. Carr points out that she does n't teach at Constance anymore so there is no student - teacher relationship. So Dan obliges and they have sex in the dark of the room. Even though Rachel is reinstated, she and Dan have sex again before the school play. Dan then discovers she has used things he told her to humiliate Serena and Blair on Gossip Girl, as well as blocking Blair 's application to Yale. He tells the girls what has been going on and Rachel leaves the school.
Dan is accepted at Yale but denied financial aid. He discovers Rufus has invested his college fund with Serena 's new boyfriend Gabriel Edwards, who was working with con artist Poppy Lifton. Not trusting Serena, Blair and Chuck to get the money back, Dan goes to Lily for help, resulting in her getting Serena arrested to stop her exposing Poppy. With money from CeCe and a dress from Jenny, Dan manages to bail Serena out of jail and take her to the prom. On graduation day, Dan refuses to take part in Serena 's plan to expose Gossip Girl, which results in everyone 's secrets, including Dan being arrested, becoming common knowledge. Dan gets a call from Georgina saying the money Poppy took is back in his account and tells her he 's going to New York University.
Dan joins Blair, Vanessa and Georgina at New York University and instantly fits in among its many aspiring writers. His stay at NYU also tests his friendship with Vanessa, who assumes that Dan has been absent in their friendship ever since he became wealthy. Dan explains to Vanessa that he and his family are still adjusting to their nouveau - riche status and Vanessa leaves frustrated at Dan.
Dan 's first day at NYU reveals Georgina Sparks ' return. When Georgina throws a party, Blair 's attempt at sabotage results in Dan standing up for Georgina. Dan is popular at NYU, and his influence leaves Blair ostracized.
Dan and Georgina 's relationship is short - lived in the episode "The Lost Boy. '' Georgina sends Blair on a wild goose chase to enter an elite secret society that gets her into a bidding war with Chuck Bass at an auction. Serena recognizes Georgina 's handwriting in Blair 's invitation to the secret society and confronts her. The Humphrey family leaves and Georgina is left alone at the auction. Serena reveals Georgina 's scheming to Dan and Dan ends his relationship with Georgina. Georgina leaves for Boston when she discovers that Scott, Vanessa 's boyfriend, is Rufus and Lily 's love - child and that Vanessa had known that he was for a long time.
In "Dan de Fleurette, '' Dan moves on from his relationship with Georgina when he meets Olivia, a Hollywood film star who attended NYU to experience life as a normal college student. Dan first meets Olivia, who calls herself Kate until her movie premiere of Fleur reveals that she is Olivia Burke, a Hollywood movie star. Olivia apologizes to Dan and they embark in a new relationship.
Georgina 's return from Boston has her blackmailing Vanessa when she discovers that Dan has moved on from their relationship so quickly in "Rufus Getting Married. '' Dan, then persuades Vanessa to reveal her secret, only to find out that Scott Rosson is his half - brother, the love - child of Rufus and Lily. Rufus and Lily 's wedding has Dan and Vanessa reluctant to tell the truth about Scott. On Rufus and Lily 's wedding when Lily gets cold feet, Rufus confronts her with Scott unknowingly asking if their wedding was off. Lily scolds Scott and Georgina reveals that Scott is their love - child. Dan arrives with the rest of the family and confirms Georgina 's statement. Dan and Blair find Georgina eating the wedding cake and Blair leaves. At the end of the episode, Dan expresses regret that Georgina left unscathed. Blair assures him that she did n't by sending Dorota and Vanya to get rid of her.
Dan and Olivia encounter several troubles in their relationship when Vanessa alienates them both during her attempt at getting the freshman toast at NYU. When Dan introduces Olivia to Rufus and Lily, she starts acting like a stereotypical movie star towards them until Vanessa reveals that she lied to the both of them so that Olivia would n't have to meet her judgmental mother, Gabriela. Vanessa loses the toast to Olivia and properly reintroduces Olivia the next morning after the incident. Olivia 's movie star background also catches up to her when she is forced to continue her fake relationship with Patrick Roberts, her former co-star. Serena intervenes and Dan and Olivia soon manage to make their relationship public.
Dan and Olivia 's relationship soon comes to an end when Olivia is again forced back into the world of film and return to Hollywood but not without Dan and Vanessa giving her the best college experience. The college experience results in a threesome that consequently leads to Dan and Olivia 's break - up when Olivia states that Dan has feelings for Vanessa. Vanessa unfortunately, falls for theater student, Paul Hoffman.
With Olivia gone, Dan confesses his love for Vanessa during the anniversary of Bart Bass ' death but Vanessa turns him down. Dan attempts to impress Vanessa by impressing Gabriela that ends with Gabriela telling Dan that if he breaks Vanessa 's heart, their friendship would n't make it. Vanessa eventually reveals her feelings for Dan at a beach party when Dan arrives with a fresh date and Vanessa gets back together with Paul Hoffman. Dan had been unaware that Vanessa had ended her relationship with Paul until Paul and Dan 's date reveals each other 's predicaments, get together and leave Dan and Vanessa at the party. Dan and Vanessa reveal their feelings toward each other and kiss at the end of the episode.
Dan finds little trouble with his relationship with Vanessa and reveals their relationship to Rufus. Vanessa, frustrated at the lack of something different in their relationship, heeds Nate 's advice on role - playing and sets up a date fashioned according to Dan 's favorite movie Rear Window. Vanessa is not convinced that Dan appreciates what she did for her date, and she leaves. Dan confronts her and tells her that their relationship is different from their friendship.
Dan applies to get into the Tisch School of the Arts writing program at NYU, as Vanessa reads and secretly critiques one of the stories that he plans on submitting for admission. Dan secretly read Vanessa 's film script and is impressed, unaware that Vanessa is also applying for the same program.
Towards the end of the season, Vanessa decides to accept an internship with CNN, that of which requires her to go on a six - month trip to Haiti. Despite this, the two of them decide that they can still maintain their relationship as a long - distance one.
In the season finale, Dan wakes up with Serena in his bed. The viewers learn that the two did not sleep together but - after staying up until 4AM talking and drinking wine - they shared a kiss, that of which Serena classifies as them "falling into a comfortable path for one... or ten minutes. '' When Dan hears that Serena breaks up with Nate, he calls her, possibly to say he had feelings for her. When she announces she wo n't be back to talk to him till September he appears very disappointed. He then shuts the e-mail he had opened to write to Vanessa, his current girlfriend, who is no longer taking his calls (due to Nate 's interception after finding out from Gossip Girl 's blast and later overhearing at the hospital about the kiss). When he later learns that Serena is going to Paris with Blair, he goes online to book a ticket. Before he can, however, Georgina visits Dan and tells him that she 's pregnant with his child.
-- Vanessa reveals Dan 's secret desire to be a part of the Upper East Side
It is revealed Georgina gave birth to a son, Milo, on July 7, 2010, though it is unknown whether Dan is the father, because they never did a DNA test. It is later revealed to be another one of her schemes when she abruptly leaves New York, leaving Dan alone with Milo. She left a note saying that she went to the "spa. '' Georgina returns from the "spa '' (she was in fact in St. Barths) to tell Dan about Serge, Milo 's real father, and to say that she and Milo are going to live with Georgina 's parents. Dan is sad to see Milo go. He tries to embark on a relationship with Serena, who is still torn over him and Nate. Blair and Dan team up to find Juliet in Connecticut. They do find her with Serena, but get a shock when Serena tells them that Lily was the one who put Ben in jail instead of herself. It was revealed that Blair and Dan went to see a couple of movies together, though the both say that they are not friends. Blair was fired from her internship at W Magazine, but since Dan connived to get her fired, he confessed and convinced Epperly to re-hire Blair. Hereafter, Blair got better position as a team leader, since her boss decided to retire. On Valentine 's Day, Blair found out that Chuck had real romantic feelings for Raina Thorpe. Dan stalked Blair to try to convince her to publish his short story, and the two of them made the discovery together (Chucks real feelings for Raina) while hidden behind a curtain. They went their separate ways, but spent the rest of the evening talking together on their cell phones while watching Rosemary 's Baby on their laptops. Afterwards, both got a hidden closed relationship and denied the friendship to everybody. Feeling something beyond that happened, they tried to overcome the all confusions and denials by only one kiss. Later, Dan admits to Eric and to Charlie that he has romantic feelings for Blair.
In the finale, it was revealed that Dan had been writing a scathing novel based on his life for the past five years. While looking for Charlie at the loft, Vanessa reads his novel and hints at the possibility that he possesses unrequited feelings for Blair all the while realizing that Dan always wanted to be a part of the Upper East side. Vanessa encourages him to publish the novel following in a harsh exchange of words during a phone call and resulting in Dan lashing out at Vanessa while she takes matters into her own hands leaves the Humphrey apartment with his novel. Later scenes during the finale show Vanessa offering Dan 's novel to a publishing company.
-- Joshua Safran, producer
Amidst the fourth season, the romance between Dan and Blair became a polarizing topic among viewers which also drew significant media interest. Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post applauded the development, feeling that Blair had "more chemistry '' with Dan than with Chuck. New York magazine 's Chris Rovzar called Blair and Dan 's story line "believable '', citing their common ground in education and taste. Rovzar further stated, "Since they live in a world where both only seem to have half a dozen real friends (if that), is it so crazy they 'd end up together? '' The Huffington Post declared that "Dan and Blair together are like Harry Burns and Sally Albright reincarnated -- the couple was obviously inspired by When Harry Met Sally. '' It further commented that the couple paralleled Pacey and Joey 's relationship from Dawson 's Creek and concluded that Dan and Blair were "the most inspired storyline and couple of the show ''. Entertainment Weekly stated that Dan and Blair were like stars in an "updated version of You 've Got Mail ''. Tierney Bricker of E! ranked all 25 Gossip Girl couples placing ' Dair ' as the third best couple after Blair and Serena (# 1) and ' Chair ' (# 2). Bricker stated that "(Dan and Blair), out of all the main characters, were the most well - suited for each other. In real - life, they would 've been ' endgame '. ''
Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal was less positive, asserting that "both characters have been so Blandified that there 's no fun left in the show. '' A writer for E! Online 's Team WWK labeled the Dan / Blair relationship "nomance nonsense ''.
With regard to Chuck and Blair, Meester stated, "I can really relate to it -- not necessarily because it 's this dramatic, tumultuous relationship, but because the way they love each other is very real, and not for the sake of being dramatic. It 's actual love. There 's nobody for each other but them. '' Meester also expressed fondness for Dan and Blair, however, stating, "I think they 're good for each other in a lot of ways, in a way that Chuck and Blair are n't. '' Badgley claimed that he thought "Blair (was) Dan 's soul mate '' and further stated that he thought the Blair and Dan storyline was "the most exciting for Dan as a person ''. When Hollywoodlife.com asked Ed Westwick who played Chuck Bass which character he thought loved Blair more: Chuck or Dan, Westwick pointed to Badgley, saying "definitely him. ''
Producers initially noticed chemistry between Blair and Dan in the Season 1 episode "Bad News Blair ''. According to producer Joshua Safran, the creators planned to revisit their relationship once the timing was right. Safran also stated that the outcome was n't necessarily decided ahead of time. "One thing we are very conscious of -- and I know some fans get upset about this -- is we really try to treat the characters as living, breathing, well - rounded individuals. And we 're often surprised by where their journeys take them; they open new doors for us all the time. ''
The fifth season opens with Dan in the Hamptons. He appears upset when he receives Blair 's invitation for her royal wedding. Dan soon finds out that someone has published his book, Inside. Meanwhile, Blair, back from her cruise and is currently in Manhattan again, is frustrated with Louis ' domineering mother, who feels the need to have complete control over the wedding. Dan finds out that Vanessa has published his book without his permission and tries to undo the damage, especially after Vanity Fair want to publish a part about Dan and Blair. Desperate, Dan turns to Louis for some help, hoping the prince could put some royal weight on it and manage to cancel the publishing. Louis informs him that he promised earlier to Blair that he 's going to take her to the Royal consulate, so he calls her and tells her that he would not be able to make it, much to Blair 's disappointment.
Soon after, Blair then arrives at Dan 's loft and tells him that despite they have n't spoken since the holidays, she needs a friend to talk to and believes that he is the only one that will truly listen. She announces that she plans to break it off with Louis and asks him about his trip to the Hamptons, to which he responds to staying at CeCe 's house.
She asks him to take her there and Dan tells her he will be there for her for whatever she needs. He decides to conceal the real reason why Louis could n't make it, and just as they were about to make a move, Louis comes enters the loft. Blair assumes that he was following her and starts reprimanding him, until Dan 's conscience gets the better of him and reveals that Louis was only helping him with his book issue. Blair soon becomes furious with Dan as he did not tell her the real reason why Louis could not make it and departs with Louis, arm - in - arm, leaving Dan alone and heartbroken. And at the end of the episode it 's been revealed that Blair is the one pregnant.
Over the next few episodes, Blair is found having trouble keeping the pregnancy a secret and begins having morning sickness. Things get more difficult when Louis 's sister, Princess Beatrice, comes to town. When she hears Blair 's morning sickness in the bathroom, she begins to assume that Blair has gone back to being bulimic. She decides to invite Blair to a feast to be sure.
Meanwhile, in Brooklyn, Dan is still trying to stop the publishing of his book, in order to save the relationship he has built with his closest friends and family. He calls Serena on the phone and asks her how she went through Lily 's bank account so that he can go to Vanessa 's bank and look for the publisher, but she tells him that it was all Chuck 's doing, driving him to go searching for Chuck. To his horror, he finds Chuck getting beat up by men. He attempts to save Chuck, when he reveals that the men were not real criminals and he paid them to hurt him, much to Dan 's astonishment. This leads Dan to search for Blair and inform her about Chuck 's recent dilemma.
Meanwhile, at the feast, Blair begins to feel sick and searches for an excuse to run to the bathroom without arising suspicion. She begins to silently pray to God for a way out, and once she finishes, she sees Dan at the front of the door. Blair rushes to his side and drags him to the toilet and orders him to guard the door. Dan announces that Chuck is getting himself into trouble again, but Blair brushes it off, stating that he 's merely doing it to get her attention.
Once Dan hears Blair throw up, he begins to get worried and, like Beatrice, assumes that she has gone back to her previous bulimic ways. He voices out his concern and Blair leaves the washroom stall, stating that she was not bulimic, but instead pregnant. However, Beatrice walks into the bathroom just as Blair reveals her pregnancy to Dan. The both of them are shocked, but agree to keep it a secret.
Afterwards, Blair arrives at Dan 's loft once again, revealing to him that she is uncertain who the father of her unborn child is. He encourages her to take a test, but she refuses, stating that she 'll lose everything if Chuck is the actual father. Dan responds that she will still have him, causing Blair to cry and rest her head on Dan 's shoulder. He then kisses her forehead.
However, Blair, being her usual self, still tries to avoid taking the test, but after much persuasion from Dan, she eventually does, and announces that the father is Louis. She then tells Louis that she 's pregnant, much to his elation. Soon afterwards, Serena, Nate, Chuck, Louis 's mother, Eleanor and Cyrus all know about Blair 's pregnancy, and she decides not to keep anymore secrets regarding her unborn child.
Dan decides that it is time for him to tell Blair about his feelings for her, engaged or not, when she comes and visits him at his loft, feeling heavy - hearted and dejected. She tells him that she wishes to be happy again, but has forgotten how to be.
After a very emotional phone call with Chuck, Blair enters Dan 's living room heartbroken, looking devastated and emotionally drained. This drives Dan to attempt and bring Chuck and Blair together again, determined to bring joy back into Blair 's life. He decides to keep his feelings for Blair quiet and bottled up, only letting Serena know how he feels about her.
Dan leads both Chuck and Blair individually into an enclosed candlelight room. Once they both come face - to - face, Dan closes the door and shows himself out, leaving them both alone. Then, he engages in a discussion with Serena, telling her that all he wants is for Blair to be happy. Serena to tells him that he 's one of the good guys, due to his selflessness regarding Blair 's happiness.
While Blair and Chuck are whisking away in a limo, planning on running away together and raising Blair 's unborn baby as Chuck 's child, they both end up in a serious, life - threatening car accident when paparazzi tail them continuously after Charlie sends Gossip Girl a blast, informing her on Chuck and Blair 's whereabouts.
The accident causes Serena, who is alongside Nate and Dan, to be more furious at Gossip Girl than ever before, and blames her entirely for the accident caused. Dan monotonously states that she did n't jump on one of the motorcycles and chase Chuck and Blair down the road, but Serena angrily responds that the accident is merely the result of all the amount of damage that Gossip Girl has caused throughout the years. Nate agrees, and he Serena begin planning on taking Gossip Girl down for good, to avenge Chuck and Blair, as Dan anxiously waits for news on Blair.
In the next episode, Blair learns that she lost the baby in the accident, much to her depression and despair, and she immediately bursts into tears when the news reaches her. She becomes even more terrified when Serena tells her that Chuck is in serious danger, due to losing a large amount of blood. This drives her to make a secret deal with God, promising Him that if He saves Chuck 's life, she would marry Louis and not go back to being with Chuck. Once she makes the promise, the nurse informs her that Chuck is asking for her. She decides that this means that God has honored their promise, and chooses to further her relationship with Louis, deciding against pursuing her relationship with Chuck.
She informs Dan about her deal and tells him to keep it a secret, to which he agrees. Soon, only Dan and Serena know about Blair 's promise. She begins avoiding Chuck and Louis, who collaborate to find out what was going on with Blair, and find pictures of Dan and Blair together in New York, learning that the only man she 's not avoiding is Dan.
When she tells him that she needs him, and he responds that he has her, once again confirming that he will be there for her during the hard times.
When Dan walks in on Blair in her wedding dress, he tells her that she looks perfect, making her cry. She says that she can no longer get married in the dress, as now all she sees is everything she 's lost. Dan comforts her and tells her that she should change her mind about marrying Louis, but she insists on pursuing the wedding, stating she 's committed to him.
They both falsely assume that she 's having an affair with Dan, to which she immediately denies. Soon later, she finds Louis 's wedding vows, and is pleasantly stunned with how accurately he describes her and how much love the vows display. She tells Serena that she feels as if Louis had "peered into her soul, '' and now is happy with the decision she had made, believing that Louis is the one for her.
However, unknown to Blair, Dan was the one who wrote the vows, after Louis asked him to. On her wedding day, Blair and Chuck confront each other once again, and Blair declares that she does indeed love him, but can not be with him. She leaves the room to attend the ceremony, leaving Chuck alone in the room.
Cyrus and Harold both give Blair away, and Dan and Serena walk down the aisle together. However, it appears that someone taped Chuck and Blair 's moment, when Blair was professing her love for Chuck to him. It sends Blair running down the aisle and causes her to blame Chuck, assuming he was the one who sent the blast to Gossip Girl. Soon, she returns to the altar, and she and Louis continue the wedding. After Louis and Blair say their vows and take each other as man and wife, Serena tells Dan that she loves him, that she always had and she always will, just before Louis and Blair take their first dance as a married couple. As Blair tells Louis that she 's very thankful for giving her a princess title and especially grateful that he gave her another chance, he coldly responds that their wedding was all for show and there is nothing but a contract between them. He tells her that when they 're alone, they 'll become like strangers to each other.
After the wedding, Dan is certain he has lost Blair to Louis but soon finds out it is a sham wedding when Blair asks him for help to get out of the country and file for a divorce. Taking her to the airport he realizes just how much she needs to get out of this situation and lies to Serena about her whereabouts, this leaves him with a problem when he is discovered with Blair later on.
Soon afterwards, Blair arrives from her honeymoon to Manhattan on Valentine 's Day, she tries to set Dan and Serena up once again. However, when Blair notices the lack of interest Dan has in pursuing his old relationship with Serena. She tells him that she attempted to get Dan and Serena back together because she wants Dan to be happy. Blair asks him what it is that would make him happy, and he responds by kissing her, leaving Blair stunned. She, however, does not stop him and instead slowly begins to reciprocate to the kiss. Unfortunately, Serena, alongside Georgina, accidentally intrudes on Dan and Blair. Georgina manages to snap a picture of Dan and Blair 's kiss and soon runs away from the scene, driving Dan to chase after her, leaving Blair and stunned and angered Serena alone together. Blair continues to deny having any feelings for Dan during and after the party to both Dan and Serena.
With Serena and Blair 's friendship on shaky grounds Dorota decides to lock them in the dining room up for their own good. Blair decides to prove to Serena by spending a whole day with Dan that her feelings are platonic. Unfortunately, she reciprocates another kiss from Dan while Serena accidentally intrudes on them. Serena dictates that Blair is always in denial when it comes to matters of the heart. During a re-enactment of a scene from the Inside novel, Blair realizes that Dan loves her for her and has so for some time. Putting aside her insecurities she admits to both Serena and Dan that she too has feelings for Dan. Serena then gives Blair her blessing, stating that she does not want to be an obstacle in Dan and Blair 's relationship. Soon afterwards, Blair pecks a kiss from Dan and heads off to support Serena with her last moments with CeCe.
In "The Princess Dowry '' Dan walks in on Blair discussing what could be a potential way out of her prenup on the phone with Cyrus and another lawyer from his firm. Blair shares the details and after saying that she "would n't have to wait a year for... anything '' she and Dan exchange smiles.
At CeCe 's wake, Chuck outs Dan via Gossip Girl as the sender of the video that was fatal to Blair 's marriage. At first, she thinks that it 's just a game Chuck is playing and she is unwilling to participate, however, when she sees the guilty looks on Dan 's face she realizes that it 's the truth. She is mad at him, but forgives him after he tells her that his only reason for sending the video was that he could n't stand to see Blair so unhappy. Meanwhile, Blair makes a deal with Estee to help her get out of her marriage dowry if there will be no more public mention of it in the media, including Gossip Girl. However, at this time Georgina, who has stolen Dan 's phone, teams up with Chuck and sends Gossip Girl a message from Dan 's phone uploading the photo of the Valentine 's Day kiss, thus ruining Blair 's chances of not having to pay the dowry. Dorota shows Blair the blast and she confronts Dan who is confronting Georgina. The latter admits to having been Gossip Girl and it turns out that the deal with Estee was also one of her schemes. Dan goes to confront Chuck, who, after finding out that the blast will bankrupt Blair 's family, is regretful, however, he revels that he has outed Dan for the bad guy he has been and he question whether their friendship was just an act. Blair walks over to them and Chuck tells Dan to be honest and confess that he has been trying to keep him and Blair apart, which Dan does. He apologizes to Blair and leaves. Chuck says that wants Blair and him to try again because all the obstacles that were in their relationship 's way are seemingly gone, but Blair tells him that although she loves him, she is not "in love '' with him anymore. Later, Georgina visits Blair and promises to get her rid of her dowry in exchange for Blair 's support. Blair agrees to this.
In the episode 's last scene, Blair goes to Brooklyn. Dan is n't expecting her, as he is assuming she got back together with Chuck. Blair tells him that she is n't there to tell him off and she is n't with Chuck. Dan cracks a joke that clearly expresses his disbelief and surprise at Blair choosing him over the "love of her life, '' Chuck. She tells him that she told Chuck that he does n't have her heart anymore as it now belongs to someone else. They kiss and rest their foreheads against each other 's. Blair calls him by his first name which amuses Dan and he asks her to "say it again '' and they start kissing passionately.
The new couple make a slow and rocky debut on the Upper East side and are faced with numerous challenges including their relations in the bedroom, Blair 's lingering feelings for Chuck, and Serena 's distaste for their relationship. When Gossip Girl intentionally exposes Blair 's secrets on Gossip Girl, Dan comes to terms with Blair 's feelings for Chuck, as well as Serena 's attempts to sabotage their relationship. In the finale, Dan, having been left by Blair for Chuck, teams up with Georgina in order to write his follow up to "Inside ''. This time, however, he pledges to write the novel "he should have written from the beginning. '' Georgina, with her own score to settle with the Upper East side, is more than happy to help.
In Season 6, Dan tells Serena that the reason he did n't give her an answer to the "I love you '' was because it was easier to focus on his anger at Blair, than to face the possibility of getting what he always wanted in the fear of losing it again. Dan and Serena throw their first Thanksgiving as a couple together, where Serena affirms her love for Dan by rejecting both Steven and Blair by saying that Dan is her soul - mate and the only love of her life. Dan also solidifies his love by telling Georgina and Rufus that he had a plan all along to win and that there is no winning without Serena.
In the finale, Dan reveals to Serena their first meeting at a party, where Dan first spoke to her and fell madly in love. Dan realized at that party that he could never pull Serena out of her world but he could n't give up either. He realized that the only way he could get Serena was to write himself into the Upper East Side drama by using a blog to create a legend; the blog came to be known as Gossip Girl. Dan then revealed his secret to all by giving Nate his final chapter to publish in the struggling Spectator, revealing to all that the only purpose of Gossip Girl was the love he had for Serena. Serena was overjoyed at the revelation, stating that Dan, through Gossip Girl, had written her and everyone else a seven - year love letter and made her realize that she belongs in the Upper East Side with Dan.
Five years later, Dan and Serena get married, surrounded by their closest friends and family.
Dan Humphrey 's character has garnered much media recognition. Alfonso Espina of The Huffington Post declared that Dan was the "Nick Carraway character we viewers could live vicariously through. '' Jason Gay of Rolling Stone praised Badgley 's characterisation, claiming that "while another actor may have played Dan as a blah straight man, Badgley imbued him with an occasionally obnoxious know - it - all - ness. '' The New Yorker cited Dan as "the token - boho character ''; while, New York Magazine described Badgley 's Dan as "the moralistic outsider, or what passes for one on a show produced by the guy who created The O.C. ''. Jarett Wieselman of Entertainment Tonight asserted that "charming and disarming in equal measure, Badgley 's incarnation of the Brooklyn - boy gone bad was always a comedic and emotional highlight. '' Melena Ryzik of The New York Times compared Dan Humphrey 's character to The O.C. 's Seth Cohen, saying they both fulfilled the role of "the darkly comic observer ''. Similarly, Julie Weiner of Vanity Fair claimed that Dan was a Schwartzian archetype of Seth in that both characters were "attractive bookish outsiders ''.
Other colleagues have also commented on Dan Humphrey 's character. Blake Lively, Badgley 's co-star, declared that "Dan was supposed to be the goofy, nerdy guy who felt like he never measured up to other people, but Penn (Badgley) decided to play it a little more arrogant. Like he 's smarter than these spoiled little brats. '' The series executive producer, Stephanie Savage, claimed that "as he (Dan Humphrey) is the outsider, he 's somebody who when he 's pointing out what 's absurd about the world, you have to believe he 's smart enough to get it and also deliver it in a way that you find it kind of amusing and not just critical or judgmental. ''
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when is season 3 of rosewood coming out | Rosewood (TV series) - wikipedia
Rosewood is an American police procedural drama series that aired on Fox from September 23, 2015 to April 28, 2017. The series was created by Todd Harthan, starring Morris Chestnut as Dr. Beaumont Rosewood Jr., a private pathologist working in Miami, Florida, in high demand with law enforcement. On October 16, 2015, Fox picked up Rosewood for a full season of 22 episodes. On April 7, 2016, Fox renewed the series for a second season which premiered on September 22, 2016.
The series was canceled on May 9, 2017 after two seasons.
Rosewood and Villa make it their mission to seek justice for a murder victim who is an ex-con with ties to a Little Haiti gang. Meanwhile, Villa struggles with dreams she 's been having, and Rosewood deals with an unexpected turn in his relationship with Kat.
Rosewood has been met with generally negative reviews from critics, despite its good ratings on Fox. On Rotten Tomatoes, season 1 has a rating of 9 %, based on 112 reviews, with an average rating of 3.6 / 10. Metacritic gave season one of the shows a score of 37 out of 100, based on 23 reviews, signifying "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
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who played kevin's ex wife in shameless | Shameless (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the award - winning British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on January 13, 2013, at Sunday 9: 00 p.m. EST on the Showtime television network. Executive producers are John Wells, Paul Abbott and Andrew Stearn, with producer Michael Hissrich. The season concluded after 12 episodes on April 7, 2013. The shows season premiere brought in 2.00 million viewers, becoming the show highest rated episode ever to - date. The episode airing February 17, "The Sins of My Caretaker '', received 1.31 million total viewers, its lowest rated episode of the season. The season finale scored 1.82 million viewers.
Fiona adapts to life with Jimmy when he moves into the Gallagher house. Jimmy has more pressing concerns however when Estefania 's father makes him an accomplice in murder and forces him into a worrying situation. He has more shocks in store when he discovers that his father is secretly gay and in a relationship with Ian. Mandy and Lip deal with problems in their relationship - has Lip really been able to let Karen go? - while Mandy secretly does Lip 's college applications for him. Meanwhile, Mickey is out of prison and becomes jealous on seeing Ian with other men. Kev and Veronica have a lot on their plate when Kev 's wife Cheryl arrives. But there is more heartache for the couple when they discover Veronica is infertile and are forced to take an alternate route to parenthood. Sheila and Jody adapt to new parenthood and all its challenges, while Sheila is unhappy with their sex life and seeks Frank 's unlikely help in convincing Jody to be more adventurous in the bedroom. And in a shock move, the Department of Family Services removes the Gallagher children with the help of an unlikely person, leaving a heartbroken Fiona to enlist Frank 's help in getting them back.
On February 1, 2012, Showtime announced the series would be renewed for a third season. The show 's third season began shooting on June 27, 2012 and premiered on Sunday, January 13, 2013.
Noel Fisher, Emma Greenwell and Zach McGowan have been promoted to series regulars for their roles as Mickey Milkovich, Mandy Milkovich and Jody Silverman. Laura Slade Wiggins was demoted to a recurring character for her role as Karen Jackson. After Karen gives birth to her son, Sheila and Jody decide to raise Karen 's newborn son, Karen makes them choose between her and the baby so Karen decides to leave the house. Wiggins makes her first appearance back into the season in episode 7 titled "A Long Way From Home ''. Stephanie Fantauzzi, Vanessa Bell Calloway, Marguerite Moreau and Tyler Jacob Moore return in the third season as Estefania, Carol Fisher, Linda and Tony Markovich. Louise Fletcher appears as Peg Gallagher, the Gallagher 's grandmother.
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who did the voices in the movie coco | Coco (2017 film) - wikipedia
Coco is a 2017 American 3D computer - animated fantasy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Based on an original idea by Lee Unkrich, it is directed by him and co-directed by Adrian Molina. The film 's voice cast stars Anthony Gonzalez, Gael García Bernal, Benjamin Bratt, Alanna Ubach, Renée Victor, Ana Ofelia Murguía, and Edward James Olmos. The story follows a 12 - year - old boy named Miguel who is accidentally transported to the Land of the Dead, where he seeks the help of his deceased musician great - great - grandfather to return him to his family among the living.
The concept for Coco is inspired by the Mexican Day of the Dead holiday. The film was scripted by Molina and Matthew Aldrich from a story by Unkrich, Jason Katz, Aldrich and Molina. Pixar began developing the animation in 2016; Unkrich and some of the film 's crew visited Mexico for research. Composer Michael Giacchino, who had worked on prior Pixar animated features, composed the score. Coco is the first film with a nine - figure budget to feature an all - Latino principal cast, with a cost of $175 million.
Coco premiered on October 20, 2017 during the Morelia International Film Festival in Morelia, Mexico. It was theatrically released in Mexico the following week, the weekend before Día de los Muertos, and in the United States on November 22, 2017. The film was praised for its animation, voice acting, music, emotional story, and respect for Mexican culture. It grossed over $807 million worldwide, becoming the 15th highest - grossing animated film ever and was the 11th highest - grossing film of 2017. Recipient of several accolades, Coco was chosen by the National Board of Review as the Best Animated Film of 2017. The film won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Remember Me ''). Additionally, it also won the Best Animated Film at the BAFTA Awards, Golden Globe Awards, Critic 's Choice Movie Awards, and Annie Awards.
In Santa Cecilia, Mexico, 12 - year - old Miguel dreams of being a musician, even though his family strictly forbids it. His great - great - grandmother Imelda was married to a man who left her and their 3 - year - old daughter Coco to pursue a career in music, and when he never returned, Imelda banished music from her family 's life and started a shoemaking business instead.
Miguel now lives with the elderly Coco and their family, who are all shoemakers. He idolizes Ernesto de la Cruz, a popular actor and singer of Coco 's generation, and also a Santa Cecilia native, and secretly teaches himself to play guitar from de la Cruz 's old movies. One day, Miguel accidentally damages the picture frame holding a photo of Coco with her parents at the center of the family ofrenda and removes the photograph, discovering that his great - great - grandfather (whose face had been torn out) was holding Ernesto 's famous guitar.
Concluding that Ernesto is his great - great - grandfather, Miguel leaves to enter a talent show for the Día de Los Muertos despite his family 's objections. He breaks into Ernesto 's mausoleum and takes his guitar to use in the show, but once he strums it, he becomes invisible to everyone in the village plaza. However, he can interact with his skeletal dead relatives who are visiting from the Land of the Dead for the holiday. Taking him there, they learn that Imelda can not visit, as Miguel removed her photo from the ofrenda. Miguel discovers that he is cursed for stealing from the dead, and must return to the Land of the Living before sunrise or he will become one of the dead; to do so, he must receive a blessing from a member of his family. Imelda offers Miguel a blessing, but on the condition that he abandon his musical pursuits. Miguel refuses and attempts to seek Ernesto 's blessing.
Miguel encounters Héctor, a down - on - his - luck skeleton who once played music with Ernesto. Héctor offers to help Miguel reach Ernesto; in return, he asks Miguel to take his photo back to the Land of the Living, so that he might visit his daughter before she forgets him and he disappears completely. Upon learning he has other relatives, however, Héctor attempts to return Miguel to them. Miguel escapes and infiltrates Ernesto 's mansion, learning along the way that an old friendship between the two deteriorated before Héctor 's death. Ernesto welcomes Miguel as his descendant, but Héctor confronts them, again imploring Miguel to take his photo to the Land of the Living. An argument between Ernesto and Héctor, stemming from Héctor 's decision to leave the duo and return to his family, causes Miguel to realize that Ernesto murdered Héctor by poisoning him and stole his guitar and his songs, passing them off as his own to become famous.
To maintain his legacy, Ernesto steals the photo and has Miguel and Héctor thrown into a cenote pit, where Miguel realizes that Héctor is his real great - great - grandfather and that Coco is Héctor 's daughter. Imelda and the family find and rescue the duo. Miguel explains that Héctor 's decision to return home resulted in his death, and Imelda and Héctor gradually reconcile. They infiltrate Ernesto 's sunrise concert to retrieve Héctor 's photo from Ernesto, who attempts to kill Miguel to prevent him from returning with the photo. However, his family broadcasts Ernesto 's confession to the concertgoers, who jeer Ernesto as he is propelled into a bell tower, where he is crushed, repeating his death.
As the sun rises, Héctor is in danger of being forgotten by Coco and disappearing. Imelda and Héctor bless Miguel unconditionally so he can return to the Land of the Living. Miguel plays "Remember Me '', a lullaby Héctor used to sing for Coco, revitalizing her memory of Héctor. She gives Miguel the torn - off piece of the photo from the ofrenda, which shows Héctor 's face, and tells her family stories about her father, thus keeping his memory alive. Miguel 's family reconciles with him and accepts music again.
One year later, Miguel proudly presents the family ofrenda -- including the restored photo of Héctor and Imelda, and a new photo of the now - deceased Coco -- to his new baby sister. Letters from Héctor saved by Coco show that he wrote the songs Ernesto passed as his own; thus, Ernesto 's legacy is destroyed and Héctor is honored in his place. In the Land of the Dead, Héctor and Imelda have rekindled their romance and join Coco for a visit to the living as Miguel sings and plays for his relatives, both living and dead.
Lee Unkrich first pitched an idea for the film in 2010, when Toy Story 3, which he also directed, was released. Initially the film was to be about an American child, learning about his Mexican heritage, while dealing with the death of his mother. Eventually, the team decided that this was the wrong approach and reformed the film to focus on a Mexican child instead. Of the original version, Unkrich noted that it "reflected the fact that none of us at the time were from Mexico. '' The fact that the film depicted "a real culture '' caused anxiety for Unkrich, who "felt an enormous responsibility on (his) shoulders to do it right. ''
The Pixar team made several trips to Mexico to help define the characters and story of Coco. Unkrich said, "I 'd seen it portrayed in folk art. It was something about the juxtaposition of skeletons with bright, festive colors that captured my imagination. It has led me down a winding path of discovery. And the more I learn about (el) Día de los Muertos, the more it affects me deeply. '' The team found it difficult working with skeletal creatures, as they lacked any muscular system, and as such had to be animated differently from their human counterparts. Coco also took inspiration from Hayao Miyazaki 's anime films Spirited Away (2001) and Howl 's Moving Castle (2004) as well as the action film John Wick (2014).
In 2013, Disney made a request to trademark the phrase "Día de los Muertos '' for merchandising applications. This was met with criticism from the Mexican American community in the United States. Lalo Alcaraz, a Mexican American cartoonist, drew a film poster titled "Muerto Mouse '', depicting a skeletal Godzilla - sized Mickey Mouse with the byline "It 's coming to trademark your cultura. '' More than 21,000 people signed a petition on Change.org stating that the trademark was "cultural appropriation and exploitation at its worst. '' A week later, Disney cancelled the attempt, with the official statement saying that the "trademark filing was intended to protect any title for our film and related activities. It has since been determined that the title of the film will change, and therefore we are withdrawing our trademark filing. '' In 2015, Pixar hired Alcaraz to consult on the film, joining playwright Octavio Solis and former CEO of the Mexican Heritage Corp. Marcela Davison Aviles, to form a cultural consultant group.
Unkrich found writing the script "the toughest nut to crack ''. Earlier versions of the film had different universe rules regarding how Miguel (originally called Marco) would get back from the land of the dead; in one case he physically had to run across the bridge. In one version of the story, his family is cursed with singing when trying to speak, which was included as a technique to add music to a story where music is banned. Originally, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez had written many more songs for the film than what ended up in the released version; one piece that survived in storyboard until late into the production was an expository song that explained the Mexican holiday to viewers to begin the film. In another song, Miguel 's mother explains the tradition of shoe - making in their family, and how this means he is not allowed to pursue music.
Coco is the first - ever motion picture with a nine - figure budget to feature an all - Latino cast, with a cost of $175 -- 200 million. Gonzalez first auditioned for the role of Miguel when he was nine, and was finalized in the role two years later. Speaking of his character, Gonzalez said: "(Miguel and I) both know the importance of following our dream and we know the importance of following our tradition, so that 's something that I connected with Miguel a lot ''. During the film 's pre-production, Miguel was originally set to be voiced by a child named Emilio Fuentes, but was removed from the role after his voice deepened due to puberty over the course of the film 's production.
In 2016, the Coco team made an official announcement about the cast, which revealed that Gael Garcia Bernal, Benjamin Bratt, Renée Victor, and Anthony Gonzalez would voice the characters. Bernal, who voiced Héctor, was "moved '' when he realized that Disney - Pixar wanted to make a film on Latin culture. Disney officials closely monitored Bernal 's movements and expressions while he voiced the characters and used their input for animating Héctor.
Bratt voiced Ernesto De la Cruz, a character who he described as "the Mexican Frank Sinatra ''; "(a) larger than life persona ''. On the advice of the filmmakers, Bratt watched videos of equivalent Mexican actors including Jorge Negrete and Pedro Infante. Bratt found the character similar to his father in physical appearance, "swagger and confidence '', and worked in the film as a tribute to him.
The character Mama Imelda 's voice was provided by Alanna Ubach. Ubach felt that the film "is (giving) respect to one quality that all Latin families across the universe do have in common, and that is giving respect and prioritizing the importance of family ''. Mama Imelda 's voice was influenced by Ubach 's tía Flora, who was a "profound influence in (her) life ''. Ubach felt her tía was the family 's matriarch, and dedicated the film to her tía.
Unkrich stated that it was a struggle to find a role in the film for John Ratzenberger, who is not Latino but has voiced a character in every Pixar film. As Unkrich did not want to break Pixar 's tradition, Ratzenberger was given a minor role with one line.
On April 13, 2016, Unkrich announced that they had begun work on the animation. The film 's writer, Adrian Molina, was promoted to co-director in late 2016.
The film 's score was composed by Michael Giacchino. Germaine Franco, Adrian Molina, Robert Lopez, and Kristen Anderson - Lopez wrote the songs. Recording for the score began on August 14, 2017. The score was released on November 10, 2017.
Following the 90th Academy Awards ceremony, where "Remember Me '' won the award for Best Original Song, the album broke the top 40 on the Billboard 200 charts, jumping from 120 to 39, where it peaked before dropping to 64. In the week of March 8, the Miguel version of "Remember Me '' gained 1.58 million plays via online streaming, according to the Nielsen Music.
All music composed by Michael Giacchino except where indicated.
The first teaser of Coco was released on March 15, 2017, two days before Disney 's Beauty and the Beast opened worldwide. The teaser trailer introduced the basic concept of the film, while highlighting its focus on music. Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the trailer as "a terrific old - school Pixar sell, mostly consisting of a single sequence and offering just the barest hint of what 's to come. '' The film 's themes and imagery drew comparison to another animated film that centered around Día de Muertos, The Book of Life (2014). A two - minute short film, titled Dante 's Lunch -- A Short Tail, was released online on March 29, 2017. It introduces the film 's supporting character, a Xoloitzcuintle named Dante. The short was created early in the animation process by Unkrich and his team to have a better sense of the character.
The first official trailer was released on June 7, 2017, followed by a second trailer on September 13. The film was marketed extensively in Mexico, including traditional wall - painted advertising usually used for local events and never for films. Cinépolis, a movie chain in the country, held a contest for dubbing a character in the film, and another movie chain held a contest to become an interviewer for the cast and crew of the film.
Coco was released in Mexico on October 27, 2017, the weekend before Día de los Muertos. The film was released in the United States on November 22, 2017, during the Thanksgiving weekend, and three weeks after Día de los Muertos, and in the United Kingdom on January 19, 2018. The film was released in a crowded market, preceded by Thor: Ragnarok, Justice League and another animated film, The Star, and followed by Star Wars: The Last Jedi and another animated film, Ferdinand three weeks after Thanksgiving. It is one of the three Disney film productions being released in the November -- December corridor.
Coco is the second Pixar offering of the year, following Cars 3, with 2017 being the second year Pixar released two films, after 2015 (with Inside Out and The Good Dinosaur). The film was accompanied in theaters by Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 21 - minute featurette Olaf 's Frozen Adventure as a limited time offering, featuring the characters from Frozen, making Coco the first Pixar film not to be accompanied by a Pixar short in theaters since their first film, Toy Story, in 1995. The film will also have its own VR game, being Pixar 's first VR development.
Coco was released for High Definition online streaming and digital download on February 13, 2018, and on DVD, Blu - ray, and 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray on February 27, 2018, by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. Coco was available on Netflix streaming in the United States on May 29.
Coco grossed $209.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $597.3 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $807.1 million.
In the United States and Canada, Coco was projected to gross $55 -- 65 million from 3,987 theaters in its first five days, including around $40 million in its opening weekend. It made $2.3 million from Tuesday night previews, landing between Disney 's previous two November releases Moana ($2.6 million) and The Good Dinosaur ($1.3 million), and $13.2 million on its first day. It went on to debut to $50.8 million (including a five - day total of $72.9 million), finishing first at the box office. It was the 4th - biggest Thanksgiving opening weekend ever, behind fellow animated films Frozen, Moana and Toy Story 2. In its second weekend, the film dropped by 46 % to $27.5 million, a smaller drop than Moana, Frozen, Tangled, and The Good Dinosaur, and again topping the box office. It topped the box office once again in its third weekend, dropping by 33 % and grossing $18.5 million, a similar hold to Moana. It became the fourth film of 2017 to top the box office three times, following Split, The Fate of the Furious and The Hitman 's Bodyguard, before being overtaken by Disney 's own Star Wars: The Last Jedi and another animated film, Ferdinand, in its fourth weekend.
It fell to number six in its fifth weekend, due to competition from three new releases -- Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, Pitch Perfect 3, and The Greatest Showman -- despite a small drop again; it grossed $2.8 million on Christmas Day. On the holiday week of December 22 -- 28, the film finished at number six with a gross of $16.3 million, which was 6 % up from the previous week, despite losing over 1,000 theaters. It finished at number six in its sixth weekend, going up 39 % and 87 %, respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends; it grossed $2.6 million on New Year 's Day. It fell outside the top 10 in its eighth weekend (which included Martin Luther King Jr. Day), dropping 38 % and 14 % respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends.
Coco was released in Mexico on October 27, nearly a month before its release in the United States. It grossed $9.3 million on its opening weekend, the biggest opening weekend for an original animated film and the biggest debut for an animated film outside of the summer movie season in the market. In its second weekend, it earned another $10.8 million, a 12 % increase over its first weekend, bringing its total to $28 million. It became the fastest ten - day grosser ever for an animated feature in Mexico, as well as the biggest original animated release ever in the territory. It dropped by 23 % in its third weekend, grossing $8.4 million. That brought its total to MX $792 million (US $41.4 million), making it the highest - grossing animated film and the second - highest - grossing film of all time in Mexico, behind Disney 's own The Avengers, in local currency. A few days later, on November 15, it passed The Avengers to become the highest - grossing film in the Mexican market.
In China, Coco finished number one at the weekend box office, with a three - day total of $18.2 million, making it the second - highest opening ever for a Disney or Pixar animated release in that market, behind Zootopia. After seeing increases each weekday on its first week, the film increased by 148 % on its second weekend, bringing its total to $75.6 million in the market. It dropped by 21 % in its third weekend, finishing first once again and grossing $35 million. The film fell to number three in its fourth weekend, due to competition from two new domestic releases, grossing an additional $17.1 million. Coco 's success in China came as a surprise to most box office analysts who were projecting a gross of $30 -- 40 million. By its second weekend, it had become the highest - grossing Pixar release ever in China, nearly doubling previous record - holder Finding Dory, and by its fifth weekend, it had surpassed Despicable Me 3 to become the second highest - grossing animated movie of all time in the country, behind Zootopia. The movie was released in Japan, its final market, on March 16, 2018. As of May 1, 2018 the film 's largest markets were China ($189.2 million), Mexico ($57.8 million), Japan ($41.4 million), France ($33.2 million), United Kingdom ($26.1 million), South Korea ($25.9 million), Spain ($21.4 million), Argentina ($17.6 million), Italy ($14.4 million) and Germany ($12.3 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 97 % based on 285 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Coco 's rich visual pleasures are matched by a thoughtful narrative that takes a family - friendly -- and deeply affecting -- approach to questions of culture, family, life, and death. '' It was the site 's highest - rated animated film and ninth highest - rated wide release of 2017. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to receive such a score; it was also the sixth Pixar film to earn the rating -- the previous being Up in 2009. It also earned a 95 % positive score, including a rare five - out - of - five rating, from filmgoers on PostTrak, along with a 76 % "definite recommend ''.
Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said, "At every imaginative juncture, the filmmakers (the screenplay is credited to Pixar veteran Molina and Matthew Aldrich) create a richly woven tapestry of comprehensively researched storytelling, fully dimensional characters, clever touches both tender and amusingly macabre, and vivid, beautifully textured visuals. '' Robert Abele of TheWrap praised the film, saying: "If an animated movie is going to offer children a way to process death, it 's hard to envision a more spirited, touching and breezily entertaining example than Coco. '' In his review for Variety, Peter Debruge wrote, "In any case, it works: Coco 's creators clearly had the perfect ending in mind before they 'd nailed down all the other details, and though the movie drags in places, and features a few too many childish gags... the story 's sincere emotional resolution earns the sobs it 's sure to inspire. '' Debruge also described the film as "(An) effective yet hardly exceptional addition to the Pixar oeuvre. '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four, writing that "There 's a touch of Japanese master Hayao Miyazaki in the film 's matter - of - fact depiction of the dead interacting with the living, as well as its portrayal of certain creatures '' such as Dante and Pepita. He concluded his review by stating, "I had some minor quibbles about (Coco) while I was watching it, but I ca n't remember what they were. This film is a classic. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film 3.5 out of four, calling it a "loving tribute to Mexican culture '', while praising the animation, vocal performances (particularly of Gonzalez, García Bernal, and Bratt), and its emotional and thematic tone and depth. The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips called the film "vividly good, beautifully animated '', praising Giacchino 's musical score and the songs, as well drawing a comparison to the emotional tone of Inside Out. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the film as "a time - tested tune with captivating originality and flair, and with roving, playful pop - culture erudition '', and called the film 's cultural vibe "inclusive '' and "a 21st - century Disney hallmark ''. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times found the film to be "full of life '' and deemed it "a bouncy and heart - tugging adventure '', while lauding the vocal performances as "fantastic '' and "first - rate ''. Brian Truitt of USA Today described the film as "effervescent, clever and thoughtful, '' calling it one of "Pixar 's most gorgeously animated outings '', and "the most musical Pixar film, with a host of catchy tunes ''. Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger wrote that the backgrounds "have a vibrancy, and its atmosphere carries a warmth. And even after it 's done, both linger, just a bit -- like a perfectly struck guitar chord ''.
Coco was nominated for various awards and won a number of them, including several for Best Animated Feature. The song "Remember Me '' was particularly praised. At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, it won Best Animated Feature Film while it was nominated for Best Original Song for the song, "Remember Me ''. It led the 45th Annie Awards with most nominations, garnering thirteen, among them Best Animated Feature, Outstanding Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production, Outstanding Achievement for Writing in an Animated Feature Production, and Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Gonzalez. At the 90th Academy Awards, it won the Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song. Coco was chosen by the National Board of Review as the Best Animated Film of 2017.
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who is the actor that plays james on queen of the south | Richard Armitage (actor) - wikipedia
Richard Crispin Armitage (born 22 August 1971) is an English film, television, theatre and voice actor. He received notice in the UK with his first leading role as John Thornton in the British television programme North & South (2004). But it was his role as dwarf prince and leader Thorin Oakenshield in Peter Jackson 's film trilogy adaptation of The Hobbit that first brought him international recognition. Other notable roles include John Proctor in Yaël Farber 's stage production of Arthur Miller 's The Crucible, Francis Dolarhyde in the American TV series Hannibal, Lucas North in the British TV drama Spooks, John Porter in the British TV drama Strike Back, and Guy of Gisborne in the British TV drama Robin Hood. He more recently voiced Trevor Belmont in the Netflix adaptation of Castlevania.
After graduating from the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA), Armitage initially sought theatre work and was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC). He turned to film and television roles when he noticed that leading stage roles went to actors with name recognition who could bring in patrons to fill venues. After twelve years away and having earned that name recognition, Armitage returned to the stage in 2014 taking his first leading role in a major production. He played John Proctor in the highly successful and critically acclaimed production of The Crucible at The Old Vic, and earned an Olivier Award nomination for Best Actor.
One of Armitage 's trademarks is his baritone voice, which he has employed as a voice actor since 2006. While working on the TV series Robin Hood, he was asked to record audiobooks for the first season of that series. Since then, Armitage has recorded many notable audiobooks and has worked as a narrator on many TV and radio shows and adverts.
Armitage was born in Leicester, England, the younger son of Margaret, a secretary, and John Armitage, an engineer. Richard has an older brother named Chris. He attended Huncote Community Primary School in Huncote, Blaby District, Leicestershire and began secondary school at the local comprehensive school, Brockington College in Enderby.
At Brockington, Armitage pursued his interest in music - playing the cello in school and local orchestras, and learning how to play the flute. But by fourteen, having secured a grant from the Leicestershire Authority, he successfully persuaded his mother to allow him to transfer to Pattison College in Coventry, an independent boarding school specialising in the Performing Arts so that he could focus on drama and dance.
Armitage has expressed gratitude for the lessons and opportunities Pattison College provided, saying "It... instilled me with a discipline that has stood me in good stead - never to be late, to know your lines and to be professional. '' By the time he graduated, he gained not only A Levels in music and English, but also acting experience in local amateur and professional productions such as Showboat, Half a Sixpence, Orpheus and the Underworld (as Bacchus) and The Hobbit (as an elf) at the New Alexandra Theatre (aka "The Alex ''), Birmingham.
After completing the programme at Pattison College in 1988, Armitage joined the Nachtcircus in Budapest for six months to obtain his Equity Card, a requirement at the time for entertainment professionals to work in the UK. Returning to England, he pursued a career in musical theatre -- working as an assistant choreographer to Kenn Oldfield and performing in various productions, including the ensembles of 42nd Street, My One and Only, Nine, Annie Get Your Gun and as Admetus and Macavity in Cats. Armitage was also pursuing acting in dramatic theatre productions, including The Real Thing, Six Degrees of Separation and Death of a Salesman.
By 1992, he began to doubt if musical theatre was the right career path, so he enrolled at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) in 1993 to further study acting. "I needed to do something a bit more truthful than musical theatre. For me it was a bit too theatrical and all about standing on stage and showing off. I was looking for something else, so that 's why I went back to drama school. ''
After completing LAMDA 's three - year programme, he returned to the stage as a supporting player with the Royal Shakespeare Company 's productions of Macbeth and The Duchess of Malfi, as well as Hamlet and Four Alice Bakers with the Birmingham Repertory Theatre while taking a series of small roles in television and films. In 2002 he starred in the Charm Offensive 's production of Use Me As Your Cardigan.
That same year Armitage appeared in his first major television role, as John Standring in the BBC drama Sparkhouse (2002). "It was the first time I went to an audition in character. It was a minor role but it was something I really got my teeth into... I could n't go back. I knew I had to approach everything the same way. '' After this he took supporting roles in the TV productions of Between the Sheets, Cold Feet (series 5), and Ultimate Force (series 2).
In Spring 2004, Armitage landed his first leading role as textile mill owner John Thornton in the BBC adaptation of Elizabeth Gaskell 's North & South. The director and producers took a chance casting a little - known actor for their leading man (he was the first actor to audition for the role and the last person cast), but their instincts proved correct. North & South was an unexpected success and Armitage became an overnight sensation in the UK. The BBC message boards crashed shortly after the telecast as a result of chatter about him and he was hailed as the new "Mr. Darcy '' (referring to Colin Firth 's "Mr Darcy '' whom many regard as the definitive romantic leading man). Armitage never perceived John Thornton as the ideal romantic leading man role and was surprised by the overwhelming response. Instead, he said that he felt personally drawn to the role, as his father 's family had been weavers. He cited Thornton 's dualism as drawing him to the character. "The dichotomy between the powerful, almost monstrous, entrepreneur and this kind of vulnerable boy is exciting for me to look at. ''
In 2005, he played Peter MacDuff in Macbeth in the BBC 's ShakespeaRe - Told series and appeared as a recovering gambling addict in one episode of Inspector Lynley Mysteries. He starred in The Impressionists, playing the young Claude Monet, and as Dr Alec Track in ITV 's The Golden Hour, a medical series based on the London Air Ambulance. His first substantial role in movies was in the independent film Frozen.
In 2006, Armitage was cast as Guy of Gisborne in the BBC series Robin Hood, which was filmed entirely in Hungary. "In order to sustain the character of Guy, you have to find the conflict within him. He 's constantly pulled between good and evil, between who he wants to be and who he actually is. He could have been a good man, but he is forever dragged down by his fatal flaw -- that he wants glory at all costs. '' Approaching the third series, he said, "I do love playing him, but with a character like Gisborne, if you give him what he needs, then in a way, it 's over. That character is only interesting when he is n't getting what he wants, whether it 's power, money or the girl. '' The third and final series of Robin Hood started on 28 March 2009.
Armitage appeared in a two - part 2006 / 07 Christmas / New Years special of The Vicar of Dibley, as Harry Kennedy, the vicar 's new love interest (and eventual husband). He reprised the role in 2007 for Red Nose Day. On 8 April 2007, he played biker Ricky Deeming in the detective drama George Gently with Martin Shaw and Lee Ingleby. On 9 May 2007, he appeared in the BBC Four production of Miss Marie Lloyd -- Queen of The Music Hall playing Marie Lloyd 's first husband, Percy Courtenay. He also appeared in the Granada TV production of Agatha Christie 's novel Ordeal by Innocence as the character Philip Durrant.
Armitage joined the cast of Spooks as the character Lucas North for series 7, which began on 27 October 2008 in the UK. Armitage notes that the character, who spent eight years in a Russian prison, has a personable exterior, but is psychologically damaged. "I love films with a combination of action and good characters. That 's why Lucas is interesting as I get to play someone with a complex psychology who goes out there and tries to save the world. '' During the filming of series 7 Armitage allowed himself to be subjected to waterboarding to film a flashback sequence. In July 2010, Armitage completed filming of series 9, his final series. In this last series, his character 's real name was revealed as John Bateman, who had murdered the real Lucas North shortly before North began employment with MI5. Bateman had stolen North 's identity and taken his place.
On 20 May 2009, Armitage appeared in the BBC1 drama Moving On as John Mulligan.
In May 2010, Armitage starred as former S.A.S. trooper John Porter in Strike Back (also known as Chris Ryan 's Strike Back) for Sky1. Filmed in South Africa, Armitage found the main challenge of the role was to show how the character resolved being a trained killer with having a family and home life. "In the end it was the character I was attracted to, the story of a man who makes a decision under pressure and that decision has a knock - on effect on his whole life, '' he said. "He goes in search of atonement still believing he did the right thing even though it cost the lives of three of his friends... There 's anger and there 's injustice. It 's like, ' I did the right thing, with the wrong outcome. ' '' By the time Sky1 and Cinemax decided to commission a second series of Strike Back called Strike Back: Project Dawn, Armitage had already committed to The Hobbit and was unable to continue in the series. However, he appeared as a guest star in the first episode to resolve John Porter 's fate.
Ironically, it was his role as John Porter that led to his casting in Captain America: The First Avenger. US casting agents noticed posters of him as John Porter all over London. Although unknown to them, they offered him the role of Nazi spy Heinz Kruger because he looked the part. Armitage accepted and shot his scenes in the autumn of 2010, after filming wrapped on Spooks, series 9. (The film was released in July 2011).
On 21 October 2010, Peter Jackson announced Armitage was cast as Thorin Oakenshield in the three - film production of The Hobbit. Principal photography in New Zealand ran from March 2011 to July 2012 (broken into three filming blocks with breaks in - between) and pick - ups were shot in the summer of 2013. All three films were released in December, starting with The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey in 2012, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug in 2013 and The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies in 2014. Armitage thought it was a wonderful opportunity, as he grew up reading the books. Coincidentally, one of his first stage roles was playing an elf in a production of The Hobbit at the "Alex '' Theatre in Birmingham. He describes the character of Thorin as being complex and flawed, "somebody that had doubts and that had fears, and there was a gentle side to him and a very perhaps lonely side to him. '' He notes the scene with Balin in Bag End shows the character 's inner sensitivity and fear of failure, "failing where his father and his grandfather had failed as well. ''
Immediately after filming wrapped on The Hobbit, Armitage flew to Detroit, Michigan to film Into the Storm from July to September 2012. He starred as Gary Fuller, a high school Vice Principal with two teenage sons. The film from New Line was released in August 2014.
In March 2014, Armitage began the eight - week shoot of an adaptation of Bernard Hare 's memoir Urban Grimshaw and the Shed Crew in Leeds, UK. He played "Chop '' (the author 's nickname), an ex-social worker, drunk and drug addict in Britain 's lowerclass who befriends the hardened young delinquent Urban. Armitage explained his attraction to this role: "it ticks a few boxes for me: it 's based on a really interesting piece of literature, but also based on living people, who have been working with us on set. '' Urban and the Shed Crew premiered at the Leeds International Film Festival (LIFF) on 7 November 2015.
Armitage next appeared as John Proctor in The Old Vic 's production of Arthur Miller 's The Crucible. Directed by Yaël Farber and performed in the round, the play ran from 21 June to 13 September 2014. The production drew an unprecedented number of 5 - star reviews and was a commercial success. For his performance, Armitage was awarded Best Leading Actor in a New Production of a Play by Broadway World: UK Awards 2014 and a Best Actor nomination for an Olivier Award. Due to overwhelming worldwide demand to see the production, Digital Theatre captured the live performance to bring The Crucible to cinemas and for digital download. It was screened at cinemas on 4 and 7 December 2014 in the UK and Ireland, with further screenings in other selected territories in February and March 2015. (Copyright issues prevented the film from being screened at North American cinemas.) Digital Theatre made the digital download available worldwide on 17 March 2015.
In a September 2014 interview, Armitage revealed he would film his cameo role of King Oleron in Alice Through the Looking Glass in London after The Crucible closed. The film was released in May 2016.
Armitage spent four weeks in October 2014 filming Sleepwalker in the greater Los Angeles area. In this psychological thriller, Armitage plays Dr. Scott White, a senior MD at a sleep research centre. No release date has been set.
DeLaurentiis Company tweeted on 13 January 2015 that Armitage was cast as Francis Dolarhyde (aka The Tooth Fairy) in their acclaimed TV production of Hannibal, written and co-produced by Bryan Fuller. Dolarhyde is a serial killer, a character type which Armitage had expressed interest in portraying. He filmed the series in Toronto, Canada from January to April, and the series aired from 4 June to 29 August 2015. Armitage appeared in the last six episodes of season 3, earning high praise, wide acclaim and several award nominations, including two wins.
Immediately after wrapping on Hannibal in late April 2015, Armitage joined his fellow Pilgrimage castmates who had already begun filming in Connemara, Ireland two weeks prior. He plays Sir Raymond De Merville, a 13th - century French Norman who is intent on foiling a group of monks escorting a sacred relic from Ireland to Rome. The cast and crew later moved to the Ardennes region of Belgium to complete filming, with Armitage wrapping one week earlier than the official film wrap at the end of May.
News broke on 13 May 2015 that Armitage would star in Clearance, the first English language film by Finnish director Aku Louhimies and set to film in South Africa in November 2015. It is an action drama about a hardened mine expert named Ray (Armitage) and his pregnant partner (Naomi Harris) who are kidnapped in South Sudan. Sources differ on whether Ray is forced to cross a vast minefield to gain his freedom or if Ray and his partner make their escape across a vast minefield.
In a June 2015 interview, Armitage mentioned his next projects included an Edith Wharton film and a true Irish tragic drama. Per agent David Higham, Bridget Cleary is likely the Irish drama.
On 12 July 2015, Armitage revealed he was about to start filming Brain on Fire in Vancouver, Canada. Subsequent news outlets provided more details about his role as "Big Man '' Tom Cahalan, father of the protagonist in the true - life story of young journalist Susannah Cahalan 's sudden descent into inexplicable madness and the eleventh - hour diagnosis by one doctor. Filming began 13 July 2015. Brain on Fire premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) on 14 September 2016.
Armitage landed the lead role of Daniel Miller in Berlin Station, an original spy series for Epix. His character, a cerebral analyst from Langley, is a newly anointed undercover CIA officer tasked with finding a mole in Berlin. Filmed in Berlin from November 2015 to April 2016, with some additional filming in the Canary Islands, the series premiered on Epix in the fall of 2016.
On 13 July 2016, Roundabout Theatre Company announced Armitage was cast as Kenneth in the American premiere of Love, Love, Love by playwright Mike Bartlett. Love, Love, Love also marks Armitage 's first leading role in a theatrical play on an American stage. The off - Broadway play runs from 22 September to 18 December 2016 at the intimate Laura Pels Theater in New York City.
In January 2017, Armitage joined the cast of Ocean 's Eight.
Armitage was first introduced to voice work while working on the TV drama Robin Hood in 2006. The BBC was publishing novels of the first four episodes of series one and asked Armitage to record the audiobook versions. In recent years, Armitage has also performed a great deal of voice work, such as reading poetry for various radio programmes and starring as Robert Lovelace in BBC Radio 4 's production of Clarissa: A History of a Young Lady in April 2010. He has recorded eleven audio books: six based on BBC 's Robin Hood, Bernard Cornwell 's The Lords of the North, three Georgette Heyer novels for Naxos AudioBooks (Sylvester, or the Wicked Uncle, Venetia, and The Convenient Marriage) and Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A Novel. He has narrated television documentaries such as Homes from Hell, Empire 's Children, Too Poor for Posh School?, The Great Sperm Race, Forest Elephants: Rumble in the Jungle, Surgery School, and Elsa: The Lioness That Changed the World. In 2011, he provided the narration for a series about the Royal Navy flagship HMS Ark Royal, 125 Years of Wimbledon: You Cannot Be Serious, and Fraud Squad. He has also provided the voice - over for many TV and radio advertisements.
Armitage was hoping to star in a drama based on Richard III. Armitage was born on the anniversary of the Battle of Bosworth Field, where Richard III was killed and has said "I believe it is a great story, a socio - political thriller, a love story and a dynastic tragedy ''. He thinks the story has the potential to be told as a twenty - episode miniseries. A script has been in development since 2010 and "a lot of people... are interested (in producing it), but there is no one that will step on the gas. '' Recently Armitage stated that he is still interested in the project, though he has reservations that he might be too tall and too old to play Richard III.
Armitage has described himself as a method actor. "Yeah, I suppose I am. In a way it 's slightly lazy because it means you do n't have to pretend -- you just have to believe. As much as it 's possible to be like that I suppose I kind of do step in and out, I 'm not one of these people that ca n't talk to other people because I 'm in my character, but I kind of do stay with the character, yeah. He 's always there. It 's like marinating something -- you 're sitting in a marinade the whole time. '' He has also spoken of dreaming in character while playing John Porter and Thorin Oakenshield. However, recently he rejected the label of "method actor ''. "I think I 'm a concentrating actor. So in order to do my work in the course of a day, particularly with a character like this I have to concentrate. So it 's about staying in the scene, staying with my head in the scene and attempting to keep the character with me. It does n't mean I ca n't have a conversation or go and make a cup of coffee. But I actually stay with the character for 18 months. ''
He frequently speaks of developing and being drawn to dualism in his characters. "If I 'm offered the role of the hero, I immediately look for the antihero within!... I see everything in terms of an outer skin and an inner skin. '' He creates "character diaries '' with entire biographies for the characters he plays. "It was important to me to put in a background for my character that would be useful for the whole journey. A lot of that is secret and no one gets to read that. It 's what is useful to me. If you are playing something long - running and a role that has a future (beyond the initial series), it 's almost like you have to plant a garden which you will need to come back to at some point. If you do n't put in early, it can jar with you. ''
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who sang the song all my exes live in texas | All My Ex 's live in Texas - Wikipedia
"All My Ex 's Live In Texas '' is a song written by Sanger D. Shafer and Linda J. Shafer, and recorded by American country singer George Strait. It was released in April 1987 as the second single from Strait 's album Ocean Front Property.
A version of the song recorded by its co-author Sanger D. Shafer appeared in the film Road House, the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and TV show Ash vs Evil Dead. Rapper Drake mentions the song in his single "HYFR ''.
The format of the song is that of a list song.
The narrator declares that all four of his ex-girlfriends live in various towns in the state of Texas (e.g. "sweet Eileen in Abilene ''), and that is why he lives in Tennessee. The song is known for its Western Swing style rhythm.
Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song a B+ grade, saying that "you can almost hear the guy smirking as he sings this swinging hit, running down a list of jilted lovers from all over the Lone Star state. ''
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where are most amino acids absorbed in the digestive system | Small intestine - wikipedia
The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger - like protrusions called villi.
The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft). The average length in a living person is 3m - 5m. The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured. Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.
It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age, and 2.5 -- 3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm. On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated. The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.
The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.
The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.
The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery. Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.
The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube. By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.
Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:
Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair ''). The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
The small intestine supports the body 's immune system. The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system. Peyer 's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum. Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6. Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.
The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu
In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.
The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.
There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.
In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
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which of the following is a criticism of training simulators | Training simulation - wikipedia
A training simulation is a virtual medium through which various types of skills can be acquired. Training simulations can be used in a variety of genres; however they are most commonly used in corporate situations to improve business awareness and management skills. They are also common in academic environments as an integrated part of a business or management course.
The word simulation implies an imitation of a real - life process, usually via a computer or other technological device, in order to provide a lifelike experience. This has proven to be a reliable and successful method of training in thousands of industries worldwide. They can be used both to allow specialization in a certain area, and to educate individuals in the workings of the sectors as a whole, making training simulations versatile. Training simulations are not just games; their aim is to educate and inform in an exciting and memorable way, rather than purely to entertain.
Companies across the world regularly use simulations as a tool to teach employees. With the enormous range of simulation - based activities available, it is unsurprising that the specific aims of the sessions vary widely. Some simulations are focused on making decisions in a particular area of the business, such as personnel or product design, and these are called Functional Simulations. Others give a general overview of a company and give experience of making executive management decisions, and are called Total Enterprise Simulations. In recent years, however, this classification has become somewhat impractical, as increasing numbers of training simulations are involving both elements, and combining both an overall view of the industry with some decisions relating to specific sectors.
Training Simulations normally form part of a program designed to educate employees or students about the skills needed to operate a business, as well as persuade them to "think outside the box '' and see the bigger picture. This can make for a better organized, more fluid system in which all employees understand their part in making the company successful.
Although the most common use for training simulations is in a corporate setting, simulation games are increasingly being used to educate young people about the importance of business. From secondary school age all the way up to MBA students, anyone can benefit from the first - hand experience of running a company and making decisions that directly affect performance. This will allow the participants to gain an overall understanding of the business world, and give some insight into the type of skills that are necessary to succeed. It is also important to note that ' beating the game ' should not be a primary aim for anyone taking part in a simulation; the focus should be directed towards everyone gaining some useful and relevant knowledge that they can take away and use in their daily lives. If the simulation does have a competitive element, it is to motivate and inspire, rather than encourage any malpractice. Some training activities are non-competitive to avoid this, however many noted experts in the field state that the rivalry between teams or individuals improves the learning experience and adds a sense of fun and drama into the simulation. This is particularly important when working with young people such as students, as they often require an extra boost to keep them entertained, especially when a simulation is run over an extended period.
The concept of training employees to have a wider perspective on their position within the workplace has been around for hundreds of years, but it is only relatively recently that the idea of creating a simulated environment for trainees to test their abilities and skills has been developed. The first commercially available training simulation was in 1956, and was called The Top Management Decision Game, and was created by the American Management Association. Since then, the market has expanded hugely, with thousands of simulations available based upon hundreds of different industries. Initially simple with just a few choices to make, some simulations have become extremely complex with many different interlinking decisions. When training simulations were first used, they involved paper forms that were filled in by the participants and then compared by the organizer of the exercise. Nowadays, nearly all simulations are computer based, and involve multi-stage algorithms that calculate performance based on the decisions entered. Most simulations are based around a real industry, and hence they use real data to be as accurate as possible and to provide a realistic experience. However, some remain generic and do not model a particular industry, although these tend to be more useful for younger players or those with absolutely no business knowledge.
Most corporations and academic courses that contain a training simulation integrate it into an existing or completely new training programme. This allows the participants to get the maximum value from the experience, as well as review the sessions in order to improve them for future use. The structure of a training session would normally be as follows:
This integrated training will allow everyone taking part in the simulation to get the maximum experience possible, as well as being entertaining, exciting and giving them a new perspective on the business world. Many companies that specialize in training simulations also offer to create a special integrated plan unique to the client, to make the process as streamlined and efficient as possible.
Since training simulations are available based on such a wide range of different industries, and with thousands of different aims and objectives, it is difficult to outline a specific skill - set that will be improved by taking part in a training simulation. However, skills that good training simulations should build on include:
If every participant improves in these four key skill areas, the training programme will be a success, and any business should notice an improvement in efficiency and motivation, and students will be inspired and animated.
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who has the most rushing yards in football | List of National Football League career rushing yards Leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League running backs by total career rushing yards. This list includes all running backs who have rushed for at least 10,000 yards.
Through end of 2017 season.
Through end of 2017 season.
Seven players have been recognized as having held the career rushing yards record in the NFL. Since reliable yardage statistics were not recorded prior to 1932, the first NFL player recognized as the career leader in rushing yards was Cliff Battles, who played from 1932 to 1937 for the Boston Braves / Boston Redskins / Washington Redskins. He led the NFL with 576 yards in 1932 and held on to the record throughout his career. Emmitt Smith has held the record since surpassing Walter Payton 's long - standing total in 2002.
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who has the most consecutive wins at wimbledon | List of Wimbledon Gentlemen 's Singles champions - wikipedia
The Championships, Wimbledon is an annual British tennis tournament created in 1877 and played on outdoor grass courts at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club (AELTC) in the Wimbledon suburb of London, United Kingdom. The Gentlemen 's Singles was the first event contested in 1877.
The Wimbledon Championships are played in the last week of June and the first week of July, and has been chronologically the third of the four Grand Slam tournaments of the tennis season since 1987. The event was not held from 1915 to 1918 because of World War I and again from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II.
The Gentlemen 's Singles ' rules have undergone several changes since the first edition. From 1878 until 1921, the event started with a knockout phase, the All Comers ' Singles, whose winner then faced the defending champion in a challenge round. The All Comers ' winner was automatically awarded the title six times (1879, 1887, 1891, 1895, 1907, 1908) in the absence of the previous year 's champion. The challenge round system was abolished with the 1922 edition. Since the first championships, all matches have been played at the best - of - five sets. Between 1877 and 1883, the winner of the next game at five games -- all took the set in every match except the All Comers ' final, and the challenge round, which were won with six games and a two games advantage. All sets were decided in this advantage format from 1884 to 1970. The lingering death best of 12 points tie - break was introduced in 1971 for the first four sets, played at eight games all until 1978 and at six games all since 1979.
Since 1949, the Gentlemen 's Singles champion has received a miniature replica of the event 's trophy, a silver - gilt cup created in 1887 with the engraved inscription: "The All England Lawn Tennis Club Single Handed Champion of the World ''. New singles champions are traditionally elected honorary members of the AELTC by the club 's committee. In 2014, the Gentlemen 's Singles winner received prize money of £ 1,760,000.
In the Amateur Era, William Renshaw (1881 -- 1886, 1889) holds the record for most titles in the Gentlemen 's Singles, with seven victories. Renshaw 's wins, however, came within the challenge round format, and he won the event only twice after going through a complete draw. Renshaw also holds the record for most consecutive titles with six from (1881 to 1886). The record for most consecutive and most wins post challenge round during the Amateur Era is Fred Perry (1934 -- 1936).
In the Open Era, since the inclusion of professional tennis players in 1968, Roger Federer (2003 -- 2007, 2009, 2012, 2017) holds the record for most victories in the Gentlemen 's Singles Final with eight. Björn Borg (1976 -- 1980) and Roger Federer (2003 -- 2007) co-hold the record for most consecutive victories with five.
This event was won without losing a single set in the entire tournament during the Open Era twice, in 1976 by Björn Borg and in 2017 by Roger Federer.
Roger Federer is the only player in history, in both the Amateur and Open Era, to reach the Wimbledon Gentlemen 's Singles Final eleven times. He has won on eight occasions and lost on three.
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shot in the dark netflix season 2 release | Shot in the Dark (TV series) - wikipedia
Shot in the Dark is an American documentary television series that premiered on Netflix on November 17, 2017. The eight - episode first season explores the story of stringers in Los Angeles, California. The series follows three companies that do stringing in the Los Angeles TV News Market. It follows stringing companies OnScene.Tv, LoudLabs LLC, & RMGNews as they compete to get the shot that sells to the news.
The show features the same subject matter and many of the same people as the 2007 series Stringers: LA.
The strong reception has been in the way in which the stringers get to the stories and how they capture them. "Netflix 's teaser clips shows one of the brothers speeding off to capture footage of a head - on wrong way driver crash, and Shot in the Dark is sure to get into some murky ethics. ''
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who won the most golf tournaments in a row | List of longest PGA Tour win streaks - wikipedia
The following represents the golfers who have won at least three (3) consecutive starts in PGA Tour events. Note that in some cases the players have competed in and failed to win non-PGA Tour events in between these events.
Sources: 4 + wins, 3 + wins
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show me a picture of a fisher animal | Fisher (animal) - wikipedia
The fisher (Pekania pennanti) is a small, carnivorous mammal native to North America. It is a member of the mustelid family (commonly referred to as the weasel family), and is in the monospecific genus Pekania. The fisher is closely related to, but larger than the American marten (Martes americana). The fisher is a forest - dwelling creature whose range covers much of the boreal forest in Canada to the northern United States. Names derived from aboriginal languages include pekan, pequam, wejack, and woolang. It is sometimes referred to as a fisher cat, although it is not a feline.
Males and females look similar. Adult males are 90 to 120 cm (35 -- 47 in) long and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kilograms (8 -- 13 lb). Adult females are 75 to 95 cm (30 -- 37 in) long and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4 -- 6 lb). The fur of the fisher varies seasonally, being denser and glossier in the winter. During the summer, the color becomes more mottled, as the fur goes through a moulting cycle. The fisher prefers to hunt in full forest. Though an agile climber, it spends most of its time on the forest floor, where it prefers to forage around fallen trees. An omnivore, the fisher feeds on a wide variety of small animals and occasionally on fruits and mushrooms. It prefers the snowshoe hare and is one of the few animals able to prey successfully on porcupines. Despite its common name, the fisher rarely eats fish.
The reproductive cycle of the fisher lasts almost a year. Female fishers give birth to a litter of three or four kits in the spring. They nurse and care for their kits until late summer, when they are old enough to set out on their own. Females enter estrus shortly after giving birth and leave the den to find a mate. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until the following spring, when they give birth and the cycle is renewed.
Fishers have few predators besides humans. They have been trapped since the 18th century for their fur. Their pelts were in such demand that they were extirpated from several parts of the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Conservation and protection measures have allowed the species to rebound, but their current range is still reduced from its historic limits. In the 1920s, when pelt prices were high, some fur farmers attempted to raise fishers. However, their unusual delayed reproduction made breeding difficult. When pelt prices fell in the late 1940s, most fisher farming ended. While fishers usually avoid human contact, encroachments into forest habitats have resulted in some conflicts.
Despite the name "fisher '', the animal is not known to eat fish. The name is instead related to the word "fitch '', meaning a European polecat (Mustela putorius) or pelt thereof, due to the resemblance to that animal. The name comes from colonial Dutch equivalent fisse or visse. In the French language, the pelt of a polecat is also called fiche or fichet.
In some regions, the fisher is known as a pekan, derived from its name in the Abenaki language. Wejack is an Algonquian word (cf. Cree wuchak, otchock, Ojibwa ojiig) borrowed by fur traders. Other American Indian names for the fisher are Chipewyan thacho and Carrier chunihcho, both meaning "big marten '', and Wabanaki uskool.
The Latin specific name pennanti honors Thomas Pennant, who described the fisher in 1771. Buffon had first described the creature in 1765, calling it a pekan. Pennant examined the same specimen, but called it a fisher, unaware of Buffon 's earlier description. Other 18th - century scientists gave it similar names, such as Schreber, who named it Mustela canadensis, and Boddaert, who named it Mustela melanorhyncha. The fisher was eventually placed in the genus Martes by Smith in 1843. In 2008, advances in DNA analysis allowed a more detailed study of the fisher 's evolutionary history. The fisher and the Martes genera were determined to have descended from a common ancestor, but the fisher was distinct enough to put it in its own genera. It was decided to create the genus Pekania and reclassify the fisher as Pekania pennanti.
Members of the genus Pekania are distinguished by their four premolar teeth on the upper and lower jaws. Its close relative Mustela has just three. The fisher has 38 teeth. The dentition formula is: 3.1. 4.1 2.1. 4.2
Some evidence shows that ancestors of the fisher migrated to North America during the Pliocene era between 2.5 and 5.0 million years ago. Two extinct mustelids, M. palaeosinensis and M. anderssoni, have been found in eastern Asia. The first true fisher, M. divuliana, has only been found in North America. M. divuliana is strongly indicated to be related to the Asian finds, which suggests a migration. M. pennanti has been found as early as the Late Pleistocene era, about 125,000 years ago. No major differences are seen between the Pleistocene fisher and the modern fisher. Fossil evidence indicates that the fisher 's range extended farther south than it does today.
Three subspecies were identified by Goldman in 1935, M. p. columbiana, M. p. pacifica, and M. p. pennanti. Later research has debated whether these subspecies could be positively identified. In 1959, E.M. Hagmeier concluded that the subspecies are not separable based on either fur or skull characteristics. Although some debate still exists, in general, the fisher is recognized to be a monotypic species with no extant subspecies.
Fishers are a medium - sized mammal, comparable in size to the domestic cat. Their bodies are long, thin, and low to the ground. The sexes have similar physical features, but they are sexually dimorphic in size, with the male being much larger than the female. Males are 90 to 120 cm (35 -- 47 in) in length and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kg (8 -- 13 lb). Females measure 75 to 95 cm (30 -- 37 in) and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4 -- 6 lb). The largest male fisher ever recorded weighed 9 kg (20 lb).
The fisher 's fur changes with the season and differs slightly between sexes. Males have coarser coats than females. In the early winter, the coats are dense and glossy, ranging from 30 mm (1 in) on the chest to 70 mm (3 in) on the back. The color ranges from deep brown to black, although it appears to be much blacker in the winter when contrasted with white snow. From the face to the shoulders, fur can be hoary - gold or silver due to tricolored guard hairs. The underside of a fisher is almost completely brown except for randomly placed patches of white or cream - colored fur. In the summer, the fur color is more variable and may lighten considerably. Fishers undergo moulting starting in late summer and finishing by November or December.
Fishers have five toes on each foot, with unsheathed, retractable claws. Their feet are large, making it easier for them to move on top of snow packs. In addition to the toes, four central pads are on each foot. On the hind paws are coarse hairs that grow between the pads and the toes, giving them added traction when walking on slippery surfaces. Fishers have highly mobile ankle joints that can rotate their hind paws almost 180 °, allowing them to maneuver well in trees and climb down head - first. The fisher is one of relatively few mammalian species with the ability to descend trees head - first.
A circular patch of hair on the central pad of their hind paws marks plantar glands that give off a distinctive odor. Since these patches become enlarged during breeding season, they are likely used to make a scent trail to allow fishers to find each other so they can mate.
Fishers are generalist predators. Although their primary prey is snowshoe hares and porcupines, they are also known to supplement their diet with insects, nuts, berries, and mushrooms. Since they are solitary hunters, their choice of prey is limited by their size. Analyses of stomach contents and scat have found evidence of birds, small mammals, and even moose and deer -- the latter two indicating that they are not averse to eating carrion. Fishers have been seen to feed on deer carcasses. While the behavior is not common, fishers have been known to kill larger animals, such as wild turkey, bobcat, and lynx.
Fishers are one of the few predators that seek out and kill porcupines. Stories in popular literature indicate that fishers can flip a porcupine onto its back and "scoop out its belly like a ripe melon ''. This was identified as an exaggerated misconception as early as 1966. Observational studies show that fishers make repeated biting attacks on the face of a porcupine and kill it after about 25 -- 30 minutes.
The female fisher begins to breed at about one year of age and her reproductive cycle is an almost year - long event. Mating takes place in late March to early April. Blastocyst implantation is then delayed for 10 months until mid-February of the following year when active pregnancy begins. After gestating for about 50 days, the female gives birth to one to four kits. The female then enters estrus 7 -- 10 days later and the breeding cycle begins again.
Females den in hollow trees. Kits are born blind and helpless. They are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after about 3 weeks. After about 7 weeks, they open their eyes. They start to climb after 8 weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother 's milk for the first 8 -- 10 weeks, after which they begin to switch to a solid diet. After 4 months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at 5 months, the mother pushes them out on their own. After one year, juveniles will have established their own range.
Fishers are generally crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dusk. They are active year - round, and are solitary, associating with other fishers only for mating. Males become more active during mating season. Females are least active during pregnancy and gradually increase activity after birth of their kits.
A fisher 's hunting range varies from 6.6 km (3 sq mi) in the summer to 14.1 km (5 sq mi) in the winter. Ranges up to 20.0 km (8 sq mi) in the winter are possible depending on the quality of the habitat. Male and female fishers have overlapping territories. This behavior is imposed on females by males due to dominance in size and a male 's desire to increase mating success.
Parasites of fishers include Baylisascaris devosi, Taenia sibirica, nematode Physaloptera sp., Alaria mustelae, trematode Metorchis conjunctus, nematode Trichinella spiralis, and Molineus sp.
Although fishers are competent tree climbers, they spend most of their time on the forest floor and prefer continuous forest to other habitats. They have been found in extensive conifer forests typical of the boreal forest, but are also common in mixed - hardwood and conifer forests. Fishers prefer areas with continuous overhead cover with greater than 80 % coverage and avoid areas with less than 50 % coverage. Fishers are more likely to be found in old - growth forests. Since female fishers require moderately large trees for denning, forests that have been heavily logged and have extensive second growth appears to be unsuitable for their needs.
Fishers also select for forest floors with large amounts of coarse woody debris. In western forests, where fire regularly removes understory debris, fishers show a preference for riparian woodland habitat. Fishers tend to avoid areas with deep snow. Habitat is also affected by snow compaction and moisture content.
Fishers are widespread throughout the northern forests of North America. They are found from Nova Scotia in the east to the Pacific shore of British Columbia and Alaska. They can be found as far north as Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories and as far south as the mountains of Oregon. Isolated populations occur in the Sierra Nevada of California and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fishers were virtually eliminated from the southern and eastern parts of their range, including most American states and eastern Canada including Nova Scotia. Overtrapping and loss of forest habitat were the reasons for the decline.
Most states had placed restrictions on fisher trapping by the 1930s, coincidental with the end of the logging boom. A combination of forest regrowth in abandoned farmlands and improved forest management practices increased available habitat and allowed remnant populations to recover. Populations have since recovered sufficiently that the species is no longer endangered. Increasing forest cover in eastern North America means that fisher populations will remain sufficiently robust for the near future. Between 1955 and 1985, some states had allowed limited trapping to resume. In areas where fishers were eliminated, porcupine populations subsequently increased. Areas with a high density of porcupines were found to have extensive damage to timber crops. In these cases, fishers were reintroduced by releasing adults relocated from other places into the forest. Once the fisher populations became re-established, porcupine numbers returned to natural levels. In Washington, fisher sightings were reported into the 1980s, but an extensive survey in the 1990s did not locate any.
Scattered fisher populations now exist in the Pacific Northwest. In 1961, fishers from British Columbia and Minnesota were reintroduced in Oregon to the southern Cascades near Klamath Falls and to the Wallowa Mountains near La Grande. From 1977 -- 1980, fishers were introduced to the region around Crater Lake. Starting in January 2008, fishers were reintroduced into Washington State. The initial reintroduction was on the Olympic peninsula (90 animals), with subsequent reintroductions into the south Cascade Mountains. The reintroduced animals are monitored by radio collars and remote cameras, and have been shown to be reproducing. From 2008 to 2011, about 40 fishers were reintroduced in the northern Sierra Nevada near Stirling City, complementing fisher populations in Yosemite National Park and along California 's northern boundary between the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains. Fishers are a protected species in Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. In Idaho and California, fishers are protected through a closed trapping season, but they are not afforded any specific protection; however, in California the fisher has been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act. In June 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that fishers be removed from the endangered list in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.
Recent studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, show that fishers have begun making inroads into suburban backyards, farmland, and periurban areas in several US states and eastern Canada, as far south as most of northern Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Minnesota and Iowa, and even rural New Jersey. Having virtually disappeared after the construction of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 1900s, some reports have shown that populations have become re-established on Cape Cod, although the populations are likely smaller than the populations in the western part of New England.
Fishers have had a long history of contact with humans, but most of it has been to the detriment of fisher populations. Unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare, but fishers will attack if they feel threatened or cornered. In one case, a fisher was blamed for an attack on a 6 - year - old boy. In another case, a fisher is believed to be responsible for an attack on a 12 - year - old boy.
Fishers have been trapped since the 18th century. They have been popular with trappers due to the value of their fur, which has been used for scarves and neck pieces. The best pelts are from winter trapping, with secondary - quality pelts from spring trapping. The lowest - quality furs come from out - of - season trapping when fishers are moulting. They are easily trapped, and the value of their fur was a particular incentive for catching this species.
Prices for pelts have varied considerably over the past 100 years. They were highest in the 1920s and 1930s, when average prices were about US $100. In 1936, pelts were being offered for sale in New York City for $450 -- 750 per pelt. Prices declined through the 1960s, but picked up again in the late 1970s. In 1979, the Hudson 's Bay Company paid $410 for one female pelt. In 1999, 16,638 pelts were sold in Canada for C $449,307 at an average price of $27.
Between 1900 and 1940, fishers were threatened with near extinction in the southern part of their range due to overtrapping and alterations to their habitat. In New England, fishers, along with most other furbearers, were nearly exterminated due to unregulated trapping. Fishers became extirpated in many northern U.S. states after 1930, but were still abundant enough in Canada to maintain a harvest over 3,000 fishers per year. Limited protection was afforded in the early 20th century, but total protection was not given to the few remaining fishers until 1934. Closed seasons, habitat recovery, and reintroductions have restored fishers to much of their original range.
Trapping resumed in the U.S. after 1962, once numbers had recovered sufficiently. During the early 1970s, the value of fisher pelts soared, leading to another population crash in 1976. After a few years of closed seasons, fisher trapping reopened in 1979 with a shortened season and restricted bag limits. The population has steadily increased since then, with steadily increasing numbers of trapped animals, despite a much lower pelt value.
Fishers have been captured live for fur farming, zoo specimens, and scientific research. From 1920 -- 1946, pelt prices averaged about C $137. Since pelts were relatively valuable, attempts were made to raise fishers on farms. Fur farming was popular with other species such as mink and ermine, so the same techniques were thought to be applicable to fishers. However, farmers found it difficult to raise fishers due to their unusual reproductive cycle. In general, knowledge of delayed implantation in fishers was unknown at the time. Farmers noted that females mated in the spring but did not give birth. Due to declining pelt prices, most fisher farms closed operations by the late 1940s.
Fishers have also been captured and bred by zoos, but they are not a common zoo species. Fishers are poor animals to exhibit because, in general, they hide from visitors all day. Some zoos have had difficulty keeping fishers alive since they are susceptible to many diseases in captivity. Yet at least one example shows a fisher kept in captivity that lived to be 10 years old, and another living to be about 14 years old, well beyond its natural lifespan of 7 years.
In 1974, R.A. Powell raised two fisher kits for the purpose of performing scientific research. His primary interest was an attempt to measure the activity of fishers to determine how much food the animals required to function. He did this by running them through treadmill exercises that simulated activity in the wild. He compared this to their food intake and used the data to estimate daily food requirements. The research lasted for two years. After one year, one of the fishers died due to unknown causes. The second was released back into the wilderness of Michigan 's Upper Peninsula.
In some areas, fishers can become pests to farmers when they raid chicken coops. A few instances of fishers preying on cats and small dogs have been reported; but in general, the evidence suggests these attacks are rare. A 1979 study examined the stomach contents of all fishers trapped in the state of New Hampshire; cat hairs were found in only one of over 1,000 stomachs. More recent studies in suburban upstate New York and Massachusetts found no cat remains in 24 and 226 fisher diet samples (scat and stomach contents), respectively. While a popular belief exists for more frequent attacks on pets, zoologists suggest bobcats or coyotes are more likely to prey upon domestic cats and chickens.
In 2012, a study conducted by Integral Ecology Research Center, UC Davis, U.S. Forest Service, and the Hoopa tribe showed that fishers in California were exposed to and killed by anticoagulant rodenticides associated with marijuana cultivation. In this study, 79 % of fishers that were tested in California were exposed to an average of 1.61 different anticoagulant rodenticides and four fishers died directly attributed to these toxicants. A 2015 follow - up study building on these data determined that the trend of exposure and mortality from these toxicants increased to 85 %, that California fishers were now exposed to an average of 1.73 different anticoagulant rodenticides, and that 9 more fishers died, bringing the total to 13. The extent of marijuana cultivation within fishers ' home ranges was highlighted in a 2013 study focusing on fisher survival and impacts from marijuana cultivation within the Sierra National Forest. Fishers had an average of 5.3 individual grow sites within their home range. One fisher had 16 individual grow sites within its territory.
One of the first mentions of fishers in literature occurred in The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories. Robert Snyder relates a tale of his encounter with fishers in the woods of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. He recounts three sightings, including one where he witnessed a fisher attacking a porcupine.
In Winter of the Fisher, Cameron Langford relates a fictional encounter between a fisher and an aging recluse living in the forest. The recluse frees the fisher from a trap and nurses it back to health. The fisher tolerates the attention, but being a wild animal, returns to the forest when well enough. Langford uses the ecology and known habits of the fisher to weave a tale of survival and tolerance in the northern woods of Canada.
Fishers are mentioned in several other books, including The Blood Jaguar (an animal shaman), Ereth 's Birthday (a porcupine hunter) and in The Sign of the Beaver, where a fisher is thought to have been caught in a trap.
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who is the founder of the first women's football league | National Women 's Football Association - wikipedia
The National Women 's Football Association (NWFA) was a full - contact American football league for women headquartered in Nashville, Tennessee. The league was founded by Catherine Masters in 2000, as the two benchmark teams, the Alabama Renegades and the Nashville Dream played each other six times in exhibition games. The opening season was in 2001 featuring ten teams. The NWFA did not officially field any teams for the 2009 season.
The NWFA was originally called the National Women 's Football League, but changed its name after the 2002 season. The name change came after pressure from the National Football League. The NFL also required the league to change the logos of some teams whose logos resembled those of NFL teams.
League founder Catherine Masters was inducted into the American Football Association 's Semi Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2006.
NWFA teams played according to standard National Football League rules with the following notable exceptions:
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who played maid marian in robin hood prince of thieves | Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves - wikipedia
Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a 1991 American romantic action adventure film, based on the English folk tale of Robin Hood which originated in the 15th century. The film was directed by Kevin Reynolds. The film 's principal cast includes Kevin Costner as Robin Hood, Morgan Freeman as Azeem, Christian Slater as Will Scarlett, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio as Marian, and Alan Rickman as the Sheriff of Nottingham.
The film grossed over $390 million worldwide, ranking as the second - highest - grossing film of 1991. For his role as George, Sheriff of Nottingham, Rickman received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The film 's theme song, "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You '', by Bryan Adams, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song and won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television.
Robin of Locksley -- an English nobleman who joined Richard the Lionheart, King of England in the Third Crusade -- is imprisoned in Jerusalem along with his comrade, Peter Dubois. Facing the amputation of Peter 's hand by the Ayyubid prison guards, Robin escapes with Peter, saving the life of a Moor named Azeem in the process. Robin, Peter, and Azeem escape through a sewer and into an alley, but Peter is shot and mortally wounded by an archer. Before making his last stand against the approaching guards, Peter has Robin swear to protect his sister, Marian. Robin returns to England with Azeem, who has vowed to accompany him until Azeem 's life - debt to Robin is repaid.
In England, with King Richard away in France, the cruel Sheriff of Nottingham rules over the land, aided by his cousin Guy of Gisbourne, the witch Mortianna, and the corrupt Bishop of Hereford. At Locksley Castle, Robin 's father, who is loyal to King Richard, is killed by the Sheriff 's men after refusing to join them.
Robin returns to England to find his father dead, his home in ruins, and the Sheriff and his men oppressing the people. After telling Marian of Peter 's demise, and while fleeing the Sheriff 's forces afterwards, Robin and Azeem encounter a band of outlaws hiding in Sherwood Forest, led by Little John. Among the band is Will Scarlett, who holds a belligerent grudge against Robin. Robin assumes command of the group, training them to defend themselves and fight against Nottingham. They rob soldiers and convoys that pass through the forest, then distribute the stolen wealth among the poor. One of their early targets is Friar Tuck, who subsequently joins these Merry Men. Marian begins to sympathize with the band and renders Robin any aid she can muster, as the two grow closer to one another and gradually begin to fall in love. Robin 's successes infuriate the Sheriff, who increases the mistreatment of the people, resulting in greater local support for Robin Hood.
The Sheriff kills Gisbourne for his failure to prevent the looting of several convoys, and hires Celtic warriors from Scotland to assist his forces in assaulting the hideout. The Sheriff manages to locate the outlaws ' hideout and launches an attack, destroying the refuge and capturing most of the outlaws. With the Bishop 's help, the Sherrif has Marian confined when she tries to summon help from France. To consolidate his claim to the throne, the Sheriff proposes to Marian (who is Richard 's cousin), claiming that if she accepts, he will spare the lives of the captured outlaws. Nevertheless, several of the rebels are due to be executed by hanging as part of the wedding celebration. Among the captured is Will Scarlett, who makes a deal with the Sheriff to find and kill Robin in exchange for his freedom.
Will meets up with Robin and a handful of his aides who survived the Celts ' assault. Will informs Robin of the Sheriff 's plans to marry Marian and execute Robin 's men. Will continues to display anger against Robin, which motivates Robin to question why Will hates him so much. Will then reveals himself to be Robin 's younger illegitimate half - brother; Will 's mother was a peasant woman with whom Robin 's father took comfort after Robin 's mother died. Robin 's anger toward his father caused him to separate from her and leave Will fatherless. Despite his anger, Robin is overjoyed to learn that he has a brother, and reconciles with Will.
On the day of the wedding and hangings, Robin and his men infiltrate Nottingham Castle, freeing the prisoners. Although Robin 's band originally planned to free their friends and retreat, Azeem reveals himself and his willingness to fight the Sheriff, inciting the peasants to revolt. After a fierce fight, Robin kills the Sheriff, but is attacked by Mortianna with a spear. Azeem slays Mortianna, fulfilling his life - debt to Robin. Tuck kills the Bishop by burdening him with treasure and throwing him out a window.
Robin and Marian profess their love for each other and are married in the forest. Their wedding is briefly interrupted by King Richard, who blesses the marriage and thanks Robin for his deeds.
Rickman turned down the role of the sheriff twice before he was told he could have carte blanche with his interpretation of the character.
On the DVD commentary for ITV 's Robin of Sherwood television series, which ran from 1983 to 1986, writer and creator Richard Carpenter explains that the stunt coordinator from the Robin of Sherwood series, Terry Walsh, was hired to do stunt work for Prince of Thieves. While on set, Walsh noticed a Saracen assassin character named Nasir was in the film. That character was a creation of Carpenter and is exclusive to the Robin of Sherwood series. Once the creators of Prince of Thieves realized a potential for copyright infringement, they changed the character 's name from Nasir to Azeem. Carpenter also explains that Costner and others involved in Prince of Thieves have admitted to watching Robin of Sherwood as inspiration for their film.
Principal exteriors were shot on location in the United Kingdom. A second unit filmed the medieval walls and towers of the Cité de Carcassonne in the town of Carcassonne in Aude, France, for the portrayal of Nottingham and its castle. Locksley Castle was Wardour Castle in Wiltshire -- restored in an early shot using a matte painting. Marian 's manor was filmed at Hulne Priory in Northumberland. Scenes set in Sherwood Forest were filmed throughout England: Burnham Beeches in Buckinghamshire was used for the outlaws ' encampment, Aysgarth Falls in Yorkshire for the fight scene between Robin and Little John, and Hardraw Force in North Yorkshire was the location where Marian sees Robin bathing. Sycamore Gap on Hadrian 's Wall was used for the scene when Robin first confronts the sheriff 's men. Chalk cliffs at Seven Sisters, Sussex were used as the locale for Robin 's return to England from the Crusades.
Interior scenes were completed at Shepperton Studios in Surrey.
The original music score was composed, orchestrated and conducted by Michael Kamen. An excerpt from the main title music was subsequently used as the logo music for Morgan Creek, and has been used by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment in intros for trailers on DVD / Blu - ray.
Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves was submitted for classification from the British Board of Film Classification and required 14 seconds to be cut from the film to obtain a PG rating.
Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert praised Freeman 's performance as well as Rickman 's, but ultimately decried the film as a whole, giving it two stars and stating, "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a murky, unfocused, violent, and depressing version of the classic story... The most depressing thing about the movie is that children will attend it expecting to have a good time. '' The New York Times gave the film a negative review, with Vincent Canby writing that the movie is "a mess, a big, long, joyless reconstruction of the Robin Hood legend that comes out firmly for civil rights, feminism, religious freedom, and economic opportunity for all. '' The Los Angeles Times found the movie unsatisfactory, as well. Costner was criticised for not attempting an English accent.
Lanre Bakare, writing in The Guardian, calls Rickman 's Sheriff, for which he won a BAFTA, a "genuinely great performance ''. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 52 critics to give the film a score of 50 %.
Prince of Thieves was nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards: Kevin Costner won the Worst Actor award for his performance as Robin Hood, while Christian Slater received a nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performances in this film and Mobsters, but lost to Dan Aykroyd for Nothing but Trouble.
In 2005, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores.
The film grossed $25 million in its opening weekend and $18.3 million in its second. The film eventually made $390,493,908 at the global box office, making it the second - highest grossing film of 1991, immediately behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day. It enjoyed the second - best opening for a nonsequel, at the time.
A tie - in video game of the same name was released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy. Developed by Sculptured Software Inc. and Bits Studios, respectively, and published by Virgin Games, Inc., it was featured as the cover game for the July 1991 issue of Nintendo Power magazine.
A toy line was released by Kenner, consisting of action figures and playsets. Notably, all but one of the figures were slightly modified from Kenner 's well known Super Powers line, while Friar Tuck, as well as the vehicles and playset, were modified from Star Wars: Return of the Jedi toys.
Quotations related to Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves at Wikiquote
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what is the sum of 1 to infinity | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ - wikipedia
The infinite series whose terms are the natural numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is a divergent series. The nth partial sum of the series is the triangular number
which increases without bound as n goes to infinity. Because the sequence of partial sums fails to converge to a finite limit, the series does not have a sum.
Although the series seems at first sight not to have any meaningful value at all, it can be manipulated to yield a number of mathematically interesting results, some of which have applications in other fields such as complex analysis, quantum field theory, and string theory. Many summation methods are used in mathematics to assign numerical values even to a divergent series. In particular, the methods of zeta function regularization and Ramanujan summation assign the series a value of − 1 / 12, which is expressed by a famous formula:
where the left hand side has to be interpreted as being the value obtained by using one of the aforementioned summation methods and not as the sum of an infinite series in its usual meaning.
In a monograph on moonshine theory, Terry Gannon calls this equation "one of the most remarkable formulae in science ''.
The partial sums of the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, etc. The nth partial sum is given by a simple formula:
This equation was known to the Pythagoreans as early as the sixth century BCE. Numbers of this form are called triangular numbers, because they can be arranged as an equilateral triangle.
The infinite sequence of triangular numbers diverges to + ∞, so by definition, the infinite series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ also diverges to + ∞. The divergence is a simple consequence of the form of the series: the terms do not approach zero, so the series diverges by the term test.
Among the classical divergent series, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is relatively difficult to manipulate into a finite value. Many summation methods are used to assign numerical values to divergent series, some more powerful than others. For example, Cesàro summation is a well - known method that sums Grandi 's series, the mildly divergent series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯, to 1 / 2. Abel summation is a more powerful method that not only sums Grandi 's series to 1 / 2, but also sums the trickier series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ to 1 / 4.
Unlike the above series, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is not Cesàro summable nor Abel summable. Those methods work on oscillating divergent series, but they can not produce a finite answer for a series that diverges to + ∞. Most of the more elementary definitions of the sum of a divergent series are stable and linear, and any method that is both stable and linear can not sum 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ to a finite value; see below. More advanced methods are required, such as zeta function regularization or Ramanujan summation. It is also possible to argue for the value of − 1 / 12 using some rough heuristics related to these methods.
Srinivasa Ramanujan presented two derivations of "1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12 '' in chapter 8 of his first notebook. The simpler, less rigorous derivation proceeds in two steps, as follows.
The first key insight is that the series of positive numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ closely resembles the alternating series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯. The latter series is also divergent, but it is much easier to work with; there are several classical methods that assign it a value, which have been explored since the 18th century.
In order to transform the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ into 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯, one can subtract 4 from the second term, 8 from the fourth term, 12 from the sixth term, and so on. The total amount to be subtracted is 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + ⋯, which is 4 times the original series. These relationships can be expressed using algebra. Whatever the "sum '' of the series might be, call it c = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯. Then multiply this equation by 4 and subtract the second equation from the first:
The second key insight is that the alternating series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ is the formal power series expansion of the function 1 / (1 + x) but with x defined as 1. Accordingly, Ramanujan writes:
Dividing both sides by − 3, one gets c = − 1 / 12.
Generally speaking, it is incorrect to manipulate infinite series as if they were finite sums. For example, if zeroes are inserted into arbitrary positions of a divergent series, it is possible to arrive at results that are not self - consistent, let alone consistent with other methods. In particular, the step 4c = 0 + 4 + 0 + 8 + ⋯ is not justified by the additive identity law alone. For an extreme example, appending a single zero to the front of the series can lead to inconsistent results.
One way to remedy this situation, and to constrain the places where zeroes may be inserted, is to keep track of each term in the series by attaching a dependence on some function. In the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯, each term n is just a number. If the term n is promoted to a function n, where s is a complex variable, then one can ensure that only like terms are added. The resulting series may be manipulated in a more rigorous fashion, and the variable s can be set to − 1 later. The implementation of this strategy is called zeta function regularization.
In zeta function regularization, the series ∑ n = 1 ∞ n (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 1) ^ (\ infty) n) is replaced by the series ∑ n = 1 ∞ n − s (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 1) ^ (\ infty) n ^ (- s)). The latter series is an example of a Dirichlet series. When the real part of s is greater than 1, the Dirichlet series converges, and its sum is the Riemann zeta function ζ (s). On the other hand, the Dirichlet series diverges when the real part of s is less than or equal to 1, so, in particular, the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ that results from setting s = -- 1 does not converge. The benefit of introducing the Riemann zeta function is that it can be defined for other values of s by analytic continuation. One can then define the zeta - regularized sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ to be ζ (− 1).
From this point, there are a few ways to prove that ζ (− 1) = − 1 / 12. One method, along the lines of Euler 's reasoning, uses the relationship between the Riemann zeta function and the Dirichlet eta function η (s). The eta function is defined by an alternating Dirichlet series, so this method parallels the earlier heuristics. Where both Dirichlet series converge, one has the identities:
The identity (1 − 2 1 − s) ζ (s) = η (s) (\ displaystyle (1 - 2 ^ (1 - s)) \ zeta (s) = \ eta (s)) continues to hold when both functions are extended by analytic continuation to include values of s for which the above series diverge. Substituting s = − 1, one gets − 3ζ (− 1) = η (− 1). Now, computing η (− 1) is an easier task, as the eta function is equal to the Abel sum of its defining series, which is a one - sided limit:
Dividing both sides by − 3, one gets ζ (− 1) = − 1 / 12.
The method of regularization using a cutoff function can "smooth '' the series to arrive at − 1 / 12. Smoothing is a conceptual bridge between zeta function regularization, with its reliance on complex analysis, and Ramanujan summation, with its shortcut to the Euler -- Maclaurin formula. Instead, the method operates directly on conservative transformations of the series, using methods from real analysis.
The idea is to replace the ill - behaved discrete series ∑ n = 0 N n (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (n = 0) ^ (N) n) with a smoothed version
where f is a cutoff function with appropriate properties. The cutoff function must be normalized to f (0) = 1; this is a different normalization from the one used in differential equations. The cutoff function should have enough bounded derivatives to smooth out the wrinkles in the series, and it should decay to 0 faster than the series grows. For convenience, one may require that f is smooth, bounded, and compactly supported. One can then prove that this smoothed sum is asymptotic to − 1 / 12 + CN, where C is a constant that depends on f. The constant term of the asymptotic expansion does not depend on f: it is necessarily the same value given by analytic continuation, − 1 / 12.
The Ramanujan sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is also − 1 / 12. Ramanujan wrote in his second letter to G.H. Hardy, dated 27 February 1913:
Ramanujan summation is a method to isolate the constant term in the Euler -- Maclaurin formula for the partial sums of a series. For a function f, the classical Ramanujan sum of the series ∑ k = 1 ∞ f (k) (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (k = 1) ^ (\ infty) f (k)) is defined as
where f is the (2k − 1) - th derivative of f and B is the 2kth Bernoulli number: B = 1 / 6, B = − 1 / 30, and so on. Setting f (x) = x, the first derivative of f is 1, and every other term vanishes, so:
To avoid inconsistencies, the modern theory of Ramanujan summation requires that f is "regular '' in the sense that the higher - order derivatives of f decay quickly enough for the remainder terms in the Euler -- Maclaurin formula to tend to 0. Ramanujan tacitly assumed this property. The regularity requirement prevents the use of Ramanujan summation upon spaced - out series like 0 + 2 + 0 + 4 + ⋯, because no regular function takes those values. Instead, such a series must be interpreted by zeta function regularization. For this reason, Hardy recommends "great caution '' when applying the Ramanujan sums of known series to find the sums of related series.
A summation method that is linear and stable can not sum the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ to any finite value. (Stable means that adding a term to the beginning of the series increases the sum by the same amount.) This can be seen as follows. If
then adding 0 to both sides gives
By linearity, one may subtract the second equation from the first (subtracting each component of the second line from the first line in columns) to give
Adding 0 to both sides again gives
and subtracting the last two series gives
contradicting stability.
The methods used above to sum 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ are either not stable or not linear.
In bosonic string theory, the attempt is to compute the possible energy levels of a string, in particular the lowest energy level. Speaking informally, each harmonic of the string can be viewed as a collection of D − 2 independent quantum harmonic oscillators, one for each transverse direction, where D is the dimension of spacetime. If the fundamental oscillation frequency is ω then the energy in an oscillator contributing to the nth harmonic is nħω / 2. So using the divergent series, the sum over all harmonics is − ħω (D − 2) / 24. Ultimately it is this fact, combined with the Goddard -- Thorn theorem, which leads to bosonic string theory failing to be consistent in dimensions other than 26.
The regularization of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is also involved in computing the Casimir force for a scalar field in one dimension. An exponential cutoff function suffices to smooth the series, representing the fact that arbitrarily high - energy modes are not blocked by the conducting plates. The spatial symmetry of the problem is responsible for canceling the quadratic term of the expansion. All that is left is the constant term − 1 / 12, and the negative sign of this result reflects the fact that the Casimir force is attractive.
A similar calculation is involved in three dimensions, using the Epstein zeta - function in place of the Riemann zeta function.
It is unclear whether Leonhard Euler summed the series to − 1 / 12. According to Morris Kline, Euler 's early work on divergent series relied on function expansions, from which he concluded 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = ∞. According to Raymond Ayoub, the fact that the divergent zeta series is not Abel summable prevented Euler from using the zeta function as freely as the eta function, and he "could not have attached a meaning '' to the series. Other authors have credited Euler with the sum, suggesting that Euler would have extended the relationship between the zeta and eta functions to negative integers. In the primary literature, the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ is mentioned in Euler 's 1760 publication De seriebus divergentibus alongside the divergent geometric series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯. Euler hints that series of this type have finite, negative sums, and he explains what this means for geometric series, but he does not return to discuss 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯. In the same publication, Euler writes that the sum of 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ is infinite.
David Leavitt 's 2007 novel The Indian Clerk includes a scene where Hardy and Littlewood discuss the meaning of this series. They conclude that Ramanujan has rediscovered ζ (− 1), and they take the "lunatic asylum '' line in his second letter as a sign that Ramanujan is toying with them.
Simon McBurney 's 2007 play A Disappearing Number focuses on the series in the opening scene. The main character, Ruth, walks into a lecture hall and introduces the idea of a divergent series before proclaiming, "I 'm going to show you something really thrilling, '' namely 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12. As Ruth launches into a derivation of the functional equation of the zeta function, another actor addresses the audience, admitting that they are actors: "But the mathematics is real. It 's terrifying, but it 's real. ''
In January 2014, Numberphile produced a YouTube video on the series, which gathered over 1.5 million views in its first month. The 8 - minute video is narrated by Tony Padilla, a physicist at the University of Nottingham. Padilla begins with 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯ and 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ and relates the latter to 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ using a term - by - term subtraction similar to Ramanujan 's argument. Numberphile also released a 21 - minute version of the video featuring Nottingham physicist Ed Copeland, who describes in more detail how 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ = 1 / 4 as an Abel sum and 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ = − 1 / 12 as ζ (− 1). After receiving complaints about the lack of rigour in the first video, Padilla also wrote an explanation on his webpage relating the manipulations in the video to identities between the analytic continuations of the relevant Dirichlet series.
In the New York Times coverage of the Numberphile video, mathematician Edward Frenkel commented, "This calculation is one of the best - kept secrets in math. No one on the outside knows about it. ''
Coverage of this topic in Smithsonian magazine describes the Numberphile video as misleading, and notes that the interpretation of the sum as − 1 / 12 relies on a specialized meaning for the equals sign, from the techniques of analytic continuation, in which equals means is associated with. A further error is: S1 never equals 1 / 2 nor is associated with its limit average of 1 / 2; it is 0 or 1 depending on odd or even count of summations, requiring a case analysis.
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10 biggest country in the world by area | List of countries and dependencies by area - wikipedia
This is a list of the world 's countries and their dependent territories by area, ranked by total area.
Entries in this list include, but are not limited to, those in the ISO 3166 - 1 standard, which includes sovereign states and dependent territories. Largely unrecognised states not in ISO 3166 - 1 are included in the list in ranked order, but are not given a rank number. The areas of such largely unrecognised states are in most cases also included in the areas of the more widely recognised states that claim the same territory; see the notes in the "notes '' column for each country for clarification.
Not included in the list are individual country claims to parts of the continent of Antarctica, entities such as the European Union that have some degree of sovereignty but do not consider themselves to be sovereign countries or dependent territories, and unrecognised micronations such as the Principality of Sealand.
This list includes three measurements of area:
Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division unless otherwise noted.
The charts below are based on the CIA World Factbook as of February 15, 2005.
Sovereign states with areas greater than 100,000 km are shown in green. In addition, non-sovereign territories are included for purposes of comparison, and are shown in gray. Areas include inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Claims to parts of Antarctica by various countries are not included.
Notably, Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States ' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 sq km, which is less than either source 's figure given for China 's area. Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
United Nations Statistics Division 's figure for the United States is 9,833,517 sq km and China is 9,596,961 sq km. These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly include coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China.
Further explanation of disputed ranking: The dispute for world 's third - largest country arose from the inclusion of coastal and territorial waters for the United States. This discrepancy was deduced from comparing the CIA World Factbook and its previous iterations against the information for United States on Encyclopædia Britannica, particularly its footnote section. In sum, according to older versions of the CIA World Factbook (from 1982 to 1996), the US was listed as the world 's fourth - largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China) with a total area of 9,372,610 sq km. However, in the 1997 edition, the US added coastal waters to its total area (increasing it to 9,629,091 sq km). And then again in 2007, US added territorial water to its total area (increasing it to 9,833,517 sq km). During this time, China 's total area remained unchanged. In other words, no coastal or territorial water area was added to China 's total area figure. The United States has a coastal water area of 109,362 sq km, and a territorial water area of 195,213 sq km, for a total of 304,575 sq km of additional water space. This is larger than entire countries like Italy, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Adding this figure to the US will boost it over China in ranking since China 's coastal and territorial water figures are currently unknown (no official publication) and thus can not be added into China 's total area figure.
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what part of the body is ruled by aquarius | Medical Astrology - wikipedia
Medical astrology (traditionally known as iatromathematics) is an ancient medical system that associates various parts of the body, diseases, and drugs as under the influence of the sun, moon, and planets, along with the twelve astrological signs. Each of the astrological signs (along with the sun, moon, and planets) is associated with different parts of the human body.
Medical astrology posits the association of each sign of the zodiac with parts of the body, and was already mentioned by Marcus Manilius (1st century AD) in his epic poem (8000 verses) Astronomica. The signs of the zodiac were believed to preside over the parts of the body, covering the body from head (Aries) to toe (Pisces), as follows:
The western astrology planets are also associated with certain portions and functions within the body:
After examining an individual 's natal chart, a medical astrologer may give advice to the client about the areas of the body in which they are most likely to experience trouble. For instance, an individual with the Sun, Moon, Ascendant, or many planets in the sign of Aries is presumed to have more headaches than other people because of the association of Aries with the head. A person with Taurus strong in the natal chart is predicted to have many sore throats and problems with the voice because of the Taurean association with that particular part of the body.
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who holds the record for most td passes in a game | List of NFL quarterbacks with seven touchdown passes in a game - wikipedia
In the National Football League (NFL), eight quarterbacks share the record of having thrown seven touchdown passes in a single game. Sid Luckman was the first player to accomplish the feat, doing so on November 14, 1943, while playing for the Chicago Bears. The most recent seven - touchdown game occurred on November 1, 2015, when Drew Brees did so with the New Orleans Saints. During that game the two teams ' quarterbacks combined for 13 passing touchdowns, setting another NFL record. Three quarterbacks on the list are in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Luckman, George Blanda, and Y.A. Tittle. There was a 44 - year gap between seven - touchdown games from Joe Kapp 's in 1969 until 2013, when Peyton Manning and Nick Foles each did so just two months apart. Manning also holds the NFL records for touchdown passes in a season with 55.
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where was myelin research being done in lorenzo's oil | Lorenzo 's Oil - wikipedia
$ 30,000,000 (estimated)
Lorenzo 's Oil is a 1992 American drama directed by George Miller. It is based on the true story of Augusto and Michaela Odone, two parents in a relentless search for a cure for their son Lorenzo 's adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD). The film was nominated for two Academy Awards. It was filmed primarily from September 1991 to February 1992 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The film had a limited release in North America on December 30, 1992, with a nationwide release two weeks later on January 15, 1993.
Lorenzo is a bright and vibrant young boy living in the Comoro Islands, as his father Augusto works for the World Bank and is stationed there. However, when his parents relocate to the United States, he begins to show neurological problems (such as loss of hearing, tantrums, etc.). The boy is diagnosed as having adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD), which is fatal within two years. Failing to find a doctor capable of treating their son 's rare disease, Augusto and his wife Michaela set out on a mission to find a treatment to save their child. In their quest, the Odones clash with doctors, scientists, and support groups, who are skeptical that anything could be done about ALD, much less by laypeople. But they persist, setting up camp in medical libraries, reviewing animal experiments, enlisting the aid of Professor Gus Nikolais, badgering researchers, questioning top doctors all over the world, and even organizing an international symposium about the disease.
Despite research dead - ends, the horror of watching their son 's health decline, and being surrounded by skeptics (including the coordinators of the support group they attend), they persist until they finally hit upon a therapy involving adding a certain kind of oil (actually containing two specific long chain fatty acids, isolated from rapeseed oil and olive oil) to their son 's diet. They contact over 100 firms around the world until they find elderly British chemist Don Suddaby, working for Croda International, who is willing to take on the challenge of distilling the proper formula. The oil, erucic acid, proves successful in normalizing the accumulation of the very long chain fatty acids in the brain that had been causing their son 's steady decline, thereby halting the progression of the disease. There is still a great deal of neurological damage remaining which could not be reversed unless new treatments could be found to regenerate the myelin sheath (a lipid insulator) around the nerves. The father is seen taking on the new challenge of organizing biomedical efforts to heal myelin damage in patients.
Finally, Lorenzo, at the age of 14, shows definite improvement (swallowing for himself and answering "yes '' or "no '' questions by blinking) but more medical research is still needed. Ultimately it is revealed that Lorenzo has also regained his sight and is learning to use a computer.
Principal photography for Lorenzo 's Oil began on September 9, 1991 in Ben Avon, Pennsylvania.
Possibly to emphasize the "Everyman '' aspect of the plot (the notion that a cure could affect families and individuals anywhere), many smaller roles were played by inexperienced actors or non-actors with unusual physical features and mannerisms. For example, the poet James Merrill was noticed by a casting director at a New York public reading of his poetry. His rarefied speaking cadences were utilized in a symposium scene in which he played a questioning doctor.
The film features Allegri 's Miserere and Edward Elgar 's cello concerto, as well as Barber 's Adagio for Strings and Mozart 's Ave verum corpus.
The opening song is "Kijana Mwana Mwali '' ("Song about a Young Lady ''), sung by the Gonda Traditional Entertainers.
A 1960 recording of Maria Callas with the La Scala orchestra and chorus is heard singing selections from Bellini 's Norma at several points.
The music for the Easter Midnight Mass scene is a Russian Orthodox Church hymn, "Bogoroditse Devo '' (Rejoice, O Virgin) from "Three Choruses from ' Tsar Feodor Ioannovich ' '', taken from the album Sacred Songs of Russia by Gloriae Dei Cantores.
Other music include Barber 's Agnus Dei and Mahler 's Symphony No. 5.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave the film four out of four stars and called it an "immensely moving and challenging movie ''. He added, "it was impossible not to get swept up in it '' and James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave it three out of four stars and claimed, "it was about the war for knowledge and the victory of hope through perseverance. '' Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 33 critics to give the film a score of 94 %, with an average rating of 7 / 10, as of November 2017.
Though the film seemed to accurately portray the events related to the boy 's condition and his parents ' efforts during the time period covered by the film, it was criticized for painting a picture of a miracle cure. Subsequent research with Lorenzo 's oil has not clearly proven its long - term effectiveness in treating ALD after its onset, but the oil is highly effective if provided before onset. The actual subject of the film, Lorenzo Odone, died of pneumonia in May 2008 at the age of 30, having lived two decades longer than originally predicted by doctors.
Hugo Moser, on whom the character of Professor Nikolais was based, called the film 's portrayal of that character "an abomination ''.
The film grossed $7,286,388 domestically with a budget of around $30 million.
Lorenzo 's Oil was nominated twice at the 65th Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Susan Sarandon) and Best Original Screenplay (George Miller & Nick Enright).
Susan Sarandon was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama at the 50th Golden Globe Awards.
The film was nominated for Best Original Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen at the WGA Awards.
Also, the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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pierrot lunaire is based on a cycle of poems written by | Pierrot Lunaire - wikipedia
Dreimal sieben Gedichte aus Albert Girauds "Pierrot lunaire '' ("Three times Seven Poems from Albert Giraud 's ' Pierrot lunaire ' ''), commonly known simply as Pierrot Lunaire, Op. 21 ("Moonstruck Pierrot '' or "Pierrot in the Moonlight ''), is a melodrama by Arnold Schoenberg. It is a setting of 21 selected poems from Otto Erich Hartleben 's German translation of the Belgian poet Albert Giraud 's cycle of French poems of the same name. The première of the work, which is between 35 and 40 minutes in length, was at the Berlin Choralion - Saal on October 16, 1912, with Albertine Zehme as the vocalist. Davids Steaks
The narrator (voice - type unspecified in the score, but traditionally performed by a soprano) delivers the poems in the Sprechstimme style. Schoenberg had previously used a combination of spoken text with instrumental accompaniment, called "melodrama '', in the summer - wind narrative of the Gurre - Lieder, which was a fashionable musical style popular at the end of the nineteenth century. The melodrama is in atonal form, yet does not use Schoenberg 's twelve - tone technique.
The composition is among Schoenberg 's most celebrated and frequently performed works. The instrumentation of the piece, flute, clarinet, violin, cello, and piano (with standard doublings and in this case with the addition of a vocalist), has subsequently been named after Schoenberg 's composition and is now referred to as a Pierrot ensemble.
The work originated in a commission by Zehme for a cycle for voice and piano, setting a series of poems by the Belgian writer Albert Giraud. The verses had been first published in 1884, and later translated into German by Otto Erich Hartleben. Schoenberg began on March 12 and completed the work on July 9, 1912, having expanded the forces to an ensemble consisting of flute (doubling on a piccolo), clarinet (doubling on bass clarinet), violin (doubling on viola), cello, and piano. After forty rehearsals, Schoenberg and Zehme (in Columbine dress) gave the premiere at the Berlin Choralion - Saal on October 16, 1912. Reaction was mixed. According to Anton Webern, some in the audience were whistling and laughing, but in the end "it was an unqualified success ''. There was some criticism of blasphemy in the texts, to which Schoenberg responded, "If they were musical, not a single one would give a damn about the words. Instead, they would go away whistling the tunes ''. The show took to the road throughout Germany and Austria later in 1912. It was performed for the first time in America at the Klaw Theatre in New York City on February 4, 1923, with George Gershwin and Carl Ruggles in attendance.
"Pierrot Lunaire '' consists of three groups of seven poems. In the first group, Pierrot sings of love, sex and religion; in the second, of violence, crime, and blasphemy; and in the third of his return home to Bergamo, with his past haunting him.
Schoenberg, who was fascinated by numerology, also makes great use of seven - note motifs throughout the work, while the ensemble (with conductor) comprises seven people. The piece is his opus 21, contains 21 poems, and was begun on March 12, 1912. Other key numbers in the work are three and 13: each poem consists of 13 lines (two four - line verses followed by a five - line verse), while the first line of each poem occurs three times (being repeated as lines seven and 13).
Pierrot Lunaire uses a variety of classical forms and techniques, including canon, fugue, rondo, passacaglia and free counterpoint. The poetry is a German version of a rondeau of the old French type with a double refrain. Each poem consists of three stanzas of 4 + 4 + 5 lines, with line 1 a Refrain (A) repeated as line 7 and line 13, and line 2 a second Refrain (B) repeated for line 8.
The instrumental combinations (including doublings) vary between most movements. The entire ensemble plays together only in the 11th, 14th and final 4 settings.
The atonal, expressionistic settings of the text, with their echoes of German cabaret, bring the poems vividly to life. Sprechgesang, literally "speech - singing '' in German, is a style in which the vocalist uses the specified rhythms and pitches, but does not sustain the pitches, allowing them to drop or rise, in the manner of speech.
Everything in "Nacht '' is generated from a ten - note motif, introduced in canon starting in the fourth bar. This piece predominantly uses the pitch collection (014). This collection gets introduced in the very first measure with the piano. If you take into account every note the piano plays in the first three measures you get an octatonic scale (0134679T). This is just four groups of (014) transposed by T3. In measure 4, we see one set of (014) in the bass clarinet line. Whenever we see this pitch collection it is usually in one of two rhythms. The first, as illustrated by the bass clarinet in measure 4, is three half notes. Later it shows up as three quarter notes, simply a compressed version of the original. The other rhythm is three eighth notes, usually this comes in groups of three. For example, in measure 8 the bass clarinet has the collection three times, each time as an eighth note rest followed by three eighth notes. If you look at that measure as a whole, and any other time this pattern shows up, we see that the second group is transposed from the first by T4. The third group of notes is transposed from the first group by T1. Thus, the entire measure is actually using (014), not just in each group, but within each group. In other words, if you take the first note of each three you get (014), if you take the second note of each you get (014), and if you take the third note you also get (014). For the first two stanzas of text, we only ever see (014) transposed by various Tx. Starting in the third stanza, we begin to see inversions of (014). In measure 19, the right hand in the piano starts off with an inversion of (014) and then goes to a transposition of (014). This continues on for the entirety of the run in both hands of the piano.
Following a brief introduction, the movement falls into three strophes of seven, six, and seven bars, with section breaks occurring at measures 11 and 17, articulated by a change of tempo to etwas rascher for the second strophe, and back again to the initial tempo for the third. These follow the stanzas of the poem, and are followed by a coda. The first strophe is canonic in four voices; the second is also canonic, but in just three voices; the third strophe consists of a rapid succession of ambiguous canonic fragments.
Although the pitch - class sets are virtually the same throughout the whole movement, each section has distinct musical elements that differentiate them from each other. When looking at the transition from the first section to the second section, a couple important changes take place. First, the tempo marking "Etwas rascher '' marks an increase in speed and rhythmic energy. This is further exaggerated by the increased rhythmic density in the piano, clarinet, and cello parts. In addition to the rhythmic changes, the registers of the cello, piano, and vocal lines are notably higher in the second section. The third section returns to the original tempo, and the register and rhythmic density change again to closely resemble the first section. This analysis provides evidence for organizing the piece into an ABA ' form, as the first and last sections have many similar elements while the middle section differs substantially. However, because of the pitch - class set similarities, the argument could be made for a quasi theme - and - variation organization, with A, A ', and A sections.
Expressionism is a modernist movement that began in Germany and Austria in the early twentieth century. Schoenberg, Austrian in descent, was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art. Being from Austria at this time, his music was often labeled as degenerate music since Schoenberg is Jewish. Expressionistic music is dominated by dissonance rather than consonance, and can create an "unsettling '' feeling among its listeners For many, expressionistic music meant a rejection of the past and an acceptance of the innovative, unfamiliar future. The text of "Nacht '' can be described as ominous, and depicts the wings of black moths covering the sun. These views are characteristic of expressionistic poetry.
"Nacht '' also employs the occasional use of word painting through his music where he uses the music to illustrate the literal meaning of a particular word (4). These text expressions make general associations between the text and musical setting. This can be seen with the word "duft '' translating to "scent '' in measure 12. The full poetic phrase "Steigt ein Duft '' means "arises a scent, '' and this is depicted by a leap upwards in voice from A to G ♭. Likewise, the word "verschwiegen '' loosely translates to "mutely '' or "hushed '', and is performed by conventional singing rather than Sprechstimme, along with prolonged silence with a fermata, though the word more precisely means "discreetly '' or "closed - mouthed ''.
Notable recordings of this composition include:
Arnold Schoenberg himself made test recordings of the music with a group of Los Angeles musicians from September 24 to 26, 1940. These recordings were eventually released on LP by Columbia Records in 1949, and reissued in 1974 on the Odyssey label.
The avant - pop star Björk, known for her interest in avant - garde music, performed Pierrot Lunaire at the 1996 Verbier Festival with Kent Nagano conducting. According to the singer in a 2004 interview, "Kent Nagano wanted to make a recording of it, but I really felt that I would be invading the territory of people who sing this for a lifetime. '' Only small recorded excerpts (possibly bootlegs) of her performance have become available.
The jazz singer Cleo Laine recorded Pierrot Lunaire in 1974. Her version was nominated for a classical Grammy Award. Another jazz singer who has performed the piece is Sofia Jernberg, who sang it with Norrbotten NEO.
In March 2011, Bruce LaBruce directed a performance at the Hebbel am Ufer Theatre in Berlin. This interpretation of the work included gender diversity, castration scenes and dildos, as well as a female to male transgender Pierrot. LaBruce subsequently filmed this adaptation as the 2014 theatrical film Pierrot Lunaire.
The quintet of instruments used in Pierrot Lunaire became the core ensemble for The Fires of London, who formed in 1965 as "The Pierrot Players '' to perform Pierrot Lunaire, and continued to concertize with a varied classical and contemporary repertory. This group performed works arranged for these instruments and commissioned new works especially to take advantage of this ensemble 's instrumental colors, up until it disbanded in 1987.
Over the years, other groups have continued to use this instrumentation professionally (current groups include Da Capo Chamber Players, eighth blackbird) and the Finnish contemporary group Uusinta Lunaire, and have built a large repertoire for the ensemble.
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what is the meaning of drg in healthcare | Diagnosis - related group - Wikipedia
Diagnosis - related group (DRG) is a system to classify hospital cases into one of originally 467 groups, with the last group (coded as 470 through v24, 999 thereafter) being "Ungroupable ''. This system of classification was developed as a collaborative project by Robert B Fetter, PhD, of the Yale School of Management, and John D. Thompson, MPH, of the Yale School of Public Health. The system is also referred to as "the DRGs '', and its intent was to identify the "products '' that a hospital provides. One example of a "product '' is an appendectomy. The system was developed in anticipation of convincing Congress to use it for reimbursement, to replace "cost based '' reimbursement that had been used up to that point. DRGs are assigned by a "grouper '' program based on ICD (International Classification of Diseases) diagnoses, procedures, age, sex, discharge status, and the presence of complications or comorbidities. DRGs have been used in the US since 1982 to determine how much Medicare pays the hospital for each "product '', since patients within each category are clinically similar and are expected to use the same level of hospital resources. DRGs may be further grouped into Major Diagnostic Categories (MDCs). DRGs are also standard practice for establishing reimbursements for other Medicare related reimbursements such as to home healthcare providers.
The original objective of diagnosis related groups (DRG) was to develop a classification system that identified the "products '' that the patient received. Since the introduction of DRGs in the early 1980s, the healthcare industry has evolved and developed an increased demand for a patient classification system that can serve its original objective at a higher level of sophistication and precision. To meet those evolving needs, the objective of the DRG system had to expand in scope. Today, there are several different DRG systems that have been developed in the US. They include:
The system was created in the early 1970s by Robert Barclay Fetter and John D. Thompson at Yale University with the material support of the former Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), now called the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS).
DRGs were first implemented in New Jersey, beginning in 1980 with a small number of hospitals partitioned into three groups according to their budget positions -- surplus, breakeven, and deficit -- prior to the imposition of DRG payment.
The New Jersey experiment continued for three years, with additional cadres of hospitals being added to the number of institutions each year until all hospitals in New Jersey were dealing with this prospective payment system.
DRGs were designed to be homogeneous units of hospital activity to which binding prices could be attached. A central theme in the advocacy of DRGs was that this reimbursement system would, by constraining the hospitals, oblige their administrators to alter the behavior of the physicians and surgeons comprising their medical staffs. Hospitals were forced to leave the "nearly risk - free world of cost reimbursement. '' and face the uncertain financial consequences associated with the provision of health care. DRGs were designed to provide practice pattern information that administrators could use to influence individual physician behavior.
DRGs were intended to describe all types of patients in an acute hospital setting. DRGs encompassed elderly patients as well as newborn, pediatric and adult populations.
The prospective payment system implemented as DRGs had been designed to limit the share of hospital revenues derived from the Medicare program budget, and in spite of doubtful results in New Jersey, it was decided in 1983 to impose DRGs on hospitals nationwide.
In that year, HCFA assumed responsibility for the maintenance and modifications of these DRG definitions. Since that time, the focus of all Medicare DRG modifications instituted by HCFA / CMS has been on problems relating primarily to the elderly population.
In 1987, New York state passed legislation instituting DRG - based payments for all non-Medicare patients. This legislation required that the New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) evaluate the applicability of Medicare DRGs to a non-Medicare population. This evaluation concluded that the Medicare DRGs were not adequate for a non-Medicare population. Based on this evaluation, the NYS DOH entered into an agreement with 3M to research and develop all necessary DRG modifications. The modifications resulted in the initial APDRG, which differed from the Medicare DRG in that it provided support for transplants, high - risk obstetric care, nutritional disorders, and pediatrics along with support for other populations. One challenge in working with the APDRG groupers is that there is no set of common data / formulas that is shared across all states as there is with CMS. Each state maintains its own information.
In 1991, the top 10 DRGs overall were: normal newborn, vaginal delivery, heart failure, psychoses, cesarean section, neonate with significant problems, angina pectoris, specific cerebrovascular disorders, pneumonia, and hip / knee replacement. These DRGs comprised nearly 30 percent of all hospital discharges.
The history, design, and classification rules of the DRG system, as well as its application to patient discharge data and updating procedures, are presented in the CMS DRG Definitions Manual (Also known as the Medicare DRG Definitions Manual and the Grouper Manual). A new version generally appears every October. The 20.0 version appeared in 2002.
In 2007, author Rick Mayes described DRGs as:
... the single most influential postwar innovation in medical financing: Medicare 's prospective payment system (PPS). Inexorably rising medical inflation and deep economic deterioration forced policymakers in the late 1970s to pursue radical reform of Medicare to keep the program from insolvency. Congress and the Reagan administration eventually turned to the one alternative reimbursement system that analysts and academics had studied more than any other and had even tested with apparent success in New Jersey: prospective payment with diagnosis - related groups (DRGs). Rather than simply reimbursing hospitals whatever costs they charged to treat Medicare patients, the new model paid hospitals a predetermined, set rate based on the patient 's diagnosis. The most significant change in health policy since Medicare and Medicaid 's passage in 1965 went virtually unnoticed by the general public. Nevertheless, the change was nothing short of revolutionary. For the first time, the federal government gained the upper hand in its financial relationship with the hospital industry. Medicare 's new prospective payment system with DRGs triggered a shift in the balance of political and economic power between the providers of medical care (hospitals and physicians) and those who paid for it - power that providers had successfully accumulated for more than half a century.
Before the introduction of version 25, many CMS DRG classifications were "paired '' to reflect the presence of complications or comorbidities (CCs). A significant refinement of version 25 was to replace this pairing, in many instances, with a trifurcated design that created a tiered system of the absence of CCs, the presence of CCs, and a higher level of presence of Major CCs. As a result of this change, the historical list of diagnoses that qualified for membership on the CC list was substantially redefined and replaced with a new standard CC list and a new Major CC list.
Another planning refinement was not to number the DRGs in strict numerical sequence as compared with the prior versions. In the past, newly created DRG classifications would be added to the end of the list. In version 25, there are gaps within the numbering system that will allow modifications over time, and also allow for new MS - DRGs in the same body system to be located more closely together in the numerical sequence.
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name the type of root modification found in cuscuta. what is its function | Cuscuta - wikipedia
About 100 -- 170 species, including:
(more below)
Cuscuta (/ kʌsˈkjuːtɑː /) (dodder) is a genus of about 100 -- 170 species of yellow, orange, or red (rarely green) parasitic plants. Formerly treated as the only genus in the family Cuscutaceae, it now is accepted as belonging in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae, on the basis of the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. The genus is found throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world, with the greatest species diversity in subtropical and tropical regions; the genus becomes rare in cool temperate climates, with only four species native to northern Europe.
Folk names include: strangle tare, scaldweed, beggarweed, lady 's laces, fireweed, wizard 's net, devil 's guts, devil 's hair, devil 's ringlet, goldthread, hailweed, hairweed, hellbine, love vine, pull - down, strangleweed, angel hair, and witch 's hair.
Dodder can be identified by its thin stems appearing leafless, with the leaves reduced to minute scales. In these respects it closely resembles the similarly parasitic, but unrelated genus Cassytha. From mid-summer to early autumn, the vines can produce small fruit that take the same color as the vine, and are approximately the size of a common pea. It has very low levels of chlorophyll; some species such as Cuscuta reflexa can photosynthesize slightly, while others such as C. europaea are entirely dependent on the host plants for nutrition.
Dodder flowers range in color from white to pink to yellow to cream. Some flower in the early summer, others later, depending on the species. The seeds are minute and produced in large quantities. They have a hard coating, and typically can survive in the soil for 5 -- 10 years, sometimes longer.
Dodder seeds sprout at or near the surface of the soil. Although dodder germination can occur without a host, it has to reach a green plant quickly and is adapted to grow towards the nearby plants by following chemosensory clues. If a plant is not reached within 5 to 10 days of germination, the dodder seedling will die. Before a host plant is reached, the dodder, as other plants, relies on food reserves in the embryo; the cotyledons, though present, are vestigial.
After a dodder attaches itself to a plant, it wraps itself around it. If the host contains food beneficial to dodder, the dodder produces haustoria that insert themselves into the vascular system of the host. The original root of the dodder in the soil then dies. The dodder can grow and attach itself to multiple plants. In tropical areas it can grow more or less continuously, and may reach high into the canopy of shrubs and trees; in cold temperate regions it is an annual plant and is restricted to relatively low vegetation that can be reached by new seedlings each spring.
Dodder is parasitic on a very wide variety of plants, including a number of agricultural and horticultural crop species, such as alfalfa, lespedeza, flax, clover, potatoes, chrysanthemum, dahlia, helenium, trumpet vine, ivy and petunias, and more. It is an ectoparasite.
Dodder ranges in severity based on its species and the species of the host, the time of attack, and whether any viruses are also present in the host plant. By debilitating the host plant, dodder decreases the ability of plants to resist viral diseases, and dodder can also spread plant diseases from one host to another if it is attached to more than one plant. This is of economic concern in agricultural systems, where an annual drop of 10 % yield can be devastating. There has been an emphasis on dodder vine control in order to manage plant diseases in the field.
A report published in Science in 2006 demonstrated that dodder use airborne volatile organic compound cues to locate their host plants. Seedlings of Cuscuta pentagona exhibit positive growth responses to volatiles released by tomato and other species of host plants. When given a choice between volatiles released by the preferred host tomato and the non-host wheat, the parasite grew toward the former. Further experiments demonstrated attraction to a number of individual compounds released by host plants and repellance by one compound released by wheat. These results do not rule out the possibility that other cues, such as light, may also play a role in host location.
Less is known about host defenses against dodder and other parasitic plants than is known about plant defenses against herbivores and pathogens. In one study, tomato plants were found to employ complex mechanisms to defend against dodder. Two pathways, using jasmonic acid and salicylic acid, were activated in response to attack by Cuscuta pentagona. Dodder attack was also found to induce production of volatiles, including 2 - carene, α - pinene, limonene, and β - phellandrene. It is not known if or how these volatiles defend the host, but they could potentially interfere with the dodder 's ability to locate and select hosts. Also, the presence of trichomes on the tomato stem effectively blocks the dodder from attaching to the stem.
Many countries have laws prohibiting import of dodder seed, requiring crop seeds to be free of dodder seed contamination. Before planting, all clothes should be inspected for dodder seed when moving from an infested area to a non-infested crop. When dealing with an infested area, swift action is necessary. Recommendations include planting a non-host crop for several years after the infestation, pulling up host crops immediately, particularly before the dodder produces seed, and use of preemergent herbicides such as Dacthal in the spring. Examples of non-host crops include grasses and many other monocotyledons. If dodder is found before it chokes a host plant, it may be simply removed from the soil. If choking has begun, the host plant must be pruned significantly lower than the dodder, as dodder is versatile and can grow back if present from haustoria.
C. chinensis seeds (simplified Chinese: 菟丝子, tusizi) have long been used for osteoporosis in China and some other Asian countries. C. chinensis is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine which is believed to strengthen the liver and kidneys.
Cuscuta sp. with a gall
Cuscuta sp. flowers
Cuscuta sp. form
Cuscuta sp. form
Cuscuta sp. form
Cudney, D.W., S.B. Orloff, and J.S. Reints. 1992. An integrated weed management procedure for the control of dodder (Cuscuta indecora) in alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Weed Technology, 6, 603 - 606.
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how many rounds can you have in a handgun in new york | NY SAFE Act - wikipedia
The New York Secure Ammunition and Firearms Enforcement Act of 2013 commonly known as the NY SAFE Act is a gun regulation law in the state of New York. The law was passed by the New York State Legislature and was signed into law by Governor of New York Andrew Cuomo in January 2013. The legislation was written in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut and the December 24th Webster, New York Shooting. Cuomo described the law as the toughest gun control law in the United States.
The NY SAFE Act contains a number of firearms regulations. It also contains a severability provision that allows other measures to remain in place in case the broad prohibitions against weapons are invalidated by the courts.
The New York State Senate approved the act on a 43 -- 18 vote on January 14, 2013. The vote was bipartisan, with nine Senate Republicans voting in favor. State Senator Jeffrey D. Klein sponsored the legislation.
The following day (the second full day of the 2013 legislative session), the New York State Assembly approved the legislation by a 104 -- 43 vote, and Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the bill into law less than one hour later. The passage of the law made New York the first to pass restrictions on gun laws since the Sandy Hook massacre. Cuomo described the law as the toughest gun control law in the United States.
The bill passed under the "message of necessity '' procedure, a device in the New York State Constitution by which the governor may expedite a vote on a bill, bypassing a usual three - day waiting period. Although nominally used for emergencies, the "message of necessity '' procedure has been frequently used in New York to pass many pieces of legislation (it has been used at least 415 times since 1938).
The NY SAFE Act includes the following provisions:
Support for the SAFE Act was strongly polarized by region, with strong support in New York City and its suburbs, but opposition in upstate New York. Fourteen months after its passage, a Siena College poll showed that 63 % of registered New York voters statewide said that they support the SAFE Act, but only 45 % Upstate voters did. The New York Times reported that in Upstate New York, "Counties, towns and villages have passed resolutions denouncing the laws, and some counties have even demanded that their official seals not be used on any paperwork relating to them. In response to an open records request, the governor 's office shared hundreds of pages of such resolutions, from far - flung places like the Adirondack town of North Hudson, with 238 residents, to more populous areas like Erie County. '' By contrast, Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus R. Vance, Jr. strongly supported the law, saying that would "provide law enforcement with stronger tools to protect our communities from gun violence, including provisions that better enable us to combat gun trafficking and violent gangs, and others that close the state gun show loophole and regulate large - quantity sales of ammunition and firearms. ''
Following the passage of the Act, the New York State Sheriff 's Association (NYSSA) wrote a letter offering a mixed opinion on the SAFE Act. The NYSSA favored the parts of the law that enhanced sentences for violent offenses committed with a gun, expanded background checks, and mandated safe storage of guns in households that included a member ineligible to legally use guns. The NYSSA opposed the parts of the law that expanded the definition of assault weapons, limited magazine usage, and limited ammunition sales via the Internet.
A number of anti-SAFE Act rallies have been held at the New York State Capitol in Albany; one in 2014 featured Donald Trump, Rob Astorino, and Carl Paladino, and drew some 3,000 gun enthusiasts. Pro-NY SAFE Act rallies have also occurred in Albany.
The law was criticized as "rushed through '' by the state legislature without consideration of whether it would criminalize police and other law enforcement officers who carry firearms with magazines with a larger capacity than those allowed for civilians.
Republicans in the New York Legislature have made a number of unsuccessful efforts over a series of years to repeal the Act; these efforts have been led by State Senator Kathleen A. Marchione and State Assemblyman Marc Butler.
Some mental health experts expressed concerns that the law might interfere with their treatment of potentially dangerous individuals, or discourage such people from seeking treatment. The United States Veterans Health Administration (VA) has already said they will not comply with the provision requiring release of certain mental health records as it violates federal patient confidentiality laws.
Others claimed that this is a backdoor ban on handgun sales, noting that seven - round magazines simply do not exist for many popular models. After realizing seven - round magazines do not exist for most firearms, New York governor Andrew Cuomo reversed his position on the seven - round limit, stating, "There is no such thing as a seven - bullet magazine (sic). That does n't exist, so you really have no practical option. '' He went on to say the state needs to allow the sale of handguns and rifles with ten - round magazines, but requires the people of New York only load seven rounds in them, except at shooting ranges and competitions. He claimed the law is still enforceable. Cuomo and New York State Senate leaders planned an indefinite suspension of the seven - round magazine limit until they could rewrite the measure. In March 2013 during budget negotiations, Cuomo and lawmakers agreed to continue to allow 10 - round magazines to be sold, but could still only be loaded with 7 cartridges.
On March 11, 2013, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs announced that it would not follow the provision of the NY SAFE Act requiring mental health professionals to report patients who seem more likely to hurt themselves or others. A Department spokesman stated that federal laws protecting the privacy of veterans take precedence over state laws. Advocates for military veterans had expressed concern that the reporting requirement would deter some people from seeking needed treatment.
Robert L. Schulz and several hundred other gun - rights activists pursued a legal challenge against the NY SAFE Act in New York state court, arguing that the act was unconstitutional as Governor Cuomo 's use of a "message of necessity '' to waive the usual three - day waiting period had violated the New York State Constitution. Judge Thomas J. McNamara of the New York Supreme Court denied the plaintiffs ' request for an injunction and later dismissed the challenge, finding no constitutional violation.
A separate challenge took place in federal court. In December 2013, Chief U.S. District Judge William M. Skretny, of the Federal District Court in Buffalo, upheld most of the New York SAFE Act, saying that its provisions "further the state 's important interest in public safety... it does not totally disarm New York 's citizens; and it does not meaningfully jeopardize their right to self - defense ''. However he struck down the provision that only seven rounds of ammunition could be loaded into a ten - round magazine, calling it "an arbitrary restriction '' that violated the Second Amendment, and saying that it could result in "pitting the criminal with a fully - loaded magazine against the law - abiding citizen limited to seven rounds. ''
The New York State Rifle and Pistol Association dropped its suit in March 2016. Following the death of Justice Antonin Scalia, it decided it was unlikely to win a favorable Supreme Court opinion.
The NY SAFE Act as originally passed did not explicitly exempt police officers from some of the law 's provisions, such as the seven - round limit, although older law (not repealed by the NY SAFE Act) did provide such an exemption. This prompted some initial confusion, but the office of Governor Andrew Cuomo said soon after passage that "Police officers possessing ammunition clip (sic) with more than seven bullets are not in violation of this law and they never will be, period. '' In July 2013, Cuomo signed into law a measure that expressly exempted qualified retired law enforcement officers from some of the provisions of the Act. The exemption allows retired officers (who served for at least ten years and left in good standing) to retain guns and magazines purchased as part of official duty, so long as registered with the state within 60 days of retiring.
In 2013, Moon Kook - jin 's Kahr Arms of Pearl River, a gun manufacturer, announced that it would be moving its headquarters from New York to Pennsylvania after the passing of the NY SAFE Act. The company also announced that it would be building a manufacturing facility in Pennsylvania, rather than Orange County, New York, as it had looked into.
In 2014, the Remington Arms Co. decided to open a manufacturing plant in Huntsville, Alabama. The president of United Mine Workers Local 717, which represents workers at Remington 's existing plant in Ilion, New York expressed fears about the future of the New York facility and blaming the NY SAFE Act for the company 's decision to expand in Alabama rather than New York. However, "Remington has not given any public indications that it is planning to move out of Ilion. In fact, it has spent more than $20 million on new equipment for its factory in Ilion and added 560 jobs at the plant '' in the few years before 2014. Subsequently, about 100 Remington jobs were shifted from New York to Alabama; a Remington Outdoor Company CEO said that the SAFE Act (alongside other factors such as "workforce quality, business environment, tax and economic incentives, and existing infrastructure '') to the shift.
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when did the air force leave the army | History of the United States Air Force - wikipedia
The United States Air Force became a separate military service on 18 September 1947 with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947. The Act created the National Military Establishment, later renamed the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of four of the five branches, the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and a newly created Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army for land - based operations and the Navy and Marine Corps for sea - based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations leading up to today 's U.S. Air Force are:
* The Air Corps became a subordinate element of the Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, and was abolished as an administrative organization on 9 March 1942. It continued to exist as a branch of the Army (similar to the infantry, quartermaster, or artillery) until reorganization provisions of the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 495), 26 July 1947.
* * The Army Air Forces were abolished by Transfer Order 1, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 26 September 1947, implementing the same provisions. Transfer Order 1 was the first of 200 Army - Air Force transfer agreements drawn up in June and July 1947, and ordered the transfer of all military and civilian personnel of the Army Air Forces to the Department of the Air Force and the USAF. The final transfer order was signed 22 June 1949.
In 1917, upon the United States ' entry into World War I, the first major U.S. aviation combat force was created when an Air Service was formed as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Major General Mason Patrick commanded the Air Service of the AEF; his deputy was Brigadier General Billy Mitchell. These aviation units, some of which were trained in France, provided tactical support for the U.S. Army, especially during the Battle of Saint - Mihiel and the Meuse - Argonne offensives. Among the aces of the AEF Air Service were Captain Eddie Rickenbacker and 2nd Lieutenant Frank Luke. Concurrent with the creation of this combat force, the U.S. Army 's aviation establishment in the United States was removed from control of the Signal Corps and placed directly under the United States Secretary of War. An assistant secretary was created to direct the Army Air Service, which had dual responsibilities for development and procurement of aircraft, and raising and training of air units. With the end of the First World War, the AEF 's Air Service was dissolved and the Army Air Service in the United States largely demobilized.
In 1920, the Air Service became a branch of the Army and in 1926 was renamed the Army Air Corps. During this period, the Air Corps began experimenting with new techniques, including air - to - air refueling and the development of the B - 9 and the Martin B - 10, the first all - metal monoplane bombers, and new fighters.
Americans were fascinated with aviation in the 1920s and 1930s and refused to allow War Department conservatism to block innovation. General Billy Mitchell, the deputy director of the Air Service sought to wrest control of coastal defense away from the Navy. He went public insisting that his planes could sink battleships any day, a claim proven with a series of tests that culminated in the sinking of the Ostfriesland. Mitchell lost his self - control in 1925 when he accused the Navy in a press release of "incompetency, criminal negligence and almost treasonable administration of the national defense. '' He received the highly publicized court martial he wanted, and was allowed to expound his theory that air power alone would suffice to win the next big war. He was convicted, and resigned. He became a popular hero and public opinion forced the War Department to strengthen the Air Corps. Mitchell 's main argument was air power had to be autonomous -- had to be controlled by fliers who understood the new technology, new tactics, new strategies, and who would not waste precious air assets in trying to assist old - fashioned armies and navies. Until his death in 1936 Mitchell, as a civilian, was a tireless prophet of airpower before numerous civilian audiences, but he lost touch with aviation developments and ceased to be influential inside the services. Indeed, his almost hysterical attacks made many generals hostile. The Air Corps managed a few publicity stunts, but always seemed to be overshadowed by glamorous civilians like Charles Lindbergh, Howard Hughes or Amelia Earhart. In 1934 President Franklin Roosevelt, feuding with the airline industry, suddenly turned the delivery of air mail over to the Air Corps. Multiple crashes by inexperienced Air Corps pilots in mediocre planes with poor navigation gear emphasized the fragility of the new service, and undercut its claims that in wartime it could perform miracles. Roosevelt, however, had become a firm believer in air power and had behind him both public opinion and Congress. When mobilization began in spring 1940 Roosevelt was as energetic as anyone in expanding the Air Corps role, calling for 50,000 planes a year, and sending the best new models to Britain for its war against the Luftwaffe.
In 1935, as a result of recommendations from two civilian review boards, the next advancement toward independence for the Air Force occurred when all flying units, which heretofore had been distributed to various ground commands, were grouped together as an aerial task force under one air commander as the General Headquarters Air Force. The Air Corps, headed by the Chief of the Air Corps, continued as before but now held responsibility only for supply, airfields, and training, in effect splitting the Air Force into two parts. Both were commanded by major generals (Frank Andrews and Oscar Westover, followed by Henry H. ("Hap '') Arnold).
In 1937, the B - 17 Flying Fortress made its first appearance. In a feat of navigation impressive for the time, three B - 17s intercepted the Italian passenger liner Rex at sea. Though intended to demonstrate the ability of the Air Corps to defend the nation 's coasts, the mission also indicated the emerging doctrine within the Air Corps of the supremacy of strategic bombing.
During World War I, aviation technology developed rapidly; however, the Army 's reluctance to use the new technology began to make airmen think that as long as the Army controlled aviation, development would be stunted and a potentially valuable force neglected. Air Service senior officer Billy Mitchell began to campaign for an independent Air Force, co-equal to the Army and Navy. But his campaign offended many and resulted in a court martial in 1925 that effectively ended his career. His followers, including future aviation leaders "Hap '' Arnold and Carl Spaatz, saw the lack of public, congressional, and military support that Mitchell received and decided that America was not ready for an independent air force. Under the leadership of its chief of staff Mason Patrick and, later, Arnold, the Air Corps waited until the time to fight for independence arose again.
The Air Force came of age in World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead, calling for a vastly enlarged air force based on long - range strategic bombing. Organizationally it became largely independent from the Army in 1941, when the Army Air Corps became a part of the new U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF), and the GHQ Air Force was redesignated the subordinate Combat Command. In the major reorganization of the Army by War Department Circular 59, effective March 9, 1942, the newly created Army Air Forces gained equal voice with the Army and Navy on the Joint Chiefs of Staff and complete autonomy from the Army Ground Forces and the Services of Supply, serving as a separate service in all but name. The reorganization also eliminated both Combat Command and the Air Corps as organizations (the latter remained a combat branch of the Army until 1947) in favor of a streamlined system of commands and numbered air forces for decentralized management of the burgeoning Army Air Forces.
The reorganization merged all aviation elements of the former Air Corps into the Army Air Forces. Although the Air Corps still legally existed as an Army branch, the position and Office of the Chief of the Air Corps was dissolved.
Major General Carl A. Spaatz took command of the Eighth Air Force in London in 1942; with Brigadier General Ira Eaker as second in command, he supervised the strategic bombing campaign. In late 1943, Spaatz was made commander of the new U.S. Strategic Air Forces, reporting directly to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Spaatz began daylight bombing operations using the prewar doctrine of flying bombers in close formations, relying on their combined defensive firepower for protection from attacking enemy aircraft rather than supporting fighter escorts. The doctrine proved flawed when deep - penetration missions beyond the range of escort fighters were attempted, because German fighter planes overwhelmed U.S. formations, shooting down bombers in excess of "acceptable '' loss rates, especially in combination with the vast number of flak anti-aircraft batteries defending Germany 's major targets. American fliers took heavy casualties during raids on the oil refineries of Ploieşti, Romania, and the ball - bearing factories at Schweinfurt and Regensburg, Germany, and it was the loss rate in crews and not materiel that brought about a pullback from the strategic offensive in the autumn of 1943.
The Eighth Air Force had attempted to use both the P - 47 and P - 38 as escorts, but while the Thunderbolt was a capable dog - fighter it lacked the range, even with the addition of drop tanks to extend its range, and the Lightning proved mechanically unreliable in the frigid altitudes at which the missions were fought. Bomber protection was greatly improved after the introduction of North American P - 51 Mustang fighters in Europe. With its built - in extended range and competitive or superior performance characteristics in comparison to all existing German piston - engined fighters, the Mustang was an immediately available solution to the crisis. In January 1944 the Eighth Air Force obtained priority in equipping its groups, so that ultimately 14 of its 15 groups fielded Mustangs. P - 51 escorts began operations in February 1944 and increased their numbers rapidly, so that the Luftwaffe suffered increasing fighter losses in aerial engagements beginning with Big Week in early 1944. Allied fighters were also granted free rein in attacking German fighter airfields, both in pre-planned missions and while returning to base from escort duties, and the major Luftwaffe threat against Allied bombers was severely diminished by D - Day.
In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the AAF provided major tactical support under General George Kenney to Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific theater. Kenney 's pilots invented the skip - bombing technique against Japanese ships. Kenney 's forces claimed destruction of 11,900 Japanese planes and 1.7 million tons of shipping. The first development and sustained implementation of airlift by American air forces occurred between May 1942 and November 1945 as hundreds of transports flew more than half a million tons of supplies from India to China over the Hump.
The AAF created the Twentieth Air Force to employ long - range B - 29 Superfortress bombers in strategic attacks on Japanese cities. The use of forward bases in China (needed to be able to reach Japan by the heavily laden B - 29 's) was ineffective because of the difficulty in logistically supporting the bases entirely by air from its main bases in India, and because of a persistent threat against the Chinese airfields by the Japanese army. After the Mariana Islands were captured in mid-1944, providing locations for air bases that could be supplied by sea, Arnold moved all B - 29 operations there by April 1945 and made General Curtis LeMay his bomber commander (reporting directly to Arnold, who personally commanded Twentieth Air Force until July). LeMay reasoned that the Japanese economy, much of which was cottage industry in dense urban areas where manufacturing and assembly plants were also located, was particularly vulnerable to area attack and abandoned inefficient high - altitude precision bombing in favor of low - level incendiary bombings aimed at destroying large urban areas. On the night of March 9 -- 10, 1945, the bombing of Tokyo and the resulting conflagration resulted in the death of over 100,000 persons. 350,000 people died in 66 other Japanese cities as a result of this shift to incendiary bombing. At the same time, the B - 29 was also employed in widespread mining of Japanese harbors and sea lanes. In early August 1945, the Twentieth Air Force conducted atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in response to Japan 's rejection of the Potsdam Declaration which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. Both cities were destroyed with enormous loss of life and psychological shock. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan, stating:
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is indeed incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should We continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects; or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers.
In practice, the Army Air Forces became virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but its leaders wanted formal independence. In November 1945, General Dwight D. Eisenhower became Army Chief of Staff, while General Carl Spaatz began to assume the duties of Commanding General, Army Air Forces, in anticipation of General Arnold 's announced retirement. One of General Eisenhower 's first actions was to appoint a board of officers, headed by Lieutenant General William H. Simpson, to prepare a definitive plan for the reorganization of the Army and the Air Force that could be effected without enabling legislation and would provide for the separation of the Air Force from the Army. On 29 January 1946 "Generals Eisenhower and Spaatz agreed on an Air Force organization composed of Strategic Air Command, Air Defense Command, Tactical Air Command, Air Transport Command, Air Technical Service Command, Air Training Command, the Air University, and the Air Force Center. ''
Over the continuing objections of the Navy, which feared losing its air arm and strategic role to the new service, the United States Department of the Air Force was created by the National Security Act of 1947. That act became effective 18 September 1947 when the first secretary of the Air Force, Stuart Symington, took office. In 1948, the service chiefs agreed on usage of air assets under the Key West Agreement.
"In 1947 President Truman signed the National Security Act which established this new defense organization, and along with it the creation of the US Air Force as an independent service, equal to the US Army and US Navy. The official birthday of the US Air Force is 18 September 1947. ''
On 18 September 1947, the Army Air Forces became the United States Air Force as a separate and equal element of the United States Armed Forces. The fledgling Air Force quickly established its own identity. Army Air Fields were renamed Air Force Bases and personnel were soon being issued new uniforms with new rank insignia. Once the new Air Force was free of army domination, its first job was to discard the old and inadequate ground army organizational structure. This was the "Base Plan '' where the combat group commander reported to the base commander, who was often regular army, with no flying experience.
General Carl A. Spaatz established a new policy, "No tactical commander should be subordinate to the station commander. '' This resulted in a search for a better arrangement. The commander of the 15th Air Force, Major General Charles Born, proposed the Provisional Wing Plan, which basically reversed the situation and put the wing commander over the base commander. The USAF basic organizational unit became the Base - Wing.
Under this plan, the base support functions -- supply, base operations, transportation, security, and medical were assigned to squadrons, usually commanded by a Major or Lieutenant Colonel. All of these squadrons were assigned to a Combat Support Group, commanded by a Base Commander, usually a Colonel. Combat fighter or bomber squadrons were assigned to the Combat Group, a retention of the USAAF Group. All of these groups, both combat and combat support, were in turn assigned to the Wing, commanded by a Wing Commander. This way the Wing Commander commanded both the combat operational elements on the base as well as the non-operational elements. The Wing Commander was an experienced air combat leader, usually a Colonel or Brigadier General. All of the hierarchical organizations carried the same numerical designation. In this manner, for example, the 28th became the designation for the Wing and all the subordinate groups and squadrons beneath it. As a result, the base and the wing became one and the same unit. On 16 June 1952, the legacy combat groups were inactivated and the operational Combat Squadrons were assigned directly to the Wing. The World War II history, lineage and honors of the combat group were bestowed on the Wing upon its inactivation.
The USAAF Wing then was redesignated as an Air Division, which was commanded Brigadier General or higher, who commanded two or more wings usually, but not always, on a single base. Numbered Air Forces (NAF) commanded both Air Divisions or Wings directly, and the NAF was under the Major Command (SAC, TAC, ADC, etc.).
After World War II, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate, and the period in history known as the Cold War began. The United States entered an arms race with the Soviet Union and competition aimed at increasing each nation 's influence throughout the world. In response, the United States expanded its military presence throughout the world. The USAF opened air bases throughout Europe, and later in Japan and South Korea. The United States also built air bases on the British overseas territories of British Indian Ocean Territory and Ascension Island in the South Atlantic.
The first test for the USAF during the Cold War came in 1948, when Communist authorities in East Germany cut off road and air transportation to West Berlin. The USAF, along with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Commonwealth air forces, supplied the city during the Berlin airlift under Operation Vittles, using C - 54 Skymasters. The efforts of these air forces saved the city from starvation and forced the Soviets to back down in their blockade.
Conflict over post-war military administration, especially with regard to the roles and missions to be assigned to the Air Force and the U.S. Navy, led to an episode called the "Revolt of the Admirals '' in the late 1940s, in which high - ranking Navy officers argued unsuccessfully for the case for carrier - based aircraft rather than strategic bombers.
In 1947, the USAF began Project Sign, a study of unidentified flying objects what would be twice revived (first as Project Grudge and finally as Project Blue Book) and which would last until 1969.
In 1948 the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Air Force. On 8 July 1948, Esther McGowin Blake became the first woman in the Air Force, enlisting the first minute of the first hour of the first day regular Air Force duty was authorized for women.
During the Korean War, which began in June 1950, the Far East Air Forces (FEAF) were among the first units to respond to the invasion by North Korea, but quickly lost its main airbase at Kimpo, South Korea. Designated to provide close air support to the defenders of the Pusan pocket from bases in Japan, the FEAF also conducted a strategic bombing campaign against North Korea 's war - making potential simultaneously. General Douglas MacArthur 's landing at Inchon in September 1950 enabled the FEAF to return to Korea and develop bases from which they supported MacArthur 's drive to the Korean - Chinese border.
When the Chinese People 's Liberation Army attacked in December 1950, the USAF provided tactical air support. The introduction of Soviet - made MiG - 15 jet fighters caused problems for the B - 29s used to bomb North Korea, but the USAF countered the MiGs with its new F - 86 Sabre jet fighters. Although both air superiority and close air support missions were successful, a lengthy attempt to interdict communist supply lines by air attack was not as successful and was replaced by a systematic campaign to inflict as much economic cost to North Korea and the Chinese forces as long as war persisted, including attacks on the capital city of Pyongyang and against the North Korean hydroelectric system.
The USAF was heavily deployed during the Vietnam War. The first bombing raids against North Vietnam occurred in 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. In March 1965, a sustained bombing campaign began, code - named Operation Rolling Thunder. This campaign 's purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, destroy industrial bases and air defenses, and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail, while forcing North Vietnam into peace negotiations. The USAF dropped more bombs in all combat operations in Vietnam during the period 1965 -- 68 than it did during World War II, and the Rolling Thunder campaign lasted until the U.S. presidential election of 1968. Except for heavily damaging the North Vietnamese economy and infrastructure, Rolling Thunder failed in its political and strategic goals.
The USAF also played a critical role in defeating the Easter Offensive of 1972. The rapid redeployment of fighters, bombers, and attack aircraft help the South Vietnamese Army repel the invasion. Operation Linebacker demonstrated to both the North and South Vietnamese that even without significant U.S. Army ground forces, the United States could still influence the war. The air war for the United States ended with Operation Linebacker II, also known as the "Christmas Bombings. '' These helped to finalize the Paris peace negotiations.
The insurgent nature of combat operations early in the war, and the necessity of interdicting the North Vietnamese regular army and its supply lines in third - party countries of Southeast Asia led to the development of a significant special operations capability within the USAF. Provisional and experimental concepts such as air commandos and aerial gunships, tactical missions such as the partially successful Operation Ivory Coast deep inside enemy territory, and a dedicated Combat Search and Rescue mission resulted in development of operational doctrines, units, and equipment.
The USAF modernized its tactical air forces in the late 1970s with the introduction of the F - 15, A-10, and F - 16 fighters, and the implementation of realistic training scenarios under the aegis of Red Flag. In turn, it also upgraded the equipment and capabilities of its Air Reserve Components (ARC) by the equipping of both the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve with first - line aircraft.
Expanding its force structure in the 1980s to 40 fighter wings and drawing further on the lessons of the Vietnam War, the USAF also dedicated units and aircraft to Electronic Warfare (EW) and the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD). The humiliating failure in April 1980 of the Operation Eagle Claw rescue mission in Iran resulted directly in an increased USAF emphasis on participation in the doctrine, equipment, personnel, and planning of Joint Special Operations.
The USAF provided attack, airlift, and combat support capability for operations in Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury), Libya in 1986 (Operation El Dorado Canyon), and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause). Lessons learned in these operations were applied to its force structure and doctrine, and became the basis for successful air operations in the 1990s and after September 11, 2001.
The development of satellite reconnaissance during the Cold War, the extensive use of both tactical and strategic aerial reconnaissance during numerous combat operations, and the nuclear war deterrent role of the USAF resulted in the recognition of space as a possible combat arena. An emphasis on "aerospace '' operations and doctrine grew in the 1980s. Missile warning and space operations were combined to form Air Force Space Command in 1982. In 1991, Operation Desert Storm provided emphasis for the command 's new focus on supporting combat operations.
The creation of the internet and the universality of computer technology as a basic warfighting tool resulted in the priority development of cyber warfare techniques and defenses by the USAF.
The USAF provided the bulk of the Allied air power during the Gulf War in 1991, flying alongside aircraft of the U.S. Navy and the RAF. The F - 117 Nighthawk stealth fighter 's capabilities were shown on the first night of the air war when it was able to bomb central Baghdad and avoid the sophisticated Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses. The USAF, along with the U.S. Navy and the RAF, later patrolled the skies of northern and southern Iraq after the war to ensure that Iraq 's air defense capability could not be rebuilt. Operation Provide Comfort 1991 - 96 and Operation Northern Watch 1997 - 2003 - no - fly zones north of the 36th parallel north and Operation Southern Watch - no - fly zone south of the 33rd parallel north.
In 1996, Operation Desert Strike and 1998 Operation Desert Fox, the USAF bombed Saddam Hussein 's Iraq.
The USAF led NATO action in Bosnia with no - fly zones (Operation Deny Flight) 1993 - 96 and in 1995 with air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs (Operation Deliberate Force). This was the first time that USAF aircraft took part in military action as part of a NATO mission. The USAF led the strike forces as the NATO Air Force (otherwise mainly composed of RAF and Luftwaffe aircraft) with the greatest capability to launch air strikes over a long period of time. In 1999, the USAF led NATO air strikes against Serbia during the Kosovo War (Operation Allied Force).
In 2001, the USAF was deployed against the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Operating from Diego Garcia, B - 52 Stratofortress and B - 1 Lancer bombers attacked Taliban positions. The USAF deployed daisy cutter bombs, dropped from C - 130 Hercules cargo planes, for the first time since the Vietnam War. During this conflict, the USAF opened up bases in Central Asia for the first time.
The USAF was deployed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Following the defeat of Saddam Hussein 's regime, the USAF took over Baghdad International Airport as a base. USAF aircraft are used to provide support to Coalition and Iraqi forces in major operations to eliminate insurgent centers of activity and supply in north and west Iraq. Operations in both Afghanistan and Iraq demonstrated the effective utility of Unmanned air vehicles, the most prominent of which was the MQ - 1 Predator. Fifty - four USAF personnel died in the Iraq War.
The USAF maintains a Combined Air & Space Operations Center in Qatar to direct air combat operations and Predator actions.
In March 2011, USAF jets bombed military targets in Libya as part of the international effort to enforce a United Nations resolution that imposed no - fly zone over the country and protected its people from the civil war that occurred when its dictator, Muammar Gaddafi suppressed the protests calling for the end of his regime. Protests were inspired by the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt.
In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the return of US Forces to Iraq. The US Air Force is undertaking a significant humanitarian effort in order to assist Iraq 's imperiled minority groups. When permission was later granted for USAF airstrikes, it was on condition that the types of aircraft not be announced so as to obscure which countries they were based in.
Today, the United States Air Force is the largest, most capable, and most technologically advanced air force in the world, with about 5,778 manned aircraft in service, approximately 156 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, 2,130 Air - Launched Cruise Missiles, and 450 intercontinental ballistic missiles. The USAF has 328,439 personnel on active duty, 74,000 in the Selected and Individual Ready Reserves, and 106,000 in the Air National Guard. In addition, the Air Force employs 168,900 civilian personnel including indirect hire of foreign nationals. However, after two decades of failure to recapitalize its aircraft under Clinton and the two Bushes, the USAF has its oldest and most outdated fleet ever. Tactical aircraft purchases were put off while Fifth - generation jet fighters were facing delays, cost overruns and cutbacks and the programs to replace the 1950s bomber and tanker fleets have just been started over again after many aborted attempts.
An Air Force fighter pilot died 20 February 2008 after two F - 15C jets collided during a training exercise over the Gulf of Mexico.
The U.S. Air Force on 29 February 2008 announced one of the largest military acquisition programs in U.S. history, saying the service had chosen Northrop Grumman over Boeing to replace its aging air refueling tanker fleet.
The pilot of an F - 16C fighter General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon # F - 16C / D jet that crashed in a remote area about 80 miles northwest of Phoenix, Arizona was killed when his plane went down. The plane was spotted late 13 March 2008. Rescuers could reach the site only by helicopter and arrived at daybreak 15 March 2008. There have been 17 other crashes of Luke Air Force Base F - 16s since 1998, and only one of those resulted in a fatality. That crash happened in May 2004, when a pilot with the Republic of Singapore Air Force died after his jet went down during a training mission at an Air Force bombing range in southwest Arizona. The most recent crashes came in 2006. A pilot ejected safely from an F - 16 in April 2006 after the lone engine on the jet exploded just after takeoff from the base. The aircraft came down in a cornfield.
On 5 June 2008 Robert Gates announced the results of an investigation into the misshipment of four MK - 12 forward - section reentry vehicle assemblies to Taiwan. The investigation, conducted by Admiral Kirkland H. Donald, director of the US Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, found that the Taiwan missile incident was, in Gates ' words, "A degradation of the authority, standards of excellence and technical competence within the nation 's ICBM force. Similar to the bomber - specific August 2007 Minot - Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident, this incident took place within the larger environment of declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance '' and that "the investigation identified commonalities between the August 2007 Minot incident and this (the Taiwan) event. '' In his investigation report, Donald stated that the issues identified by his investigation were, "Indicative of an overall decline in Air Force nuclear weapons stewardship, a problem that has been identified but not effectively addressed for over a decade. Both the Minot - Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident and the Taiwan misshipment, while different in specifics, have a common origin: the gradual erosion of nuclear standards and a lack of effective oversight by Air Force leadership ''
As a result of the investigation, Gates announced that, "A substantial number of Air Force general officers and colonels have been identified as potentially subject to disciplinary measures, ranging from removal from command to letters of reprimand, '' and that he had accepted the resignations of USAF Secretary Michael Wynne and USAF Chief of Staff Michael Moseley. Gates added that he had asked James R. Schlesinger to lead a senior - level task force to recommend improvements in the stewardship and operation of nuclear weapons, delivery vehicles and sensitive components by the US DoD. Members of the task force came from the Defense Policy Board and the Defense Science Board.
In 2012, the USAF discovered that their billion dollar investment in the Expeditionary Combat Support System "has not yielded any significant military capability '' and that it would take another billion dollar investment to gain even one quarter of the planned capability.
In 2012 the USAF received push back from the Congress over a plan to retire multiple reserve squadrons, leading to the formation of the National Commission on the Structure of the Air Force to resolve the proper balance between active and reserve air forces. This was followed in 2013 by the Total Force Task Force in an attempt to handle budget disagreements between the active and reserve forces.
In 2014, the USAF 's 30 year strategy document cited a need for both low end and high end capabilities, and so called for cuts in high demand UAVs in favor of retaining "outdated fighter aircraft that would not be survivable in a high end conflict ''.
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what are the main function of election commission of india | Election Commission of India - Wikipedia
Executive:
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The Election Commission of India is an autonomous constitutional authority responsible for administering election processes in India. The body administers elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, state Legislative Assemblies in India, and the offices of the President and Vice President in the country. The Election Commission operates under the authority of Constitution per Article 324, and subsequently enacted Representation of the People Act. The Commission has the powers under the Constitution, to act in an appropriate manner when the enacted laws make insufficient provisions to deal with a given situation in the conduct of an election. Being a constitutional authority, Election Commission is amongst the few institutions which function with both autonomy and freedom, along with the country 's higher judiciary and later the UPSC.
Originally in 1950, the commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989 but they had a very short tenure, ending on 1 January 1990. The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1989 made the Commission a multi-member body. The concept of a 3 - member Commission has been in operation since then, with the decisions being made by a majority vote. The Chief Election Commissioner and the two Election Commissioners who are usually retired IAS officers draw salaries and allowances at par with those of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India as per the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992.
The Commission is served by its Secretariat located in New Delhi. The Election Commissioners are assisted by Deputy Election Commissioners, who are generally IAS officers. They are further assisted by Directors General, Principal Secretaries, and Secretaries and Under Secretaries.
At the state level, Election Commission is assisted by the Chief Electoral Officer of the State, who is an IAS officer of Principal Secretary rank. At the district and constituency levels, the District Magistrates in their capacity as District Election Officers, Electoral Registration Officers and Returning Officers perform election work.
The Chief Election Commissioner of India can be removed from his office similar to the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court of India which requires a resolution passed by the Parliament with a two - thirds majority in both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha on the grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity. Other Election Commissioners can be removed by the President of India on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner. A Chief Election Commissioner has never been impeached in India. In 2009, just before the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections, Chief Election Commissioner N. Gopalaswami sent a recommendation to President Prathibha Patil to remove Election Commissioner Navin Chawla, who was soon to take office as the Chief Election Commissioner and to subsequently supervise the Lok Sabha Election, citing his partisan behavior in favor of one political party. The President opined that such a recommendation is not binding on the President, and hence rejected it. Subsequently, after Gopalswami 's retirement the next month, Chawla became the Chief Election Commissioner and supervised the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections.
One of the most important features of the democratic policy is elections at regular intervals. Holding periodic free and fair elections are essentials of a democratic system and a part of the basic structure of the Constitution. The Election Commission is regarded as the guardian of elections in the country. In every election, it issues a Model code of Conduct for political parties and candidates to conduct elections in a free and fair manner. The Commission issued the code for the first time in 1971 for the 5th Lok Sabha elections and revised it from time to time. It lays down guidelines for the conduct of political parties and candidates during an election period. However, there have been instances of violation of the code by various political parties with complaints being received for misuse of official machinery by the candidates. The code does not have any specific statutory basis but only a persuasive effect. It contains the rules of electoral morality. However, this lack of statutory backing does not prevent the Commission from enforcing it.
A law regarding the registration process for political parties was enacted in 1989 and a number of parties got registered with the Commission. The registration helps avoid confusion ensures that the political parties are brought under the purview of the commission.
The election commission has the right to allow symbols to the political parties. It gives recognition to the national parties, state parties and regional parties. It set limits on poll expenses. The commission prepare electoral rolls and update the voter 's list from time to time. Notifications of dates and schedules of election for filing nominations are issued by the commission. It is noteworthy that Election commission can not allot same symbol to two regional political parties even if they are not in the same state.
The Commission can issue an order for prohibition of publication and disseminating of results of opinion polls or exit polls to prevent influencing the voting trends in the electorate.
To curb the growing influence of money during elections, the Election Commission has made many suggestions and changes in this regard. The Commission has appointed IRS officers of the Income Tax Department as Election Observers (Expenditure) of all elections and has fixed the legal limits on the amount of money which a candidate can spend during election campaigns. These limits have been revised over time. The Election Commission, by appointing expenditure observers from the Indian Revenue Service, keeps an eye on the individual account of election expenditure. The commission takes details of the candidate 's assets on affidavit at the time of submitting nomination paper, who are also required to give details of their expenditure within 30 days of the declaration of results. The campaign period has also been reduced by the Commission from 21 to 14 days for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections to cut down election expenditure.
In an attempt to decriminalise politics, the Election Commission has approached the Supreme Court to put a lifetime ban on convicted politicians from contesting elections.
The Election Commission had tried to bring improvements in election procedures by the introduction of Electronic voting machines or EVMs. It was thought that these would reduce malpractices and improve efficiency. It was first tried out on an experimental basis in the state of Kerala for the 1982 Legislative Assembly Elections. After a successful testing and the legal inquiries, the Commission took the decision to begin the use of these voting machines. The Election Commission launched a web site of its own on 28 February 1998 in order to provide accurate information, management, administration and instant results of the elections. In an effort to prevent electoral fraud, in 1993, EPICs or Electors Photo Identity Cards were issued, which became mandatory by the 2004 elections. However ration cards have been allowed for election purposes in certain situations. In 1998, the Commission decided on a programme for the ' computerisation ' of the electoral rolls. The introduction of Voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) in eight Lok Sabha constituencies in 2014 Indian General Elections was a big achievement for the Election Commission. This Voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system was first used with EVMs in a by - poll in September 2013 in Noksen (Assembly Constituency) in Nagaland. and eventually in all elections from September 2013 onwards in various Legislative elections in the country.
In 2014, None of the above or NOTA was also added as an option on the voting machines which is now a mandatory option to be provided in any election. The specific symbol for NOTA, a ballot paper with a black cross across it, was introduced on 18 September 2015. The symbol has been designed by National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. With the Bihar Legislative Assembly election, 2015, the state became the first to have photo electoral rolls, with photographs of the candidates on the EVMs.
The Election Commission of India came under severe criticism when an RTI application filed by activist Dr Satendra Singh revealed the commission 's ill - preparedness to safeguard electors with disabilities in the 2014 Lok Sabha elections. There were many violations of the Supreme Court order from 2014 to enfranchise persons with disabilities.
Election Commission organised an open hackathon on 3 June at 10 am, to attempt hacking of Electronic Voting Machine used by the Commission in various Indian elections. The NCP and CPI (M) were the only two parties that registered for the event but none of them participated. Functioning of EVMs and VVPAT machines were demonstrated to the teams.
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fifa all time best players in the world | FIFA 100 - wikipedia
The FIFA 100 is a list of the world - renowned Brazilian striker Pelé 's choice of the "greatest living footballers ''. Unveiled on 4 March 2004 at a gala ceremony in London, England, the FIFA 100 marked part of the celebrations of the 100th anniversary of the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the international governing body of football.
The figure 100 refers to the 100th anniversary of FIFA and not the number of players listed, which is actually 125; Pelé had been asked to select 50 active players and 50 retired players, for a total of 100 players, but found it too difficult to limit the number of former players to just 50. The list contains 123 professional male and 2 female players. At the time the FIFA 100 was selected, 50 of the players were still active, with the remaining 75 retired from the game.
Some football observers have questioned the selection methodology of the list. David Mellor, politician turned football pundit, wrote in his column in the Evening Standard that he felt the selections were politically motivated rather than made on purely footballing grounds. He suggested that the selections looked as if they came from the pen of Sepp Blatter rather than Pelé. As evidence for this, Mellor noted the wide geographical spread of the selected players: a true selection would be more heavily biased to South America and Europe, he argued. Such assertions were also forwarded by BBC columnist Tim Vickery.
One of Pelé 's old teammates, the former Brazil midfielder Gérson, reacted to his omission from the FIFA 100 by tearing up a copy of the list on a Brazilian television programme. Marco van Basten and Uwe Seeler refused to take part in the project on a point of principle.
Following is the list of the "FIFA 100 '' greatest living footballers as nominated by Pelé.
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