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where does the saying saved by the bell | Safety coffin - wikipedia
A safety coffin or security coffin is a coffin fitted with a mechanism to prevent premature burial or allow the occupant to signal that they have been buried alive. A large number of designs for safety coffins were patented during the 18th and 19th centuries and variations on the idea are still available today.
The fear of being buried alive peaked during the cholera epidemics of the 18th and 19th centuries but accounts of live burial have been recorded even further back. When his tomb was reopened, the philosopher John Duns Scotus (1266 -- 1308) was reportedly found outside his coffin with his hands torn and bloody after attempting to escape. The fears of being buried alive were heightened by reports of doctors and accounts in literature and the newspapers. As well as dealing with the subject in "The Fall of the House of Usher '' and "The Cask of Amontillado '', Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Premature Burial '', which was published in 1844. It contained accounts of supposedly genuine cases of premature burial as well as detailing the narrator 's own (perceived) interment while still alive.
The general fear of premature burial led to the invention of many safety devices which could be incorporated into coffins. Most consisted of some type of device for communication to the outside world such as a cord attached to a bell that the interred person could ring should they revive after the burial. A safety coffin of this type appears in the 1979 film The First Great Train Robbery. Other variations on the bell included flags and pyrotechnics. Some designs included ladders, escape hatches, and even feeding tubes, but many forgot a method for providing air.
Robert Robinson died in Manchester in 1791. A movable glass pane was inserted in his coffin, and the mausoleum had a door for purposes of inspection by a watchman, who was to see if he breathed on the glass. He instructed his relatives to visit his grave periodically to check that he was still dead.
The first recorded safety coffin was constructed on the orders of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick before his death in 1792. He had a window installed to allow light in, an air tube to provide a supply of fresh air, and instead of having the lid nailed down he had a lock fitted. In a special pocket of his shroud he had two keys, one for the coffin lid and a second for the tomb door.
P.G. Pessler, a German priest, suggested in 1798 that all coffins have a tube inserted from which a cord would run to the church bells. If an individual had been buried alive they could draw attention to themself by ringing the bells. This idea, while highly impractical, led to the first designs of safety coffins equipped with signalling systems. Pessler 's colleague, Pastor Beck, suggested that coffins should have a small trumpet - like tube attached. Each day the local priest could check the state of putrefaction of the corpse by sniffing the odours emanating from the tube. If no odour was detected or the priest heard cries for help the coffin could be dug up and the occupant rescued.
Dr. Adolf Gutsmuth was buried alive several times to demonstrate a safety coffin of his own design, and in 1822 he stayed underground for several hours and even ate a meal of soup, bratwurst, marzipan, sauerkraut, spätzle, beer, and for dessert, prinzregententorte, delivered to him through the coffin 's feeding tube.
The 1820s also saw the use of "portable death chambers '' in Germany. A small chamber, equipped with a bell for signalling and a window for viewing the body, was constructed over an empty grave. Watchmen would check each day for signs of life or decomposition in each of the chambers. If the bell was rung the "body '' could be immediately removed, but if the watchman observed signs of putrefaction in the corpse, a door in the floor of the chamber could be opened and the body would drop down into the grave. A panel could then be slid in to cover the grave and the upper chamber removed and reused.
In 1829, Dr. Johann Gottfried Taberger designed a system using a bell which would alert the cemetery nightwatchman. The corpse would have strings attached to its hands, head and feet. A housing around the bell above ground prevented it ringing accidentally. An improvement over previous designs, the housing prevented rainwater from running down the tube and netting prevented insects from entering the coffin. If the bell rang the watchman had to insert a second tube and pump air into the coffin with a bellows to allow the occupant to survive until the casket could be dug up.
The systems using cords tied to the body suffered from the drawback that the natural processes of decay often caused the body to swell or shift position, causing accidental tension on the cords and a "false positive ''. Franz Vester 's 1868 "Burial Case '' overcame this problem by adding a tube through which the face of the "corpse '' could be viewed. If the interred person came to, they could ring the bell (if not strong enough to ascend the tube by means of a supplied ladder) and the watchmen could check to see if the person had genuinely returned to life or whether it was merely a movement of the corpse. Vester 's design allowed the viewing tube to be removed and reused once death was assured.
Count Michel de Karnice - Karnicki, a chamberlain to the Tsar of Russia, patented his own safety coffin, called Le Karnice, in 1897 and demonstrated it at the Sorbonne the following year. His design detected movement in the coffin and opened a tube to supply air while simultaneously raising a flag and ringing a bell. Le Karnice never caught on: it was too sensitive to allow for even a slight movement in a decaying corpse, and a demonstration in which one of Karnice - Karnicki 's assistants had been buried alive ended badly when the signalling systems failed. Luckily, the breathing tube had activated and the assistant was disinterred unharmed, but the reputation of Le Karnice was damaged beyond repair.
In 1995 a modern safety coffin was patented by Fabrizio Caselli. His design included an emergency alarm, intercom system, a torch (flashlight), breathing apparatus, and both a heart monitor and stimulator.
Despite the fear of burial while still alive, there are no documented cases of anybody being saved by a safety coffin.
Folk etymology has suggested that perhaps the phrases "saved by the bell '', "dead ringer '' and "graveyard shift '' come from the use of safety coffins in the Victorian era; however, these have been dispelled as urban myth, attributed to a linguistic e-mail hoax Life in the 1500s. The "saved by the bell '' expression is actually well established to have come from boxing, where a boxer who is still on their feet but close to being knocked down can be saved from losing by the bell ringing to indicate the end of the round.
The 2009 song The Tale of Solomon Snell by Duncan Sheik from his album Whisper House tells the story of a man who for his burial gives instructions to be buried in a safety coffin with a bell mechanism attached but ultimately fails to be saved due to the person in charge of listening to the bell getting drunk.
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what happened to rome after they got rid of kings | Overthrow of the Roman monarchy - wikipedia
The overthrow of the Roman monarchy, a political revolution in ancient Rome, took place around 509 BC and resulted in the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of the Roman Republic.
The semi-legendary Roman histories tell that while the king was away on campaign, his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman, Lucretia. Afterwards she revealed the offence to various Roman noblemen, and then committed suicide. The Roman noblemen, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, obtained the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and to institute a republic. The Roman army supported Brutus, and the king went into exile. Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy, the citizens established a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city.
Roman history held that seven kings of Rome reigned from the establishment of the city in 753 BC by Romulus up to the reign of Tarquinius. The accuracy of this account has been doubted by modern historians, although it appears to be accepted that there was a monarchy, and the last king Tarquinius was expelled upon the founding of the republic in the late 6th century BC.
Tarquinius was the son of the fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. In around 535 BC Tarquinius, together with his wife Tullia Minor (one of the daughters of the then king Servius Tullius) arranged the murder of Servius, and Tarquinius became king in his place.
Despite various military victories, Tarquinius became an unpopular king. He refused to bury his predecessor, then put to death a number of the leading senators whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius (one of whom was the brother of Lucius Junius Brutus). By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the Senate on all matters of government, he diminished both the size and authority of the Senate. In another break with tradition, he judged capital criminal cases without advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear among those who might think to oppose him. He also engaged in treachery with the Latin allies.
In about 510 BC, Tarquinius went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation and Tarquinius was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory over the Rutuli in order, in part, to assuage the anger of his subjects.
Tarquinius unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital Ardea by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city.
Sextus Tarquinius, the king 's son, was sent on a military errand to Collatia. Sextus was received with great hospitality at the governor 's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king 's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Lucius ' wife, Lucretia, daughter of Spurius Lucretius, prefect of Rome, "a man of distinction '', made sure that the king 's son was treated as became his rank, although her husband was away at the siege.
In a variant of the story, Sextus and Lucius, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. She was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Lucius invited them to visit, but for the time being they returned to camp.
At night Sextus entered her bedroom by stealth, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. She awakened, he identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia 's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up.
The next day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father 's house in Rome and cast herself down in the suppliant 's position (embracing the knees), weeping. Asked to explain herself she insisted on first summoning witnesses and after disclosing the rape, called on them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored, as she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While they were debating she drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father 's arms, with the women present keening and lamenting. "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defence of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants. ''
In the alternative version, Lucretia summoned Lucius Junius Brutus (a leading citizen, and the grandson of Rome 's fifth king Tarquinius Priscus), along with her father Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, another leading citizen Publius Valerius Publicola, and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (also related to Tarquinius Priscus) to Collatia after she had been raped. Lucretia, believing that the rape dishonored her and her family, committed suicide by stabbing herself with a dagger after telling of what had befallen her. According to legend, Brutus grabbed the dagger from Lucretia 's breast after her death and immediately shouted for the overthrow of the Tarquins.
The four men gathered the youth of Collatia, then went to Rome where Brutus, being at that time Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people to the forum and exhorted them to rise up against the king. The people voted for the deposition of the king, and the banishment of the royal family.
Brutus summoned the comitia curiata, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king and began to harangue them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He leveled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king 's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. He pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife 's father, next - to - the - last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents. '' The king 's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.
Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have; there were many speakers (all patricians). In summation he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They had decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex (he was prefect of the city anyway). He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole they paraded Lucretia 's body through the streets, summoning the plebeians to legal assembly in the forum. Once there they heard a further speech by Brutus. It began:
Inasmuch as Tarquinius neither obtained the sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws, nor, since he obtained it -- in whatever manner he got it -- has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner, but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw, we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power, a thing we ought to have done long ago, but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered. And we have called you together, plebeians, in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country...
A general election was held. The vote was for the republic. The monarchy was at an end, even while Lucretia was still displayed in the forum.
Brutus, leaving Lucretius in command of the city, proceeded with armed men to the Roman army then camped at Ardea. The king, who had been with the army, heard of developments at Rome, and left the camp for the city before Brutus ' arrival. The army received Brutus as a hero, and the king 's sons were expelled from the camp. Tarquinius Superbus, meanwhile, was refused entry at Rome, and fled with his family into exile.
That uprising resulted in the exile or Regifugium, after a reign of 25 years, of Tarquinius and his family, and the establishment of the Roman Republic, with Brutus and Collatinus (both related by blood to Rome 's fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus) as the first consuls.
Tarquinius and his two eldest sons, Titus and Arruns, went into exile at Caere.
According to Livy, Brutus ' first act after the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was to bring the people to swear an oath (the Oath of Brutus) never to allow any man again to be king in Rome.
This is, fundamentally, a restatement of the "private oath '' sworn by the conspirators to overthrow the monarchy:
There is no scholarly agreement that the oath took place; it is reported, although differently, by Plutarch (Poplicola, 2) and Appian (B.C. 2.119).
Brutus also replenished the number of senators to 300 from the principal men of the equites. The new consuls also created a new office of rex sacrorum to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the kings.
Because of the Roman people 's revulsion at the name and family of the exiled king, the consul Tarquinius Collatinus was forced to resign from the office of consul and go into exile.
After his exile, Tarquinius made a number of attempts to regain the throne. At first, he sent ambassadors to the Senate to request the return of his family 's personal effects, which had been seized in the coup. In secret, while the Senate debated his request, the ambassadors met with and subverted a number of the leading men of Rome to the royal cause, in the Tarquinian conspiracy. The conspirators included two of Brutus ' brothers - in - law, and his two sons Titus and Tiberius. The conspiracy was discovered, and the conspirators executed.
Although the Senate had initially agreed to Tarquin 's request for a return of his family 's effects, the decision was reconsidered and revoked after the discovery of the conspiracy, and the royal property was given over to be plundered by the Roman populace.
Tarquinius next attempted to regain Rome by force of arms. He first gained the support of the cities of Veii and Tarquinii, recalling to the former their regular losses of war and land to the Roman state, and to the latter his family ties. The armies of the two cities were led by Tarquinius against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The king commanded the Etruscan infantry. Although the result initially appeared uncertain, the Romans were victorious. Both Brutus (the consul) and Arruns (the king 's son) were killed in battle.
Another attempt by Tarquinius relied on military support from Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium. The war led to the siege of Rome, and finally a peace treaty. However, Tarquinius failed to achieve his aim of regaining the throne.
Tarquinius and his family left Clusium, and instead sought refuge in Tusculum with his son - in - law Octavius Mamilius. In about 496 BC, Tarquin and his son Titus fought with Mamilius and the Latin League against Rome, but lost, at the Battle of Lake Regillus at which Mamilius perished.
Subsequently, Tarquinius fled to take refuge with the tyrant of Cumae, Aristodemus and Tarquin died there in 495 BC.
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what do you call the green stuff in a lobster | Tomalley - wikipedia
Tomalley (from the Carib word tumale, meaning a sauce of lobster liver), crab fat, or lobster paste is the soft, green substance found in the body cavity of lobsters, that fulfills the functions of both the liver and the pancreas. Tomalley corresponds to the hepatopancreas in other arthropods. It is considered a delicacy, and may be eaten alone but is often added to sauces for flavour and as a thickening agent. The term lobster paste or lobster pâté can also be used to indicate a mixture of tomalley and lobster roe. Lobster bisque, lobster stock, and lobster consommé are made using lobster bodies (heads), often including the lobster liver.
The hepatopancreas of a crab is also called tomalley, or crab "fat ''; in crabs the tomalley is yellow or yellow - green in color. In Maryland and on the Delmarva Peninsula, the hepatopancreas of the blue crab is called the "muster '' or "mustard '', probably because of the yellow color, which is not the bright yellow of regular prepared yellow mustard, but closer to one of the brown mustards, such as Dijon mustard. Particularly when eating steamed or boiled crabs, it is considered a delicacy.
The tomalley in general can be consumed in moderation (as with the livers of other animals). It can, however, contain high levels of PCBs which can give a number of negative health effects in large concentrations. It may also contain toxins that are associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (saxitoxin and gonyautoxin). Those toxins do not leach out when the lobster is cooked in boiling water. The toxins responsible for most shellfish poisonings are heat - and acid - stable, and thus are not diminished by cooking.
A report from the Maine Department of Marine Resources in July 2008 indicated the presence of high levels of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin in some tomalley from lobsters in that state. Around the same time, The Massachusetts Department of Public Health reminded consumers not to eat lobster tomalley, because this part of the lobster can build up high levels of toxins and other pollutants. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration then issued an advisory against consuming tomalley from American lobster found anywhere in the Atlantic Ocean. But in the same advisory the FDA stated that lobster tomalley "normally does not contain dangerous levels of PSP toxins '' and that the current high toxin levels were probably "associated with an ongoing red tide episode in northern New England and eastern Canada ''.
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who stars in law and order special victims unit | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 19) - wikipedia
The nineteenth season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit debuted on September 27, 2017.
Michael Chernuchin, who had previously worked on Law & Order, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and Chicago Justice took over from Rick Eid as showrunner. This is also the first season since season twelve in 2010 - 2011, that another Law & Order series -- Law & Order: True Crime - The Menendez Murders -- aired along side SVU on NBC.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was renewed for a nineteenth season on May 12, 2017. Michael S. Chernuchin, who previously worked on Law & Order, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and Chicago Justice took over from Rick Eid as showrunner, after Eid left to be showrunner for the fifth season of Chicago P.D. after only one season as showrunner. It was announced that the season would premiere on September 27, 2017. Production on the season started on July 20, 2017.
Show runner / executive producer Michael Chernuchin told The Hollywood Reporter that this season of SVU would be ' ripping the headlines ' of more current and political events such as the Charlottesville riots. Chernuchin noting, "Conflict. It 's just the state of the world today with everybody. Everybody 's political now and everything is political now and we want to deal with that. '' Kate Stanhope at THR also mentioned to Chernuchin about the pulled episode ("Unstoppable '') from last season, asking him if he was hesitant about diving into politics this season. Chernuchin replied, "I 'm not going to a choose a side. I wo n't choose a side. I 'm going to present both political views and let the audience decide which one is right. My goal, and I told the writers on this on the first day of our writers ' room, is at the end of every episode, I want half the audience to throw their shoes at the television and the other half to stand up and cheer. ''
Another episode Chernuchin told THR would be based on Charlie Gard, an infant in England who was born with a rare genetic disorder that causes progressive brain damage and muscle failure. "That 's a life and death story, '' Chernuchin explained. "Cat - fishing, '' cyberbullying -- which he described to THR as "(SVU 's) answer to 13 Reasons Why -- and an airplane episode covering "all the turmoil on airplanes these days. '' Chernuchin concluded, "We are ripping things from the headlines. Some of them are big, famous headlines and some of them are smaller headlines. ''
On September 8, 2017, Chernuchin gave an overview of the season premiere and outlook on the season as a whole to TV Line; noting that A.D.A. Barba (Raul Esparza) would start having other problems than court battles when Peter Stone (Philip Winchester) shows up, Stone pushing Barba into "a huge moral decision. '' Chernuchin also teased that Lieutenant Benson 's life would be getting worse before it gets any better, "What I told Mariska (Hargitay) when I came aboard is, ' You 're a broken woman, because of your past, and I 'm going to drag you through the woods and you 're gon na come out the other side a better person, '' he previewed. "So we 're gon na throw the kitchen sink at her (Benson). '' He also mentioned there 's a possibility of romance for Benson: "There might be, she 's not looking for it, but it might happen. '' In an interview with E! News, Kelli Giddish (Det. Amanda Rollins) says a change in Benson and Rollins ' relationship dynamic is coming, "I 'm so looking forward to developing a friendship with Benson, the Rollins and Benson relationship, because they have so much in common. '' Benson and Rollins ' relationship being rocky, most notably between seasons fifteen and eighteen as Benson began ' moving up the ranks ' to Sergeant and then Lieutenant. "They have been at odds, it 's just nice to come into that office and know that we 're not going to fight and kind of support each other as I think these two characters would in real life, '' Giddish continued.
The entire main cast from the previous season returned. In August 2017, it was announced that Philip Winchester would reprise his role as Assistant State 's Attorney Peter Stone from Chicago Justice, appearing around the midpoint of the season. New show runner / executive producer Michael Chernuchin told Entertainment Weekly that the Stone character would be coming in as an antagonist and that Peter Stone is going to be a foil for A.D.A. Barba (Raul Esparza) this season; Stone 's character is n't necessarily taking his (Barba 's) job. "There 's more than one A.D.A. in New York (...) Philip will come in and he wo n't be the nicest person our characters have ever met. What he 's going to be doing, too, is basically bringing all of the franchises into one. He 's connecting Law & Order, the Chicago franchises and now SVU. ''
It was announced on August 11, 2017 by The Hollywood Reporter that actress Brooke Shields will play a ' major ' recurring role throughout the course of the season. "I play a very different character from any I have ever played, '' Shields commented. "I 'm excited to stir the SVU pot a bit. '' THR noted that details of her role are being kept under wraps, although it 's been teased that Shields ' role will "shake up Benson 's (Mariska Hargitay) world. '' At the New York Fashion Week event on September 7, 2017, Shields talked about her "complicated '' character; "We 're discovering the character, '' she said of her mysterious recurring role, "it 's pretty complicated and it 's gut wrenching. What 's so amazing about the show is that the characters are so rich and layered, and they 're just filtering me through it. '' Shields also noted that her character is set to begin appearing in the third episode of the season.
On August 18, Entertainment Weekly released a sneak - peak of the script of SVU 's season 19 premiere episode (titled: "Gone Fishin ' '') and announced that Will Chase would be guest starring as Byron Marks, an accused rapist who turned fugitive when he fled to Cuba six years prior, he is caught by Fin (Ice T) in the premiere 's opening scenes. Amy Smart will guest star as one of Marks ' victims, and Peter Jacobson -- who previously guest starred in the thirteenth - season finale and recurred in season fourteen as a pimp named Bart Ganzel -- will be guest starring in the premiere as his recurring mothership Law & Order character, Defense Attorney Randy Dworkin, a character created by Michael Chernuchin during his tenure on L&O. Annabeth Gish will guest star in the third episode of the season, according to TV Line, she is set to portray a defense attorney in a case where a man is castrated and left for dead; leading the SVU squad to three female suspects with possible motives. Cleveland Cavaliers point guard Isaiah Thomas, will make a cameo appearance as himself in an October episode of SVU. Thomas ' cameo appearance occurs in the midst of a missing persons investigation.
Mike Faist, a Tony Award - nominated actor starring as Connor Murphy in Broadway musical Dear Evan Hansen, will guest star in an upcoming episode as a young man struggling with the long - ago disappearance of his sister. Another Broadway star, Christiane Noll, will be guest starring in the episode "Unintended Consquences '' as Sarah Curtis, "After 19 years on the air, I will finally be appearing as a guest star on episode # 19006 of Law & Order: SVU! I am really excited because this is my first big guest starring role, '' Noll told Playbill. The Walking Dead alum, Brighton Sharbino is set to guest star as a teenager who disappears when her classmates make her the subject of a cyberbullying attack. Madison Pettis is also slated to guest star in the episode, titled "No Good Reason '', which is scheduled to air on NBC, October 18th.
On September 20, 2017, it was announced Sam Waterston will guest star in an upcoming episode of SVU as his Law & Order character, Jack McCoy. Waterston will be re-united with show runner / EP Michael S. Chernuchin, who also held the same position at the time Waterston joined the original series in 1994; Chernuchin is credited as the creator of the McCoy character. This will also mark Waterston 's fourth guest appearance on SVU.
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song of the wild west highway to heaven cast | Victor French - wikipedia
Victor Edwin French (December 4, 1934 -- June 15, 1989) was an American actor and director. He is remembered for roles on the television programs Little House on the Prairie, Highway to Heaven and Carter Country.
Born in Santa Barbara, California, to Ted French, an actor and stuntman who appeared in westerns in the 1940s, French later appeared with his father in one episode of Gunsmoke entitled "Prime Of Life '' in 1966, as well as a war film in 1963 called The Quick And The Dead. Ted French died in 1978.
Following in his father 's footsteps, French also began his television career as a stuntman in mostly westerns and anthology shows. During this period, he guest starred in some thirty - nine television series. Though he was uncredited as an office clerk in the film, The Magnificent Seven, French 's first real western role was the 1961 episode "The Noose '' of the syndicated series, Two Faces West; his fellow guest star on the segment was L.Q. Jones, another actor destined to become well known in western roles. French was cast as Larrimore in the episode "Fargo '' on the ABC / Warner Brothers western series, The Dakotas.
French appeared twenty - three times on Gunsmoke, often playing a crook, whether dangerous or bumbling. On October 25, 1971, he portrayed a cold - hearted gunman named "Trafton '', who while robbing the communion vessels in a Roman Catholic church murders a priest. As the clergyman lies dying, he forgives his killer, a development which dogs Trafton, who holds human life in low regard, for the entire episode until he is shot to death by Marshal Matt Dillon. French guest starred in another episode, titled Matt 's Love Story, in which Dillon falls in love with a character played by Michael Learned. This episode would then lead to the story line in the 1990 made - for - television movie, Gunsmoke: The Last Apache in which Matt rejoins with Learned 's character "Mike '' and he learns that he has a grown daughter.
The appearance also led to French 's re-teaming with Learned in a guest - actor role on The Waltons a year later. In "The Fulfillment '', French plays a blacksmith named Curtis Norton whose wife could not have children and subsequently adopts an eight - year - old orphan boy who has come to spend the week on Walton 's Mountain.
This led to his being cast in his most well - known role as Mr. Edwards in the series based on the books of Laura Ingalls Wilder entitled Little House on the Prairie, beginning in 1974.
In other work, French also starred opposite Elvis Presley in the 1969 western, Charro! and played the recurring character "Agent 44 '' in the NBC series Get Smart in 1965 - 1966, where he portrayed an undercover spy who showed up in the worst, most unlikely of places (like a mailbox or a porthole in a boat) and appeared in a few episodes of Bonanza, with Michael Landon. The two young actors found considerable common ground and became each other 's best friend as a result. Shortly before being teamed up once again, French made a guest appearance on Kung Fu as a corrupt, bigoted sheriff in 1973. French also guest starred in episode 24 ("Trial by Fury '') of season 2 of Mission: Impossible, in which he played the informer in a prison.
In 1976, French appeared in an episode of the western series Sara.
In 1982, French appeared in the film An Officer and a Gentleman as the stepfather of protagonist Paula Pokrifki, played by Debra Winger.
French is most widely known for costarring with Michael Landon on two television series. He appeared on Little House on the Prairie (1974 -- 1977), (1981 -- 1984) as Isaiah Edwards (French also directed some episodes of Little House). He appeared on Highway to Heaven (1984 -- 1989) as Mark Gordon.
From 1977 -- 79, he left Little House to star as a small - town Georgia police chief in Carter Country. When the series ended, the actor was surprised that Landon was agreeable to his returning to the character of Mr. Edwards. French appeared in Episode 8 of Season 6, in Episode 8 of Season 8, then returned full - time, starting with Episode 19 of Season 8.
According to interviews with Cindy Landon, and Kent and Susan McCray on the A&E DVD release of Highway to Heaven Season 3, French and Michael Landon were "crazy about each other '', indicating that they always made each other laugh and enjoyed each other 's company. Cindy Landon mentions that French was a quiet and reclusive kind of guy as opposed to Landon 's outgoing personality.
French died at the age of 54 on June 15, 1989 at Sherman Oaks Community Hospital in Los Angeles, California, after a three - month battle with lung cancer. According to one anecdote, he left a final, good - humored message for friends and family at his wake, having arranged for an airplane to fly overhead with it.
In 1998, French was inducted into the Western Performers Hall of Fame at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
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who plays allison on the bold and the beautiful | Lauren Koslow - wikipedia
Lauren Alice Koslow (born March 9, 1953) is an American actress, best known for her long - running portrayal of Kate Roberts on the NBC dramatic serial Days of Our Lives, which she has played continuously since 1996. She previously appeared in the soaps The Bold and the Beautiful and The Young and the Restless.
Born in Boston, Koslow 's mother was a docent, and was raised with a strong love for colonial life along with her sister, Linda and her brother, Donald. Koslow was educated at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, graduating with a degree in theatre and costume design. She is maintaining a family on her ranch in Northridge, California in the San Fernando Valley with her husband, make up artist Nick Schillace, and their 3 children. They have an ever - increasing menagerie of animals, including a macaw, a gift from Tori Spelling.
She began her acting career with touring theatre work in such productions as Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Dial M for Murder.
Turning to television in the mid-1980s Koslow landed the role of Lindsay Wells on the hit CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless which she played from 1984 - 1986. She was then asked by the serial 's creators William J. Bell and wife Lee Phillip Bell to become an original cast member on the duo 's new sister soap The Bold and the Beautiful which debuted in the spring of 1987. She portrayed fashion designer "Margo Lynley '' from the serial 's inception until 1992 when she left to begin a family.
Through the early 1990s Koslow busied herself with guest - starring roles in several prime time television series including Silk Stalkings and The Nanny. However, she was lured back to daytime in 1996 in order to replace actress Deborah Adair who left the NBC soap Days of Our Lives to spend more time with her family.
In the role of vindictive call girl turned corporate executive Kate Roberts, Koslow flourished on Days of Our Lives quickly becoming a woman fans ' love to hate '. The character is known for her wickedness and deception, specifically her ongoing war with fellow Salem resident Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney), the former ex-fiance of Kate 's son Austin (Austin Peck) and ex-fiance / current ex-wife of her son Lucas (Bryan Dattilo), and numerous affairs and romantic entanglements. Other notable character conflicts include Kate 's mysterious past with series villain Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo), her rocky marriage with mogul Victor Kiriakis (John Aniston), and her rivalries with crazed socialite Vivian Alamain (Louise Sorel) and Nicole Walker DiMera. Kate is the mother of Lucas Horton, Rex Brady, Cassie Brady, Philip Kiriakis, Billie Reed, and Austin Reed.
Presently, she remains a cast member of Days of Our Lives.
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which big cat does not have the ability to produce full throated roar | Big cat - wikipedia
The informal term "big cat '' is typically used to refer to any of the four largest (living) members of the entire Panthera genus. Among the five total species within the Panthera genus, these four are the only cats that are able to roar. In descending order of their maximum potential size, these four species are: tigers, lions, jaguars, and leopards, with the tiger (Panthera tigris) being the largest. A more liberal and expansive definition is sometimes used which may include the snow leopard, puma, clouded leopard, Sunda clouded leopard and / or cheetah, although these added species do not roar.
Despite enormous differences in size, various species of cat are quite similar in both structure and behaviour, with the exception of the cheetah, which significantly stands out from the other big and small cats. All cats are carnivores and efficient apex predators. Their range includes the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Europe.
The ability to roar comes from an elongated and specially adapted larynx and hyoid apparatus. When air passes through the larynx on the way from the lungs, the cartilage walls of the larynx vibrate, producing sound. The lion 's larynx is longest, giving it the most robust roar. All five extant members of the Panthera genus contain this elongated hyoid but due to differences in the larynx the snow leopard can not roar.
The principal threats to big cats vary by geographic location, but primarily are habitat destruction and poaching. In Africa many big cats are hunted by pastoralists or government ' problem animal control ' officers. Certain protected areas exist that shelter large and exceptionally visible populations of lions, hyenas, leopards, and cheetahs, such as Botswana 's Chobe, Kenya 's Masai Mara, and Tanzania 's Serengeti. Rather, it is outside these conservation areas where hunting poses the dominant threat to large carnivores.
In the United States, 19 states have banned ownership of big cats and other dangerous exotic animals as pets, and the Captive Wildlife Safety Act bans the interstate sale and transportation of these animals. The initial Captive Wildlife Safety Act (CWSA) was signed into law on December 19, 2003. To address problems associated with the increasing trade in certain big cat species, the CSWA regulations were strengthened by a law passed on September 17, 2007. The big cat species addressed in these regulations are the lion, tiger, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leopard, cheetah, jaguar, cougar, and any hybrid combination any of these species (liger, tigon, etc) that results from breeding of these big cats. Private ownership of these big cats is not prohibited by this law but the law does make it illegal to transport, sell, or purchase them in interstate or foreign commerce. Although these regulations seem to provide a strong legal framework for controlling the commerce involving big cats, international organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) have encouraged the U.S. to further strengthen these laws. The WWF is concerned that weaknesses in the existing U.S. regulations could be unintentionally helping to fuel the black market for tiger parts.
An animal sanctuary provides a refuge for animals to live out their natural lives in a protected environment. Usually these animal sanctuaries are the organizations which provide a home to big cats whose private owners are no longer able or willing to care for their big cats. However, use of the word sanctuary in an organization 's name is by itself no guarantee that it is a true animal sanctuary in the sense of a refuge. To be accepted by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) as a bona fide animal sanctuary and to be eligible for an exemption from the prohibition of interstate movement of big cats under the Captive Wildlife Safety Act (CWSA), organizations must meet the following criteria:
A 2010 study published in Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution has given insight into the exact evolutionary relationships of the big cats. The study reveals that the snow leopard and the tiger are sister species, while the lion, leopard, and jaguar are more closely related to each other. The tiger and snow leopard diverged from the ancestral big cats approximately 3.9 Ma. The tiger then evolved into a unique species towards the end of the Pliocene epoch, approximately 3.2 Ma. The ancestor of the lion, leopard, and jaguar split from other big cats from 4.3 -- 3.8 Ma. Between 3.6 -- 2.5 Ma the jaguar diverged from the ancestor of lions and leopards. Lions and leopards split from one another approximately 2 Ma. The earliest big cat fossil, Panthera blytheae, dating to 4.1 − 5.95 MA, was discovered in southwest Tibet.
Snow leopard
Tiger
Jaguar
Lion
Leopard
Lion
Cheetah
Puma / Cougar / Panther / Mountain lion
Leopard
Snow leopard
Liger
Tigon
Tiger
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who wrote most of the constitution in his own handwriting | Timothy Matlack - wikipedia
Timothy Matlack (May 28, 1736 -- April 14, 1826) was a brewer and beer bottler who emerged as a popular and powerful leader in the American Revolutionary War. Secretary of Pennsylvania during the war, and a delegate to the Second Continental Congress in 1780, he became one of Pennsylvania 's most provocative and influential political figures. Removed from office by his political enemies at the end of the war, he returned to power in the Jeffersonian era.
Matlack, who was known for his excellent penmanship, was chosen to write the original United States Declaration of Independence on vellum.
Timothy Matlack was born in Haddonfield, New Jersey on May 28, 1736, to Elizabeth Martha Burr Haines and Timothy Matlack: a couple that had both lost their first spouses. His grandparents were William Matlack and Mary Hancock; and Henry Burr and Elizabeth Hudson. His siblings were Sybil, Elizabeth, Titus, Seth, Josiah and White Matlack. His half siblings were Reuben and Mary Haines. His first cousin was the Quaker abolitionist John Woolman. In 1738, the family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where Timothy attended Friends ' School. He likely studied under Anthony Benezet. In 1749 he was apprenticed to the prosperous Quaker merchant John Reynell. During his period of service Timothy was considered a strong candidate for the Quaker ministry. At the end of his term he married Ellen Yarnall, the daughter of the Quaker minister Mordecai Yarnall. The couple had five children: William, Mordecai, Sibyl, Catharine and Martha.
In 1760 Matlack opened a mercantile he called the Case Knife. Two years later he and Owen Biddle purchased the Petty 's Run steel furnace in Trenton, New Jersey. In 1764, following the failure of his shop, Timothy was disowned by the Quakers. The Quakers complained that he had been "frequenting company in such a manner as to spend too much of his time from home. '' In 1768, and again in 1769, he was confined to debtors ' prison. By this time Timothy Matlack had set up a new business selling bottled beer. In 1769 he opened his own brewery, located near the State House, or Independence Hall. A horse racing enthusiast, in 1770 he pitted his gamecocks against those owned by the New York aristocrat James Delancey in an infamous main.
In 1774 Matlack was hired by Charles Thomson, Secretary of the First Continental Congress, to engross the body 's formal address to the King of England. In May, 1775, he became clerk to the Second Continental Congress and in June he composed George Washington 's commission as General and Commander - in - Chief of the army of the United Colonies. In October Congress elevated Matlack to Storekeeper of Military Supplies. By this time he was also a member of Philadelphia 's Committee of Inspection and Secretary of the Committee of Officers of the city 's three militia battalions. By December he was serving as Secretary to Congress 's Marine Committee, chaired by John Hancock. By January, 1776, he was Commissary and Clerk - in - Chief of the Committee of Claims. That month Philadelphia added two more battalions to its militia brigade and Timothy Matlack was elected Colonel of the Fifth Battalion of Rifle Rangers. In February he was made an officer of the city 's Committee of Inspection and added to a key policy - making subcommittee. On May 20, 1776, Matlack was a principal speaker at a massive town meeting in the State House yard. He was a delegate to the Conference of Committees which met in June to plan for the Convention which would write a new constitution for Pennsylvania. These laws were to form the basis of a new government. That night, Matlack likely attended John Dunlap 's print shop, and printed copies of the declaration were ready by morning. Later that month Matlack engrossed the Declaration of Independence on parchment. Members of Congress began signing that historic document on August 2. On July 8, 1776, Colonel John Nixon read Congress 's declaration of independence to a crowd gathered at the State House.
As a leader of the Pennsylvania Convention he was instrumental in drafting the ultra-democratic Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. In the years that followed he was an ardent defender of this frame against such critics as Benjamin Rush, James Wilson and John Dickinson. Newspapers were his primary medium and he signed a number of articles with the pseudonym Tiberius Gracchus. Critics responded with the sobriquet ' Tim Gaff. ' As Secretary to the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, Matlack was one of the most powerful men in the new state during the war years. In 1780 his government passed an Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, the first law of its kind in the Western Hemisphere.
On December 27, 1776, following Washington 's victory at Trenton, the Philadelphia and Pennsylvania militia crossed the Delaware River and camped at Burlington. Colonel Timothy Matlack and his 5th Rifle Battalion were part of this expedition. On January 2, they were involved in the Battle of Assumpink Creek, the second battle of Trenton. On January 3 the militia fought bravely at the Battle of Princeton. Matlack 's force continued to serve in this winter campaign until it dissolved at the end of the month. General Washington credited the Pennsylvania militia for their timely service in this campaign. Other officers commended the Philadelphia force for its manliness and spirit.
Following the British occupation of Philadelphia General Washington assigned Major General Benedict Arnold to the post of Commandant of Philadelphia. Secretary Matlack learned to despise the man 's presence. Matlack led an investigation of his wrongdoing which triggered a court martial. The court sentenced Arnold to be severely reprimanded by the Commander - in - Chief. Washington said his officer 's behavior had been "reprehensible. '' Five months later Arnold 's treason at West Point was discovered.
In this period, at the height of his power, Matlack was named a trustee (1779 -- 1785) of the new University of the State of Pennsylvania (now the University of Pennsylvania). He was also a Secretary of the American Philosophical Society. In 1780, Matlack delivered an address before the Society in which he advocated the institutionalization of agricultural in the interest of national development. "In our endeavors to promote the interest and happiness of our country, '' Matlack declared, "let us apply to intelligent husbandmen in every part of the state and collect the real knowledge among us '' and "arrange it into science ''. Matlack called upon the University of the State of Pennsylvania, as well as other colleges, to foster the development of modern agricultural research and education in America. "The Star - bespangled Genius of America... '' he proclaimed, "points to Agriculture as the stable Foundation of the rising mighty Empire. ''
In 1781, Matlack was among the founders of the Religious Society of Free Quakers, which consisted mostly of Quakers disowned for their support of or participation in the armed conflict with Great Britain during the American war for independence. One of the earliest opponents of slavery in British colonies in America, Matlack felt the Quakers were not moving quickly enough on abolition. Along with Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris and others, Matlack helped raise a substantial sum of money to construct the Free Quaker Meeting House at the corner of Fifth and Arch streets in downtown Philadelphia, where he and other members of the society, including his brothers Josiah and White, openly worshiped. Matlack has been attributed with the architectural design of the Free Quaker Meeting House and its masonry vaults. He was also hired in 1794 by Philadelphia merchant and politician Anthony Morris to design a late Georgian style mansion in the countryside just outside Philadelphia. The estate is known today as the Highlands.
In 1790, Matlack was commissioned along with Samuel Maclay and John Adlum by the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania to survey the "headwaters of the Susquehanna River and the streams of the New Purchase, '' the northwestern portion of the state purchased from the American Indians. They were also charged with exploring a route for a passageway to connect the West Branch with the Allegheny River.
Matlack lived at a home, located at present - day 220 - 222 East Orange Street, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, from 1799 until 1808 during the years that the city of Lancaster was the state capital of Pennsylvania. He worked as a clerk of the Pennsylvania State Senate while residing in the city. He was known for his household garden, which included "28 types of peach trees. ''
After his death in Holmesburg, Pennsylvania on April 14, 1826, Matlack was interred in the Free Quaker Burial Ground on South Fifth Street, Philadelphia. His remains were removed from the Burial Ground in 1905 and reinterred in the Wetherill Cemetery in the current village of Audubon, Matson 's Ford, Montgomery Co., Pennsylvania, in the Flatlands of the Schuylkill River opposite Valley Forge.
Handwriting in the colonial period was heavily influenced by Europe, in particular by 18th century English writing masters. By the mid-18th century, there were special schools established to teach handwriting techniques, or penmanship.
Master penmen like Timothy Matlack were employed to copy official documents such as land deeds, birth and marriage certificates, military commissions, and other legal documents. The development of copperplate engraving allowed for the use of very delicate type faces with many flourishes and curlicues in the script - like letters, which greatly influenced handwriting. Elegant handwriting became a sign of social status. One can readily see these influences in Matlack 's penmanship in the Declaration of Independence. In particular, his use of English Roundhand script stands out. This form of script was executed with a feather quill pen and was actually a form of handwriting. The script is known today as Copperplate.
Matlack 's penmanship in the Declaration and other historical documents of the time has inspired a number of modern typefaces, or fonts, such as American Scribe, Declaration Script, Declaration Blackletter, and National Archive.
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british architect physicist chemist and inventor who built the first gregorian telescope | Gregorian telescope - wikipedia
The Gregorian telescope is a type of reflecting telescope designed by Scottish mathematician and astronomer James Gregory in the 17th century, and first built in 1673 by Robert Hooke. James Gregory was a contemporary of Isaac Newton, both often worked simultaneously on similar projects. Gregory 's design was published in 1663 and pre-dates the first practical reflecting telescope, the Newtonian telescope, built by Sir Isaac Newton in 1668. However, Gregory 's design was only a theoretical description and he never actually constructed the telescope. It was not successfully built until five years after Newton 's first reflecting telescope.
The Gregorian telescope is named after the James Gregory design which appeared in his 1663 publication Optica Promota (The Advance of Optics). Similar theoretical designs have been found in the writings of Bonaventura Cavalieri (Lo Specchio Ustorio (On Burning Mirrors), 1632) and Marin Mersenne (L'harmonie universalle, 1636). Gregory 's early attempts to build the telescope failed, since he had no practical skill himself and he could find no optician capable of actually constructing one. It was not until ten years after Gregory 's publication, aided by the interest of experimental scientist Robert Hooke, that a working instrument was created. The early Scottish optician and telescope maker James Short built Gregorian telescopes with parabolic mirrors made from the highly reflective speculum metal.
The Gregorian telescope consists of two concave mirrors; the primary mirror (a concave paraboloid) collects the light and brings it to a focus before the secondary mirror (a concave ellipsoid) where it is reflected back through a hole in the centre of the primary, and thence out the bottom end of the instrument where it can be viewed with the aid of the eyepiece.
The Gregorian design solved the problem of viewing the image in a reflector by allowing the observer to stand behind the primary mirror. This design of telescope renders an upright image, making it useful for terrestrial observations. It also works as a telephoto in that the tube is much shorter than the system 's actual focal length.
The design was largely superseded by the Cassegrain telescope. It is still used for some spotting scopes because this design creates an erect image without the need for prisms. The Steward Observatory Mirror Lab has been making mirrors for large Gregorian telescopes at least since 1985.
In the Gregorian design, the primary mirror creates a real image before the secondary mirror. This allows for a field stop to be placed at this location, so that the light from outside the field of view does not reach the secondary mirror. This is a major advantage for solar telescopes, where a field stop (Gregorian stop) can reduce the amount of heat reaching the secondary mirror and subsequent optical components. The Solar Optical Telescope on the Hinode satellite is one example of this design.
For amateur telescope makers the Gregorian can be less difficult to fabricate than a Cassegrain because the concave secondary is Foucault testable like the primary, which is not the case with the Cassegrain 's convex secondary.
A Gregorian telescope circa 1735
Side view
1873 diagram of a Gregorian telescope
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who played the dad in the original parent trap | The Parent Trap (1961 film) - wikipedia
The Parent Trap is a 1961 Walt Disney Technicolor film. It stars Hayley Mills, Maureen O'Hara and Brian Keith in a story about teenage twins on a quest to reunite their divorced parents. The screenplay by the film 's director David Swift was based upon the 1949 book Lottie and Lisa (German: Das Doppelte Lottchen) by Erich Kästner. The Parent Trap was nominated for two Academy Awards, was broadcast on television, saw three television sequels, was remade in 1998 with Lindsay Lohan, and has been released on digital stereo LaserDisc format in 1986 as well as VHS and DVD in 2000. The original film was Mills ' second of six films for Disney.
Identical twins Susan Evers and Sharon McKendrick (Hayley Mills) meet at Miss Inch 's Summer Camp for Girls, unaware that they are sisters. Their identical appearance initially creates rivalry, and they pull pranks on each other, which leads to the camp dance being crashed by their mischief. As punishment, they must live together in the isolated "Serendipity '' cabin (and eat together at an "isolation table '') for the remainder of their time at summer camp. After finding out that they both come from single parent homes, they soon realize they are twin sisters and that their parents, Mitch (Brian Keith) and Maggie (Maureen O'Hara), divorced shortly after their birth, with each parent having custody of one of them. The twins, each eager to meet the parent she never knew, switch places. They drill each other on the other 's behavior and lives, and Susan cuts Sharon 's hair into the same style as hers. While Susan is in Boston, Massachusetts masquerading as Sharon, Sharon goes to Carmel, California pretending to be Susan.
Sharon telephones Susan in Boston with news that their father is planning to remarry, and that their mother needs to be rushed to California to stop the wedding. In Boston, Susan reveals to her mother the truth about the switched identities and the two fly to California.
In California, the twins (with mild approval from their mother) scheme to sabotage their father 's marriage plans. Mitch 's money - hungry - and much younger - fiancée Vicky Robinson (Joanna Barnes) receives rude, mischievous treatment from the girls and some veiled cattiness from Maggie. One evening, the girls recreate their parents ' first date at an Italian restaurant with a gypsy violinist. The former spouses are gradually drawn together, though they quickly begin bickering over minor things and Vicky.
To delay Maggie 's return to Boston with Sharon, the twins dress and talk alike so their parents are unable to tell them apart. They will reveal who is who only after returning from the annual family camping trip. Mitch and Maggie reluctantly agree, but when Vicky discovers and consequently objects to the plan of them spending alone time together in the woods, Maggie tricks her into taking her place instead (knowing full well that she 's not made for ' the great outdoors ', which might very well prove her undoing). The girls effect the coup de grâce; Vicky spends her time swatting mosquitoes (being tricked by the girls to use sugared water instead of mosquito repellent) and being awakened in terror by two bear cubs licking honey off her feet which the twins had previously placed there. Exasperated, Vicky finally has a shouting tantrum destroying everything in her path and culminating in angrily slapping one of the girls, leaving Mitch with a whole new - found view of her. When she runs off to escape back to the city in a great huff, Mitch seems none too worried to be rid of her. When Mitch and the girls return from the trip, Maggie greets them with a sumptuous home - cooked meal, and Mitch is immediately reminded and recaptured by her charms. They are soon reminiscing about their past and Mitch admits that he 's missed her dearly which leads to them embracing with a kiss. They admit to each other that neither want nor need grow old alone, which is slowly creeping up on them; they have no more time to lose. With this they rekindle their love, and the two remarry in the final scene, with the twins, members of the wedding party, elated their plan worked out exactly as they 'd hoped.
The film originally called for only a few trick photography shots of Hayley Mills in scenes with herself; the bulk of the film was to be shot using a body double. The film used Disney 's proprietary sodium vapor process for compositing rather than the usual chroma key technique. When Walt Disney saw how seamless the processed shots were, he ordered the script reconfigured to include more of the special effect. Disney also wanted Mills to appear on camera as much as possible, knowing that she was having growth spurts during filming.
The film was shot mostly at various locales in California. The summer camp scenes were filmed at Bluff Lake Camp (then owned by the Pasadena YMCA, now by Habonim Dror 's Camp Gilboa) and the family camping scenes later in the movie at Cedar Lake Camp, both in the San Bernardino Mountains near the city of Big Bear Lake in Southern California. The Monterey scenes were filmed in various California locations, including millionaire Stuyvesant Fish 's 5,200 acres (21 km) ranch in Carmel and Monterey 's Pebble Beach golf course. The scenes at the Monterey house were shot at the studio 's Golden Oak Ranch in Placerita Canyon, where Mitch 's ranch was built. It was the design of this set that proved the most popular, and to this day the Walt Disney Archives receives requests for plans of the home 's interior design. In fact, there never was such a house; the set was simply various rooms built on a sound stage. Camp Inch was based on a real girls ' camp called Camp Crestridge for Girls at the Ridgecrest Baptist Conference Center near Asheville, North Carolina.
Richard and Robert Sherman provided the songs, which, besides the title song "The Parent Trap '', includes "For Now, For Always '', and "Let 's Get Together ''. "Let 's Get Together '' (sung by Annette Funicello) is heard playing from a record player at the summer camp; the tune is reprised by the twins when they restage their parents ' first date and that version is sung double - tracked by Hayley Mills. (Hayley 's own single of the song, credited to "Hayley Mills and Hayley Mills, '' reached # 8 on the US charts.) The film 's title song was performed by Tommy Sands and Annette Funicello, who were both on the studio lot shooting Babes in Toyland at the time.
The film was nominated for two Academy Awards: one for Sound by Robert O. Cook, and the other for Film Editing by Philip W. Anderson. The film and its editor, Philip W. Anderson, won the inaugural 1962 Eddie Award of the American Cinema Editors.
In 1961 a comic book version of the film was published, adapted and illustrated by Dan Spiegle.
The film was theatrically re-released in 1968 and earned $1.8 million in rentals.
The Disney Studios produced three television sequels The Parent Trap II (1986), Parent Trap III (1989) and Parent Trap: Hawaiian Honeymoon (1989). The original was remade in 1998 starring Lindsay Lohan, Dennis Quaid and Natasha Richardson.
In India, there have been several films inspired by The Parent Trap. In 1965, a Tamil language version of the story called Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum, starring Kutty Padmini was released. The following year, it was remade into Telugu as Leta Manasulu also starring Kutty Padmini. A Hindi version Do Kaliyaan starring Neetu Singh in the double role was made in 1968. The 1987 film Pyar Ke Kabil also has a similar storyline, as does the 2001 film Kuch Khatti Kuch Meethi which has Kajol playing the double role of 23 - year - old twins.
The film was released on a 2 - disc special edition DVD in 2005.
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what happened to jenna in pretty little liars | Jenna Marshall - wikipedia
Jenna Marshall is a fictional character created by Sara Shepard for the Pretty Little Liars book series, and later developed for the Freeform television series adaptation by I. Marlene King and portrayed by Tammin Sursok. Jenna is one of the main antagonists in the TV show. Her blindness is a result of a prank orchestrated by Alison DiLaurentis, making it the Liars ' deadliest secret until Hanna Marin accidentally runs over Archer Dunhill. Although in the novels Jenna is murdered in Wanted, in the show she is still alive. Jenna is a major recurring character in the first five seasons, acting as a member of the A-Team, while being absent for the sixth, and returning as a secondary antagonist in the seventh, working as a helper to Uber A.
Toby had described Jenna as "someone who gets whatever she wants ''. Although Jenna is resentful towards Alison and her friends, she volunteers to do a speech at Alison 's memorial dedication in "Please, Do Talk About Me When I 'm Gone ''. She shares only kind words, mentioning Alison 's visit to her in the hospital, claiming that Ali made her stronger and more in touch with her identity.
Jenna also proves she can be slightly abusive and controlling, as she slaps Toby when he tells her he will "never touch her like that again '', and asks who he thinks he 's talking to. Jenna is known to show a much sadder and vulnerable side than she usually does when around people she does n't know. She has made a beautiful pottery piece, but is frustrated that she can not see anything, not even the shadows it produces when lit.
Jenna is known for her rivalries with Alison DiLaurentis, Spencer Hastings, Toby Cavanaugh, Hanna Marin, Aria Montgomery, and Emily Fields. Alison originally offered Jenna a chance to become a member of her clique, but rejected her request, leading Alison and the Liars to blind her, an event later nicknamed "The Jenna Thing ''. Marshall had romantic feelings for her step - brother Toby Cavanaugh in which she forced herself on him. However, he did n't return those feelings which angered her. When Jenna finds out that Toby has developed romantic feelings for Emily, she reacts very spitefully. When he is arrested during the first season, Marshall discloses to him that she turned him in to the police so he 'd come home in hopes of continuing their sexual relationship. In "Wanted: Dead or Alive '' it 's divulged that Jenna and Charlotte DiLaurentis were great friends for a long time. Apparently, Mona told Charlotte everything about the Liars shortly after being admitted to Radley Sanitarium. For Charlotte, Jenna was a "celebrity '' because of everything she went through. Jenna was also previously a member of Charlotte 's A-Team. Marshall knew Charlotte and Archer Dunhill were together, and helped him develop the Elliott Rollins alias and get a job as a psychiatrist. Jenna also attempted to track down the whereabouts of Charlotte 's birth mother, Mary Drake. Marshall is currently working for the newest incarnation of "A '', commonly known as "A.D. '', though she 's doing so anonymously.
Jenna was romantically linked to Garrett Reynolds. The two began a relationship in "For Whom The Bell Tools '', as it 's shown when Reynolds shows up in Jenna 's room and kisses her. However, it was revealed the two were linked to the N.A.T Club, as they appeared together on the night of Alison DiLaurentis 's disappearance. Jenna later dumps Garrett when he is arrested for the murder of Alison DiLaurentis.
Marshall was also romantically linked to Noel Kahn. The two were seen together on a romantic evening by Noel 's ex-girlfriend Mona Vanderwaal and Hanna Marin. They dated for a while and seem to have broken up some point later in the third season. However, they maintained a friendship since during the seventh season, both return to Rosewood in attempt to steal Charlotte 's money to pay another eye surgery for Jenna. Marshall claims to the authorities she pretended to act as Kahn 's partner because he murdered Sara Harvey and she feared to be his subsequent victim.
As revealed in "A dAngerous Game '', Jenna and Shana seemed to be in a romantic relationship although it is somewhat ambiguous. Throughout the fourth season they are seen together, although no kissing or explicit declarations of love are shown. Shana is confirmed to have been madly in love with Jenna, and it 's made clear in the fifth season when Marshall mourns her death.
Jenna was popularly connected with the fairytale princess Snow White. She had pale skin, long black hair, cherry - colored lips, and soft green eyes. She also was quite tall and had a cute figure. Alison often called her ' Snow ' but used the nickname in a mean way. Jenna was known to be very quiet and has a sweet, kind personality. Whenever she takes off her glasses, it can be seen that she has small bruises and cuts reaching from her eyes to her nose. It was said it could be from her stepbrother Toby.
Jenna was often the target of Alison and her crew, with jokes about her likeness to Snow White and pranks such as giving her apples dipped in toilet water. There might have been some resentment among the group about her good looks, since Hanna mentioned she was "pretty in an annoying way. ''
One evening, Ali convinced the others to support her plan to get revenge on Jenna 's stepbrother, Toby Cavanaugh, for spying on them while they were changing. Ali snuck into the Cavanaugh 's yard, grabbed one of Toby 's fireworks, and accidentally launched it into his tree house. Alison sees Toby and Jenna together and accidentally set the firework off into the tree house, blinding Jenna and burning it down. Alison blackmails Toby into taking the blame for the incident and he is sent away. Later the girls would come to call the infamous incident "The Jenna Thing. ''
However, four years later, during a storm and power outage, Jenna reveals to Aria that she not only knew Ali set off the firework, but they planned it together as well, to get rid of Toby. Jenna tells Aria that her parents gave Toby a warning: if he kept setting off fireworks from his tree house, he 'd be sent away to boarding school. Their plan worked, but it cost Jenna her sight and she left Rosewood Day to attend a school for the blind in Philadelphia. By the time the second "A '' wreaks significant havoc in the girls ' lives, it becomes clear to Aria that Jenna knows vital information about the culprit. Unfortunately, before Aria can ask her what she knows, Jenna is murdered by this "A '' and found dead in a ditch in her parents ' backyard. In Wanted, it is revealed that the real Alison DiLaurentis is the new "A '' and her murderer.
In October 2008, Jenna moved to Rosewood after her mother married Toby 's father and quickly became popular at Rosewood High School. Alison invited her to join her group of friends but she declined. This led to a long - term rivalry between the two. Jenna is a very aggressive and manipulative person. She forced her step - brother, Toby, into a sexual relationship with her and threatened to accuse him of forcing himself on her. After being blinded by Alison and her friends, Jenna developed a hatred and grudge against all of them. Jenna seems to have been involved with the N.A.T. Club before Alison went missing. She was not sorry for Alison 's passing and has continued to keep the Liars on her radar to keep them from revealing her secrets.
The character is officially introduced in the pilot episode, being guided into Alison DiLaurentis ' funeral by her step - brother Toby Cavanaugh, much to everyone 's surprise. Marshall is led out to a car by Toby moments after the memorial service concludes.
In "The Jenna Thing '', Marshall appears in the beginning of the episode walking into the Apple Rose Grille in a time when the Liars happened to be there. When Jenna sits down, they quietly get up and leave. Marshall later appears at the school cafeteria when Aria Montgomery invites her to sit with her friends. It 's an awkward lunch, seeing as Jenna makes the Liars nervous and insinuates that the group 's dynamic changed since Alison 's absence. Marshall discloses to them that Ali paid a visit to her while she was admitted at the hospital. Jenna affirms that everyone misunderstood Alison but she knew exactly who Ali was. The girls remain silent as a flashback ensues to the fateful events of the night they blinded her. At one point, Marshall breaks the silence by picking up Spencer 's beeping phone, when she receives a text. Spencer turns paranoid after getting a text from "A '' with Jenna in such close proximity. No one found out about "The Jenna Thing, '' but with Toby 's knowledge of the incident, the Liars suspected the secret was going to slip. Jenna is later seated on a bench during Spencer 's run, using a phone for the blind. Marshall orders the item to send a text, then proceeds to turn around and face where Spencer 's standing.
During "To Kill a Mocking Girl '', Jenna is seen walking down the school 's hallway with Toby while the Liars whisper to each other. She makes a remark on their blabbing, saying "Almost feels like Alison 's still here. '' Later when Emily Fields comes to thank Cavanaugh for helping her with Ben, Jenna is present, unbeknownst to Fields. After Em leaves, Jenna questions Toby about the reason why Emily thanked him but he assures his step - sister it is n't what she 's thinking.
Throughout "Reality Bites Me '', Jenna is seen by Hanna Marin on her way to work at Dr Ackard 's office. Jenna enters the elevator and puts on her trademark lipstick. Marshall asks Hanna if she likes the color (believed to be Jungle Red, Alison 's favorite). It is undisclosed whether Jenna knew if she was talking to Hanna.
In "There 's No Place Like Homecoming '', Jenna and her seeing eye dog Shadow visit Emily at her house after homecoming. Emily is resting after having been hospitalized. Marshall comes under the guise of being sympathetic to Emily 's plight, even going as far as bringing her cookies. Jenna found out that Toby 's psychological profile is missing because the cops went looking for it, and knows the Liars took the file, having overheard them talking about it at Homecoming. She wants Emily to return the document, so she can protect her secret of having forced her step - brother into a sexual relationship. Emily is open to fulfilling Jenna 's request, as she feels partially responsible for Jenna 's accident, something Jenna does not fail to mention repeatedly. Fields tries to get the file back, but can not contact the Liars while her mother is around. Aria later throws the file into the river. However, it seems the file makes its way into "A '' 's hands anyway, when a figure is seen gingerly retrieving the pages from the water. When Jenna asks for the file after Emily returns to Rosewood High, Fields vaguely tells her that it 's gone. Marshall is put off, after being placed in the position where she is forced to trust Emily.
Throughout "Please, Do Talk About Me When I 'm Gone '', Jenna is still resentful towards Alison but volunteers to make a speech at her memorial dedication. She shares only kind words, mentioning Ali 's visit to her in the hospital, further claiming that she made her stronger and more in touch with her identity.
During "The New Normal '', Jenna hails a cab after Toby 's house arrest bracelet is removed, so the two can share a ride. Marshall is very upset when he declines her offer and chooses to go with Spencer instead.
In "The Badass Seed '', Jenna offers to play flute for the school play, "The Bad Seed '' and tells Ezra Fitz that she is fascinated with the play and its theme regarding the nature of evil. Marshall is seen talking to Ian Thomas in the by a similar name, taking a "Neuman 's '' shopping bag from him, though the contents are n't revealed. With Mr. Fitz as her guide, Jenna writes an essay to be submitted to a contest with vague references to the event that blinded her. The essay centers around a blind girl that senses more than people with an intact eye sight do and heavily implies that her blindness was n't an accident. The content leads Ezra to believe her brother is guilty, not the girls. Ezra is fascinated by the story and believes it has a chance at winning. At the end of the episode, Aria confides to Mr. Fitz about who the real perpetrators were. Jenna makes a comment in regards to Aria 's romantic relationship with Fitz, startling Montgomery, because it 's unclear how Marshall has knowledge on the couple.
Throughout "Someone to Watch Over Me '', Jenna is seen with the owl that Hanna thought was a gift for her from Caleb. However, it 's actually a flashdrive that Jenna gave Caleb to place information on his girlfriend and later return to her. As the Liars put the pieces together, they realize that Marshall had been paying Caleb to spy on Hanna and look for a key in her house that she thought Ali had given to one of the girls. A hurt Marin slaps Jenna at the girls ' bathroom in Rosewood High for what she did and Marshall proceeds to wheep over it.
During "For Whom the Bells Toll '', footage of Jenna forcing Toby into intercourse is uncovered. The Liars decide to approach Marshall for answers. Knowing they have the videos, Jenna reveals that Alison visited her at the hospital, but threatened Marshall to never tell anyone about her role in the prank or she 'd unveil footage of Jenna sexually abusing her step - brother. Her supposed last words to Jenna were, "if you ever come back to Rosewood, I 'll bury you ''. The girls then realize that, when Ali told them to "wait for it, '' she was referring to the video. Jenna dials Ian and warns him that the Liars hold possession of the video, although he assures her the situation is under control. Officer Garrett Reynolds, who had reassured Emily that he was on the Liars ' side, then shows up in Marshall 's room, and the two share a kiss, revealing they 're in a relationship.
In the second season, the character first appears in "It 's Alive '', when she and Garrett are seen spying on Jason DiLaurentis and discussing the ominous - sounding "Jason thing. '' Later, Jenna is secretly standing nearby as Garrett preps the girls for interrogation after Spencer 's near death experience.
Returning in "My Name Is Trouble '', Jenna takes a pottery class at Hollis College, alongside Aria. Aria pretends to be Anita, in order to seclude her identity from Marshall. It 's interesting to note that when she deduced Aria was Anita, she showcased a much vulnerable side than she usually does. Jenna has made a beautiful pottery piece, but is frustrated that she can not see anything, not even the shadows it produces when lit. Aria tries to comfort her through praising her work, but when Marshall discovers that it was Montgomery, she goes ballistic, screaming at her to get out.
During "Surface Tension '', Aria finds Jenna 's pottery piece among Mike 's belongings. She assumes that her brother stole the item from the Cavanaugh house, but he asserts his sister that he took it from Garrett 's apartment. This causes Aria to realize that Reynolds can not be trusted.
In "Save the Date '', the Liars witness Garrett pull up to Toby and Jenna 's house in his car. It could go either way, considering Garrett 's parents live across the street. However, Reynolds heads for Jenna 's place, and the girls follow to watch. Inside, Jenna removes her robe to reveal the black lace lingerie she was seen buying in an earlier episode. She removes her glasses, and the two start kissing passionately. Garrett and Jenna do a lot of spying together in his sports car. There, they constantly refer to "The Jason Thing, '' an ill - defined incident that may be linked to Alison 's death. When Jason kisses Aria, Jenna expresses her fear that the two will hook up, and Jason will reveal his secret to Aria. The latest development is the possibility that Jenna will have a cornea replacement, which means that she may regain her vision at some point in the near future. Toby fills Spencer in on the details of the matter after she overhears Jenna discussing the possibility with a nurse.
During "I Must Confess '', Jenna teases the girls after the assembly, asserting that Alison could have used the lesson on bullying. Emily shoots the same accusation back at Jenna and snidely tells her to move her walking stick.
Throughout "Over My Dead Body '', someone shows up to the precinct, prompting Garrett to say "you should n't be here. '' He was presumably talking to Jenna. Garrett then leads Marshall to the other side of the glass of the investigation room. He locks the door, and Jenna laments that she can not see their faces. During a conversation a conversation afterwards, it 's revealed that they wrote the note to Jason, making him suspect of murdering his own sister, and that Jason figured out that he is not the culprit. Garrett hands Jenna a note and instructs her to take it home and burn it. Marshall asks whether it 's page 5, and Reynolds does n't contradict her assumption. Before kissing him goodbye, Jenna remarks, "she deserved to die like that ''.
In the prequel episode "The First Secret '' Jenna is first mentioned by Toby in a conversation with Emily. While unpacking some of Marshall 's belongings from the moving truck, Cavanaugh describes her as someone who obtains whatever she wants. Later, at the costume shop, Alison spots then - new girl Jenna purchasing a Lady GaGa costume. Ali attempts to intimidate her into buying a different disguise, declaring that that she picked a similar outfit. Marshall noncommittally agrees to think about a change of heart, but turns her attention away from Alison. Before walking away, Ali offers her name, to which Jenna replies that she already knows it. They smile pleasantly, if not falsely, at each other, and Alison strolls away. At Noel 's Halloween party, Alison notices Jenna dressed as Lady GaGa after all. Noel, dressed as a gynecologist, goes right to her. When a Lady GaGa song starts playing, Ali approaches Marshall. Jenna is flanked by boys, but they all scram when Alison orders them to. Ali then offers to befriend Jenna, thereby making her popularity in Rosewood a guaranteed thing. However, Marshall turns her down and says that she likes to pick her own friends. When Jenna saunters away victoriously, Mona declares her the best Gaga, and the two introduce themselves, seemingly starting a friendship. Outside on the porch, a sulky Ali jealously calls Jenna a slut. Back at the party, Emily is seen slow - dancing with Ben on the dance floor. Jenna is seductively dancing nearby, and Emily ogles appreciatively at her curves and moves. Alison turns her eyes from one to the other, and approaches Emily, alluding to her consealed sexual orientation.
During "A Hot Piece of A '', Marshall argues with Garrett over the phone and refuses to let him in the house. Reynolds states that it was a mistake for them to bring a third person in on their plan. Later, she leaves for her eye surgery in Boston without Garrett.
Throughout "Let the Water Hold Me Down '', it 's revealed that Jenna went to the Kristen August Rehabilitation Center For The Blind after the "Jenna Thing '' happened.
In "Eye of the Beholder '', Jenna 's eye is bandaged, implying she got the surgery. During the episode, someone lures Jenna to the DiLaurentis residence and then sets it on fire, trapping Jenna inside with the intent to murder her. She is rescued by Hanna, who happened to be nearby the household. Marshall goes to the hospital and stays there under observation. This marks the first time in the series that Jenna appears to be frightened. Marshall asks to see the Liars. While they 're in her hospital room, Jenna asks if it 's true that Hanna pulled her out of the fire. When Hanna confirms this, Jenna Marshall her why she did it and seems grateful for having been rescued. Hanna does n't answer her question, but simply replies "you 're welcome ''. Later, "A '' is seen planting Garret 's police badge at the scene of the fire, in order to implicate him in Jenna 's attack. Since Marshall is still in the hospital when this occurred, she is officially ruled out as the one behind the "A '' scheme.
During "If These Dolls Could Talk '', Jenna removes the bandage from her eye and cryptically begins to cry. Later, at school, she approaches the Liars at their lunch table and apologizes for gaining a hatred towards them, saying that when Hanna 's actions made her realize that people are capable of changing. However, her apology is met with suspicion by all four girls. She shares with them the "unfortunate results '' of her surgery. Later, Toby comes into her room questioning Marshall as to why Garrett is watching their house. She affirms not knowing the reason and asks Cavanaugh to close the curtains. Marshall pulls a slip of paper from a box on her night table, and gives it to him. Telling him that it was given to her by Garrett and was told to keep it safe. She lies, playing stupid, and claiming to not know what it is. Toby opens it, revealing it to be the missing Page 5 of Alison DiLaurentis ' autopsy report. They then head to the police station to hand it to the authorities. At the end of the episode, she is seen smacking a fly on her mirror and removes its corpse. Afterwards, Marshall turns back to her mirror with a sneaky smirk and continues to remove her makeup, revealing that she is indeed able to see.
In "UnmAsked '', Jenna has a mysterious secret meeting with someone at a park and gives something to the individual, stating that "they 're all going to be at the party, you know what you need to do ''. Marshall is later seen at the masquerade party spying on Aria, and engaging on a conversation with Lucas and the Black Swan.
At some point before or after the new "A '' arises, Jenna begins working with them and joins the A-Team, though it is unclear to what extent.
The character 's return for the third season happened in "Blood is the New Black '', when the Liars have reason to believe that Jenna is faking her blidness when Toby stumbles upon prescription eye drops dated after Jenna 's eye surgery. To test this theory, the Liars planted an earring in the girls ' bathroom at school and remained hidden in the stalls. Jenna is proven to be faking her blindness when she picks up and examines the earring. The girls decided to keep quiet about this newfound knowledge so that they could possibly use Jenna 's secret against her.
During "Kingdom of the Blind '', Emily sees a flashback of Jenna driving her the night she was drugged and taken to Alison 's dug - up grave. Marshall is later seen pressuring Aria to find out how much Emily remembers from "that night. '' The girls follow Jenna to a gun shop, in which Hanna confronts a clearly not - blind Marshall behind the wheel of her car. Jenna tells them that she 's been able to see from the first operation and kept this information a secret because "it was the only protection '' she had.
Throughout "That Girl is Poison '', Marshall, who has by then openly revealed she can see again, invites the Liars to attend her birthday party. This prompts Spencer to question the purpose of Jenna 's party. Marshall appears at school without her trademark shades and cane. All the students except the Liars congratulate her. She later throws a birthday party at the coffee house.
In "Crazy '', CeCe Drake prank dials Jenna and warns her not to date Nate St. Germain (whom she was flirting with at the time) in an attempt to bring him closer to Emily. CeCe assures her she 'll scratch her eyes out if she spots her with him and lies about being his girlfriend.
During "What Lies Beneath '', Jenna is seen by Nate and Emily at the Brew chatting to Noel Kahn. When Noel goes to practice, Nate approaches Marshall and divulges to her that he has a gift but never got a proper chance to hand it because she ditched him. Jenna ignores his attempts of wooing her but Nate reffuses to let her go. Once Nate chooses to leave, Jenna is seen sitting back down.
In "Single Fright Female '', Nate discovers Marshall had been faking her blindness for a while and calls her out for acting like she ca n't see him. Later, Jenna shows up at Emily 's house a little frightened, claiming she needs to tell her something. After seeing that she has company, Jenna just warns Fields to be very careful with who she spends time with and is seen getting into a cab and potentially leaving town since the driver was placing luggage in the trunk.
Throughout "A dAngerous gAme '', Jenna is seen at her house talking on her phone. Newspapers and mail are piled up on the front porch as if the house has been uninhabited for a while. Someone is watching her through the window and sends a text message as "A '' with a meeting time and place. Jenna simultaneously receives a text message, gets off her phone, and looks out the window, but no one is standing there. We find out later in the episode that it was Spencer watching and taking photos of Jenna, but the text was sent to Toby. Marshall later meets with Shana in the park and they appear to be very friendly. She discloses to Shana Fring that "they '' will all be there Friday and reminds her friend of what has to be done. Shana questions Jenna about her doctor 's appointment and Marshall implies she may be losing her sight again, with Shana assuring her that even in her darkest days, she 'll be there for her. While out for a run, Emily sees Melissa Hastings entering Marshall 's house. Inside, the two seem to be arguing with Jenna informing Melissa that "they have the tapes '' and Melissa replying that "those bitches will be at the lodge at 9. '' Melissa proceeds to hand Shana a copy of the invitation. The night of the "party '' Toby sees a girl in the woods just before he gets knocked out from behind. The woman is believed to be Jenna, though it was never confirmed. We later witness the four Liars and Mona driving back to Rosewood. They come upon Wilden 's police car that Hanna and Aria previously pushed into a lake. A video recorder suddenly plays the incident where Hanna 's mom ran over Wilden, but this time they see that afterwards, Marshall and Shana rushed over to his body and dragged him away.
During the fourth season 's premiere, "' A ' is for A-l-i-v-e '', Mona confirms that Jenna and Shana knew each other before coming to Rosewood, and further claims Marshall feared Melissa. In a later scene, Jenna approaches Emily outside her house. Because of the way the scene is shot, we can see that Jenna is losing her sight again. We also notice Marshall has a burn on her hand, further implying she was at Thornhill the night of the fire. Jenna divulges to Emily that she and Wilden were friends and that she has a message for Toby in case anything bad happens to her. According to Marshall, everyone who met Alison the night she went missing ends up dead, meaning Wilden saw Ali, something Garrett disclosed to her. Since Toby is n't taking any of Jenna 's calls and Marshall knows Cavanaugh and Emily remain friends, she asks Emily to tell him that she never meant to hurt him. Later, at Wilden 's funeral we see that Marshall is wearing her glasses again and being escorted by Nigel Wright, indicating her vision continues to decline.
In "Face Time '', it 's revealed that the reason Jenna, Melissa and Shana were working with Wilden and the "A-Team '' was because he was blackmailing them to do so, under the orders of someone else (later revealed to be Big "A '').
Throughout "Into the Deep '', Spencer and Aria eavesdrop on a conversation Shana and Jenna are having. It 's revealed Marshall believes Alison is still alive. Later, Jenna is seen with Shana at Emily 's surprise birthday party. Spencer asks Marshall if she 's losing her sight because she is wearing her sunglasses, but Jenna replies "I see everything I need to ''. Aria begs Marshall to tell her what she knows, but Jenna seems afraid. Later, Emily finds a body face down in the lake, revealed to be Marshall. Someone hit her on the back of the head and she fell into the lake. Jenna is unconscious, but still alive and taken to a hospital. At the hospital, Spencer asks Shana who Marshall is afraid of, and Fring replies "Cece Drake ''.
During the fourth season 's finale, "A is for Answers '', Alison revealed that she originally believed Jenna to be "A '' so she visited Marshall at the hospital. Ali who at this point was trying to find out who A was threatens Jenna to not come back to town. Once she turned around to leave, she received a text from A, that read "Bitch ca n't see you, but I do. Tonight is the night I kill you '', which eliminated Marshall as a suspect.
In the series ' 100th episode "Miss Me x 100 '' a bus rolls to a stop across the street, and when the vehicle drives away, Jenna, who has arrived back in Rosewood, comes face to face with Alison, Aria and Ezra. Later while sitting on her bedroom floor crying, Marshall hears movement around her room and calls out, "whose there? '' only to get no response. At Aria 's front door, Jenna demands knowing what Aria was doing in her house. Montgomery asks her if she wants to come inside for a cup of tea but all Marshall would like is an answer. Aria tells her she heard about Shana 's death and wanted to see if she was doing okay, prompting Jenna to wonder why she 'd even care. Aria reminds that Alison 's return has brought back a lot of bad memories for most senior students at Rosewood High. Marshall reminds Montgomery that she still has loyal friends, while she on the other hand, does n't have anyone left. As Jenna is turning to leave, Aria again offers her tea, informing her that while she did n't know Shana, Jenna could tell her all about Shana. Turning back around, Marshall tells Aria that having someone to chat with would help. Pulling up to a picnic ground, Sydney Driscoll and Jenna step out of Sydney 's car. Driscoll comments on the mustang parked in front of them, and Marshall reveals it used to be hers. Walking over to Mona, Sydney informs her the Liars do not want things to go back to the way they were. Jenna makes a remark on how she remembers Ali treating her friends like dolls. Mona deduces that maybe they can get rid of Alison. The three girls turn to look as a third car pulls up.
During "March of Crimes '', Jenna comes enters the music room and is greeted by Alison. Ali makes a remark on how she was unaware that Jenna had enrolled at Rosewood High. Jenna states that she came back a few weeks ago, and that nobody seemed to notice since most students were too busy paying attention to Alison. Ali mentions that she 's sorry about Shana 's passing, and that she meant a lot to her too. Thanking her, Marshall says that she 's sorry for Alison as well and that she heard about the break in last night. When Jenna starts walking out, Alison asks her to wait before wondering how Jenna managed to turn Shana against her. Looking over her shoulder, Marshall assures Alison she brought it on herself. Walking out of a consulting room, Jenna and Sydney stop when Emily calls out Sydney. As Emily asks Driscoll what she 's doing at the Optometrists, Marshall explains that Sydney was her ride, before asking if it posed a problem. Emily wonders when Jenna and Sydney became friends, and when Marshall attempts to get Sydney to walk away with her, Spencer instructs Sydney to answer Emily 's questions. Stepping in, Jenna says that it sounded more like an accusation, and when Emily asks Driscoll why she never mentioned being friends with Jenna. This leads to a heated argument, and Marshall eventually leaves accompanied by Sydney. Later on the episode, Driscoll reveals to Emily that she met Jenna when she volunteered at a school for the visually impaired and have remained friends ever since the day Alison visited Marshall to threaten her. Driscoll returned to Rosewood per Marshall 's request, fearing that Alison would bully her once more.
Throughout "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '', Jenna is part of the school choir who are singing Christmas songs for the Shady Days Nursing Home, alongside Paige, Emily, Lucas and Sydney. Unbeknownst at the time, Jenna is one of Alison 's followers at the Masquerade Ice Ball. Still wearing a mask, Jenna and another one of Alison 's followers, later revealed as Driscoll, pose for a photo with Lucas, who is dressed as Santa Claus. Lucas tells the two masked beauties to come in closer, and after the photo is taken, he wishes them a Merry Christmas. After gaining Emily 's attention, Marshall and Sydney begin walking through the crowd, with Driscoll looking over her shoulder to make sure Emily would follow her trace. As Emily enters the room which has been draped off with fabric, Jenna sits on the couch, while Sydney reveals herself to Emily and explains that she led Emily to an isolated location because she did n't want Alison to witness them talking. As Driscoll walks towards Jenna, Emily tells Sydney that she really gets around, and questions if Jenna knows Sydney is with Alison now. Jenna then takes off her mask and reveals to Emily they suspect Alison of being accountable for Mona 's murder.
Jenna is mentioned by the girls to being Lucas Gottesman 's date to their senior prom as they see a photo of the two on their phones.
In "Game Over, Charles '', Jenna made a brief cameo during a flashback, as the Liars were exiting the church after Wilden 's funeral and watching the woman in a black veil entering a limo.
During "Hit and Run, Run, Run '', Jenna appears at The Radley whilst the Liars are discussing the events that lead to Elliott 's death. As she bumps into the girls, they are speechless at her unexpected reemergence and she explains that her return to Rosewood is due to Toby and Yvonne 's engagement. Later, Toby arrives at the police station and crosses paths with his stepsister. He argues with Jenna about her arrival to town though she assures him that her intentions are to solely make amends. After Hanna and Mona find Hanna 's golden bracelet on Elliott 's car, they hear his burner phone ringing. When Mona answers the call, Jenna 's voice is heard from the other end answering "Hi, Archer, can you hear me? It 's Jenna, Jenna Marshall '', thus revealing Elliott 's real name and that she 's somehow involved in A.D. 's game.
Marshall remains around Rosewood in "Along Comes Mary '' and befriends Sara Harvey, which troubles the Liars after Emily spots the two women amicably hanging out at the Rear Window Brew. Aria and Emily decided to investigate Archer 's apartment and discover that Jenna was on his payroll for undisclosed reasons. At the end of the episode, she and Sara are having drinks at The Radley when an unknown figure approaches the two and reveals themselves to be Noel Kahn, who proceeds to join the duo. When confronted by Emily in regards to her involvement with Archer during "Wanted: Dead or Alive '', Jenna admits she befriended Charlotte DiLaurentis after reading about her stay at Welby and reached out. In a flashback, Marshall is enlisted by Charlotte to track down the whereabouts of her birth mother and help Archer create an alias. Dunhill 's plan was to purposely introduce himself to Alison under the "Elliott Rollins '' pseudonym and later take advantage of her good intentions to benefit Charlotte 's eventual release from Welby.
During "Original G'A'ngsters '', the Liars witness Jenna mourn Sara 's death after a team of paramedics arrive at The Radley to transport her body for further examination. All of the girls suspect Marshall was involved in Harvey 's homicide and are certain that she put on an act in order to drive suspicion away from her. Later, Spencer and Hanna manage to break into Jenna 's room at The Radley with Caleb 's aid, who disguised himself as a massager in order to steal from Marshall 's bag the key that opens the mysterious box located under her bed. In it, the girls find several papers but their investigation process is interrumped by the sound of someone slowly opening the door. The person hides Mary 's old Radley Sanitarium file inside the box and is revealed to be Noel Kahn, who is seen angrily dialing Dr. Cochran (the person who handled the birth of both Mary 's children).
In "The DArkest Knight '', Mona and Caleb manage to bug Jenna 's cellphone and eavesdrop a voice message she left for Noel after he failed to return any of her calls. Afterwards, Hanna contacts Mona to help her return to Rosewood with a convincing narrative after having abducted Noel. Once Hanna successfully fabricates a story to the police on how she went to Hollybrook to track down the girl Kahn pushed down a flight of stairs at a frat party, Mona purposely bumps into Marshall at The Radley. Jenna is given an ultimatum to conspire with the Liars, after Mona implies that Marshall 's partnership with Noel would send both of them to prison. Jenna initially subdues to Mona 's coercion, seeing as her and Caleb later await for Marshall by the Radley 's bar. Nonetheless, Jenna manages to trick the duo after hiring Sydney to pose as a decoy and serve them coffee. When the Liars head to the shed Noel was secluded, the Liars panic as soon as they realize he 's missing as well as a camera Hanna used in an attempt to record a confession of him admitting he 's their tormentor. A few seconds later, the girls receive a text message ordering them to show up in 1465, Elm Street at 10pm. Once they arrive to the location, the Liars make their way inside an abandoned school for blind students where they 're held hostage by Noel and Jenna, with the later tracking them down at gunpoint. During the cat - and - mouse chase, Emily and Hanna end up fighting Noel which causes Kahn to stumble upon an axe that decapitates him. Jenna takes aim at the Liars only to backfire, until a second gunshot is heard and it injures Spencer. As Marshall prepares to finish her off, Mary Drake suddenly emerges from behind and knocks her out. While Drake attempts to help Spencer, an unknown figure drags Jenna away from the building. At the end of the episode, the anonymous entity places her in the back of a van, while she questions them if they were responsible for the gunshot that hit Spencer. As the mysterious figure proceed to rip off an old man 's mask and toss it over to Jenna 's side, Marshall feels it up and realizes that A.D. was the one who rescued her.
At the end of "Playtime '', Jenna is seated in A.D. 's lair, sipping tea. She thanks the unidentified individual for the drink and reminds them of their promise to update her on the "game ''. Dressed in a nurse 's uniform, A.D. drops a binder on Marshall 's lap with pages of information written in braille. After Jenna reads a paragraph, she mutters the word "endgame '' and grins in delight.
During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. After Jenna describes her side of the story, Furey orders one of his associates to escort Marshall to a conference room so she can make an official statement. As Jenna exits the room, Spencer claims that she 's an unreliable narrator. However, Furey informs Spencer that the authorities do n't have any evidence against Marshall because the bullet that injured Spencer did n't match the gun found at the location. A few hours afterwards, Emily spots Jenna exiting the Brew accompanied by an entourage of blind individuals. Marshall pauses right by the coffee shop 's doorway and instructs her phone to send a text. A faint beeping is heard from across the café and the recipient is revealed to be Addison Derringer, a local Rosewood High student whom Emily has disciplinary issues with. She instantly suspects Addison of being in cahoots with Jenna. Later on the episode, Mona and Hanna are having a business meeting at The Radley 's bar when Jenna suddenly walks in to meet her newest associates. Marshall is wearing an exact replica of the dress Hanna designed for Katherine Daly, but in white instead of black. Mona and Hanna storm up and confront Jenna, who gleefully divulges it was a gift but refuses to acknowledge the identity of its purchaser. Hanna, alongside Caleb, decide to stalk Marshall and her group of friends to the building where Hanna 's cobbler works. The couple suspect Jenna is planning to steal the shoes that the senator 's daughter was supposed to wear to counterpart the dress. Once Marshall 's clique heads inside the building, Caleb engages in a face - off with Jenna in order to buy Hanna sufficient time to sneak into the cobbler 's office to regain her shoes. After Marshall is cornered by Caleb, she explains to him that she 's on her way to rehearse for a concert since there 's a studio on the top floor. Caleb points out that her friends did n't bring any musical instruments and as Jenna suggests him to back off, he replies with the same statement before pointing out that Marshall could n't have worn a specific dress without a helping hand. Jenna attempts to flee but Caleb takes a hold of her cane to warn Marshall that the cops were beginning to find inconsistencies in her allegations. Jenna assures Caleb they wo n't be able to prosecute her since Noel was the only person who could contradict her statement.
Throughout "Hold Your Piece '', Aria and Emily team up to track down Sydney 's whereabouts in hopes of finding Jenna. After searching her name online, they discover that Driscoll graduated from Berkeley College, with a double major in Economics and French. Sydney currently resides in a loft at Fishtown, Philadelphia, whilst working as a bank teller at a private department that services extremely wealthy clients. The girls also learn that Sydney checked into a charity gala for the Manhattan Children 's Hospital, the same ball where Katherine made an appearance wearing Hanna 's dress. Following this enlightenment, Emily googles the event and comes across a picture of Daly posing on a red carpet whilst Driscoll sneakily uses a phone to photograph her dress. The girls deduce that Sydney 's loyalty to Marshall places her as the strongest contender serving as Spencer 's shooter. They conclude Driscoll most likely made adjustments for Marshall to be clothed in a duplicate of Hanna 's dress so Jenna could omit the truth from the authorities. Aria promptly suggests for her and Emily to head over to Sydney 's address to gather more insight into the situation. Following a quick lesson from Caleb on spying techniques, Aria instructed Emily to approach Driscoll and clone her phone. During a conversation with Sydney, Emily was told that she was trying to distance herself from Marshall but that information proved to be false. Through access to Driscoll 's phone, the girls discover that Sydney had an appointment at the Vogel Vision Institute and eavesdrop the meeting. Turns out Driscoll was paying for an operation to give Jenna her sight back and she uttered the initials "A.D. '' as the donor for the cost. After Sydney exits the clinic, Aria and Emily aggressively confront her. Driscoll still claimed to not knowing where Marshall was, so Aria slipped a tracker in her bag to maintain her under their radar.
In "Till Death Do Us Part '', Addison joins her friends in the hallway, when Jenna approaches them. It turns out that Marshall is the new Life Skills teacher at Rosewood High. Jenna orders Derringer and her friends to get to class, and Addison tries to make her entourage of friends laugh by waving her hand in front of Marshall 's face. Unexpectedly, Jenna catches it and frightens Derringer by stating "I may be blind, but I can still smell a bitch from a mile away ''. A few days later, Spencer 's identical twin sister, Alex Drake, is sitting on a bench outside of Veronica 's law office. Jenna emerges from the building with Mrs. Hastings, and the two women briefly discuss a legal situation involving Addison 's behavior at school. After Veronica leaves, Marshall sniffs the air around Alex and questions her on whether she 's sporting a new perfume. Alex laughs it off, explaining that she spent the morning taking care of Spencer 's rescue horse, before heading in the opposite direction. After she walks away, Jenna pulls out her phone and calls Toby to warn him that there 's an impostor posing as his ex-girlfriend. When Spencer asks Alex about Marshall 's involvement in the "A '' game, her sister explains that Jenna requested Noel to search for her whereabouts. Marshall was aware Charlotte had another sister and that she left Alex her possessions. Although Marshall did n't know who Alex truly was, she offered to do her bidding in exchange for one last chance to regain her eye sight. Alex paid for Jenna 's treatments, which proved unsuccessful, therefore becoming counterproductive to her agenda.
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what is jo's real name in grey's anatomy | List of Grey 's Anatomy characters - wikipedia
Grey 's Anatomy is an American television medical drama series created by Shonda Rhimes, broadcast by ABC. The show features an ensemble cast of regular characters, with nine main characters in its first season. Since the first season, many characters have left the show or have been written out, and new main characters have been written in and out of the series. Following is a list of characters who have appeared over the various seasons since the drama 's premiere.
The following listings reflect each character 's status at the time of his or her first appearance on staff at Seattle Grace / Seattle Grace Mercy West / Grey Sloan Memorial.
Meredith Grey 's family
Lexie Grey 's family
Derek Shepherd 's family
Cristina Yang 's family
Izzie Stevens 's family
Richard Webber 's family
George O'Malley's family
Alex Karev 's family
Miranda Bailey 's family
Mark Sloan 's family
Teddy Altman 's family
Callie Torres 's family
Arizona Robbins 's family
Jackson Avery 's family
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which title is used for the leader of the roman catholic church | Catholic Church - wikipedia
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilisation. The church is headed by the Bishop of Rome, who is known as the Pope. The church 's doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed. Its central administration, the Holy See, is in the Vatican City, an enclave within Rome, Italy.
The Catholic Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christ 's apostles, and that the Pope is the successor to Saint Peter to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, reserving infallibility, passed down by sacred tradition. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, and institutes such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders reflect a variety of theological and spiritual emphases in the church.
Of its seven sacraments the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions. Its teaching includes sanctification through faith and evangelisation of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasises voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.
The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, culture, science, and art. The Catholic Church shared communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church until the East -- West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the Pope, as well as with the Oriental Orthodox churches prior to the Chalcedonian schism in 451 over differences in Christology. Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions. Since the 20th century the majority reside in the southern hemisphere due to secularisation in Europe, and increased persecution in the Middle East.
From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women, and its handling of sexual abuse cases.
Catholic (from Greek: καθολικός, translit. katholikos, lit. ' universal ') was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century. The first known use of the phrase "the catholic church '' (καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία he katholike ekklesia) occurred in the letter written about 110 AD from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans. In the Catechetical Lectures (c. 350) of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name "Catholic Church '' was used to distinguish it from other groups that also called themselves "the church ''. The "Catholic '' notion was further stressed in the edict De fide Catolica issued 380 by Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire, when establishing the state church of the Roman Empire.
Since the East -- West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Church has taken the adjective "Orthodox '' as its distinctive epithet (however, its official name continues to be the "Orthodox Catholic Church '') and the Western Church in communion with the Holy See has similarly taken "Catholic '', keeping that description also after the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, when those who ceased to be in communion became known as "Protestants ''.
While the "Roman Church '' has been used to describe the pope 's Diocese of Rome since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages (6th -- 10th century), the "Roman Catholic Church '' has been applied to the whole church in English language since the Protestant Reformation in the late 16th century. "Roman Catholic '' has occasionally appeared also in documents produced both by the Holy See, notably applied to certain national episcopal conferences, and local dioceses.
The name "Catholic Church '' for the whole church is used in the 1990 Catechism of the Catholic Church, the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the documents of the 1962 -- 65 Second Vatican Council, and numerous other official documents.
The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. There are three levels of clergy, the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy; the presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in local diocese or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See. In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services.
The hierarchy of the Catholic Church is headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the pope (Latin: papa; "father ''), who is the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope, Francis, was elected on 13 March 2013 by papal conclave.
The office of the pope is known as the papacy. The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See '' (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See '' (meaning the see of the apostle Peter). Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day - to - day business of the Catholic Church.
The pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City, a small city - state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that the pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives. The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals, such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages.
While the famous Saint Peter 's Basilica is located in Vatican City, above the traditional site of Saint Peter 's tomb, the papal cathedral for the Diocese of Rome is Saint John Lateran, located within the city of Rome, though enjoying extraterritorial privileges accredited to the Holy See.
The position of cardinal is a rank of honour bestowed by popes on certain clergy, such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops serving in major cities and distinguished theologians. For advice and assistance in governing, the pope may turn to the College of Cardinals.
Following the death or resignation of a pope, members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 act as electoral college, meeting in a papal conclave to elect a successor. Although the conclave may elect any male Catholic as pope, since 1389 only cardinals have been elected.
The canon law of the Catholic Church is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities to regulate the church 's external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics towards the church 's mission. In the Catholic Church, universal positive ecclesiastical laws, based upon either immutable divine and natural law, or changeable circumstantial and merely positive law, derive formal authority and promulgation from the office of pope who, as Supreme Pontiff, possesses the totality of legislative, executive and judicial power in his person. It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation and coercive penalties that are limited to moral coercion.
Canon law concerns the Catholic Church 's life and organisation and is distinct from civil law. In its own field it gives force to civil law only by specific enactment in matters such as the guardianship of minors. Similarly, civil law may give force in its field to canon law, but only by specific enactment, as with regard to canonical marriages. Currently, the 1983 Code of Canon Law is in effect primarily for the Latin Church. The distinct 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO, after the Latin initials) applies to the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches.
In the 2,000 - year history of the church, several complementary expressions of the Christian faith emerged throughout the world, most prominently, the Western and Eastern Christian traditions. The Catholic Church continues these traditions, through constituent autonomous particular churches, also known as "churches sui iuris '' (Latin: "of one 's own right ''). The largest and most well known is the Latin Church, with more than 1 billion members worldwide. Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the Latin Church, are the 23 self - governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a combined membership of 17.3 million as of 2010.
The Latin Church is governed by the pope and diocesan bishops directly appointed by him. The pope exercises a direct patriarchal role over the Latin Church, which is considered to form the original and still major part of Western Christianity, a heritage of certain beliefs and customs originating in Europe and northwestern Africa, some of which are inherited by many Christian denominations that trace their origins to the Protestant Reformation.
The Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are Churches that have always remained in full communion with the Catholic Church or who have chosen to reenter full communion in the centuries following the East -- West Schism and earlier divisions. These churches are communities of Catholic Christians whose forms of worship reflect distinct historical and cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine.
A church sui iuris is defined in the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches as a "group of Christian faithful united by a hierarchy '' that is recognised by the Pope in his capacity as the supreme authority on matters of doctrine within the church. The term is an innovation of the CCEO to denote the relative autonomy of the Eastern Catholic Churches, who remain in full communion with the Pope, but have governance structures and liturgical traditions separate from that of the Latin Church. While the Latin Church 's canons do not explicitly use the term, it is tacitly recognised as equivalent.
Some Eastern Catholic Churches are governed by a patriarch who is elected by the synod of the bishops of that church, others are headed by a major archbishop, others are under a metropolitan, and others are organised as individual eparchies. Each church has authority over the particulars of its internal organisation, liturgical rites, liturgical calendar and other aspects of its spirituality, subject only to the authority of the Pope. The Roman Curia has a specific department, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, to maintain relations with them. The pope does not generally appoint bishops or clergy in the Eastern Catholic Churches, deferring to their internal governance structures, but may intervene if he feels it necessary.
Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by particular churches known as dioceses in the Latin Church, or eparchies in the Eastern Catholic Churches, each overseen by a bishop. As of 2008, the Catholic Church has 2,795 dioceses. The bishops in a particular country are members of a national or regional episcopal conference.
Dioceses are divided into parishes, each with one or more priests, deacons or lay ecclesial ministers. Parishes are responsible for the day to day celebration of the sacraments and pastoral care of the laity. As of 2016, there are 221,700 parishes worldwide.
In the Latin Church, Catholic men may serve as deacons or priests by receiving sacramental ordination. Men and women may serve as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, as readers (lectors); or as altar servers. Historically, boys and men have only been permitted to serve as altar servers; however, since the 1990s, girls and women have also been permitted.
Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter into consecrated life either on an individual basis, as a hermit or consecrated virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated life (a religious institute or a secular institute) in which to take vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience. Examples of institutes of consecrated life are the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity, the Legionaries of Christ and the Sisters of Mercy.
"Religious institutes '' is a modern term encompassing both "religious orders '' and "religious congregations '' which were once distinguished in canon law. The terms "religious order '' and "religious institute '' tend to be used as synonyms colloquially.
By means of Catholic charities and beyond, the Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.
Church membership at the end of 2014 was 1.272 billion, which is 17.8 % of the world population. Catholics represent about half of all Christians.
Geographic distribution of Catholics worldwide continues to shift, with 17 % in Africa, 48 % in the Americas, 11 % Asia, 23 % in Europe, and 1 % in Oceania.
Catholic ministers include ordained clergy, lay ecclesial ministers, missionaries, and catechists. Also as of the end of 2014, there were 465,595 ordained clergy, including 5,237 bishops, 415,792 presbyters (diocesan and religious), and 44,566 deacons (permanent). Non-ordained ministers included 3,157,568 catechists, 367,679 lay missionaries, and 39,951 lay ecclesial ministers.
Catholics who have committed to religious or consecrated life instead of marriage or single celibacy, as a state of life or relational vocation, include 54,559 male religious, 705,529 women religious. These are not ordained, nor generally considered ministers unless also engaged in one of the lay minister categories above.
Catholic doctrine has developed over the centuries, reflecting direct teachings of early Christians, formal definitions of heretical and orthodox beliefs by ecumenical councils and in papal bulls, and theological debate by scholars. The church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit as it discerns new theological issues and is protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error when a firm decision on an issue is reached.
It teaches that revelation has one common source, God, and two distinct modes of transmission: Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, and that these are authentically interpreted by the Magisterium. Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible, consisting of 46 Old Testament and 27 New Testament writings. Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles. Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith '' (depositum fidei). These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from magister, Latin for "teacher ''), the church 's teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of Bishops in union with the pope, the bishop of Rome. Catholic doctrine is authoritatively summarised in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, published by the Holy See.
The Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, who exists as a perichoresis ("mutual indwelling '') of three hypostases, or "persons '': God the Father; God the Son; and God the Holy Spirit, which together are called the "Holy Trinity ''.
Catholics believe that Jesus Christ is the "Second Person '' of the Trinity, God the Son. In an event known as the Incarnation, through the power of the Holy Spirit, God became united with human nature through the conception of Christ in the womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ, therefore, is understood as being both fully divine and fully human, including possessing a human soul. It is taught that Christ 's mission on earth included giving people his teachings and providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four Gospels. Jesus is believed to have remained sinless while on earth, and to have allowed himself to be unjustly executed by crucifixion, as sacrifice of himself to reconcile humanity to God; this reconciliation is known as the Paschal Mystery. The Greek term "Christ '' and the Hebrew "Messiah '' both mean "anointed one '', referring to the Christian belief that Jesus ' death and resurrection are the fulfilment of the Old Testament 's messianic prophecies.
The Catholic Church teaches dogmatically that "the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two principles but as from one single principle ''. It holds that the Father, as the "principle without principle '', is the first origin of the Spirit, but also that he, as Father of the only Son, is with the Son the single principle from which the Spirit proceeds. This belief is expressed in the Filioque clause which was added to the Latin version of the Nicene Creed of 381 but not included in the Greek versions of the creed used in Eastern Christianity.
The Catholic Church teaches that it is the "one true church '', "the universal sacrament of salvation for the human race '', and "the one true religion ''. According to the Catechism, the Catholic Church is further described in the Nicene Creed as the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church ''. These are collectively known as the Four Marks of the Church. The church teaches that its founder is Jesus Christ. The New Testament records several events considered integral to the establishment of the Catholic Church, including Jesus ' activities and teaching and his appointment of the apostles as witnesses to his ministry, suffering, and resurrection. The Great Commission, after his resurrection, instructed the apostles to continue his work. The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, is seen as the beginning of the public ministry of the Catholic Church. The church teaches that all duly consecrated bishops have a lineal succession from the apostles of Christ, known as apostolic succession. In particular, the Bishop of Rome (the pope) is considered the successor to the apostle Simon Peter, a position from which he derives his supremacy over the church.
Catholic belief holds that the church "is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth '' and that it alone possesses the full means of salvation. Through the passion (suffering) of Christ leading to his crucifixion as described in the Gospels, it is said Christ made himself an oblation to God the Father in order to reconcile humanity to God; the Resurrection of Jesus makes him the firstborn from the dead, the first among many brethren. By reconciling with God and following Christ 's words and deeds, an individual can enter the Kingdom of God. The church sees its liturgy and sacraments as perpetuating the graces achieved through Christ 's sacrifice to strengthen a person 's relationship with Christ and aid in overcoming sin.
The Catholic Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgement from God, based on their sins and their relationship to Christ. This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in universal judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to the church 's teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of both a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.
Depending on the judgement rendered following death, it is believed that a soul may enter one of three states of afterlife:
While the Catholic Church teaches that it alone possesses the full means of salvation, it also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to "impel towards Catholic unity '' and "tend and lead toward the Catholic Church '', and thus bring people to salvation, because these separated communities contain some elements of proper doctrine, albeit admixed with errors. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved through the Catholic Church but that people can be saved outside of the ordinary means known as baptism of desire, and by pre-baptismal martyrdom, known as baptism of blood, as well as when conditions of invincible ignorance are present, although invincible ignorance in itself is not a means of salvation.
A saint (also historically known as a hallow) is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness or closeness to God, while canonization is the act by which a Christian church declares that a person who has died was a saint, upon which declaration the person is included in the "canon '', or list, of recognized saints. The first persons honored as saints were the martyrs. Pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ. By the fourth century, however, "confessors '' -- people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word and life -- began to be venerated publicly.
In the Catholic Church, both in Latin and Eastern Catholic churches, the act of canonization is reserved to the Apostolic See and occurs at the conclusion of a long process requiring extensive proof that the candidate for canonization lived and died in such an exemplary and holy way that he is worthy to be recognized as a saint. The Church 's official recognition of sanctity implies that the person is now in Heaven and that he may be publicly invoked and mentioned officially in the liturgy of the Church, including in the Litany of the Saints. Canonization allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite; for permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed.
Devotions are "external practices of piety '' which are not part of the official liturgy of the Catholic Church but are part of the popular spiritual practices of Catholics. These include various practices regarding the veneration of the saints, especially veneration of the Virgin Mary. Other devotional practices include the Stations of the Cross, the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Holy Face of Jesus, the various scapulars, novenas to various saints, pilgrimages and devotions to the Blessed Sacrament, and the veneration of saintly images such as the santos. The bishops at the Second Vatican Council reminded Catholics that "devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonise with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them. ''
Catholic Mariology deals with the doctrines and teachings concerning the life of the Mary, mother of Jesus, as well as the veneration of Mary by the faithful. Mary is held in special regard, declared the Mother of God (Greek: Θεοτόκος, translit. Theotokos, lit. ' God - bearer '), and believed as dogma to have remained a virgin throughout her life. Further teachings include the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception (her own conception without the stain of original sin) and the Assumption of Mary (that her body was assumed directly into heaven at the end of her life). Both of these doctrines were defined as infallible dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively, but only after consulting with the Catholic bishops throughout the world to ascertain that this is a Catholic belief.
Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the worship of God. Practices include prayers and Marian art, music, and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ. Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail Mary, the Rosary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices. Pilgrimages to the sites of several Marian apparitions affirmed by the church, such as Lourdes, Fátima, and Guadalupe, are also popular Catholic devotions.
The Catholic Church teaches that it was entrusted with seven sacraments that were instituted by Christ. The number and nature of the sacraments were defined by several ecumenical councils, most recently the Council of Trent. These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (formerly called Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites ''), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of God 's presence and effective channels of God 's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato). The Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises the sacraments into three groups, the "sacraments of Christian initiation '', "sacraments of healing '' and "sacraments at the service of communion and the mission of the faithful ''. These groups broadly reflect the stages of people 's natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to serve.
The liturgies of the sacraments are central to the church 's mission. According to the Catechism:
In the liturgy of the New Covenant every liturgical action, especially the celebration of the Eucharist and the sacraments, is an encounter between Christ and the Church. The liturgical assembly derives its unity from the "communion of the Holy Spirit '' who gathers the children of God into the one Body of Christ. This assembly transcends racial, cultural, social -- indeed, all human affinities.
According to church doctrine, the sacraments of the church require the proper form, matter, and intent to be validly celebrated. In addition, the Canon Laws for both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches govern who may licitly celebrate certain sacraments, as well as strict rules about who may receive the sacraments. Notably, because the church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist, those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance). Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving the sacrament. Non-Catholics are ordinarily prohibited from receiving the Eucharist as well.
Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and unable to approach a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist, penance or anointing of the sick from someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with Catholic teaching on ordination. Likewise, even in grave and pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments to those who do not manifest Catholic faith in the sacrament. In relation to the churches of Eastern Christianity not in communion with the Holy See, the Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that "a certain communion in sacris, and so in the Eucharist, given suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not merely possible but is encouraged. ''
As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is the first of three sacraments of initiation as a Christian. It washes away all sins, both original sin and personal actual sins. It makes a person a member of the church. As a gratuitous gift of God that requires no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred even on children, who, though they have no personal sins, need it on account of original sin. If a new - born child is in a danger of death, anyone -- be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent -- may baptise the child. Baptism marks a person permanently and can not be repeated. The Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided that they intend to baptise ("to do what the Church does when she baptises '') and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.
The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to complete the grace given in baptism. When adults are baptised, confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards, a practice followed even with newly baptised infants in the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the West confirmation of children is delayed until they are old enough to understand or at the bishop 's discretion. In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Churches, it is called chrismation, because the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism, a mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by a bishop. Those who receive confirmation must be in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of reason means that they should first be cleansed spiritually by the sacrament of Penance; they should also have the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are Christians.
For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament which completes Christian initiation. It is described as "the source and summit of the Christian life ''. The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the Eucharist is known as First Communion.
The Eucharistic celebration, also called the Mass or Divine liturgy, includes prayers and scriptural readings, as well as an offering of bread and wine, which are brought to the altar and consecrated by the priest to become the body and the blood of Jesus Christ, a change called transubstantiation. The words of consecration reflect the words spoken by Jesus during the Last Supper, where Christ offered his body and blood to his Apostles the night before his crucifixion. The sacrament re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross, and perpetuates it. Christ 's death and resurrection gives grace through the sacrament that unites the faithful with Christ and one another, remits venial sin, and aids against committing moral sin (though mortal sin itself is forgiven through the sacrament of penance).
The two sacraments of healing are the Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.
The Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and Conversion) exists for the conversion of those who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin. Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution). Serious sins (mortal sins) should be confessed at least once a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended. The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession '', absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession.
While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that can not be repeated, a different oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger of death. This sacrament, known as Anointing of the Sick, is believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.
The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, and in the past as Extreme Unction, and it is one of the three sacraments that constitute the last rites, together with Penance and Viaticum (Eucharist).
According to the Catechism, there are two sacraments of communion directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and marriage. Within the general vocation to be a Christian, these two sacraments "consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to fulfill duties of their state ''.
The sacrament of Holy Orders consecrates and deputes some Christians to serve the whole body as members of three degrees or orders: episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate (deacons). The church has defined rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Church, the priesthood is generally restricted to celibate men, and the episcopate is always restricted to celibate men. Men who are already married may be ordained in certain Eastern Catholic churches in most countries, and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the Western Church (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a Catholic priest, a man may not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he is formally laicised.
All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies. Only bishops and priests can administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick. Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains someone into the clergy.
The Catholic Church teaches that marriage is a social and spiritual bond between a man and a woman, ordered towards the good of the spouses and procreation of children; according to Catholic teachings on sexual morality, it is the only appropriate context for sexual activity. A Catholic marriage, or any marriage between baptised individuals of any Christian denomination, is viewed as a sacrament. A sacramental marriage, once consummated, can not be dissolved except by death. The church recognises certain conditions, such as freedom of consent, as required for any marriage to be valid; In addition, the church sets specific rules and norms, known as canonical form, that Catholics must follow.
The church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid marriage and allows state - recognised divorce only as a means of protecting the property and well being of the spouses and any children. However, consideration of particular cases by the competent ecclesiastical tribunal can lead to declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a declaration usually referred to as an annulment. Remarriage following a divorce is not permitted unless the prior marriage was declared invalid.
Among the 24 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerous liturgical and other traditions exist, called rites, which reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in belief. In the definition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, "a rite is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony, culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui iuris ''.
The liturgy of the sacrament of the Eucharist, called the Mass in the West and Divine Liturgy or other names in the East, is the principal liturgy of the Catholic Church. This is because it is considered the propitiatory sacrifice of Christ himself. The most widely used is the Roman Rite, usually in its ordinary form promulgated by Paul VI in 1969, but also in its authorised extraordinary form, the Tridentine Mass as in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal. Eastern Catholic Churches have their own rites. The liturgies of the Eucharist and the other sacraments vary from rite to rite based on differing theological emphasis.
The Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic Church. Its use is found worldwide, originating in Rome and spreading throughout Europe, influencing and eventually supplanting local rites. The present ordinary form of Mass in the Roman Rite, found in the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, using an officially approved translation from the original text in Latin. An outline of its major liturgical elements can be found in the side bar.
In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI affirmed the continued use of the 1962 Roman Missal as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite ("a Forma extraordinaria ''), speaking of it also as an usus antiquior (older use), and issued new permissive norms for its employment. An instruction issued four years later spoke of the two forms or usages of the Roman Rite approved by the pope as the ordinary form and the extraordinary form ("the forma ordinaria '' and "the forma extraordinaria '').
The 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, published a few months before the Second Vatican Council opened, was the last that presented the Mass as standardised in 1570 by Pope Pius V at the request of the Council of Trent and that is therefore known as the Tridentine Mass. Pope Pius V 's Roman Missal was subjected to minor revisions by Pope Clement VIII in 1604, Pope Urban VIII in 1634, Pope Pius X in 1911, Pope Pius XII in 1955, and Pope John XXIII in 1962. Each successive edition was the ordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass until superseded by a later edition. When the 1962 edition was superseded by that of Paul VI, promulgated in 1969, its continued use at first required permission from bishops; but Pope Benedict XVI 's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum allowed free use of it for Mass celebrated without a congregation and authorised parish priests to permit, under certain conditions, its use even at public Masses. Except for the scriptural readings, which Pope Benedict allowed to be proclaimed in the vernacular language, it is celebrated exclusively in liturgical Latin.
Since 2014, clergy in the small personal ordinariates set up for groups of former Anglicans under the terms of the 2009 document Anglicanorum Coetibus are permitted to use a variation of the Roman Rite called "Divine Worship '' or, less formally, "Ordinariate Use '', which incorporates elements of the Anglican liturgy and traditions.
In the Archdiocese of Milan, with around five million Catholics the largest in Europe, Mass is celebrated according to the Ambrosian Rite. Other Latin Church rites include the Mozarabic and those of some religious institutes. These liturgical rites have an antiquity of at least 200 years before 1570, the date of Pope Pius V 's Quo primum, and were thus allowed to continue.
The Eastern Catholic Churches share common patrimony and liturgical rites as their counterparts, including Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Christian churches who are no longer in communion with the Holy See. These include churches that historically developed in Russia, Caucasus, the Balkans, North Eastern Africa, India and the Middle East. The Eastern Catholic Churches are groups of faithful who have either never been out of communion with the Holy See or who have restored communion with it at the cost of breaking communion with their associates of the same tradition.
The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties; the Alexandrian Rite; the Syriac Rite; the Armenian Rite; the Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. Eastern Catholic Churches have the autonomy to set the particulars of their liturgical forms and worship, within certain limits to protect the "accurate observance '' of their liturgical tradition. In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches were subject to a degree of liturgical Latinisation. However, in recent years Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum. Each church has its own liturgical calendar.
Catholic social teaching, reflecting the concern Jesus showed for the impoverished, places a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for the sick, the poor and the afflicted. Church teaching calls for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that "The Christian faithful are also obliged to promote social justice and, mindful of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor. '' Its foundations are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII 's 1891 encyclical letter Rerum novarum which upholds the rights and dignity of labor and the right of workers to form unions.
Catholic teaching regarding sexuality calls for a practice of chastity, with a focus on maintaining the spiritual and bodily integrity of the human person. Marriage is considered the only appropriate context for sexual activity. Church teachings about sexuality have become an issue of increasing controversy, especially after the close of the Second Vatican Council, due to changing cultural attitudes in the Western world described as the sexual revolution.
The church has also addressed stewardship of the natural environment, and its relationship to other social and theological teachings. In the document Laudato si ', dated 24 May 2015, Pope Francis critiques consumerism and irresponsible development, and laments environmental degradation and global warming. The pope expressed concern that the warming of the planet is a symptom of a greater problem: the developed world 's indifference to the destruction of the planet as humans pursue short - term economic gains.
The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world. In 2010, the Catholic Church 's Pontifical Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the church manages 26 % of health care facilities in the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those with leprosy.
The church has always been involved in education, since the founding of the first universities of Europe. It runs and sponsors thousands of primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities throughout the world and operates the world 's largest non-governmental school system.
Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent role in the provision of health and education services, as with orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. The Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta, India, founder of the Missionaries of Charity, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India 's poor. Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor ''.
The church is also actively engaged in international aid and development through organisations such as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, Aid to the Church in Need, refugee advocacy groups such as the Jesuit Refugee Service and community aid groups such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society.
The Catholic Church calls all members to practise chastity according to their state in life. Chastity includes temperance, self - mastery, personal and cultural growth, and divine grace. It requires refraining from lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution and, especially, rape. Chastity for those who are not married requires living in continence, abstaining from sexual activity; those who are married are called to conjugal chastity.
In the church 's teaching, sexual activity is reserved to married couples, whether in a sacramental marriage among Christians, or in a natural marriage where one or both spouses are unbaptised. Even in romantic relationships, particularly engagement to marriage, partners are called to practise continence, in order to test mutual respect and fidelity. Chastity in marriage requires in particular conjugal fidelity and protecting the fecundity of marriage. The couple must foster trust and honesty as well as spiritual and physical intimacy. Sexual activity must always be open to the possibility of life; the church calls this the procreative significance. It must likewise always bring a couple together in love; the church calls this the unitive significance.
Contraception and certain other sexual practices are not permitted, although natural family planning methods are permitted to provide healthy spacing between births, or to postpone children for a just reason. Pope Francis said in 2015 that he is worried that the church has grown "obsessed '' with issues such as abortion, same - sex marriage and contraception and has criticised the Catholic Church for placing dogma before love, and for prioritising moral doctrines over helping the poor and marginalised.
Canon law makes no provision for divorce between baptised individuals, as a valid, consummated sacramental marriage is considered to be a lifelong bond. However, a declaration of nullity may be granted when proof is produced that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent from the beginning -- in other words, that the marriage was not valid due to some impediment. A declaration of nullity, commonly called an annulment, is a judgement on the part of an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly attempted. In addition, marriages among unbaptised individuals may be dissolved with papal permission under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege. An attempt at remarriage following divorce without a declaration of nullity places "the remarried spouse (...) in a situation of public and permanent adultery ''. An innocent spouse who lives in continence following divorce, or couples who live in continence following a civil divorce for a grave cause, do not sin.
Worldwide, diocesan tribunals completed over 49000 cases for nullity of marriage in 2006. Over the past 30 years about 55 to 70 % of annulments have occurred in the United States. The growth in annulments has been substantial; in the United States, 27,000 marriages were annulled in 2006, compared to 338 in 1968. However, approximately 200,000 married Catholics in the United States divorce each year; 10 million total as of 2006. Divorce is increasing in some predominantly Catholic countries in Europe. In some predominantly Catholic countries, it is only in recent years that divorce was introduced (i.e. Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011), while the Philippines and the Vatican City have no procedure for divorce. (The Philippines does, however, allow divorce for Muslims.)
The church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place between a married man and woman, and should be without the use of birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae vitae (1968), Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all contraception, thus contradicting dissenters in the church that saw the birth control pill as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family planning. This teaching was continued especially by John Paul II in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the church 's position on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them as part of a "culture of death '' and calling instead for a "culture of life ''.
Many Western Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the church 's teaching on contraception. Catholics for Choice, a political lobbyist group which is not associated with the Catholic Church, stated in 1998 that 96 % of U.S. Catholic women had used contraceptives at some point in their lives and that 72 % of Catholics believed that one could be a good Catholic without obeying the church 's teaching on birth control. Use of natural family planning methods among United States Catholics purportedly is low, although the number can not be known with certainty. As Catholic health providers are among the largest providers of services to patients with HIV / AIDS worldwide, there is significant controversy within and outside the church regarding the use of condoms as a means of limiting new infections, as condom use ordinarily constitutes prohibited contraceptive use.
Similarly, the Catholic Church opposes in vitro fertilisation (IVF), saying that the artificial process replaces the love between a husband and wife. In addition, it opposes IVF because it might cause disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with a soul who must be treated as such. For this reason, the church also opposes abortion.
The Catholic Church also teaches that "homosexual acts '' are "contrary to the natural law '', "acts of grave depravity '' and "under no circumstances can they be approved '', but that persons experiencing homosexual tendencies must be accorded respect and dignity. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
The number of men and women who have deep - seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible. This inclination, which is objectively disordered, constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided....
Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self - mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection.
This part of the Catechism was quoted by Pope Francis in a 2013 press interview in which he remarked, when asked about an individual:
I think that when you encounter a person like this (the individual he was asked about), you must make a distinction between the fact of a person being gay from the fact of being a lobby, because lobbies, all are not good. That is bad. If a person is gay and seeks the Lord and has good will, well who am I to judge them?
This remark and others made in the same interview were seen as a change in the tone, but not in the substance of the teaching of the church, which includes opposition to same - sex marriage. Certain dissenting Catholic groups oppose the position of the Catholic Church and seek to change it.
Women and men religious engage in a variety of occupations, from contemplative prayer, to teaching, to providing health care, to working as missionaries. While Holy Orders are reserved for men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their participation and convents providing spaces for their self - government, prayer and influence through many centuries. Religious sisters and nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the church 's worldwide health and education service networks.
Efforts in support of the ordination of women to the priesthood led to several rulings by the Roman Curia or Popes against the proposal, as in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (1976), Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, Pope John Paul II affirmed that the Catholic Church "does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination. '' In defiance of these rulings, opposition groups such as Roman Catholic Womenpriests have performed ceremonies they affirm as sacramental ordinations (with, reputedly, an ordaining male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere simulations of the sacrament of ordination. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication (latae sententiae, literally "with the sentence already applied '', i.e. automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church laws.
From the 1990s, the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy and other church members has become the subject of civil litigation, criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate in countries around the world. The Catholic Church has been criticised for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences.
In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectiveness. In 2014, Pope Francis instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors.
The Christian religion is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, who lived and preached in the 1st century AD in the province of Judea of the Roman Empire. Catholic doctrine teaches that the contemporary Catholic Church is the continuation of this early Christian community established by Jesus. Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire, despite persecutions due to conflicts with the pagan state religion. Emperor Constantine legalised the practice of Christianity in 313, and it became the state religion in 380. Germanic invaders of Roman territory in the 5th and 6th centuries, many of whom had previously adopted Arian Christianity, eventually adopted Catholicism to ally themselves with the papacy and the monasteries.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, expanding Muslim conquests following the advent of Islam led to an Arab domination of the Mediterranean that severed political connections between that area and northern Europe, and weakened cultural connections between Rome and the Byzantine Empire. Conflicts involving authority in the church, particularly the authority of the Bishop of Rome finally culminated in the East -- West Schism in the 11th century, splitting the church into the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Earlier splits within the church occurred after the Council of Ephesus (431) and the Council of Chalcedon (451). However, a few Eastern Churches remained in communion with Rome, and portions of some others established communion in the 15th century and later, forming what are called the Eastern Catholic Churches.
Early monasteries throughout Europe helped preserve Greek and Roman classical civilisation. The church eventually became the dominant influence in Western civilisation into the modern age. Many Renaissance figures were sponsored by the church. The 16th century, however, began to see challenges to the church, in particular to its religious authority, by figures in the Protestant Reformation, as well as in the 17th century by secular intellectuals in the Enlightenment. Concurrently, Spanish and Portuguese explorers and missionaries spread the church 's influence through Africa, Asia, and the New World.
In 1870, the First Vatican Council declared the dogma of papal infallibility and the Kingdom of Italy annexed the city of Rome, the last portion of the Papal States to be incorporated into the new nation. In the 20th century, anti-clerical governments around the world, including Mexico and Spain, persecuted or executed thousands of clerics and laypersons. In the Second World War, the church condemned Nazism, and protected hundreds of thousands of Jews from the Holocaust; its efforts, however, have been criticised as inadequate. After the war, freedom of religion was severely restricted in the Communist countries newly aligned with the Soviet Union, several of which had large Catholic populations.
In the 1960s, the Second Vatican Council led to reforms of the church 's liturgy and practices, described as "opening the windows '' by defenders, but criticised by traditionalist Catholics. In the face of increased criticism from both within and without, the church has upheld or reaffirmed at various times controversial doctrinal positions regarding sexuality and gender, including limiting clergy to males, and moral exhortations against abortion, contraception, sexual activity outside of marriage, remarriage following divorce without annulment, and against same - sex marriage.
The New Testament, in particular the Gospels, records Jesus ' activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles and his Great Commission of the Apostles, instructing them to continue his work. The book Acts of Apostles, tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman empire. The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on Pentecost, occurring fifty days following the date Christ is believed to have resurrected. At Pentecost, the Apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading the church. The Catholic Church teaches that the college of bishops, led by the Bishop of Rome are the successors to the Apostles.
In the account of the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew, Christ designates Peter as the "rock '' upon which Christ 's church will be built. The Catholic Church considers the Bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to Saint Peter. Some scholars state Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural presbyters / bishops persisted in Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted, and that later writers retrospectively applied the term "bishop of Rome '' to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself. On this basis, Oscar Cullmann, Henry Chadwick, and Bart D. Ehrman question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in an essential way to the development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church ''. These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died, and where Paul witnessed to the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal ''.
Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire 's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and the Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood.
Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry). The Christians ' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians -- including government authorities -- to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian self - understanding until Christianity was legalised in the 4th century.
In 313, Emperor Constantine I 's Edict of Milan legalised Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, modern Istanbul, Turkey. In 380 the Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire, a position that within the diminishing territory of the Byzantine Empire would persist until the empire itself ended in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the East -- West Schism. During the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalised in the mid-6th century by Emperor Justinian I as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. In 451 the Council of Chalcedon, in a canon of disputed validity, elevated the see of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome ''. From c. 350 to c. 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them. Emperor Justinian, who in the areas under his control definitively established a form of caesaropapism, in which "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church '', reestablished imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the Byzantine Papacy (537 -- 752), during which the bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek - speaking subjects, resulting in a "melting pot '' of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy.
Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its Arian form, which the Catholic Church declared heretical. The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects was avoided when, in 497, Clovis I, the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries. The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589, and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century.
Western Christianity, particularly through its monasteries, was a major factor in preserving classical civilisation, with its art (see Illuminated manuscript) and literacy. Through his Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c. 480 -- 543), one of the founders of Western monasticism, exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as St Columbanus and St Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe.
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The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilisation from Late Antiquity to the dawn of the modern age. It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music. Renaissance figures such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian, Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of the numerous visual artists sponsored by the church.
The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern patriarchates of Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to that of Constantinople, the empire 's capital. As a result of Islamic domination of the Mediterranean, the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages. The battles of Toulouse and Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed Siege of Constantinople halted it in the East. Two or three decades later, in 751, the Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it. In 754, at the urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States. Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian schism of the 860s, when Photius criticised the Latin west of adding of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I. Though the schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division.
In the 11th century, the efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061. When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII. The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into the 21st century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the Gregorian Reforms regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors, over which had the authority to appoint bishops and popes.
In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions in the Byzantine -- Seljuk Wars, which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control. In the 11th century, strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East -- West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the final breach. In this age great gothic cathedrals in France were an expression of popular pride in the Christian faith.
In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán. The studia conventualia and studia generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of Church sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen, into the prominent universities of Europe. Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas ' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation.
A growing sense of church - state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France during a period known as the Avignon Papacy. The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome, but was followed in 1378 by the 38 - year - long Western schism with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa. The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.
In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Several eastern churches reunited, forming the Eastern Catholic Churches.
The Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe 's political and cultural influence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western Colonialism, Catholicism was spread to the Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio - political mechanisms of colonial rule. Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in the new colonies. In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines. Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelised in India, China, and Japan.
In 1517, Martin Luther, an Augustinian friar in Germany, sent his Ninety - Five Theses to several bishops. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences. In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers further criticised Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the Protestant Reformation, which gave birth to a variety of Christian denominations known today collectively as Protestantism. The English Reformation during the reign of Henry VIII began as a political dispute. When the pope denied Henry 's petition for a declaration of nullity of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed, making him head of the Church of England, which would in time lead to the development of Anglicanism.
The Reformation led to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first nine - year war ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict -- the Thirty Years ' War -- which broke out in 1618. In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots (French Calvinists) and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League. This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV 's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to French Protestants.
The Council of Trent (1545 -- 1563) became the driving force behind the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and imperialism, although its hold on European populations declined due to the growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment.
From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society. In the 18th century, writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV of France, which ended a century - long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. The French Revolution of 1789 brought about a shifting of powers from the church to the state, destruction of churches, and the establishment of a Cult of Reason. In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte 's General Louis - Alexandre Berthier invaded the Italian Peninsula, imprisoning Pope Pius VI, who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801. The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.
In 1854, Pope Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed the Immaculate Conception as a Dogma in the Catholic Church. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements. Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.
The Italian unification of the 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy, thus ending the papacy 's millennial temporal power. Pope Pius IX rejected the Italian Law of Guarantees, which granted him special privileges, and to avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities remained a "prisoner in the Vatican ''. This stand - off, which was spoken of as the Roman Question, was resolved by the 1929 Lateran Treaties, whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States and Italy recognised papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state.
A number of anti-clerical governments emerged in the 20th century.
The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War in which more than 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated, churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped, and captured priests shot. Following the 1917 October Revolution, persecution of the church and Catholics in the Soviet Union continued into the 1930s, with the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements, and closure of churches. In the 1936 -- 39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy allied with Franco 's Nationalists against the Popular Front government, citing as justification Republican violence against the church. Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries as a "terrible triangle ''.
After violations of the 1933 Reichskonkordat between the church and Nazi Germany, Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, which publicly condemned the Nazis ' persecution of the church and their ideology of neo-paganism and racial superiority. The church condemned the 1939 Invasion of Poland that started World War II and other subsequent wartime Nazi invasions. Thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned and murdered throughout the countries occupied by the Nazis, including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein. While Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Holocaust, the church has also been accused of having encouraged centuries of antisemitism by its teachings and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.
During the post-war period, Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms. Although some priests and religious people collaborated with Communist regimes, many others were imprisoned, deported, or executed. The church was an important player in the fall of Communism in Europe, particularly in the Polish People 's Republic.
In 1949, the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries. The new government also created the Patriotic Church and appointed its bishops. These appointments were initially rejected by Rome, before many of them were accepted. In the 1960s during the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese Communists closed all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened, they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.
The Second Vatican Council (1962 -- 1965) introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent, four centuries before. Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernised the practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations ''. It intended to engage the church more closely with the present world (aggiornamento), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows ''. In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to the church 's approach to ecumenism, and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate.
The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the "Spirit of Vatican II '' such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough '' to change church policies. Traditionalist Catholics, such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, however, strongly criticised the council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments '', among other issues.
Several teachings of the Catholic Church came under increased scrutiny both concurrent with and following the council; among those teachings was the church 's teaching regarding the immorality of contraception. The recent introduction of hormonal contraception (including "the pill ''), which were believed by some to be morally different than previous methods, prompted John XXIII to form a committee to advise him of the moral and theological issues with the new method. Pope Paul VI later expanded the committee 's scope to freely examine all methods, and the committee 's unreleased final report was rumoured to suggest permitting at least some methods of contraception. Paul did not agree with the arguments presented, and eventually issued Humanae vitae, saying that it upheld the constant teaching of the church against contraception. It expressly included hormonal methods as prohibited. This document generated a largely negative response from many Catholics.
In 1978, Pope John Paul II, formerly Archbishop of Kraków in the Polish People 's Republic, became the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. His 27 - year pontificate was one of the longest in history. Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, credited the Polish pope with hastening the fall of Communism in Europe.
John Paul sought to evangelise an increasingly secular world. He instituted World Youth Day as a "worldwide encounter with the pope '' for young people; it is now held every two to three years. He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries, and used television and radio as means of spreading the church 's teachings. He also emphasised the dignity of work and natural rights of labourers to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem exercens. He emphasised several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, euthanasia, and against widespread use of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae.
From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women, and its handling of sexual abuse cases.
In 2005, following the death of John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI, head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under John Paul, was elected. He was known for upholding traditional Christian values against secularisation, and for liberalising use of the Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman Missal of 1962. In 2012, the 50th anniversary of Vatican II, an assembly of the Synod of Bishops discussed re-evangelising lapsed Catholics in the developed world. Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict resigned in 2013, the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years.
Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, succeeded Pope Benedict XVI in 2013 as the first pope from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first Pope from outside Europe since the Syrian Gregory III, who reigned in the 8th century. Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on God 's mercy, concern for the poor and the environment, as well as his commitment to interfaith dialogue. He is credited with having a less formal approach to the papacy than his predecessors.
Pope Francis is recognised for his efforts "to further close the nearly 1,000 - year estrangement with the Orthodox Churches ''. Pope Francis ' installation was attended by Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the first time since the Great Schism of 1054 that the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has attended a papal installation. On 12 February 2016, Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, head of the largest Eastern Orthodox church, met in Havana, Cuba, issuing the a joint declaration calling for restored Christian unity between the two churches. This was reported as the first such high - level meeting between the two churches since the Great Schism of 1054.
In 2014, the Third Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops addressed the church 's ministry towards families and marriages and to Catholics in "irregular '' relationships, such as those who divorced and remarried outside of the church without a declaration of nullity. While welcomed by some, it was criticised by some for perceived ambiguity, provoking controversies among individual representatives of differing perspectives.
In 2017 during a visit in Egypt, Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Norton. ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 05975 - 5.
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lil kim phil collins in the air tonight | In the Air Tonite (Lil ' Kim song) - wikipedia
"In the Air Tonite '' is a remix of "In the Air Tonight '' released in 2001 to promote the R&B / hip hop Phil Collins tribute album Urban Renewal; the song is a duet between Collins and American rapper Lil ' Kim. They did not work together for the video; scenes from the original video and new scenes featuring Lil ' Kim were used to create a video. The single has been certified Platinum in Germany by the IFPI.
sales figures based on certification alone
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the main function of cell organelles is secretion | Vesicle (biology and Chemistry) - wikipedia
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes (not to be confused with lysosomes). If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Vesicles perform a variety of functions. Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, and temporary storage of food and enzymes. They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by James Rothman, Randy Schekman and Thomas Südhof for their roles (building upon earlier research, some of it by their mentors) on the makeup and function of cell vesicles, especially in yeasts and in humans, including information on each vesicle 's parts and how they are assembled. Vesicle dysfunction is thought to contribute to Alzheimer 's disease, diabetes, some hard - to - treat cases of epilepsy, some cancers and immunological disorders and certain neurovascular conditions.
Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life including complex eukaryotes, both Gram - negative and Gram - positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi.
These are often separated by density by differential centrifugation.
Ectosomes were named in 2008, but in 2012 are not considered a separate type.
In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management. The extracellular vesicles of (mesenchymal) stem cells, also known as the secretome of stem cells, are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly degenerative, auto - immune and / or inflammatory diseases.
In Gram - negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram - positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host - pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.
Ocean cyanobacteria have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open - ocean seawater samples.
Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. These vesicles are typically lemon - shaped or cylindrical tubes made out of protein; their diameter determines the strength of the vesicle with larger ones being weaker. The diameter of the vesicle also affects it 's volume and how efficiently it can provide buoyancy. In cyanobacteria natural selection has worked to create vesicles that are at the maximum diameter possible while still being structurally stable. The protein skin is permeable to gasses but not water, keeping the vesicles from flooding.
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy they were discovered independently in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson and Ermanno Bonucci. These cell - derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self - destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium - loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine: calcium: phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue 's matrix unless the Golgi are non-existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane - bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.
Some vesicles are made when part of the membrane pinches off the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi complex. Others are made when an object outside of the cell is surrounded by the cell membrane.
The vesicle "coat '' is a collection of proteins that serve to shape the curvature of a donor membrane, forming the rounded vesicle shape. Coat proteins can also function to bind to various transmembrane receptor proteins, called cargo receptors. These receptors help select what material is endocytosed in receptor - mediated endocytosis or intracellular transport.
There are three types of vesicle coats: clathrin, COPI and COPII. The various types of coat proteins help with sorting of vesicles to their final destination. Clathrin coats are found on vesicles trafficking between the Golgi and plasma membrane, the Golgi and endosomes and the plasma membrane and endosomes. COPI coated vesicles are responsible for retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER, while COPII coated vesicles are responsible for anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi.
The clathrin coat is thought to assemble in response to regulatory G protein. A protein coat assembles and disassembles due to an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) protein.
Surface proteins called SNAREs identify the vesicle 's cargo and complementary SNAREs on the target membrane act to cause fusion of the vesicle and target membrane. Such v - SNARES are hypothesised to exist on the vesicle membrane, while the complementary ones on the target membrane are known as t - SNAREs.
Often SNAREs associated with vesicles or target membranes are instead classified as Qa, Qb, Qc, or R SNAREs owing to further variation than simply v - or t - SNAREs. An array of different SNARE complexes can be seen in different tissues and subcellular compartments, with 36 isoforms currently identified in humans.
Regulatory Rab proteins are thought to inspect the joining of the SNAREs. Rab protein is a regulatory GTP - binding protein and controls the binding of these complementary SNAREs for a long enough time for the Rab protein to hydrolyse its bound GTP and lock the vesicle onto the membrane.
Vesicle fusion can occur in one of two ways: full fusion or kiss - and - run fusion. Fusion requires the two membranes to be brought within 1.5 nm of each other. For this to occur water must be displaced from the surface of the vesicle membrane. This is energetically unfavorable and evidence suggests that the process requires ATP, GTP and acetyl - coA. Fusion is also linked to budding, which is why the term budding and fusing arises.
Membrane proteins serving as receptors are sometimes tagged for downregulation by the attachment of ubiquitin. After arriving an endosome via the pathway described above, vesicles begin to form inside the endosome, taking with them the membrane proteins meant for degradation; When the endosome either matures to become a lysosome or is united with one, the vesicles are completely degraded. Without this mechanism, only the extracellular part of the membrane proteins would reach the lumen of the lysosome and only this part would be degraded.
It is because of these vesicles that the endosome is sometimes known as a multivesicular body. The pathway to their formation is not completely understood; unlike the other vesicles described above, the outer surface of the vesicles is not in contact with the cytosol.
Producing membrane vesicles is one of the methods to investigate various membranes of the cell. After the living tissue is crushed into suspension, various membranes form tiny closed bubbles. Big fragments of the crushed cells can be discarded by low - speed centrifugation and later the fraction of the known origin (plasmalemma, tonoplast, etc.) can be isolated by precise high - speed centrifugation in the density gradient. Using osmotic shock, it is possible temporarily open vesicles (filling them with the required solution) and then centrifugate down again and resuspend in a different solution. Applying ionophores like valinomycin can create electrochemical gradients comparable to the gradients inside living cells.
Vesicles are mainly used in two types of research:
Phospholipid vesicles have also been studied in biochemistry. For such studies, a homogeneous phospholipid vesicle suspension can be prepared by extrusion or sonication, injection of a phospholipid solution into the aqueous buffer solution membranes. In this way aqueous vesicle solutions can be prepared of different phospholipid composition, as well as different sizes of vesicles.
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who wants the girl with the skinny legs | Skinny legs and all (song) - wikipedia
"Skinny Legs and All '' is a song composed and recorded by soul singer Joe Tex and released in 1967 on the Dial label in 1967. The single was later featured on Tex 's "live '' album, Live and Lively a year later in 1968.
By 1967, Joe Tex had been recording for over a decade but started reaching his commercial peak in the mid-1960s with the releases of R&B hits such as "I Want To (Do Everything For You) '', "A Sweet Woman Like You '' and "Hold What You 've Got '', which became the first song in the Southern soul style to become a top five pop record. The three aforementioned records had also peaked at number - one on the R&B singles charts.
Tex was also known as an energetic live performer whose intense dancing was often compared to the likes of Jackie Wilson and James Brown. Two of his major trademarks, which Tex accused James Brown of stealing from him, was doing microphone stand kicks and adapting a cape, the latter of which Tex poked fun of during a rare joint headlining gig with both musicians, in which he covered Brown 's hit "Please, Please, Please '' but in the middle as his emcee dropped the cape on him, Tex yelled "please, please, please... get this cape off me! '' which did n't go over well with Brown, who allegedly later shot at Tex and his entourage at a nightclub after the show. Luckily for Tex and his entourage, no one was injured.
In 1967, Tex 's producer Buddy Killen decided to record a "live show '' of Tex 's, which was actually cut at American Studios. Killen would later include a live audience to give it a feeling of an actual live show. One of the last songs Tex did was a novelty type of song he had composed on the spot titled "Skinny Legs and All '' in which he poked fun at a man who was ignoring a woman he was with who apparently had skinny legs. Tex advised the woman to dump her lover because "someone out there will take you, Miss skinny legs and all ''. He later mocked a woman for similarly treating a man with "raggedy clothes '' and advised the guy to do the same thing. Tex would later tell an interviewer in 1972 that he got the inspiration to write the song while in Alabama and noticing a man arguing with his wife who was reportedly skinny and holding two bags of groceries, which frustrated her husband, causing an argument. Joe said he said to himself about what he 'd say to the woman, "' Walk on baby '. If that man do n't want you in public someone else will. ''
The song was released in the spring of that year and became a top ten hit on the pop charts, reaching # 10 and later going gold. It became Tex 's biggest hit until the release of "I Gotcha '' in 1972. During his early years with The Jackson 5, Michael Jackson, who later listed Tex as one of his idols, performed the song and often did it going into audiences and peeking under women 's skirts on the behest of his father Joseph.
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where did they film the original willy wonka and the chocolate factory | Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory - wikipedia
Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is a 1971 American musical fantasy family film directed by Mel Stuart, and starring Gene Wilder as Willy Wonka. It is an adaptation of the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. Dahl was credited with writing the film 's screenplay; however, David Seltzer, who went uncredited in the film, was brought in to re-work the screenplay against Dahl 's wishes, making major changes to the ending and adding musical numbers. These changes and other decisions made by the director led Dahl to disown the film.
The film tells the story of Charlie Bucket (Peter Ostrum) as he receives a Golden Ticket and visits Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory with four other children from around the world. Filming took place in Munich in 1970, and the film was released by Paramount Pictures on June 30, 1971. With a budget of just $3 million, the film received generally positive reviews and earned $4 million by the end of its original run. The film became highly popular in part through repeated television airings and home entertainment sales. In 1972, the film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, and Wilder was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, but lost both to Fiddler on the Roof. The film also introduced the song "The Candy Man '', which went on to become a popular hit when recorded by Sammy Davis Jr. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In a small town, Charlie Bucket, a poor paperboy, watches a group of children visit a candy shop. Walking home, he passes Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory. A mysterious tinker recites the first lines of William Allingham 's poem "The Fairies '', and tells Charlie, "Nobody ever goes in, and nobody ever comes out. '' Charlie rushes home to his widowed mother and bedridden grandparents. After telling Grandpa Joe about the tinker, Joe reveals that Wonka locked the factory because other candy makers, including rival Arthur Slugworth, sent in spies to steal his recipes. Wonka disappeared, but after three years resumed selling candy; the origin of Wonka 's labor force is unknown.
The next day, Wonka announces that he hid five "Golden Tickets '' in chocolate Wonka Bars. Finders of the tickets will receive a factory tour and a lifetime supply of chocolate. The first four tickets are found by the gluttonous Augustus Gloop, the spoiled Veruca Salt, the gum - chewing Violet Beauregarde, and the television - obsessed Mike Teevee. As each winner is announced on TV, a man whispers to them. Charlie opens two Wonka Bars but finds no Golden Ticket. The newspapers announce the fifth ticket was found by a millionaire in Paraguay causing Charlie to lose hope. The next day, Charlie finds money in a sewer and uses it to buy a Scrumdiddlyumptious bar. With the change, he buys another Wonka Bar for Joe. Walking home, as Charlie hears people reading the newspapers; revealing that the Paraguayan millionaire 's ticket is a fake, he opens the Wonka Bar and finds the fifth golden ticket. While rushing home, he encounters the same man seen whispering to the other winners, who introduces himself as Slugworth and offers a reward for a sample of Wonka 's latest creation, the Everlasting Gobstopper.
Returning home with the Golden Ticket, Charlie chooses Joe as his chaperone. The next day, Wonka greets the ticket winners and leads them inside where each signs a contract before the tour. The factory includes a river of chocolate, edible mushrooms, lickable wallpaper, and other sweets and inventions. As the visitors sample these, they see Wonka 's workers, small men known as Oompa - Loompas. Augustus falls into the chocolate river and is sucked up a pipe to the Fudge Room. In the Inventing Room, everyone receives an Everlasting Gobstopper. Violet becomes a large blueberry after chewing an experimental gum containing a three - course meal, over Wonka 's warnings. The group reaches the Fizzy Lifting Drinks Room, where Charlie and Joe ignore Wonka 's warning and sample the drinks. They float and have a near - fatal encounter with an exhaust fan before burping back to the ground. In the Chocolate Eggs Room, Veruca demands a golden goose for herself before falling into a garbage chute leading to the furnace, with her father falling in trying to rescue her. The group tests out Wonka 's Wonkavision, only for Mike to teleport himself and become a few inches tall.
With Charlie and Joe remaining, Wonka says they are not getting anything because they violated the contract by stealing the Fizzy Lifting Drinks. Infuriated by this, Joe suggests to Charlie that he should give Slugworth the Gobstopper in revenge, but Charlie returns the candy back to Wonka. With this selfless act, Wonka declares Charlie as the winner. He reveals that Slugworth is actually Mr. Wilkinson, an employee of Wonka, and the offer to buy the Gobstopper was a morality test that only Charlie passed. The trio enter the "Wonkavator '', a multi-directional glass elevator that flies out of the factory. Soaring over the city, Wonka reveals that his actual prize is the factory; Wonka created the contest to find an heir worthy enough, and so Charlie and his family can immediately move in. Wonka then reminds Charlie not to forget about the man who suddenly received everything he ever wanted. Charlie asks, "What happened? '' to which Wonka replies, "He lived happily ever after. ''
The idea for adapting the book into a film came about when director Mel Stuart 's ten - year - old daughter read the book and asked her father to make a film out of it, with "Uncle Dave '' (producer David L. Wolper) producing it. Stuart showed the book to Wolper, who happened to be in the midst of talks with the Quaker Oats Company regarding a vehicle to introduce a new candy bar from its Chicago - based Breaker Confections subsidiary (since renamed the Willy Wonka Candy Company and sold to Nestlé). Wolper persuaded the company, which had no previous experience in the film industry, to buy the rights to the book and finance the picture for the purpose of promoting a new Quaker Oats Wonka Bar.
It was agreed that the film would be a children 's musical, and that Dahl himself would write the screenplay. However, the title was changed to Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory.
Screenwriter David Seltzer conceived a gimmick exclusively for the film that had Wonka quoting numerous literary sources, such as Arthur O'Shaughnessy 's Ode, Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest, Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice. Seltzer also worked Slugworth (only mentioned as a rival candy maker in the book) into the plot as an actual character (only to be revealed to be Wilkinson, one of Wonka 's agents, at the end of the film).
All six members of Monty Python: Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones and Michael Palin, expressed interest in playing Wonka, but at the time they were deemed not big enough names for an international audience. Three of the members, Cleese, Idle and Palin, were later seriously considered for the same role in Tim Burton 's version.
Before Wilder was officially cast for the role, producers considered Fred Astaire, Joel Grey, Ron Moody and Jon Pertwee. Spike Milligan was Roald Dahl 's original choice to play Willy Wonka. Peter Sellers even begged Dahl for the role.
When Wilder was cast for the role, he accepted it on one condition:
When I make my first entrance, I 'd like to come out of the door carrying a cane and then walk toward the crowd with a limp. After the crowd sees Willy Wonka is a cripple, they all whisper to themselves and then become deathly quiet. As I walk toward them, my cane sinks into one of the cobblestones I 'm walking on and stands straight up, by itself; but I keep on walking, until I realize that I no longer have my cane. I start to fall forward, and just before I hit the ground, I do a beautiful forward somersault and bounce back up, to great applause.
The reason why Wilder wanted this in the film was that "from that time on, no one will know if I 'm lying or telling the truth. ''
Jean Stapleton turned down the role of Mrs. Teevee. Jim Backus was considered for the role of Sam Beauregarde. Sammy Davis Jr. wanted to play Bill, the candy store owner, but Stuart did not like the idea because he felt that the presence of a big star in the candy store scene would break the reality. Nevertheless, Davis ' recording of the film 's opening musical number, "The Candy Man, '' would top the Billboard magazine record charts in 1972, despite the fact that Davis initially hated the song. Anthony Newley also wanted to play Bill, but Stuart also objected to this for the same reason.
Principal photography commenced on August 31, 1970, and ended on November 19, 1970. The primary shooting location was Munich, Bavaria, West Germany, because it was significantly cheaper than filming in the United States and the setting was conducive to Wonka 's factory; Stuart also liked the ambiguity and unfamiliarity of the location. External shots of the factory were filmed at the gasworks of Stadtwerke München (Emmy - Noether - Straße 10); the entrance and side buildings still exist. The exterior of Charlie Bucket 's house, which was only a set constructed for the film, was filmed at Quellenstraße in Munich. Charlie 's school was filmed at Katholisches Pfarramt St. Sylvester, Biedersteiner Straße 1 in Munich. Bill 's Candy Shop was filmed at Lilienstraße, Munich. The closing sequence when the Wonkavator is flying above the factory is footage of Nördlingen in Bavaria.
Munich Gasworks as it appears today (building on the left)
Munich Gasworks as it appears today
Nördlingen, the town seen from above at the end of the film
Production designer Harper Goff centered the factory on the massive Chocolate Room. According to Paris Themmen, who played Mike Teevee, "The river was made of water with food coloring. At one point, they poured some cocoa powder into it to try to thicken it but it did n't really work. When asked this question, Michael Böllner, who played Augustus Gloop, answers, ' It vas dirty, stinking vater. ' ''
When interviewed for the 30th anniversary special edition, Gene Wilder stated that he enjoyed working with most of the child actors, but said that he and the crew had some problems with Paris Themmen, claiming that he was "a handful ''.
Before its release, the film received advance publicity though TV commercials offering a "Willy Wonka candy factory kit '' for sending $1.00 and two seals from boxes of Quaker cereals such as King Vitaman, Life and any of the Cap'n Crunch brands.
Willy Wonka was released on June 30, 1971. The film was not a big success, being the 53rd highest - grossing film of the year in the U.S., earning just over $2.1 million on its opening weekend. It received positive reviews from critics such as Roger Ebert who gave the film a four out of four stars, while comparing it to The Wizard of Oz. Ebert said, "All of this is preface to a simple statement: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory is probably the best film of its sort since The Wizard of Oz. It is everything that family movies usually claim to be, but are n't: Delightful, funny, scary, exciting, and, most of all, a genuine work of imagination. "Willy Wonka '' is such a surely and wonderfully spun fantasy that it works on all kinds of minds, and it is fascinating because, like all classic fantasy, it is fascinated with itself. ''
By the mid-1980s, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory had experienced a spike in popularity thanks in large part to repeated television broadcasts and home video sales. Following a 25th anniversary theatrical re-release in 1996, it was released on DVD the next year, allowing it to reach a new generation of viewers. The film was released as a remastered special edition on DVD and VHS in 2001 to commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary. In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked it 25th in the "Top 50 Cult Movies '' of all time.
Willy Wonka was ranked No. 74 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments for the "scary tunnel '' scene.
As of 2017, the film holds a 91 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.8 / 10 based on 44 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states: "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is strange yet comforting, full of narrative detours that do n't always work but express the film 's uniqueness ''.
Dahl disowned the film, the script of which was partially rewritten by David Seltzer after Dahl failed to meet deadlines. Dahl said he was "disappointed '' because "he thought it placed too much emphasis on Willy Wonka and not enough on Charlie '', as well as the casting of Gene Wilder instead of Spike Milligan. Dahl was also "infuriated '' by the deviations in the plot Seltzer devised in his draft of the screenplay, including the conversion of Slugworth, a minor character in the book, into a spy (so that the film could have a villain) and the "fizzy lifting drinks '' scene along with music other than the original Oompa Loompa compositions (including "Pure Imagination '' and "The Candy Man ''), and the ending dialogue for the movie. In 1996, Dahl 's second wife Felicity commented on her husband 's objections towards the film saying "they always want to change a book 's storyline. What makes Hollywood think children want the endings changed for a film, when they accept it in a book? ''
In 2017, an animated adaptation of the film with Tom and Jerry was released. Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory stars JP Karliak as Willy Wonka and is dedicated to Gene Wilder, who died less than a year before the release.
The film was first released on DVD in 1997 / 1999 in a "25th anniversary edition '' as a double sided disc containing a widescreen and "standard '' version. The "standard '' version is an open matte print, where the mattes used to make the image widescreen are removed, revealing information originally intended to be hidden from viewers. VHS and Betamax copies were also available, but only containing the "standard '' version.
A special edition DVD was released, celebrating the film 's 30th anniversary, on August 28, 2001, but in fullscreen only. Due to the lack of a letterboxed release, fan petitioning eventually led Warner Home Video to issue a widescreen version on November 13, 2001. It was also released on VHS, with only one of the special features (a making - of feature). Several original cast members reunited to film documentary footage for this special edition DVD release. The two editions featured restored sound, and better picture quality. In addition to the documentary, the DVD included a trailer, a gallery, and audio commentary by the cast.
In 2007, Warner Home Video released the film on HD DVD with all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD. The film was released on Blu - ray on October 20, 2009. It includes all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD and 2007 HD - DVD as well as a 38 - page book.
In 2011, a new deluxe - 40th - anniversary edition Blu - ray / DVD set was released on November 1, consisting of the film on Blu - ray Disc and DVD as well as a bonus features disc. The set also included a variety of rarities such as a Wonka Bar - designed tin, four scented pencils, a scented eraser, a book detailing the making of the film, original production papers and a Golden Ticket to win a trip to Los Angeles. The set is now out of print.
The Academy Award - nominated original score and songs were composed by Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley, and musical direction was by Walter Scharf. The soundtrack was first released by Paramount Records in 1971. On October 8, 1996, Hip - O Records (in conjunction with MCA Records, which by then owned the Paramount catalog), released the soundtrack on CD as a "25th Anniversary Edition ''. In 2016, UMe and Geffen Records released a 45th Anniversary Edition LP.
The music and songs, in order of appearance, are as follows:
The track listing for the soundtrack is as follows:
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why did northern ireland separate from the rest of ireland | Partition of Ireland - Wikipedia
The partition of Ireland (Irish: críochdheighilt na hÉireann) was the division of the island of Ireland into two distinct jurisdictions, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. It took place on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Today the former is still known as Northern Ireland and forms part of the United Kingdom, while the latter is now a sovereign state also named Ireland and sometimes called the Republic of Ireland.
The Act of 1920 was intended to create two self - governing territories within Ireland, with both remaining within the United Kingdom. It also contained provisions for co-operation between the two territories and for the eventual reunification of Ireland. However, in 1922, following the War of Independence and the Anglo - Irish Treaty, the southern part became the Irish Free State, while Northern Ireland exercised its option to remain in the United Kingdom.
Since partition, a key aspiration of Irish nationalists has been to bring about a reunited Ireland, with the whole island forming one independent state. This goal conflicts with that of the unionists in Northern Ireland, who want the region to remain part of the United Kingdom. The Irish and British governments agreed, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement, that the status of Northern Ireland will not change without the consent of a majority of its population. In its white paper on Brexit the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Belfast Agreement. With regard to Northern Ireland 's status, it said that the UK Government 's "clearly - stated preference is to retain Northern Ireland 's current constitutional position: as part of the UK, but with strong links to Ireland ''.
The idea of excluding some or all of the Ulster counties from the provisions of the Home Rule Bills had been mooted at the time of the First and Second Home Rule Bills, with Joseph Chamberlain calling for Ulster to have its own government in 1892. The unionist MP Horace Plunkett, who would later support home rule, opposed it in the 1890s because of the danger of partition. Exclusion was first considered by the British cabinet in 1912, in the context of Ulster unionist opposition to the Third Home Rule Bill, which was then in preparation. The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) imported 25,000 rifles and three million rounds of ammunition from the German Empire in the Larne gun - running of April 1914, and there were fears that passing the Home Rule Bill could start a full - scale civil war in Ulster. The Curragh incident on 20 March 1914 had already led Westminster to believe that the British Army could not be trusted to carry out their orders in Ireland. The issue of partition was the main focus of discussion at the Buckingham Palace Conference held between 21 and 24 July 1914, although at the time it was believed that all nine counties of Ulster would be separated.
The Home Rule Crisis was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. Westminster passed the Home Rule Bill on 18 September 1914 and it immediately received Royal Assent, but its implementation was simultaneously postponed by a Suspensory Act until the war ended. At the time it was widely believed that the conflict would only last for a few months. Following the Easter Rising of April 1916, Westminster called the Irish Convention in an attempt to find a solution to its Irish Question; it sat in Dublin from July 1917 until March 1918, ending with a report, supported by nationalist and southern unionist members, calling for the establishment of an all - Ireland parliament consisting of two houses with special provisions for northern unionists. The report was, however rejected by the Ulster unionist members, and Sinn Féin had not taken part in the proceedings, meaning the Convention was a failure. Support for Irish republicanism had risen during 1917, with Sinn Féin winning four by - elections that year. The Conscription Crisis of 1918 further reinforced the ascendancy of the republicans.
Beginning on 21 January 1919 with the Soloheadbeg ambush, through the Irish War of Independence, Irish republicans attempted to bring about the secession of Ireland from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Meanwhile, Irish unionists -- most of whom lived in the northeast of the island -- were just as determined to maintain the Union. The British Government, committed to implementing Home Rule, set up a cabinet committee under the chairmanship of southern unionist Walter Long. The Long Committee recommended the establishment of two devolved administrations, dividing the island into two territories: Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. This was implemented as the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The act entered into force as a fait accompli on 3 May 1921 and provided that Northern Ireland would consist of the six northeastern counties, while the remainder of the island would form Southern Ireland. It was intended that each jurisdiction would be granted home rule but remain within the United Kingdom. The government of Southern Ireland never functioned: the war for independence continued until the two sides agreed a truce in July 1921, ending with the Anglo - Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921.
A year later on 6 December 1922, the Irish Free State became independent of the United Kingdom in accordance with the Treaty, which was given legislative effect in the United Kingdom by the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922. The new state had the status of a dominion of the British Empire.
Under the treaty, the Government of Ireland Act continued to apply in Northern Ireland for one month after the coming into being of the Free State, and Northern Ireland would continue to remain outside the Free State if the Parliament of Northern Ireland stated its desire to do so in an address to King George V within that month. The wording of the treaty allowed the impression to be given that the Irish Free State temporarily included the whole island of Ireland, but legally the terms of the treaty applied only to the 26 counties, and the government of the Free State never had any powers -- even in principle -- in Northern Ireland. On 7 December 1922 the houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland approved an address to George V, requesting that its territory not be included in the Irish Free State. This was presented to the king the following day on 8 December 1922, and then entered into effect, in accordance with the provisions of Section 12 of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922. Following independence, the southern state gradually severed all remaining constitutional links with the United Kingdom and the British monarchy. In 1937 the Free State was renamed "Ireland '' in its new constitution, which claimed jurisdiction over the entire island. In 1949 the state was declared to be a republic, under the Republic of Ireland Act.
The Government of Ireland Act 1920, which came into effect on 3 May 1921, provided for separate self - governing parliaments for Northern Ireland (the six northeastern counties) and Southern Ireland (the rest of the island), thus partitioning Ireland. While the parliament and governmental institutions for Northern Ireland were soon established, the election in the 26 counties returned an overwhelming majority of members giving their allegiance to Dáil Éireann and supporting the republican effort in the Irish War of Independence, thus rendering "Southern Ireland '' dead in the water.
The Irish War of Independence led to the Anglo - Irish Treaty. The treaty was given legal effect in the United Kingdom through the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, and in Ireland by ratification by Dáil Éireann. Under the former Act, at 1pm on 6 December 1922, King George V (at a meeting of his Privy Council at Buckingham Palace) signed a proclamation establishing the new Irish Free State.
The treaty, and the laws which implemented it, allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the Irish Free State. Under Article 12 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland could exercise its opt - out by presenting an address to the King, requesting not to be part of the Irish Free State. Once the treaty was ratified, the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had one month (dubbed the Ulster month) to exercise this opt - out during which time the provisions of the Government of Ireland Act continued to apply in Northern Ireland.
The treaty "went through the motions of including Northern Ireland within the Irish Free State while offering it the provision to opt out ''. It was certain that Northern Ireland would exercise its opt out. The Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Sir James Craig, speaking in the House of Commons of Northern Ireland in October 1922, said that "when the 6th of December is passed the month begins in which we will have to make the choice either to vote out or remain within the Free State. '' He said it was important that that choice be made as soon as possible after 6 December 1922 "in order that it may not go forth to the world that we had the slightest hesitation. '' On the following day, 7 December 1922, the Parliament resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State:
MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty 's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland.
Discussion in the Parliament of the address was short. Craig left for London with the memorial embodying the address on the night boat that evening, 7 December 1922. King George V received it the following day, The Times reporting:
YORK COTTAGE, SANDRINGHAM, DEC. 8. The Earl of Cromer (Lord Chamberlain) was received in audience by The King this evening and presented an Address from the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland, to which His Majesty was graciously pleased to make reply.
If the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had not made such a declaration, under Article 14 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland, its Parliament and government would have continued in being but the Oireachtas would have had jurisdiction to legislate for Northern Ireland in matters not delegated to Northern Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act. This never came to pass. On 13 December 1922, Craig addressed the Parliament of Northern Ireland, informing them that the King had responded to the Parliament 's address as follows:
I have received the Address presented to me by both Houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in pursuance of Article 12 of the Articles of Agreement set forth in the Schedule to the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act, 1922, and of Section 5 of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, and I have caused my Ministers and the Irish Free State Government to be so informed.
In the 1885 UK general election the nationalist Irish Parliamentary Party held the balance of power in the House of Commons, and entered into an alliance with the Liberals. Its leader, Charles Stewart Parnell convinced William Gladstone to introduce the First Irish Home Rule Bill in 1886. Immediately, an Irish Unionist Party was founded and organised demonstrations in Belfast against the Bill, fearing that separation from Great Britain would bring industrial decline and religious persecution of Protestants by a Roman Catholic - dominated Irish government. English unionist politician Randolph Churchill proclaimed: "the Orange card is the one to play '', which was later expressed in the popular slogan, Home Rule means Rome Rule.
In many rural parts of Ireland, a "Land War '' (1879 -- 1890) was under way, supported by many nationalists, that had led to sporadic violence. The Representation of the People Act 1884 had enlarged the popular franchise, and many property - owners, particularly unionists, were concerned that their interests would be reduced by a new Irish political class.
Although the bill was defeated, Gladstone remained undaunted and introduced a Second Irish Home Rule Bill in 1892 that passed the Commons. Accompanied by similar mass unionist protests, Joseph Chamberlain called for a (separate) provincial government for Ulster even before the bill was rejected by the House of Lords. The seriousness of the situation was highlighted when Irish unionists throughout the island assembled at conventions in Dublin and Belfast to oppose both the Bill and the proposed partition.
When, in 1910, the Irish Party again held the balance of power in the Commons, H.H. Asquith introduced a Third Home Rule Bill in 1912. The unionists adopted the positions they had demonstrated in 1886 and 1893. With the veto of the Lords removed by the Parliament Act 1911, and the clear prospect of Home Rule passing into law, Ulster loyalists established the Ulster Volunteers in 1912 (in 1913 re-organised into an Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)), to oppose enactment of the Bill (and what they called its "Coercion of Ulster ''), and threatened to establish a Provisional Ulster Government.
While the Home Rule Bill was still being debated, on 20 March 1914 many British Army officers resigned (and others threatened to), in what became known as the "Curragh Incident '' (also known, incorrectly, as "The Curragh Mutiny ''), rather than be mobilised to enforce the Act on Ulster. This meant that the British government could legislate for Home Rule but could not be sure of making it a reality on the ground. This led on to an amending Bill that would exclude Ulster for an indefinite period, and the new fear of a civil war (between unionists, and nationalists, who had set up the Irish Volunteers in response to the UVF 's formation) in Ireland led to the Buckingham Palace Conference in July.
The Home Rule Act reached the statute books with Royal Assent in September 1914 (although the amending Bill was abandoned) but, because of the First World War, its commencement was suspended for one year or for the duration of what was expected to be a short war. It intended to grant self - government to the entire island of Ireland as a single jurisdiction under Dublin administration, but the final version as enacted in 1914 included an amendment clause for six Ulster counties to remain under London administration for a proposed trial period of six years, yet to be finally agreed. This was belatedly conceded by John Redmond, leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, as a compromise in order to pacify Ulster unionists and avoid civil war.
In 1917 -- 18 the Irish Convention attempted to resolve what sort of Home Rule would follow the First World War. Unionist and nationalist politicians met in a common forum for the last time before partition. The Ulster unionists preferred to remain within the United Kingdom; the nationalist Home Rule parties and the Southern Unionists argued against partition. The growing Sinn Féin party refused to attend.
Soon after the end of the war Sinn Féin won the overwhelming majority of the Irish parliamentary seats in the UK general election of 1918, and in January 1919 the Sinn Féin members declared unilaterally an independent (all - island) Irish Republic. Unionists, however, won a majority of seats in four of the nine counties of Ulster and affirmed their continuing loyalty to the United Kingdom. Following the Paris Peace Conference, in September 1919 Lloyd George tasked the Long Committee to implement Britain 's commitment to introduce Home Rule, which was based on the policy of Walter Long, and some findings of the Irish Convention. The result was to be two home - rule Irish jurisdictions, and in November 1920 the Government of Ireland Act 1920 was enacted. As a result of this, in April 1921 the island was partitioned into Southern and Northern Ireland.
On 5 May 1921 the Ulster Unionist leader Sir James Craig had met with the President of Sinn Féin Éamon de Valera in secret near Dublin. Each restated his position and nothing new was agreed. On 10 May De Valera told the Dáil that the meeting "... was of no significance ''. In June 1921, shortly before the truce that ended the Anglo - Irish War, David Lloyd George invited the Republic 's President de Valera to talks in London on an equal footing with the new Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, James Craig, which de Valera attended. De Valera 's policy in the ensuing negotiations was that the future of Ulster was an Irish - British matter to be resolved between two sovereign states, and that Craig should not attend. After the truce came into effect on 11 July, Lloyd George made it clear to de Valera, ' that the achievement of a republic through negotiation was impossible '.
On 20 July Lloyd George further declared to de Valera that:
The form in which the settlement is to take effect will depend upon Ireland herself. It must allow for full recognition of the existing powers and privileges of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, which can not be abrogated except by their own consent. For their part, the British Government entertain an earnest hope that the necessity of harmonious co-operation amongst Irishmen of all classes and creeds will be recognised throughout Ireland, and they will welcome the day when by those means unity is achieved. But no such common action can be secured by force.
In reply, de Valera wrote
We most earnestly desire to help in bringing about a lasting peace between the peoples of these two islands, but see no avenue by which it can be reached if you deny Ireland 's essential unity and set aside the principle of national self - determination.
The treaty as ratified in December 1921 -- January 1922 allowed for a re-drawing of the mutual border by a Boundary Commission. Northern Ireland was deemed to be a part of the Irish Free State, whenever it became established, but its parliament would be allowed to vote to secede within a month, the so - called "Ulster month ''.
Sir James Craig, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland objected to aspects of the Anglo - Irish Treaty. In a letter to Austen Chamberlain dated 14 December 1921, he stated:
We protest against the declared intention of your government to place Northern Ireland automatically in the Irish Free State. Not only is this opposed to your pledge in our agreed statement of November 25th, but it is also antagonistic to the general principles of the Empire regarding her people 's liberties. It is true that Ulster is given the right to contract out, but she can only do so after automatic inclusion in the Irish Free State. It is a complete reversal of the British Cabinet 's own policy as declared in the King 's speech at the opening of the Northern parliament and in the Premier 's published correspondence with de Valera. That policy was that Ulster should remain out until she chose of her own free will to enter an All - Ireland parliament. Neither explanation nor justification for this astounding change has been attempted. We can only conjecture that it is a surrender to the claims of Sinn Fein that her delegates must be recognised as the representatives of the whole of Ireland a claim which we can not for a moment admit... (With regard to references to Belfast Lough in the Anglo - Irish Treaty, Craig continued)... What right has the Sinn Fein to be a party to an agreement concerning the defences of Belfast Lough, which touches only the loyal counties of Antrim and Down... The principles of the 1920 Act have been completely violated, the Irish Free State being relieved of many of her responsibilities towards the Empire. The Sinn Fein receives a financial advantage that will relieve her considerably from the burden borne by Ulster and other parts of the Kingdom. Ulster can obtain such concessions only by first becoming subordinate to the Sinn Fein... In spite of the inducements held out to Ulster, we are convinced that it is not in the best interests of Britain or the Empire that Ulster should become subordinate to the Sinn Fein. We are glad to think that our decision will obviate the necessity of mutilating the Union Jack.
The treaty terms were ratified by the Dáil on 7 January 1922 by 64 -- 57, but the minority refused to be bound by the result. The main dispute centred on the proposed status as a dominion (as represented by the Oath of Allegiance and Fidelity) for Southern Ireland, rather than as an independent all - Ireland republic, but continuing partition was a significant matter for Ulstermen like Sean MacEntee, who spoke strongly against partition or re-partition of any kind. The pro-treaty side argued that the proposed Boundary Commission would satisfy the greatest number on each side of the eventual border, and felt that the Council of Ireland (as envisaged by the 1920 Home Rule Act) would lead to unity by consent over a longer period.
The anti-treaty group 's leader, Éamon de Valera, had drafted his own preferred text of the treaty in December 1921, known as "Document No. 2 ''. An "Addendum North East Ulster '' indicates his acceptance of the 1920 partition for the time being, and of the rest of Treaty text as signed in regard to Northern Ireland:
That whilst refusing to admit the right of any part of Ireland to be excluded from the supreme authority of the Parliament of Ireland, or that the relations between the Parliament of Ireland and any subordinate legislature in Ireland can be a matter for treaty with a Government outside Ireland, nevertheless, in sincere regard for internal peace, and in order to make manifest our desire not to bring force or coercion to bear upon any substantial part of the province of Ulster, whose inhabitants may now be unwilling to accept the national authority, we are prepared to grant to that portion of Ulster which is defined as Northern Ireland in the British Government of Ireland Act of 1920, privileges and safeguards not less substantial than those provided for in the ' Articles of Agreement for a Treaty ' between Great Britain and Ireland signed in London on 6 December 1921.
As described above, under the treaty it was provided that Northern Ireland would have a month -- the "Ulster Month '' -- during which its Houses of Parliament could opt out of the Irish Free State. The Treaty was ambiguous on whether the month should run from the date the Anglo - Irish Treaty was ratified (in March 1922 via the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act) or the date that the Constitution of the Irish Free State was approved and the Free State established (6 December 1922). This question was the subject of some debate.
When the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill was being debated on 21 March 1922, amendments were proposed which would have provided that the Ulster Month would run from the passing of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act and not the Act that would establish the Irish Free State. Essentially, those who put down the amendments wished to bring forward the month during which Northern Ireland could exercise its right to opt out of the Irish Free State. They justified this view on the basis that if Northern Ireland could exercise its option to opt out at an earlier date, this would help to settle any state of anxiety or trouble on the new Irish border. Speaking in the House of Lords, the Marquess of Salisbury argued:
The disorder (in Northern Ireland) is extreme. Surely the Government will not refuse to make a concession which will do something... to mitigate the feeling of irritation which exists on the Ulster side of the border... (U) pon the passage of the Bill into law Ulster will be, technically, part of the Free State. No doubt the Free State will not be allowed, under the provisions of the Act, to exercise authority in Ulster; but, technically, Ulster will be part of the Free State... Nothing will do more to intensify the feeling in Ulster than that she should be placed, even temporarily, under the Free State which she abominates. Besides that there is the unrest in Ulster as a whole and the special unrest in the area which is to be the subject of delimitation... I need not remind your Lordships that the area in doubt, although according to His Majesty 's Government it is small, is, in the opinion of the leaders of the Free State, a very large area.
The British Government took the view that the Ulster Month should run from the date the Irish Free State was established and not beforehand, Viscount Peel for the Government remarking:
His Majesty 's Government did not want to assume that it was certain that on the first opportunity Ulster would contract out. They did not wish to say that Ulster should have no opportunity of looking at entire Constitution of the Free State after it had been drawn up before she must decide whether she would or would not contract out.
Viscount Peel continued by saying the government desired that there should be no ambiguity and would to add a proviso to the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill providing that the Ulster Month should run from the passing of the Act establishing the Irish Free State. He further explained that the members of the Parliament of Southern Ireland had agreed to put that interpretation upon it. He noted that he had received from Arthur Griffith the following letter dated 20 March 1922:
While it is held by the Irish plenipotentiaries and the Ministers of the Provisional Government that in the strict reading and interpretation of the Treaty the month in which North - East Ulster should exercise its option should run as from the date of the passing of the Bill (ratifying the Anglo - Irish Treaty rather than establishing the Irish Free State), they recognize that strong arguments might be made for the advisability of allowing North - East Ulster to consider the Constitution of the Irish Free State before exercising its option and they are willing to waive their interpretation, and agree that the (Ulster) month should run as from the date of the formal adoption of the Constitution (of the Irish Free State).
Lord Birkenhead remarked in the Lords debate:
I should have thought, however strongly one may have embraced the cause of Ulster, that one would have resented it as an intolerable grievance if, before finally and irrevocably withdrawing from the Constitution, she was unable to see the Constitution from which she was withdrawing.
On 7 December 1922, the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State, the House of Commons of Northern Ireland heard an address by Sir James Craig to King George V requesting: "... that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland ''. No division or vote was requested on the address, which was described as the Constitution Act and was then approved by the Senate of Northern Ireland.
While the Irish Free State was established at the end of 1922, the Boundary Commission contemplated by the Treaty was not to meet until 1924. Things did not remain static during that gap. In April 1923, just four months after independence, the Irish Free State established customs barriers on the border. This was a significant step in consolidating the border:
The passage of time was ensuring that the Border was acquiring inertia. While its final position was sidelined, its functional dimension was actually being underscored by the Free State with its imposition of a customs barrier from April 1923.
The Anglo - Irish Treaty contained a provision that would establish a boundary commission, which could adjust the border as drawn up in 1920. Most leaders in the Free State, both pro - and anti-treaty, assumed that the commission would award largely nationalist areas such as County Fermanagh, County Tyrone, South Londonderry, South Armagh and South Down, and the City of Derry to the Free State, and that the remnant of Northern Ireland would not be economically viable and would eventually opt for union with the rest of the island as well. In the event, the commission 's decision was made for it by the inter-governmental agreement of 3 December 1925 that was published later that day by Stanley Baldwin. As a result, the Commission 's report was not published; the detailed article explains the factors involved.
The Dáil voted to approve the agreement, by a supplementary act, on 10 December 1925 by a vote of 71 to 20.
The division of territorial waters as between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State was to be a lingering matter of controversy for a number of years. Section 1 (2) of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 defined the respective territories of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland as follows:
... Northern Ireland shall consist of the parliamentary counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone, and the parliamentary boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, and Southern Ireland shall consist of so much of Ireland as is not comprised within the said parliamentary counties and boroughs.
At the time of that act, both Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland were to remain parts of the United Kingdom. Perhaps because of this, the Act did not explicitly address the position of territorial waters, although section 11 (4) provided that neither Southern Ireland nor Northern Ireland would have any competence to make laws in respect of "lighthouses, buoys, or beacons (except so far as they can consistently with any general Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom be constructed or maintained by a local harbour authority) ''.
When the territory that was Southern Ireland became a separate self - governing dominion outside the United Kingdom known as the Irish Free State, the status of the territorial waters naturally took on a significance it had not had before. The Northern Ireland Unionists were conscious of this matter from an early stage. They were keen to put it beyond doubt that the territorial waters around Northern Ireland would not belong to the Irish Free State. In this regard, Sir James Craig, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland put the following question in the British House of Commons on 27 November 1922 (the month before the establishment of the Irish Free State):
Another important matter on which I should like a statement of the Government 's intentions, is with regard to the territorial waters surrounding Ulster. Under the Act of 1920, the areas handed over to the Governments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland respectively, were defined as the six Parliamentary counties of Northern Ireland and the twenty - six Parliamentary counties of Southern Ireland. I understand there is considerable doubt in the minds of lawyers and others as to whether these Parliamentary counties carry with them the ordinary territorial waters, extending three miles out from the shore. It has been asserted in some quarters that the Parliamentary counties only extend to low water mark. That has been exercising the minds of a good many people in Ulster, and I shall be glad if the Government in due course will inform the House what is their opinion on the subject and what steps they are taking to make it clear... Am I to understand that the Law Officers have actually considered this question, and that they have given a decision in favour of the theory that the territorial waters go with the counties that were included in the six counties of Northern Ireland?
In response the Attorney General, Sir Douglas Hogg said that "I have considered the question, and I have given an opinion that that is so (i.e. the territorial waters do go with the counties) ''.
A particular dispute arose between the Government of the Irish Free State of the one part and the Northern Ireland and UK Governments of the other part over territorial waters in Lough Foyle. Lough Foyle lies between County Londonderry in Northern Ireland and County Donegal in the then Irish Free State. A court case in the Free State in 1923 relating to fishing rights in Lough Foyle held that the Free State 's territorial waters ran right up to the shore of County Londonderry. In 1925, the Chief Justice of the Irish Free State, Hugh Kennedy advised the President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State, WT Cosgrave as follows:
In 1927, illegal fishing on Lough Foyle had become so grave that Northern Ireland Prime Minister, James Craig entered into correspondence with his Free State counterpart, W.T. Cosgrave. Craig indicated to Cosgrave that he proposed to introduce a Bill giving the Royal Ulster Constabulary powers to stop and search vessels on Lough Foyle. Cosgrave asserted all of Lough Foyle was Free State territory and that as such a Bill of that nature would be rejected by the Free State and its introduction would create "a very serious situation ''. Cosgrave then raised the matter with the British government.
In 1936 in Dáil Éireann, the Minister for External Affairs was asked if he intends to take any steps to safeguard and maintain the rights to fishing in certain parts of Lough Foyle, claimed by and hitherto enjoyed by Free State nationals. The Vice-President (for the Minister for External Affairs), responding, noted that there had been correspondence between the two Governments in recent years. He summarised the position as currently being that:
The matter, therefore, now stands as follows. The Government of Saorstát Éireann are still willing to make temporary administrative arrangements for the preservation of order on the waters of Lough Foyle pending the settlement of the fishery dispute and without prejudice to the general question of jurisdiction. But we decline to accept either of the conditions which the British Government seek to impose as a condition precedent to those arrangements. We decline, that is to say, either (1) to give any undertaking that we will submit the international dispute as to our jurisdiction in the Lough Foyle area to a British Commonwealth Tribunal or (2) to make any agreement with regard to the fishery dispute itself which would prejudice the issue in that dispute or which would purport to remove the legal right of any citizen of Saorstát Éireann to test the claim of the Irish Society or their lessees in the courts of this country.
The Minister was criticised by Opposition politicians for his government 's overall indecision on whether the Irish Free State should remain part of the British Commonwealth, a spokesman claiming this was why the Government had such difficulty with the British Government 's first pre-condition.
With the fall of France in 1940, the British Admiralty ordered convoys to be re-routed through the north - western approaches which would take them around the north coast and through the North Channel to the Irish Sea. However, escorting those convoys raised a problem: it became imperative to establish an escort base as far west in the United Kingdom as possible. There was one obvious location: Lough Foyle. However, it remained unclear where the border was between the UK and Ireland in Lough Foyle. On 31 August 1940, Sir John Maffey, the UK 's representative to the Irish government, wrote to the Dominions Office in London that:
use by Admiralty of Lough Foyle should from now on be constant but for the present on limited scale so that use may be established quietly if possible. My inclination is to make no communication on the subject to the Eire Government, to wait on events and to let them know when and if use on large scale is intended. So far as naval use is concerned we appear to have (a) good case.
In September 1940 Maffey approached the Irish External Affairs Secretary, Joseph Walshe, to inform him ' of the intended increase of light naval craft ' in Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy increased its use of Lough Foyle in the early months of 1941. The Royal Navy remained concerned that there might be a challenge to its use of the Foyle on the grounds that ships navigating the river to Lisahally and Londonderry might be infringing Irish neutrality. If the border followed the median line of Lough Foyle then the channel might be in Irish waters as it "lies near to the Eire shore ''. In mid-November 1941, legal opinions of solicitors to The Honourable The Irish Society were presented to the Royal Navy. The Hon. The Irish Society 's view was that the whole of Lough Foyle was part of County Londonderry and accordingly the border could not be that of the median line of Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy continued to use its new base on the Foyle until 1970.
At a British Cabinet meeting on 22 November 1948 it was decided that a working party be established to "(consider) what consequential action may have to be taken by the United Kingdom Government as a result of Éire 's ceasing to be a member of the Commonwealth ''. The Working Party was chaired by the Cabinet Secretary, Norman Brook. Its report dated 1 January 1949 was presented by Prime Minister Clement Attlee to the Cabinet on 7 January 1949. The following is para 23 of the Working Party 's report (which speaks for itself):
Boundary of Northern Ireland -- The Government of Northern Ireland ask that the question of their territorial jurisdiction should be put beyond doubt. In 1920 Northern Ireland was defined as the six Parliamentary Counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone, and the two Parliamentary Boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, and in 1922 a Commission was appointed to delimit the boundary more precisely. The Commission activities proved abortive. The boundary in Lough Foyle and the River Foyle and in Carlingford Lough is open to dispute. Article 2 of the Eire Constitution of 1937 provided that the national territory included the whole of the territorial seas of Ireland, and Eire spokesmen have repeatedly laid claim to the territorial waters round Northern Ireland. The Government of Northern Ireland claim that the County of Londonderry includes the whole of Lough Foyle, which lies between the Counties of Londonderry and Donegal, and the whole of the River Foyle in that stretch of it which separates the Counties of Tyrone and Donegal. We do not believe that this claim could be sustained, and to raise the boundary issue would jeopardise the access to Londonderry, since the navigable channel in Lough Foyle hugs the Donegal shore. There is a similar risk in raising the boundary question in Carlingford Lough, where the navigable channel giving access to Newry is partly on the Northern Ireland side and partly on the Eire side of the Lough. There is no substance in the Eire claim to the Northern Ireland territorial waters, but the Eire Government have never taken any steps to assert their alleged rights in these waters, nor is it clear what steps they could take to do so. We accordingly recommend that no attempt should be made by the United Kingdom Government, whether by legislation or declaration, to define the boundary of Northern Ireland. Our main reason for this recommendation is that any such attempt might seriously prejudice our interests in retaining unrestricted access to Londonderry in peace and war.
The division of the territorial waters continued to be a matter disputed between the two Governments. On 29 February 1972, during a Dáil debate about internment in Northern Ireland, deputy Richie Ryan questioned the legitimacy of anchoring the Maidstone prison ship in Belfast Lough to accommodate internees. A good summary of the Irish position on the territorial waters issue was given by then Taoiseach, Mr. Jack Lynch:
... (W) e claim that the territorial waters around the whole island of Ireland are ours and our claim to the territorial waters around Northern Ireland is based on the Government of Ireland Act of 1920. This Act is so referred to in the 1921 Treaty that the Northern Ireland which withdrew from the Irish Free State is identical with the Northern Ireland defined in the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, and defined as consisting of named counties and boroughs. It is, I think, common case between us that in English law the counties do not include adjacent territorial waters and, therefore, according to our claim these territorial waters were retained by the Irish Free State.
Other incidents have occurred from time to time in the disputed waters, and they have been discussed in Dáil Éireann occasionally.
The territorial dispute between Ireland and the United Kingdom concerning Lough Foyle (and similarly Carlingford Lough) is still not settled. As recently as 2005, when asked to list those areas of EU member states where border definition is in dispute, a British Government minister responding for the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs stated:
Border definition (ie the demarcation of borders between two internationally recognized sovereign states with an adjoining territorial or maritime border) is politically disputed (between) Ireland (and the) UK (Lough Foyle, Carlingford Lough -- quiescent)
In 2009, the territorial dispute concerning Lough Foyle was raised in a meeting of the Northern Ireland Assembly 's Committee for Enterprise Trade and Investment. The committee was meeting to discuss Project Kelvin, a project involving the construction of a fiber optic telecommunications cable between North America and Northern Ireland. Mr Derek Bullock, an executive from Hibernia Atlantic Limited, the cable - laying company leading the project 's implementation had to explain to the committee why the cable landing station was going to be located at Coleraine rather than Derry City as initially indicated. He explained that one of the reasons it had been decided not to locate the cable landing station in Lough Foyle was because:
We can not bring a cable into Lough Foyle, because the border line under the sea there is actually disputed... Lough Foyle is a disputed border region, and, as I said, we can not put submarine cables near disputed border regions.
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office underlined its view on 2 June 2009 that all of Lough Foyle is in the United Kingdom, a spokesperson stating:
The UK position is that the whole of Lough Foyle is within the UK. We recognise that the Irish Government does not accept this position... There are no negotiations currently in progress on this issue. The regulation of activities in the Lough is now the responsibility of the Loughs Agency, a cross-border body established under the Belfast Agreement of 1998.
A corresponding statement was made by Conor Lenihan, then an Irish Government Minister:
(t) here has never been any formal agreement between Ireland and the United Kingdom on the delimitation of a territorial water boundary between the two states. In the context of the Good Friday Agreement, a decision was taken to co-operate on foreshore and other issues that arise in the management of the lough from conservation and other points of view. One of the issues is that the median channel in Carlingford is the navigation channel whereas... the navigation channel in Lough Foyle hugs the southern side, which makes it rather more difficult to manage or to negotiate an agreement as to where the territorial waters actually lie. There is no agreement between the two Governments on where the boundary lies, which is a problem that has bedevilled the situation for some time.
The two governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding pertaining to the promotion of offshore renewable energy development in the seas adjacent to the Lough Foyle (and Carlingford Lough) in 2011. This was signed without prejudice to outstanding issues concerning sovereignty.
Following partition some social and sporting bodies divided but others did not. Today in Ireland many sports, such as boxing, Gaelic football, hurling, cricket and rugby union, are organised on an all - island basis, with a single team representing Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as association football (soccer), have separate organising bodies in Northern Ireland (Irish Football Association) and the Republic of Ireland (Football Association of Ireland). At the Olympics, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either the Republic of Ireland team (which competes as "Ireland '') or United Kingdom team (which competes as "Great Britain ''). Selection usually depends on whether his or her sport is organised on an all - Ireland, a Northern Ireland, or a UK basis. Sports organised on an all - Ireland basis are affiliated to the Republic of Ireland 's Olympic association, whereas those organised on a Northern Ireland or UK basis are generally affiliated to the UK 's Olympic association.
Rail transport in Ireland was seriously affected by partition. The railway network on either side of the border relied on cross-border routes, and eventually a large section of the Irish railway 's route network was shut down. Today only the cross-border route from Dublin to Belfast remains, and counties Cavan, Donegal, Fermanagh, Monaghan and Tyrone have no rail services.
De Valera came to power in Dublin in 1932 and drafted a new Constitution of Ireland which in 1937 was adopted by plebiscite in the Irish Free State. Its articles 2 and 3 defined the ' national territory ' as: "the whole island of Ireland, its islands and the territorial seas ''. The state was named ' Ireland ' (in English) and ' Éire ' (in Irish); a United Kingdom Act of 1938 described the state as "Eire ''.
To unionists in Northern Ireland, the 1937 constitution made the ending of partition even less desirable than before. Most were Protestants, but article 44 recognised the ' special position ' of the Roman Catholic Church. Further, the preamble referred to: "... our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, Who sustained our fathers through centuries of trial, Gratefully remembering their heroic and unremitting struggle to regain the rightful independence of our Nation, ''; this was an independence that unionists had opposed, and seemed to imply in an insulting fashion that Jesus had sustained only the Irish independence movement, and never the unionist cause. All spoke English, but article 8 stipulated that the new ' national language ' and ' first official language ' was to be Irish, with English as the ' second official language '.
The irrendentist texts in Articles 2 and 3 were deleted by the Nineteenth Amendment in 1998, as part of the Belfast Agreement.
Nationalists also established a number of anti-partition groups campaigning against the border, starting with de Valera 's National League of the North (1928) which was renamed the Irish Union Association and then the Anti-Partition League in 1938. These were followed by the Northern Council for Unity, the Irish Anti-Partition League, the All Ireland Anti-Partition League and finally National Unity (Ireland) in 1964. None achieved an electoral majority and they were prone to divisions.
In the United States the 1947 Irish Race Convention arranged for a vote in the US Congress whereby Marshall Aid for Britain would be conditional on the end of partition. The vote was lost by 206 votes to 139, with 83 abstaining.
During the Second World War, after the Fall of France, Britain made a qualified offer of Irish unity in June 1940, without reference to those living in Northern Ireland. On their rejection, neither the London or Dublin governments publicised the matter.
Ireland would have joined the allies against Germany by allowing British ships to use its ports, arresting Germans and Italians, setting up a joint defence council and allowing overflights.
In return, arms would have been provided to Ireland and British forces would cooperate on a German invasion. London would have declared that it accepted ' the principle of a United Ireland ' in the form of an undertaking ' that the Union is to become at an early date an accomplished fact from which there shall be no turning back. '
Clause ii of the offer promised a joint body to work out the practical and constitutional details, ' the purpose of the work being to establish at as early a date as possible the whole machinery of government of the Union '.
The proposals were first published in 1970 in a biography of de Valera.
In May 1949 the Taoiseach John A. Costello introduced a motion in the Dáil strongly against the terms of the UK 's Ireland Act 1949 that confirmed partition for as long as a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland wanted it, styled in Dublin as the "Unionist Veto ''. This was a change from his position supporting the Boundary Commission back in 1925, when he was a legal adviser to the Irish government. A possible cause was that his coalition government was supported by the strongly republican Clann na Poblachta. From this point on all the political parties in the Republic were formally in favour of ending partition regardless of the opinion of the electorate in Northern Ireland.
The new republic could not and in any event did not wish to remain in the Commonwealth and it chose not to join NATO when it was founded in 1949. These decisions broadened the effects of partition but were in line with the evolving policy of Irish neutrality.
In 1966 the Taoiseach Seán Lemass visited Northern Ireland in secrecy, leading to a return visit to Dublin by Terence O'Neill; it had taken four decades to achieve such a simple meeting. The impact was further reduced when both countries joined the European Economic Community in 1973. With the onset of The Troubles (1969 -- 98) a 1973 referendum showed that a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland did want to continue the link to Britain as expected, but the referendum was boycotted by Nationalist voters.
Following the start of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in 1969, the Sunningdale Agreement was signed by the Irish and British governments in 1973. This collapsed in May 1974 due to the Ulster Workers ' Council strike, and the new British Prime Minister Harold Wilson considered a rapid withdrawal of the British Army and administration from Northern Ireland in 1974 -- 75 as a serious policy option. The relevant cabinet notes remained secret until 2005.
The effect of such a withdrawal was considered by Garret FitzGerald, the then Minister for Foreign Affairs in Dublin, and recalled in his 2006 essay. The Irish cabinet concluded that such a withdrawal would lead to widescale civil war and a greater loss of life, which the Irish Army of 12,500 men could do little to prevent.
The Good Friday Agreement in 1998, was ratified by two referenda in both parts of Ireland, including an acceptance by the Republic that its claim to Northern Ireland would only be achieved by peaceful means. This was an important part of the Northern Ireland peace process that had been under way since 1993.
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willy wonka charlie and the chocolate factory characters | List of Charlie and the Chocolate factory characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in the Roald Dahl book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the former 's film adaptations, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
In the novels and films, Willy Wonka is the odd owner of an extremely prosperous chocolates factory. The inciting action of the story occurs when Wonka holds a contest, hiding five Golden Tickets within the wrappers of confectionery bars, promising their discoverers a tour of his factory and a lifelong supply of his creations. Implications stand in all three versions that he allows four of his five finalists to disgrace themselves, in hope that one does not.
In the book, Wonka is described by Roald Dahl as having a goatee and "marvelously '' bright eyes, a high and "flutey '' voice, a face "alight of fun and laughter '', and quick little jerky movements "like a squirrel ''. He is enthusiastic, eccentric, charming, talkative, and friendly, but at times insensitive, and has been given to glossing criticisms of himself.
In the 1971 film Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Gene Wilder. While his personality remains generally the same as in the original, he is more melancholy here, and frequently quotes books and poems, including William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Is it my soul that calls upon my name? '') or John Masefield 's "Sea Fever '' ("All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ''), and the famous "Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker '' from "Reflections on Ice Breaking '' by Ogden Nash, among many others. Toward the end of the film, he tests protagonist Charlie 's conscience by pretending to deny him any reward, but assumes an almost paternal role when Charlie proves honest.
In the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Johnny Depp. In this version, a back - story was added that Willy Wonka 's father (being a dentist) would not let him eat sweets because of the potential risk to his teeth, and that the young Wonka left home to become a chocolatier. The conflict was so bad on young Wonka (portrayed by Blair Dunlop), that he took no interest in the kids when they arrived and could n't even say the word "parent ''. He later gains a soft spot for Charlie and offers him a spoon from the chocolate river. Toward the end of the film, Charlie reconciles the two.
Charlie Bucket is a title character and the protagonist of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, its sequel Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the film adaptations of these books. He is depicted as a kind - hearted, nice, selfless, sweet, brave, but poor boy that lives with his mother, father and four bedridden grandparents. Charlie was to have been a little black boy at the outset, but the detail was changed at the insistence of Dahl 's literary agent to better appeal to audiences. In 1971, he has a newspaper route after school. He and his family follow the progress of the hunt for the Golden Tickets in newspapers, in films, and on television. Unlike the first four finalists, Charlie is honest and generous. In the 1971 film, Charlie was portrayed by Peter Ostrum, in his only film appearance. His nationality is never explicitly stated, but in the 1971 film, he speaks with an American accent, and in the 2005 film, he speaks with an English accent. The filmmakers have stated that it was their intention that Charlie 's hometown be kept ambiguous.
In the novel, at the end of the tour, Wonka declares Charlie heir to the factory for his refusal of vice, and Charlie 's family are permitted to move into the factory. In the 1971 film, Charlie wins the factory when he returns an Everlasting Gobstopper given to him by Wonka, thereby passing Wonka 's moral test. In the 2005 film, Wonka initially refuses to allow Charlie 's family to join them in the factory, and Charlie rejects Wonka 's offer. When Charlie helps Wonka reconcile with his father, the family move into the factory and Charlie becomes Wonka 's partner.
Jack Albertson (1971) David Kelly (2005) Nigel Planer, Barry James (2013)
Grandpa Joe is one of Charlie 's four bed - ridden grandparents. He is usually stubborn, senile, and paranoid, but still kind, caring, grandfatherly, excitable, and supportive. He tells Charlie (and the reader) the story of Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory and the mystery of the secret workers. When Charlie finds the Golden Ticket, Grandpa Joe leaps out of bed in joy, and later accompanies Charlie on the factory tour. In the sequel book, Grandpa Joe accompanies Charlie, Willy Wonka, and all members of Charlie 's family in the Great Glass Elevator and assists the rescue of the Commuter Capsule from the Vermicious Knids. Grandpa Joe 's age is given as "ninety - six and a half '' in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory '', making him the eldest of Charlie 's grandparents, but in the musical it is stated he is almost ninety and a half.
The character was played by Jack Albertson in the 1971 film adaptation Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. In this film, he is often excitable, paranoid, stubborn and appears anxious that Charlie win the contest, and becomes angry when Charlie is dismissed without reward, despite the fact that they both violated the rules by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and not following the tour, which indicated that Charlie violated the contract, unaware that Wonka had found out what they had done. He tells Charlie that he expects him to find all five Golden Tickets and most certainly expects Charlie to find one when he receives a Wonka Bar for his birthday.
The character was played by David Kelly in the 2005 film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veteran actor Gregory Peck was originally selected to play the role, but he died in 2003 before filming began. This version of the character is written as more calm than the 1971 version. An original backstory to Grandpa Joe 's past was added to Tim Burton 's film, wherein it is said that Joe worked for Wonka until the latter fired all his workers from his factory due to constant corporate espionage by rival confectionery manufacturers. When he returns to the factory with Charlie for the tour, Wonka asks if he was a spy working for a competing factory before he humbly welcomes him back.
Introduced in the opening pages of the book as "a greedy boy '', Augustus Gloop is an obese, greedy, gluttonous boy, the first person to find a Golden Ticket and one of the four main antagonists of the series. He hails from fictitious Dusselheim, Germany in the 1971 film, and Düsseldorf, Germany in the 2005 film. His mother takes great pride in his gluttonous eating and seems to enjoy the attention of the media. In the novel and both films, he is portrayed as "enormously fat ''. Augustus is the first child to be removed from the tour: while drinking from the Chocolate Room 's Chocolate River, he accidentally falls into the river and is drawn through a pipe to the factory 's Fudge Room. His parents are summoned to retrieve him from the mixing - machine. In the book, he is depicted leaving the factory, having lost most of his weight, and covered in melted chocolate.
In the 1971 film, despite eating constantly, he has decent table manners, is not as obese as he is in the book, and is polite to Charlie and the other finalists. He is portrayed by Michael Bollner in this film. Since Bollner could not speak fluent English at the time of the film 's production, the 1971 Augustus has fewer lines and less screen time.
In the 2005 film, Augustus is always shown consuming chocolate. He has a binge eating disorder and often has food smeared on his face. He is aloof and cruel towards Charlie in the one instance when they interact, as he offers him a Wonka Bar and then retracts it, saying Charlie should have brought some himself. As in the book, he is shown leaving the factory toward the end of the story; but in this version, he is his normal size, licking his fingers to remove the adherent chocolate he is still coated in. The actor, Philip Wiegratz, wore a fat suit for the production.
In the 2013 London musical, Augustus Gloop is known as "the Bavarian Beefcake '' in his Alpine community. His mother and father indulge his eating habits with sweets and pieces of sausage of which they (and sometimes Augustus) butcher themselves. In his number, "More of Him to Love '', Frau Gloop reveals that she had vital organs removed to retrieve Augustus from the womb. They arrive at the factory wearing traditional Eastern European clothing, with Augustus in a red, argyle sweater and green shorts. When Augustus falls into the chocolate river Wonka summons the diversionary pumping system to divert the flow, while Oompa Loompas dressed in red boiler suits sing, "Auf Wiedersehen Augustus Gloop '', as they prepare the chocolate, while Augustus travels through the main industrial pipe, occasionally getting stuck.
Violet Beauregarde is the third person to find a Golden Ticket, the second to be ejected from the tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. She is the vain, self - centered, snobby, and gum - obsessed child. Violet chews gum obsessively and boasts that she has been chewing the same piece "for three months solid '', a world record which Violet proclaims was previously held by her best friend Cornelia Prinzmetel. She is also aggressively competitive, prideful and has won trophies for gum chewing. In the 1971 film, she is shown to be from Miles City, Montana, while in the 2005 film, she is from Atlanta, Georgia.
When Wonka shows the group around the Inventing Room, he stops to display a new type of gum he is working on. The gum doubles as a three - course meal which is composed of tomato soup, roast beef and baked potato, and blueberry pie and ice cream. Violet is intrigued and, despite Wonka 's protests, snatches and chews the gum. She is delighted by its effects but, when she reaches the dessert, blueberry pie, her skin starts turning a somewhat indigo color and her navel shows & her body begins to swell up, filling with juice. Eventually, Violet 's head, legs, and arms get sucked into her gigantic body, but is still mobile and is able to waddle. When her swelling stops, she resembles a round blueberry, causing Wonka to have the Oompa - Loompas roll her to the Juicing Room to have the juice squeezed out of her in fear she may explode. She is last seen leaving the factory with the other children, restored to her normal size but with indigo skin like the skin of a blueberry. Wonka says there is nothing that can be done to change Violet 's skin back to its original pigment.
In the 1971 film, Violet is impatient, arrogant, self - centered, vain, and impulsive. She is accompanied by her father, Sam Beauregarde, a fast - talking car salesman who tries to advertise his business during Violet 's television interview. She demeans Cornelia Prinzmetel more than she did in the book. She has a notable rivalry with Veruca Salt, with whom she persistently argues. Her blueberry form is relatively small, and her hair color remains unchanged. Violet is informed that she must be juiced immediately before she explodes and is last seen en route to the Juicing Room, with her father following her.
In the 2005 film, Violet has a rude, impatient and competitive personality. Aside from gum - chewing, she also has many other interests that reflect her obsession with always winning, such as karate. She is accompanied by her single mother, Scarlett Beauregarde (a former baton champion herself) whose own competitive personality appears to have had an influence on her daughter, as Scarlett expresses pride over Violet 's 263 trophies and medals. Cornelia Prinzmetel was not mentioned in this film. Violet is also shown to be anti-social and bullying when she briefly insults Charlie, snatching a piece of confectionery from his hand and calling him a loser when he tries to interact with her. She turns blue, although her lips remain red, and swells up into a 10 - foot blueberry before beiong rolled off to the Juicing Room by the Oompa Loompas to prevent her from bursting. Violet is shown leaving the factory gymnastically cartwheeling as a consequence of her increased flexibility, which she is actually happy about, although her mother is less than pleased with her daughter 's permanently indigo color.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Violet Beauregarde is portrayed as an African - American, Californian fame - hungry wan na - be, with her agent / father Eugene Beauregarde parlaying her mundane talent of gum chewing into celebrity status, with multitude of endorsements including her own TV show, line of perfume, and a clothing boutique franchise. Her theme is called "The Double - Bubble Duchess ''. It is revealed that Violet 's chewing "skill '' was picked up when she was a baby and her mom tried to get her to stop talking all the time. Violet and her father are escorted by an entourage to the factory entrance. Violet comes dressed in a sparkly purple and pink disco jumper and a pink backpack. Upon swelling in the influence of the experimental gum (which consisted of tomato soup, roast chicken, potatoes and gravy, Fizzy Orange, cheese and crackers and blueberry pie), she panics and runs away as the Oompa Loompas break into an disco number, "Juicy '', and roller skate along the stage as Violet lifts into the air, resembling a giant purple disco - ball. Mr. Beauregarde phones his lawyer excitedly, with intent to profit from Violet 's new size, until Violet explodes. Wonka 's only reassurance of her survival is the prospect of rescuing the pieces and de-juicing them. In the Broadway version, the song "Juicy '' is cut out (the only child - exit song to be cut from the London version), and Violet instead becomes a blueberry and explodes in the background while Wonka explains how he met the Ooompa - Loompas to the group.
Veruca Salt is a greedy, demanding, manipulative and stingy brat. She demands every single thing she wants (and more), the second person to find a Golden Ticket, the third eliminated from the tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. A selfish, rotten brat who shows her wealthy family no mercy and has absolutely no regard for other people 's property, Veruca frequently pesters her parents to purchase a variety of different objects for her. In the 2005 film, it is revealed that she owns 1 pony, 2 dogs, 4 cats, 6 rabbits, 2 parakeets, 3 canaries, a parrot, a turtle and a hamster. But when she interferes with the trained squirrels used by Willy Wonka to select the best nuts to bake into chocolate bars, she is judged as a "bad nut '' by the squirrels and discarded into the adjacent ' garbage chute ' and her parents follow. All three are later seen leaving the factory "covered in garbage ''. Her nationality was never specified in Dahl 's novel, but she hails from upper - class England in both films.
In the 1971 film adaptation, Veruca has a fiery temper, rudely demands various desires nonstop, brags about her wealth, and chastises anyone who questions her. In this film it is not squirrels but geese that lay special golden chocolate - filled eggs for Easter, one of which she demands as a new pet. She and Violet, in this film, bicker on two occasions. Veruca is eliminated at the end of her musical number in the film ("I Want it Now '') after climbing a machine designed to tell whether or not the geese 's eggs are "good '' or "bad '' eggs, and it judges her as a bad one. Her father then follows and is also deemed bad. In the Tom and Jerry version of the film, Veruca and her father manage to escape the furnace right before it ignites while trapping Tom inside. Veruca demands to be taken home and have her father make her a different chocolate factory, but Mr. Salt finally decides to discipline her as the near - death experience seems to have finally gotten to him.
In the 2005 film adaptation, Veruca 's elimination remains virtually the same as in the book, with only a few changes made. Her demeanor is less vehement and more passive - aggressive compared to the 1971 version. When she leaves the factory (covered in trash), she demands a facsimile of the Great Glass Elevator. However, her father, having learned a good parenting lesson from the Oompa - Loompas and finally realizing how much he has spoiled her, sternly tells her that she will only be getting a bath that day instead, and shoots her a fierce glare for trying to argue any further.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Veruca Salt is a British billionaire 's daughter, dressed in a pink ballerina tutu and baby seal fur coat - "clubbed and tickled pink ''. Her father, Sir Robert Salt, is portrayed as a spineless dolt for giving his daughter her wishes. In the Nut Sorting Room, Veruca runs foul of the nut - testing squirrels who deem her a ' bad nut ' when she tries to steal one. This summons oversized squirrels with Oompa Loompas riding on their backs. They sing a nightmarish ballet "Veruca 's Nutcracker Sweet '' that concludes with Veruca and her father sent down the garbage chute. In the Broadway version, Veruca 's nationality is changed to Russian, and the squirrels tear her apart limb by limb, but Wonka assures the group that the Ooompa - Loompas will be able to put her back together.
Mike Teavee, a boy that does nothing but watch television, is the fourth Golden Ticket finder, the last removed on - tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. He was described as adorned with eighteen toy pistols that he ' fires ' while watching gangsters on TV. He is bad - tempered, slothful but also intelligent. How he found his Golden Ticket is never explained in the book or 1971 film as he is too absorbed in his television viewing to talk to the press about it. In the 2005 film, he does have an explanation on how he found the Golden Ticket: he used an algorithm to find it as an intellectual exercise. In the book, both of Mike 's parents tour the factory with him. During a display of miniaturization technology, used to transport chocolate, Mike shrinks himself to a tiny size, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take the Teavee family to the Gum - Stretcher Room to get Mike stretched back to normal. Mike is last seen exiting the factory, now 10 ft (3 m) tall because the Oompa - Loompas overstretched him. After he got shrunk when his parents lament that he wo n't be able to attend school, Mike happily says he can continue watching TV. His angry father then blames the TV for Mike 's poor behavior and decides to unplug it and throw it out the window when they get home, much to Mike 's displeasure.
In the 1971 film, Mike is played by Paris Themmen and his surname is spelled "Teevee '' in the credits. Mike is nine years old and accompanied to the factory by his high - strung mother. He 's from Arizona, enjoys Western films and wears cowboy attire. He makes constant references to television shows throughout the factory tour and comes across as somewhat of a know - it - all. Although easily annoyed, he does not have any major anger issues and gets along relatively well with the other kids.
In the 2005 film, 13 - year - old Mike 's (portrayed by Jordan Fry) interests are updated to the Internet and video games (especially gory first - person shooters), in addition to television viewing. In this version, he is from Denver, Colorado, and is portrayed as more disrespectful. Whenever he says something critical of Wonka 's company, or his ideas, Wonka reacts as if Mike is mumbling, even though he does not. He is able to find the Golden Ticket by using math and logic, though he admits he does not even like chocolate. After the incident in the Television Chocolate room, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take Mr. Teavee and Mike to the Taffy - Puller Room to have Mike stretched back to normal. When Mike and his father are later seen leaving the factory, Mike is 10 ft (3 m) tall and incredibly thin and flat.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Mike Teavee (now age 10) lives in a suburban neighborhood with his disinterested father Norman Teavee and neurotic, alcoholic mother, Doris Teavee. Their opening number, "It 's Teavee Time! '' has Mrs. Teavee presenting her family as a normal, functioning household, downplaying Mike 's violent tendencies like setting a cat on fire, chloroforming a nurse, and stealing a German tank. In the Department of the Future, where Wonka transmits chocolate by television, Mike anxiously jumps into the machine and transmits himself, much to his mother 's horror. Wonka summons the monitors to see on which channel Mike has ended, as the Oompa Loompas rave around the room, singing, ' Vidiots '. Near the end, Mrs. Teavee joins the rave, as they conclude that Mike still has a future on ' Mike.com '. When Mike is shrunk as a result of the transporter, Mrs. Teavee happily takes him home as he can no longer cause trouble and she can take care of him like when he was a baby. In the Broadway version of the musical, lyrics in Mike 's song and some of Mike 's mannerisms reference president Donald Trump.
In the book, Arthur Slugworth is one of Willy Wonka 's rival chocolatiers. Slugworth, along with Wonka 's other rivals Mr. Fickelgruber and Mr. Prodnose, sent in spies to steal the secret recipes to Wonka 's treats, which he plagiarized, nearly ruining Wonka 's factory. After Wonka re-opens his factory (operated exclusively by Oompa - Loompas), Slugworth is never heard from again, but it is stated that Fickelgruber would give each of his front teeth to enter Wonka 's inventing room (laboratory / chocolate room in the book) for three minutes.
Slugworth has a much larger role as an enigmatic villain in the 1971 film. Inside Bill 's Candy Shop, Wonka 's products and signs are the most visible; but Slugworth 's Sizzlers are also prominent, and one is even sold to a child. Also seen are signs for Fickelgruber 's candy. Grandpa Joe describes Slugworth as the worst of Wonka 's rivals. As each Golden Ticket is found, a sinister man approaches the finder and whispers something into his or her ear. After Charlie finds the last ticket, the same man approaches Charlie as well, introduces himself as Arthur Slugworth, and bribes the child to bring him one piece of the newly invented ' Everlasting Gobstopper ', allowing him to plagiarize the formula and prevent the future invention from ruining his business. Two of the children (Veruca and Mike) respond to Slugworth 's bribe; but Charlie, when tempted, returns the Everlasting Gobstopper to Wonka. Wonka eventually reveals that the tempter is not Slugworth, but his own employee Mr. Wilkinson, and that his offer was a moral test of character. Slugworth / Wilkinson was played by Günter Meisner, a West German actor.
Slugworth only makes a split - second appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where he alongside Mr. Ficklegruber and Mr. Prodnose are sending spies to steal ingredients from Wonka 's factory. He is here played by Philip Philmar.
In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Slugworth 's role as a villain is expanded. When he first meets Charlie, he sings a cover of Veruca 's song, "I Want it Now! '' and also sings it as a duet with Veruca during her downfall. He teams up with Spike to steal a Gobstopper from the factory, but the two are thwarted by Charlie, Tom, and Jerry. Despite being more emphasized as a villain, he is still revealed to be Wonka 's employee Mr. Wilkinson.
Mr. Turkentine is Charlie Bucket 's school teacher and appears in the first film in 1971, but not in the book or the 2005 film. He has an odd sense of humor which he uses to express knowledge. He asks Charlie to assist him in making a medicine using several scientific elements for the class but the project is interrupted due to the frantic golden ticket search for Willy Wonka. Mr. Turkentine when hearing the news about the golden tickets during the project dismisses the class and runs out. Later when it is revealed that all the tickets have supposedly been found ending with a Paraguayan millionaire he decides to use Wonka bars as an example to teach his class about percentages. He uses a few students as examples for the class, including Charlie. Charlie however reveals that he only opened two Wonka bars during the search and so to help make it easier for his class, he decides to pretend Charlie opened 200. Mr. Turkentine is played by British actor David Battley.
Prince Pondicherry is a prince who lives in India. He appears in the third chapter of the novel when Grandpa Joe is telling Charlie a story. In the story, Willy Wonka makes him a chocolate palace in India, that melts in the hot weather, as he had rejected Willy Wonka 's advice to eat it before it melted in the heat. His name derives from the city of Pondicherry (officially spelled Puducherry since 2006) in southeastern India.
He is absent from the 1971 film version, but makes a brief appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where he is played by Nitin Ganatra. His story here matches that in the book, except in depicting his wife (Shelley Conn) and stating that the Prince demanded a second palace, but was refused.
Oompa - Loompas are small humans who would end up being preyed upon or attacked by the various predators that also reside in Loompaland before Wonka invited them to work at his factory and are paid in their favorite food, cocoa beans, which were extremely rare on their island. The Oompa - Loompas are also mischievous, loving practical jokes and singing songs which, according to Wonka, they are very good at improvising. They sing at the end of each child 's demise.
In early editions of the novel, the Oompa - Loompas (originally called "Whipple - Scrumpets '' before publication) are shown as African pygmies before Dahl rewrote them to be white - skinned and golden haired. In both editions, despite working in the factory, Oompa - Loompas insist on maintaining their native clothing: men wear skins, women wear leaves, and children wear nothing.
In the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, they were written to be played by actors with dwarfism and are portrayed as orange - skinned, green - haired men in striped shirts and baggy lederhosen - like pants. Prominent portrayers: Angelo Muscat, Rusty Goffe, George Claydon, Rudy Borgstaller, Jo Kilkenny, Andy Wilday, Malcolm Dixon, Ismed Hassan, Norman Mcglen, Pepe Poupee, Marcus Powell, and Albert Wilkinson.
In the 2005 film, the Oompa - Loompas are all played by Deep Roy and are virtually identical. They wear their tribal clothing during their time in Loompaland, and typical factory worker uniforms in Wonka 's Factory. Some of the female Oompa - Loompas like Doris work in the administration offices.
Vermicious Knids are a fictional species of amorphous aliens that invade the Space Hotel "U.S.A. '' in Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator.
They are also mentioned in the 1971 feature film adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, but here are mentioned only as predators of the Oompa - Loompas.
In the book, Vermicious Knids are huge, dark, egg - shaped predators who swallow their victims whole, and are capable of surviving, operating, and traveling faster than light, in the vacuum of space. Although normally oviform, they can assume any shape at will, while retaining their native texture and features. They originate (according to Mr. Wonka) on the planet Vermes, a fictional planet located (in dialogue) 184,270,000,000 miles (2.9655 × 10 kilometres) from Earth (52 times Pluto 's distance). In the presence of victims, they can not resist shaping themselves to spell the word "SCRAM '' (the only word they know) before they attack.
In Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, a swarm of Knids take possession of the new Space Hotel "U.S.A. ''. When the transport capsule brings the staff to the Space Hotel, the Knids consume some of the staff, and the survivors retreat to the capsule. There, the Knids bludgeon the capsule with their own bodies, until its retro - rockets are useless; whereupon Wonka, Charlie, and Grandpa Joe connect the capsule to the Elevator, in hope of towing it to Earth, and one Knid wraps itself around the Elevator while the others form a chain, intending to draw the Elevator and capsule to their home planet. The Elevator then returns to Earth, and the Knids are incinerated in Earth 's atmosphere.
When Nestle created their interpretation of Wonka 's world to sell chocolate bars under the name "Wonka '', they released a number of downloadable flash games, wherein Knids seem to have entered the factory and have the appearance of flying green blobs with single red eyes.
The etymology of the name was not provided by Dahl. Pronunciation of Knid is said in the book to approximate adding a schwa between the "K '' and "nid '', or in Dahl 's words, "K'nid ''. Cnidaria is the name of the taxonomic phylum containing stinging aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and coral, itself derived from the classical Greek word for nettle, κνίδη. Vermicious is a real word, meaning "worm like ''.
The Vermicious Knids are also mentioned in other Dahl stories, including James and the Giant Peach (where the New York Police Department misidentify Miss Spider as one) and The Minpins.
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wind in the willows badger's home crossword clue | The Wind in the Willows (TV series) - wikipedia
ITV Network (Thames), Channel 5, KidsCo TBA (UK) ABC - 1 (Australian Broadcasting Company), ABC - 2 (Australia),
The Wind in the Willows is a TV series that was originally broadcast between 1984 and 1987, based on characters from Kenneth Grahame 's classic story The Wind in the Willows and following the 1983 film The Wind in the Willows. It was made by animation company Cosgrove Hall for Thames Television and shown on the ITV network. An hour - long feature, A Tale of Two Toads, was broadcast in 1989, and a fifth season of 13 episodes was shown in 1990 under the title Oh! Mr Toad in some countries, whilst retaining the title The Wind in the Willows in others.
The series stars David Jason as Toad and the Chief Weasel, the late Michael Hordern as Badger, the late Peter Sallis as Rat (replacing Ian Carmichael who voiced Rat in the original 1983 film, though Carmichael remained in the series, having been re-cast as the narrator), and the late Richard Pearson as Mole. The Chief Weasel was almost always accompanied by his bumbling henchman, who was referred to in two separate episodes, "The Rescue '' and "The Paperchase '', as Bert.
The series is sometimes misidentified as being filmed in claymation. The method used by Cosgrove Hall is a stop - motion animation process using scale model sets and posable character figurines. The figurines are composed of an articulate metal skeleton (armature) covered in latex rubber, providing the flexibility and the detail which distinguishes the series.
The series is set at "The Riverbank '', a mythical location somewhere in Berkshire. The Riverbank is where Ratty, Mole and Toad live. Nearby is the Wild Wood, where Badger and the Wily Weasels live. Each episode has a unique story line, although there are some common themes running throughout the series. In series 4, the humans start building a new railway that is planned to be built through the area where the animals live. The show teaches children about the destruction of forests and animals ' natural habits. The railway gets closer and closer to the animals ' homes, yet in the episode Happy New Year it turns out that the railway would be travelling under unsuitable land, and therefore the route is diverted from the Riverbank & Wild Wood areas.
The popular theme song - based on the instrumental theme to the original film - was sung by British singer - songwriter Ralph McTell. The Stone Roses guitarist John Squire also worked on this series, but as a prop maker not a musician.
The Wind in the Willows (1983 film) (27 December 1983)
A Tale of Two Toads (6 December 1989)
The Chief Weasel discovers that Toad has a double: an actor, impersonator and con artist (in short, someone after his own heart) called Isambard Bilbone Toad. Together, they form a plan which involves the kidnapping of the real Toad and the acquisition of Toad Hall, all without the riverbankers noticing. Once this is done, Isambard continues to play the rôle of Toad in public, having perfected his voice and mannerisms. However, Badger, Rat and Mole can not help noticing some slight oddities about their friend, particularly when he spreads slanderous remarks that the three have supposedly made about each other. Then, as if that were not strange enough, Toad breaks off his friendship with them, in favour of the weasels who are now sharing the Hall. Eventually, Badger 's keen observation leads them to realise the truth, and they must now rescue the real Toad before the weasels put an even more audacious plan into action...
Main characters
Recurring characters
VHS
DVD
1. Classic Willows Tales - 1. The Yuletide Entertainment (cut version), 2. Caught in a Maze, 3. Grand Annual Show, 4. Badger 's Remedy.
2. Typical Toad - 1. Mercury of the Motor bicycle, 2. Burglary at Toad Hall, 3. Fire at Toad Hall, 4. Patient: Toad.
3. Ratty and Mole: Chums For Life - 1. The Ghost at Mole End, 2. The Great Steamer, 3. The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, 4. The Storm.
4. Champion of the Willows - 1. Paper Chase, 2. The Great Golfing Gamble, 3. Champion of the Green Baize, 4. Winter Sports.
5. Those Wily Weasels - 1. The Weasels ' Trap, 2. The Rescue, 3. Unlikely Allies, 4. Fancy - Dress.
6. Wise Old Badger - 1. Buried Treasure, 2. Harvest, 3. School Days, 4. A Producer 's Lot.
These DVDs are now out of print and are very rare to find but can be found on eBay every so often.
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which is larger the andromeda or pinwheel galaxy | Andromeda Galaxy - wikipedia
~ 0.8 - 1.5 × 10
The Andromeda Galaxy (/ ænˈdrɒmɪdə /), also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224, is a spiral galaxy approximately 780 kiloparsecs (2.5 million light - years) from Earth, and the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way. Its name stems from the area of the sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda.
The 2006 observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope revealed that the Andromeda Galaxy contains approximately one trillion stars, more than twice the number of the Milky Way 's estimated 200 - 400 billion stars. The Andromeda Galaxy, spanning approximately 220,000 light years, is the largest galaxy in our Local Group, which is also home to the Triangulum Galaxy and other minor galaxies. Its mass is estimated to be ~ 0.8 - 1.5 × 10 solar masses, whereas the Milky Way 's mass is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 solar masses.
The Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are expected to collide in ~ 4.5 billion years, merging to form a giant elliptical galaxy or a large disc galaxy. With an apparent magnitude of 3.4, the Andromeda Galaxy is among the brightest of the Messier objects - making it visible to the naked eye on moonless nights, even when viewed from areas with moderate light pollution.
Around the year 964, the Persian astronomer Abd al - Rahman al - Sufi described the Andromeda Galaxy, in his Book of Fixed Stars as a "nebulous smear ''. Star charts of that period labeled it as the Little Cloud. In 1612, the German astronomer Simon Marius gave an early description of the Andromeda Galaxy based on telescopic observations. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1755 in his work Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens conjectured that the blurry spot was an island universe. In 1764, Charles Messier cataloged Andromeda as object M31 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer despite it being visible to the naked eye. In 1785, the astronomer William Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of Andromeda. He believed Andromeda to be the nearest of all the "great nebulae '', and based on the color and magnitude of the nebula, he incorrectly guessed that it is no more than 2,000 times the distance of Sirius. In 1850, William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, saw and made the first drawing of Andromeda 's spiral structure.
In 1864, William Huggins noted that the spectrum of Andromeda differs from a gaseous nebula. The spectra of Andromeda displays a continuum of frequencies, superimposed with dark absorption lines that help identify the chemical composition of an object. Andromeda 's spectrum is very similar to the spectra of individual stars, and from this, it was deduced that Andromeda has a stellar nature. In 1885, a supernova (known as S Andromedae) was seen in Andromeda, the first and so far only one observed in that galaxy. At the time Andromeda was considered to be a nearby object, so the cause was thought to be a much less luminous and unrelated event called a nova, and was named accordingly; "Nova 1885 ''.
In 1887, Isaac Roberts took the first photographs of Andromeda, which was still commonly thought to be a nebula within our galaxy. Roberts mistook Andromeda and similar spiral nebulae as solar systems being formed. In 1912, Vesto Slipher used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of Andromeda with respect to our solar system -- the largest velocity yet measured, at 300 kilometres per second (190 mi / s).
In 1917, Heber Curtis observed a nova within Andromeda. Searching the photographic record, 11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred elsewhere in the sky. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500,000 light - years (3.2 × 10 AU). He became a proponent of the so - called "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies.
In 1920, the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took place, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To support his claim of the Great Andromeda Nebula being, in fact, an external galaxy, Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes within Andromeda which resembled the dust clouds in our own galaxy, as well as historical observations of Andromeda Galaxy 's significant Doppler shift. In 1922 Ernst Öpik presented a method to estimate the distance of Andromeda using the measured velocities of its stars. His result placed the Andromeda Nebula far outside our galaxy at a distance of about 450,000 parsecs (1,500,000 ly). Edwin Hubble settled the debate in 1925 when he identified extragalactic Cepheid variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of Andromeda. These were made using the 2.5 - metre (100 - in) Hooker telescope, and they enabled the distance of Great Andromeda Nebula to be determined. His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature is not a cluster of stars and gas within our own Galaxy, but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from the Milky Way.
In 1943, Walter Baade was the first person to resolve stars in the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy. Baade identified two distinct populations of stars based on their metallicity, naming the young, high - velocity stars in the disk Type I and the older, red stars in the bulge Type II. This nomenclature was subsequently adopted for stars within the Milky Way, and elsewhere. (The existence of two distinct populations had been noted earlier by Jan Oort.) Baade also discovered that there were two types of Cepheid variables, which resulted in a doubling of the distance estimate to Andromeda, as well as the remainder of the Universe.
In 1950, radio emission from the Andromeda Galaxy was detected by Hanbury Brown and Cyril Hazard at Jodrell Bank Observatory. The first radio maps of the galaxy were made in the 1950s by John Baldwin and collaborators at the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group. The core of the Andromeda Galaxy is called 2C 56 in the 2C radio astronomy catalog. In 2009, the first planet may have been discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. This was detected using a technique called microlensing, which is caused by the deflection of light by a massive object.
The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy from our own was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the Hipparcos satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances.
Andromeda Galaxy was formed roughly 10 billion years ago from the collision and subsequent merger of smaller protogalaxies. This violent collision formed most of the galaxy 's (metal - rich) galactic halo and extended disk. During this epoch, star formation would have been very high, to the point of becoming a luminous infrared galaxy for roughly 100 million years. Andromeda and the Triangulum Galaxy had a very close passage 2 -- 4 billion years ago. This event produced high levels of star formation across the Andromeda Galaxy 's disk -- even some globular clusters -- and disturbed M33 's outer disk.
Over the past 2 billion years, star formation throughout Andromeda 's disk is thought to have decreased to the point of near - inactivity. There have been interactions with satellite galaxies like M32, M110, or others that have already been absorbed by Andromeda Galaxy. These interactions have formed structures like Andromeda 's Giant Stellar Stream. A galactic merger roughly 100 million years ago is believed to be responsible for a counter-rotating disk of gas found in the center of Andromeda as well as the presence there of a relatively young (100 million years old) stellar population.
At least four distinct techniques have been used to estimate distances from Earth to the Andromeda Galaxy.
In 2003, using the infrared surface brightness fluctuations (I - SBF) and adjusting for the new period - luminosity value and a metallicity correction of − 0.2 mag dex in (O / H), an estimate of 2.57 ± 0.06 million light - years (1.625 × 10 ± 3.8 × 10 AU) was derived.
In 2004, using the Cepheid variable method, the distance was estimated to be 2.51 ± 0.13 million light - years (770 ± 40 kpc).
In 2005, an eclipsing binary star was discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary is two hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure their absolute magnitude. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be measured. The stars lie at a distance of 2.52 × 10 ^ ± 0.14 × 10 ^ ly (1.594 × 10 ± 8.9 × 10 AU) and the whole Andromeda Galaxy at about 2.5 × 10 ^ ly (1.6 × 10 AU). This new value is in excellent agreement with the previous, independent Cepheid - based distance value.
In 2005, using the TRGB method, the distance was estimated to be 2.56 × 10 ^ ± 0.08 × 10 ^ ly (1.619 × 10 ± 5.1 × 10 AU).
Averaged together, these distance estimates give a value of 2.54 × 10 ^ ± 0.11 × 10 ^ ly (1.606 × 10 ± 7.0 × 10 AU). And, from this, the diameter of Andromeda at the widest point is estimated to be 220 ± 3 kly (67,450 ± 920 pc). Applying trigonometry (angular diameter), this is equivalent to an apparent 4.96 ° angle in the sky.
Mass estimates for the Andromeda Galaxy 's halo (including dark matter) give a value of approximately 1.5 × 10 M (or 1.5 trillion solar masses) compared to 8 × 10 M for the Milky Way. This contradicts earlier measurements, that seem to indicate that Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way are almost equal in mass. Even so, Andromeda Galaxy 's spheroid actually has a higher stellar density than that of the Milky Way and its galactic stellar disk is about twice the size of that of the Milky Way. The total stellar mass of Andromeda Galaxy is estimated to be between 1.1 × 10 M., (i.e., around twice as massive as that of the Milky Way) and 1.5 × 10 M, with around 30 % of that mass in the central bulge, 56 % in the disk, and the remaining 14 % in the halo.
In addition to it, Andromeda Galaxy 's interstellar medium contains at least around 7.2 × 10 M in the form of neutral hydrogen, at least 3.4 × 10 M as molecular hydrogen (within its innermost 10 kiloparsecs), and 5.4 × 10 M of dust.
Andromeda Galaxy is surrounded by a large and massive halo of hot gas that is estimated to contain half the mass of the stars in the galaxy. The nearly invisible halo stretches about a million light - years from its host galaxy, halfway to our Milky Way galaxy. Simulations of galaxies indicate the halo formed at the same time as the Andromeda Galaxy. The halo is enriched in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, formed from supernovae and its properties are those expected for a galaxy that lies in the "green valley '' of the Galaxy color -- magnitude diagram (see below). Supernovae erupt in Andromeda Galaxy 's star - filled disk and eject these heavier elements into space. Over Andromeda Galaxy 's lifetime, nearly half of the heavy elements made by its stars have been ejected far beyond the galaxy 's 200,000 - light - year - diameter stellar disk.
Compared to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have predominantly older stars with ages > 7 × 10 years. The estimated luminosity of Andromeda Galaxy, ~ 2.6 × 10 L, is about 25 % higher than that of our own galaxy. However, the galaxy has a high inclination as seen from Earth and its interstellar dust absorbs an unknown amount of light, so it is difficult to estimate its actual brightness and other authors have given other values for the luminosity of the Andromeda Galaxy (some authors even propose it is the second - brightest galaxy within a radius of 10 mega-parsecs of the Milky Way, after the Sombrero Galaxy, with an absolute magnitude of around - 22.21 or close).
An estimation done with the help of Spitzer Space Telescope published in 2010 suggests an absolute magnitude (in the blue) of − 20.89 (that with a color index of + 0.63 translates to an absolute visual magnitude of − 21.52, compared to − 20.9 for the Milky Way), and a total luminosity in that wavelength of 3.64 × 10 L.
The rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher, with Andromeda Galaxy producing only about one solar mass per year compared to 3 -- 5 solar masses for the Milky Way. The rate of supernovae in the Milky Way is also double that of Andromeda Galaxy. This suggests that the latter once experienced a great star formation phase, but is now in a relative state of quiescence, whereas the Milky Way is experiencing more active star formation. Should this continue, the luminosity of the Milky Way may eventually overtake that of Andromeda Galaxy.
According to recent studies, the Andromeda Galaxy lies in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies like the Milky Way in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties to Andromeda Galaxy, star formation is expected to extinguish within about five billion years from the now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.
Based on its appearance in visible light, the Andromeda Galaxy is classified as an SA (s) b galaxy in the de Vaucouleurs -- Sandage extended classification system of spiral galaxies. However, data from the 2MASS survey showed that Andromeda is actually a barred spiral galaxy, like the Milky Way, with Andromeda 's bar oriented along its long axis.
In 2005, astronomers used the Keck telescopes to show that the tenuous sprinkle of stars extending outward from the galaxy is actually part of the main disk itself. This means that the spiral disk of stars in the Andromeda Galaxy is three times larger in diameter than previously estimated. This constitutes evidence that there is a vast, extended stellar disk that makes the galaxy more than 220,000 light - years (67,000 pc) in diameter. Previously, estimates of the Andromeda Galaxy 's size ranged from 70,000 to 120,000 light - years (21,000 to 37,000 pc) across.
The galaxy is inclined an estimated 77 ° relative to the Earth (where an angle of 90 ° would be viewed directly from the side). Analysis of the cross-sectional shape of the galaxy appears to demonstrate a pronounced, S - shaped warp, rather than just a flat disk. A possible cause of such a warp could be gravitational interaction with the satellite galaxies near the Andromeda Galaxy. The Galaxy M33 could be responsible for some warp in Andromeda 's arms, though more precise distances and radial velocities are required.
Spectroscopic studies have provided detailed measurements of the rotational velocity of the Andromeda Galaxy as a function of radial distance from the core. The rotational velocity has a maximum value of 225 kilometres per second (140 mi / s) at 1,300 light - years (82,000,000 AU) from the core, and it has its minimum possibly as low as 50 kilometres per second (31 mi / s) at 7,000 light - years (440,000,000 AU) from the core. Further out, rotational velocity rises out to a radius of 33,000 light - years (2.1 × 10 AU), where it reaches a peak of 250 kilometres per second (160 mi / s). The velocities slowly decline beyond that distance, dropping to around 200 kilometres per second (120 mi / s) at 80,000 light - years (5.1 × 10 AU). These velocity measurements imply a concentrated mass of about 6 × 10 M in the nucleus. The total mass of the galaxy increases linearly out to 45,000 light - years (2.8 × 10 AU), then more slowly beyond that radius.
The spiral arms of the Andromeda Galaxy are outlined by a series of H II regions, first studied in great detail by Walter Baade and described by him as resembling "beads on a string ''. His studies show two spiral arms that appear to be tightly wound, although they are more widely spaced than in our galaxy. His descriptions of the spiral structure, as each arm crosses the major axis of the Andromeda Galaxy, are as follows:
Since the Andromeda Galaxy is seen close to edge - on, it is difficult to study its spiral structure. Rectified images of the galaxy seem to show a fairly normal spiral galaxy, exhibiting two continuous trailing arms that are separated from each other by a minimum of about 13,000 light - years (820,000,000 AU) and that can be followed outward from a distance of roughly 1,600 light - years (100,000,000 AU) from the core. Alternative spiral structures have been proposed such as a single spiral arm or a flocculent pattern of long, filamentary, and thick spiral arms.
The most likely cause of the distortions of the spiral pattern is thought to be interaction with galaxy satellites M32 and M110. This can be seen by the displacement of the neutral hydrogen clouds from the stars.
In 1998, images from the European Space Agency 's Infrared Space Observatory demonstrated that the overall form of the Andromeda Galaxy may be transitioning into a ring galaxy. The gas and dust within the galaxy is generally formed into several overlapping rings, with a particularly prominent ring formed at a radius of 32,000 light - years (2.0 × 10 AU) (10 kiloparsecs) from the core, nicknamed by some astronomers the ring of fire. This ring is hidden from visible light images of the galaxy because it is composed primarily of cold dust, and most of the star formation that is taking place in the Andromeda Galaxy is concentrated there.
Later studies with the help of the Spitzer Space Telescope showed how Andromeda Galaxy 's spiral structure in the infrared appears to be composed of two spiral arms that emerge from a central bar and continue beyond the large ring mentioned above. Those arms, however, are not continuous and have a segmented structure.
Close examination of the inner region of the Andromeda Galaxy with the same telescope also showed a smaller dust ring that is believed to have been caused by the interaction with M32 more than 200 million years ago. Simulations show that the smaller galaxy passed through the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy along the latter 's polar axis. This collision stripped more than half the mass from the smaller M32 and created the ring structures in Andromeda. It is the co-existence of the long - known large ring - like feature in the gas of Messier 31, together with this newly discovered inner ring - like structure, offset from the barycenter, that suggested a nearly head - on collision with the satellite M32, a milder version of the Cartwheel encounter.
Studies of the extended halo of the Andromeda Galaxy show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way, with stars in the halo being generally "metal - poor '', and increasingly so with greater distance. This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths. They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 100 -- 200 low - mass galaxies during the past 12 billion years. The stars in the extended halos of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way may extend nearly one - third the distance separating the two galaxies.
M31 is known to harbor a dense and compact star cluster at its very center. In a large telescope it creates a visual impression of a star embedded in the more diffuse surrounding bulge. In 1991, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to image Andromeda Galaxy 's inner nucleus. The nucleus consists of two concentrations separated by 1.5 parsecs (4.9 ly). The brighter concentration, designated as P1, is offset from the center of the galaxy. The dimmer concentration, P2, falls at the true center of the galaxy and contains a black hole measured at 3 -- 5 × 10 M in 1993, and at 1.1 -- 2.3 × 10 M in 2005. The velocity dispersion of material around it is measured to be ≈ 160 km / s.
It has been proposed that the observed double nucleus could be explained if P1 is the projection of a disk of stars in an eccentric orbit around the central black hole. The eccentricity is such that stars linger at the orbital apocenter, creating a concentration of stars. P2 also contains a compact disk of hot, spectral class A stars. The A stars are not evident in redder filters, but in blue and ultraviolet light they dominate the nucleus, causing P2 to appear more prominent than P1.
While at the initial time of its discovery it was hypothesized that the brighter portion of the double nucleus is the remnant of a small galaxy "cannibalized '' by Andromeda Galaxy, this is no longer considered a viable explanation, largely because such a nucleus would have an exceedingly short lifetime due to tidal disruption by the central black hole. While this could be partially resolved if P1 had its own black hole to stabilize it, the distribution of stars in P1 does not suggest that there is a black hole at its center.
Apparently, by late 1968, no X-rays had been detected from the Andromeda Galaxy. A balloon flight on October 20, 1970, set an upper limit for detectable hard X-rays from the Andromeda Galaxy.
Multiple X-ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the European Space Agency 's (ESA) XMM - Newton orbiting observatory. Robin Barnard et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or neutron stars, which are heating the incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes but can be distinguished by their masses.
There are approximately 460 globular clusters associated with the Andromeda Galaxy. The most massive of these clusters, identified as Mayall II, nicknamed Globular One, has a greater luminosity than any other known globular cluster in the Local Group of galaxies. It contains several million stars, and is about twice as luminous as Omega Centauri, the brightest known globular cluster in the Milky Way. Globular One (or G1) has several stellar populations and a structure too massive for an ordinary globular. As a result, some consider G1 to be the remnant core of a dwarf galaxy that was consumed by Andromeda in the distant past. The globular with the greatest apparent brightness is G76 which is located in the south - west arm 's eastern half. Another massive globular cluster, named 037 - B327 and discovered in 2006 as is heavily reddened by the Andromeda Galaxy 's interstellar dust, was thought to be more massive than G1 and the largest cluster of the Local Group; however, other studies have shown it is actually similar in properties to G1.
Unlike the globular clusters of the Milky Way, which show a relatively low age dispersion, Andromeda Galaxy 's globular clusters have a much larger range of ages: from systems as old as the galaxy itself to much younger systems, with ages between a few hundred million years to five billion years
In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy. The new - found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger -- several hundred light - years across -- and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters.
In 2012, a microquasar, a radio burst emanating from a smaller black hole, was detected in the Andromeda Galaxy. The progenitor black hole is located near the galactic center and has about 10 M ⊙ (\ displaystyle (\ begin (smallmatrix) M_ (\ odot) \ end (smallmatrix))). Discovered through a data collected by the European Space Agency 's XMM - Newton probe, and subsequently observed by NASA 's Swift Gamma - Ray Burst Mission and Chandra X-Ray Observatory, the Very Large Array, and the Very Long Baseline Array, the microquasar was the first observed within the Andromeda Galaxy and the first outside of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy has satellite galaxies, consisting of 14 known dwarf galaxies. The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are M32 and M110. Based on current evidence, it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with the Andromeda Galaxy in the past. M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31, and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region, which lasted until the relatively recent past.
M110 also appears to be interacting with the Andromeda Galaxy, and astronomers have found in the halo of the latter a stream of metal - rich stars that appear to have been stripped from these satellite galaxies. M110 does contain a dusty lane, which may indicate recent or ongoing star formation.
In 2006, it was discovered that nine of the satellite galaxies lie in a plane that intersects the core of the Andromeda Galaxy; they are not randomly arranged as would be expected from independent interactions. This may indicate a common tidal origin for the satellites.
The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at about 110 kilometres per second (68 mi / s). It has been measured approaching relative to our Sun at around 300 kilometres per second (190 mi / s) as the Sun orbits around the center of our galaxy at a speed of approximately 225 kilometres per second (140 mi / s). This makes the Andromeda Galaxy one of about 100 observable blueshifted galaxies. Andromeda Galaxy 's tangential or sideways velocity with respect to the Milky Way is relatively much smaller than the approaching velocity and therefore it is expected to collide directly with the Milky Way in about 4 billion years. A likely outcome of the collision is that the galaxies will merge to form a giant elliptical galaxy or perhaps even a large disc galaxy. Such events are frequent among the galaxies in galaxy groups. The fate of the Earth and the Solar System in the event of a collision is currently unknown. Before the galaxies merge, there is a small chance that the Solar System could be ejected from the Milky Way or join the Andromeda Galaxy.
The Andromeda Galaxy is bright enough to be seen with the naked eye, even with some light pollution. Andromeda is best seen during autumn nights in the Northern Hemisphere, when from mid-latitudes the galaxy reaches zenith (its highest point at midnight) so can be seen almost all night. From the Southern Hemisphere, it is most visible at the same months, that is in spring, and away from our equator does not reach a high altitude over the northern horizon, making it difficult to observe. Binoculars can reveal some larger structures and its two brightest satellite galaxies, M32 and M110. An amateur telescope can reveal Andromeda 's disk, some of its brightest globular clusters, dark dust lanes and the large star cloud NGC 206.
* It is uncertain whether it is a companion galaxy of the Andromeda Galaxy
Coordinates: 00 42 44.3, + 41 ° 16 ′ 10 ''
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what was the purpose of a customs union | Customs union - wikipedia
A customs union is a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. The participant countries set up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different import quotas. Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid competition deficiency.
Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries.
It is the third stage of economic integration.
Customs unions are established through trade pacts.
Note: Every Economic union, Customs and monetary union and Economic and monetary union includes a Customs Union.
Additionally the autonomous and dependent territories, such as some of the EU member state special territories, are sometimes treated as separate customs territory from their mainland state or have varying arrangements of formal or de facto customs union, common market and currency union (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries through the trade pacts signed by the mainland state.
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who killed megan in the girl on the train | The Girl on the Train (novel) - wikipedia
The Girl on the Train (2015) is a psychological thriller novel by British author Paula Hawkins. The novel debuted at No. 1 on The New York Times Fiction Best Sellers of 2015 list (combined print and e-book) dated 1 February 2015, and remained in the top position for 13 consecutive weeks, until April 2015. In January 2016 it became the No. 1 best - seller again for two weeks. Many reviews referred to the book as "the next Gone Girl '', referring to a popular 2012 psychological mystery with similar themes and use of unreliable narrators.
By early March 2015, the novel had sold over 1 million copies, and 1.5 million by April. It has occupied the number one spot of the UK hardback book chart for 20 weeks, the longest any book has ever held the top spot. By early August 2015, the book had sold more than 3 million copies in the US alone, and, by October 2016, an estimated 15 million copies worldwide. The audiobook edition, narrated by Clare Corbett, Louise Brealey and India Fisher (released by Books on Tape) won the 2016 Audie Award for Audiobook of the Year.
The film rights were acquired by DreamWorks Pictures in 2014 for Marc Platt Productions. The film adaptation, starring Emily Blunt and directed by Tate Taylor, was released on 7 October 2016.
The story is a first - person narrative told from the point of view of three women: Rachel, Anna, and Megan.
Rachel Watson is a 32 - year - old alcoholic reeling from the dissolution of her marriage to Tom, who left her for another woman, Anna Watson. Rachel 's drinking has caused her to lose her job; she frequently binges and has blackouts. While drunk, she often harasses Tom by phone and sometimes even in person, though she has little or no memory of these acts once she sobers up. Tom is now married to Anna and has a daughter with her, Evie -- a situation that fuels Rachel 's self - destructive tendencies, as it was her inability to conceive a child that began her spiral into alcoholism. Concealing her unemployment from her flatmate, Rachel follows her old routine of taking the train to London every day; her train slowly passes her old house, which is now occupied by Tom, Anna, and Evie. She also begins watching from the train an attractive couple who live a few houses away from Tom, fantasising about their perfect life together. Rachel has never met them and has no idea that their life is far from perfect, or that the woman, Megan Hipwell, helps Anna care for her child.
Megan outwardly seems perfect to Rachel -- beautiful, apparently happy, and married to a handsome, devoted man. However, Megan has a troubled past that she conceals from everyone who knows her and which gives her severe insomnia. She secretly finds her life boring and shallow, and escapes from her troubles by taking a series of lovers. She has sought help by seeing a therapist, Dr. Kamal Abdic, whom she would like to seduce. Eventually, she reveals to him a dark secret she has never confided to anyone before.
Anna is young, beautiful, very much in love with Tom, and happy as a stay - at - home mother to the young Evie. While at first she enjoyed the idea of parading her conquest of Tom in front of Rachel, as a way to show that he picked her over Rachel, she eventually becomes furious at Rachel 's harassment of her and her family, and wants to move from Rachel 's former house and report Rachel 's stalking to the police. Anna views Rachel as a threat to her family and home, and particularly dreads Rachel 's presence because Rachel entered their home, picked up Evie, and walked outside with her one day.
One day, Rachel is stunned to see Megan kissing a man other than her husband. The next day, after a night of heavy drinking, Rachel awakens to find herself bloody and injured, with no memories of the night before but certain that she has done something she will regret. Soon, she learns that one of the top stories of the day is that Megan is missing. Rachel is questioned by the police after Anna reports having seen her staggering around drunk in the area the night of Megan 's disappearance. Rachel starts to become interested in the missing persons case. She contacts the police to tell them she thinks Megan was having an affair, because she was watching her every morning and evening from the train, and then she contacts Megan 's husband, Scott. Rachel lies and tells Scott she and Megan were friends, and she tells him her thoughts about the affair. Rachel learns that the man she saw kissing Megan the day she disappeared was Kamal.
Rachel contacts Kamal, lying about her true identity and background as part of a ruse to get close to him and learn more about him. She makes a therapy appointment with him, ostensibly to see if he can help her to recall the events that happened during her blackout the night of the disappearance. While Kamal suspects nothing, Rachel begins to gain insights into her life by speaking with him, inadvertently benefiting from her therapy. Her connections to Scott and Kamal, though built on lies, make her feel more important. She ends up not drinking for several days at a time but always relapses. Meanwhile, she continues to call, visit, and harass Tom and his new family. Then Megan 's body is found; she is revealed to have been pregnant, and her unborn child was fathered by neither Scott nor Kamal. As Scott discovers Rachel 's lies and lashes out at her, her memories of the night of the incident become clearer. Rachel remembers seeing Megan get into Tom 's car. At the same time, Anna discovers that Tom and Megan were having an affair.
These associations enable Rachel to trust her own memories more, and she realises that many of the crazy things Tom told her she did while drunk, but that she does n't remember doing, never really happened. He had been gaslighting her for years, which affected her belief in herself and made her question her sanity. Armed with this sad realisation, and the knowledge that he must have been the one who killed Megan, Rachel warns Anna. When Anna confronts him, Tom confesses to murdering Megan after she threatened to reveal that he had impregnated her. Anna is cowed, fearful for her daughter 's safety. Although Tom tries to beat and intimidate Rachel into keeping silent, she defies him and fights back. Knowing he is about to kill her, Rachel stabs Tom in the neck with a corkscrew. Anna helps Rachel make sure that he dies from the wound. When the police arrive, former adversaries Rachel and Anna co-ordinate their stories to support their actions having been in self - defence.
The Girl on the Train received mostly positive reviews from critics and audiences alike. In 2015 it became the fastest - selling adult hardcover novel in history, and it spent over four months on the New York Times Bestseller List following its release. Kirkus Reviews praised the novel with a starred review, writing that "even the most astute readers will be in for a shock as Hawkins slowly unspools the facts, exposing the harsh realities of love and obsession 's inescapable links to violence. '' Subsequently, the novel was honoured by Kirkus Reviews as one of the best books of 2015, in the fiction category. The book also won the 2015 Goodreads Choice Award in the category Mystery & Thriller.
In a less positive review for The New York Times, Jean Hanff Korelitz questioned the novel 's narrative structure and criticised the protagonist for behaving "illogically, self - destructively, and narcissistically. ''
The Girl on the Train has been compared frequently to Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn, as both novels employ unreliable narrators and deal with suburban life. Paula Hawkins has waved these comparisons off, however, saying in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter: "Amy Dunne is a psychopath, an incredibly controlling and manipulative, smart, cunning woman. (Rachel is) just a mess who ca n't do anything right. ''
The foreign rights have been sold in 34 countries, and the book has been translated into many languages, including:
The film rights for the novel were acquired in March 2014 by DreamWorks Pictures and Marc Platt Productions, with Jared Leboff (a producer at Marc Platt) set to produce. Tate Taylor, who directed The Help (2011), was announced as the director of this film in May 2015, with Erin Cressida Wilson as scriptwriter. In June 2015, British actress Emily Blunt was in talks to portray Rachel. Author Hawkins said in July 2015 that the film 's setting would be moved from the UK to the US. The film began production in the New York City area in October 2015. The film was released on 7 October 2016. It remains mostly faithful to events in the book; the only distinct difference is that Rachel realises the truth about Tom 's accusations of her behavior, not because of her own efforts, but through a chance meeting with the wife of Tom 's former manager, who reveals that Tom was actually fired from his job because of his numerous affairs at the office, rather than Rachel 's having a violent breakdown at a party (In reality, Rachel simply drank too much and passed out in a guest room, until Tom made her leave).
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phil collins music video in the air tonight | In the Air Tonight - wikipedia
"In the Air Tonight '' is the debut solo single by the English singer - songwriter and drummer Phil Collins. It was released as the lead single from Collins ' debut solo album, Face Value, in January 1981.
Collins co-produced the single with Hugh Padgham, who became a frequent collaborator in the following years. The song was an instant hit, quickly climbing to No. 2 on the UK Singles chart but was held off the top spot by the posthumous release of John Lennon 's "Woman ''. It was also an international hit, peaking at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States and No. 1 in the Netherlands. It was later certified Gold by the RIAA, representing 500,000 copies sold. The song 's music video, directed by Stuart Orme, received heavy play on MTV when the new cable music video channel launched in August 1981. It remains one of Collins ' best - known hits, often cited as his signature song, and is especially famous for his drum break towards the end, which has been described as "the sleekest, most melodramatic drum break in history ''.
Collins wrote the song amid the grief he felt after divorcing his first wife Andrea Bertorelli in 1980. In a 2016 interview, Collins said of the song 's lyrics: "I wrote the lyrics spontaneously. I 'm not quite sure what the song is about, but there 's a lot of anger, a lot of despair and a lot of frustration. '' In a 1997 BBC Radio 2 documentary, the singer revealed that the divorce contributed to his 1979 hiatus from Genesis until the band regrouped in October of that year to record the album Duke.
The lyrics of the song take the form of a dark monologue directed towards an unnamed person:
Well if you told me you were drowning, I would not lend a hand I 've seen your face before, my friend, but I do n't know if you know who I am Well I was there and I saw what you did I saw it with my own two eyes So you can wipe off that grin I know where you 've been It 's all been a pack of lies
The recording is notable for its atmospheric production and macabre theme. It has been described as being "at the vanguard of experimental pop '' in 1981 and "a rock oddity classic '', having been influenced by "the unconventional studio predilections of Brian Eno and Peter Gabriel ''. Musically, the song consists of a series of ominous chords played by a Sequential Circuits Prophet - 5 over a simple drum machine pattern (the Roland CR - 78 Disco - 2 pattern, plus some programming); processed electric guitar sounds and vocoded vocals, an effect which is increased on key words to add additional atmosphere. The mood is one of restrained anger until the final chorus when an explosive burst of drums releases the musical tension, and the instrumentation builds to a thundering final chorus.
Collins has described obtaining the drum machine specifically to deal with personal issues relating to his divorce through songwriting, telling Mix magazine: "I had to start writing some of this music that was inside me. '' He improvised the lyrics during a songwriting session in the studio: "I was just fooling around. I got these chords that I liked, so I turned the mic on and started singing. The lyrics you hear are what I wrote spontaneously. That frightens me a bit, but I 'm quite proud of the fact that I sang 99.9 percent of those lyrics spontaneously. ''
Musically, it 's an extraordinarily striking record, because almost nothing happens in it... It 's the drum sound in particular that 's amazing. You do n't hear it at all for the first two minutes of the song... then there 's that great doo - dom doo - dom doo - dom comes in, and the drums come in half way through the song, setting the template for all the Eighties drum songs after that. -- Stuart Maconie
The means by which Collins attained the drum sound on this recording was long a source of mystery. The exact process was a result of serendipity: an unintended use of studio technology giving unexpectedly useful results.
In this case, the Solid State Logic 4000 mixing board had a "reverse talk - back '' circuit (labeled on the board as "Listen Mic ''). Normal "talkback '' is a button that the mixing engineer has to press in order to talk to the recording musicians (the recording and the mixing parts of a studio are, otherwise, completely sonically isolated). Reverse talkback is a circuit (also button - activated) for the engineer to listen to musicians in the studio. In order to compensate for sound level differences -- people can be close to the reverse talkback microphone or far off -- this circuit has a compressor on it, which minimizes the differences between loud and soft sounds. While recording "Intruder '' for his ex-bandmate Peter Gabriel 's third solo album, at some point Collins started playing the drums while the reverse talkback was activated. Engineer Hugh Padgham was amazed at the sound achieved. Overnight, they rewired the board so that the reverse talkback could be recorded in a more formal manner. Later models of the SSL 4000 allowed the listen mic to be recorded with the touch of a button.
When recording engineer Padgham was brought in to help develop Collins ' demos that would become Face Value they recreated the "Intruder '' sound using the reverse talkback microphone as well as heavily compressed and gated ambient mics. Padgham continued working with Genesis for Abacab later in 1981 and the same technique (generally referred to as gated reverb) was used, and the powerful drum sound has become synonymous with later Genesis projects and Collins ' solo career ever since.
The original single version of "In the Air Tonight '' features extra drums that play underneath the song until the signature drum crash (referred to by fans as the "magic break '') appears. These were added at the suggestion of Atlantic Records head Ahmet Ertegun. In 2007, Collins wrote:
Ahmet came down to the final mix in the cutting room in New York (...) The drums do n't come in until the end but Ahmet did n't know that at this point, because on the demo the drums had n't come in at all; it was only drum machine all the way. And he was saying, "Where 's the down beat, where 's the backbeat? '' I said, "The drums come in in a minute. '' "Yeah, you know that and I know that, but the kids do n't know that; you 've got to put the drums on earlier. '' So we added some drums to the mix and put it out as a single.
In 2007, Mike Gruss, former columnist for The Virginian - Pilot, referred to the song as a "soft rock classic. ''
An urban legend has arisen around "In the Air Tonight '', according to which the lyrics are based on a drowning incident in which someone who was close enough to save the victim did not help them, while Collins, who was too far away to help, looked on. Increasingly embellished variations on the legend emerged over time, with the stories often culminating in Collins singling out the guilty party while singing the song at a concert. Collins has denied all such stories; he commented on the legends about the song in a BBC World Service interview:
I do n't know what this song is about. When I was writing this I was going through a divorce. And the only thing I can say about it is that it 's obviously in anger. It 's the angry side, or the bitter side of a separation. So what makes it even more comical is when I hear these stories which started many years ago, particularly in America, of someone come up to me and say, "Did you really see someone drowning? '' I said, "No, wrong ''. And then every time I go back to America the story gets Chinese whispers, it gets more and more elaborate. It 's so frustrating, ' cause this is one song out of all the songs probably that I 've ever written that I really do n't know what it 's about, you know?
The urban legend is referenced in the song "Stan '' by Eminem. The reference is contained in the following lyrics:
You know the song by Phil Collins, "In the Air of the Night '' (sic) About that guy who coulda saved that other guy from drownin ' But did n't, then Phil saw it all, then at a show he found him?
The music video animates the photograph of Collins 's face from the cover of the Face Value album, slowly fading in through the intro until it fills the screen, singing the first chorus. The video then cuts to Collins sitting in an empty room at night. Twice a spectral figure appears in the window, but only the second time does Collins get up to look at it, then is shown walking to the one door of the room. Collins 's face returns for the second chorus, then he 's shown leaving the room and entering a hallway full of doors. The first one is locked, then the second opens and Collins sees himself looking at the window again, only now the spectre has turned into his own reflection. The third door is locked, but as the fourth one opens, the drum break sounds and the viewer is returned to Collins 's face again, this time in thermal coloring, which gradually reverts to black and white. Collins recedes into the darkness as the song repeats and fades.
"In the Air Tonight '' remains a popular selection on classic rock radio stations. It is the song most often associated with Collins ' solo career, and he has performed it at many events, including Live Aid, where he played the song on a piano on the same calendar day in both Philadelphia and London. He also performed the song at The Secret Policeman 's Ball, which was his first live performance as a solo artist. "I remember doing ' In the Air Tonight ' at Live Aid, '' he recalled, "and Townshend saying, ' Are you going to do that fucking song again? ' as it was the only one I ever played. ''
"In the Air Tonight '' has been licensed repeatedly for use in films, television and advertisements for various products.
In the 2009 film The Hangover, the protagonists encounter boxer Mike Tyson and his entourage after returning from an amnesiac night in Las Vegas, in which they absconded with the boxer 's pet tiger. Tyson imitates the iconic drum breakdown with his hands, lip syncs the song with the group, and proceeds to punch Zach Galifanakis to the floor in retribution.
It was used in the train sequence of the 1983 film Risky Business and appeared on the soundtrack album.
In 1984 the song was featured in the pilot episode of U.S. television show Miami Vice ("Brother 's Keeper ''), one of the first pop / rock songs to be featured as part of a television program in this manner. Its use in that scene was "a moment that first signaled to audiences and critics that Miami Vice had something to offer that few other TV programs on the air in 1984 could match '', The A.V. Club wrote in 2012. It subsequently "bubbled under '' the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 102 in late 1984 and appeared on the television soundtrack album released in 1985. On the heels of this successful merging of media, Collins became associated with the show; other Collins tracks including "Take Me Home '' were later featured, and Collins himself also acted in the second season episode "Phil the Shill ''. This song was later used in the show 's fourth season episode "A Bullet for Crockett '' for its car chase opening scene, a clear reference to the show 's pilot episode. A cover of "In the Air Tonight '', performed by American metal band Nonpoint, also appeared in the 2006 film adaptation.
It was used in 1986 when the brewer Anheuser - Busch adopted it for an ad campaign promoting Michelob beer, along with night - related songs by Collins ' peers Steve Winwood ("Do n't You Know What the Night Can Do? '') and Eric Clapton ("After Midnight '').
In 2006, the Family Guy episode Petergeist features Stewie trapped in a TV in a manner similar to that depicted in the movie Poltergeist. He tests out the sound of his voice by singing the song, and then vocalizing the drum part.
Cadbury used the song in their 2007 Gorilla advertising campaign for its Dairy Milk chocolate bar. Afterwards, the song reached No. 14 on the UK singles chart and No. 9 on the UK Download Chart. The advertisement also helped the song re-enter the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart and went to No. 1, staying there for two weeks, beating its original 1981 No. 6 peak, and become his first chart topper song on the country. The single was finished also certified Platinum with sales of over 15,000 copies. This advert was so popular, it won the awards for the Best Ad of the Year, at New Zealands Fair - Go Ad Awards. It was also subsequently parodied in a spoof ad by Wonderbra. Contrary to popular belief, it was not Phil Collins performing in the gorilla suit but American actor Garon Michael.
The song also featured in two episodes of the hit BBC One 1980s - based drama series Ashes to Ashes. In an interview with SFX, series creator Matthew Graham discusses his editorial choices in using the iconic song and its referential value for the dramatic finale. He considered the piece ideal for his purpose, evoking the mood of the early - 1980s.
In an episode of the British soap opera Emmerdale, the character Gerry Roberts sang part of this song.
The song has been sampled by many artists, including Shaquille O'Neal in his song "Edge of Night '', Nas in his song "One Mic '', and Tupac Shakur on his tracks "Starin ' Through My Rear View '' and "Letter to the President ''. Other tracks which include samples of "In the Air Tonight '' include DMX 's "I Can Feel It '', Krayzie Bone 's "Silent Warrior '', Joe Budden 's "Rest in Peace (In the Air) '', Sean Kingston 's "Can You Feel It '', Young Buck 's "New York City '', Big Audio Dynamite 's "Innocent Child '', Lil ' Kim 's "In the Air Tonite '', Ke $ ha 's "Love Into the Light '', and Av LMKR 's "In The Air ''.
It was used in 2009 by Canadian rapper Roi Heenok in his song "La Mama Coca. ''
According to video game music composer David Wise, he sampled the percussion track of "In the Air Tonight '' for "Bayou Boogie '', a track in the 1995 SNES game Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy 's Kong Quest.
It was also sampled by MiC LOWRY on their single "Oh Lord ''.
The song sampled by The Overall Ole in the song "Gig Paty Gig! ''.
U.S. author Mohja Kahf obtained permission to cite two lines from the song in her novel, The Girl in the Tangerine Scarf (Perseus Books, 2006). When the novel 's protagonist, a young Syrian American woman named Khadra who is coming of age during the 1970s and 1980s in America, performs the Muslim ritual pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca and views the Ka'ba for the first time, the author writes that: "Khadra tried to keep the joyous talbiya (ritual chant) in her mind and on her tongue: Here I am, O my Lord, Here I am! Labbaik, allahumma, labbaik! But she kept getting it crossed with Phil Collins in her head crooning, ' I can feel it coming in the air tonight, Oh Lo - ord... I 've been waiting for this moment for all my life, oh Lo - ord... ' ''
VSK102 UK Single Release (Martin H)
Sleeve includes a black and white 12 page cartoon storyboard drawn by Collins ' brother Clive Collins.
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A cover of the song appears on the Nonpoint album Recoil and in the film Miami Vice (2006), and a video was made to promote the track using clips from the film. Nonpoint 's version was also used in teasers for the fifth season of Dexter in 2010.
The song was also covered by American metal band In This Moment for their 2017 album Ritual.
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who won the first ever football world cup match | 1930 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men 's national association football teams. It took place in Uruguay from 13 to 30 July 1930. FIFA, football 's international governing body, selected Uruguay as host nation, as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution, and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics. All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital, Montevideo, the majority at the Estadio Centenario, which was built for the tournament.
Thirteen teams (seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America) entered the tournament. Only a few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4 -- 1 and Belgium 3 -- 0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history, while US goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official "clean sheet '' in the tournament.
Argentina, Uruguay, the United States and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi-finals. In the final, hosts and pre-tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 -- 2 in front of a crowd of 68,346 people, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.
Italy, Sweden, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary and Uruguay all lodged applications to host the event. Uruguay 's bid became the clear selection after all the other countries withdrew their bids.
The first World Cup was the only one without qualification. Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete, and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept. Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas; Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and the United States all entered. A total of seven South American teams participated, more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals. However, because of the long and costly trip by ship across the Atlantic Ocean, and the length of absence required for players, very few European teams were inclined to take part. Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances, and no European entries were received before the February deadline. In an attempt to gain some European participation, the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to The Football Association, even though the British Home Nations (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) had resigned from FIFA at the time. This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929. Two months before the start of the tournament, no team from Europe had officially entered. FIFA president Jules Rimet intervened, and eventually four European teams made the trip by sea: Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The Romanians, managed by Constantin Rădulescu and coached by their captain Rudolf Wetzer and Octav Luchide, entered the competition following the intervention of newly crowned King Carol II. He selected the squad personally, and negotiated with employers to ensure that the players would still have jobs upon their return. The French entered at the personal intervention of Rimet, but neither France 's star defender Manuel Anatol nor the team 's regular coach Gaston Barreau could be persuaded to make the trip. The Belgians participated at the instigation of German - Belgian FIFA vice-president Rodolphe Seeldrayers.
Lucien Laurent
The Romanians boarded the SS Conte Verde at Genoa, the French were picked up at Villefranche - sur - Mer on 21 June 1930; and the Belgians embarked at Barcelona. The Conte Verde carried Rimet, the trophy and the three designated European referees: the Belgians Jean Langenus and Henri Christophe, along with Thomas Balway, a Parisian who may have been English. The Brazilian team were picked up when the boat docked in Rio de Janeiro on 29 June before arriving in Uruguay on 4 July. Yugoslavia travelled via the mail steamship Florida from Marseille.
In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia there were doubts about their participation at first. Since the Croatians decided to boycott the national team, King Alexander I did not want to finance the whole idea, but in the end they found a solution. Belgrade football association officials decided to round up only domestic (Serbian) star players, mainly from two rival Belgrade clubs, BSK and SK Jugoslavija, with an additional three Serbs who played for French clubs (Ivan Bek among them). Therefore, the Yugoslavia team was exclusively made up of Serbian players; and with the two biggest stars of the team, Blagoje Marjanović ("Moša '') and Aleksandar Tirnanić ("Tirke ''), both from BSK, they were ready for a trip to South America to represent Yugoslavia in the World Cup. The Yugoslavians were the youngest team in the World Cup; with an average age of 21 years and 258 days. After their first match, against Brazil, they received a new nickname "The Ich - es '' or "Ichachos '' (in Spanish) by the Uruguayan press; referring to most of the player 's surnames that ended up with the "- ić '' or "- vić '' suffix, which is quite common for Serbian last names. They achieved the joint -- biggest success in both Yugoslav and Serbian subsequent World Cup footballing history, by earning fourth place, a result that would be repeated in 1962.
All matches took place in Montevideo. Three stadiums were used: Estadio Centenario, Estadio Pocitos, and Estadio Parque Central. The Estadio Centenario was built both for the tournament and as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguayan independence. Designed by Juan Scasso, it was the primary stadium for the tournament, referred to by Rimet as a "temple of football ''. With a capacity of 90,000, it was the largest football stadium outside the British Isles. The stadium hosted 10 of the 18 matches, including both semi-finals and the final. However, a rushed construction schedule and delays caused by the rainy season meant the Centenario was not ready for use until five days into the tournament. Early matches were played at smaller stadiums usually used by Montevideo football clubs Nacional and Peñarol, the 20,000 capacity Parque Central and the Pocitos.
For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see 1930 FIFA World Cup squads.
Fifteen referees participated in the tournament: four Europeans -- two Belgians (Henri Christophe and John Langenus), a Frenchman, and a Romanian (Constantin Rădulescu, also the Romanian team coach), and eleven from the Americas -- among them six Uruguayans. In order to eliminate differences in the application of the Laws of the Game, the referees were invited to one short meeting to iron out the most conflicting issues arising from the game.
Of all the refereeing appointments, the two that attracted most attention were that of Gilberto de Almeida Rêgo in the match between Argentina and France, in which the Brazilian referee blew for full - time six minutes early, and that of the Bolivian Ulises Saucedo 's in the Argentina and Mexico encounter, which Argentina won 6 -- 3. During the game Saucedo, who was also the coach of Bolivia, awarded three penalties.
The following is the list of officials to serve as referees and linesmen. Officials in italics were only employed as linesmen during the tournament.
The 13 teams were drawn into four groups, with Group 1 containing four teams, and the others containing three. Each group played a round - robin format, with the four group winners progressing to the knockout semi-final stage.
Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, and the United States were seeded, and were kept apart in the draw, which took place in Montevideo once all the teams arrived.
Since there were no qualifying games, the opening two matches of the tournament were the first World Cup games ever played, taking place simultaneously on 13 July 1930; France beat Mexico 4 -- 1 at the Estadio Pocitos, while the United States defeated Belgium 3 -- 0 at the same time at the Estadio Gran Parque Central. France 's Lucien Laurent was the scorer of the first World Cup goal.
Lucien Laurent
The first group was the only one to contain four teams: Argentina, Chile, France and Mexico. Two days after France 's victory over Mexico, they faced group favourites Argentina. Injuries hindered France; goalkeeper Alex Thépot had to leave the field after 20 minutes, and Laurent, after a fierce tackle by Luis Monti, spent most of the match limping. However, they held out for most of the match, only succumbing to an 81st - minute goal scored from a Monti free kick. The game featured an officiating controversy when referee Almeida Rêgo erroneously blew the final whistle six minutes early, with Frenchman Marcel Langiller clear on goal; play only resumed after protests from the French players. Though France had played twice in 48 hours, Chile had yet to play their first match. They faced Mexico the following day, gaining a comfortable 3 -- 0 win.
France 's final match, against Chile, featured the first penalty kick of the World Cup. The first goalkeeper to save a penalty was Alex Thépot of France on 19 July 1930, saving from Chile 's Carlos Vidal in the 30th minute of the match. In Argentina 's second match, against Mexico, three penalty kicks were awarded. During the same match on 19 July 1930 Mexico 's Oscar Bonfiglio Martínez saved another penalty at the 23rd minute of the match against Argentina 's Fernando Paternoster. Guillermo Stábile scored a hat - trick in his international debut as Argentina won 6 -- 3, despite the absence of their captain Manuel Ferreira, who had returned to Buenos Aires to take a law exam. Qualification was decided by the group 's final match, contested by Argentina and Chile, who had beaten France and Mexico, respectively. The game was marred by a brawl sparked by a foul on Arturo Torres by Monti. Argentina won 3 -- 1 against their neighbours and advanced to the semi-finals.
The second group contained Brazil, Bolivia and Yugoslavia. Brazil, the group seeds, were expected to progress, but in the group 's opening match, unexpectedly lost 2 -- 1 to Yugoslavia. Going into the tournament Bolivia had never previously won an international match. For their opener they paid tribute to the hosts by wearing shirts each emblazoned with a single letter, spelling "Viva Uruguay '' as the team lined up. Both of Bolivia 's matches followed a similar pattern, a promising start gradually transforming into heavy defeat. Against Yugoslavia, they held out for an hour before conceding, but were four goals down by the final whistle. Misfortune played its part; several Bolivian goals were disallowed. Against Brazil, when both teams had only pride to play for, the score was 1 -- 0 to Brazil at half - time. Brazil added three more in the second half, two of them scored by the multi-sportsman Preguinho. Yugoslavia qualified for the semi-finals.
Hosts Uruguay were in a group with Peru and Romania. The opening match in this group saw the first player expulsion in the competition, when Plácido Galindo of Peru was dismissed against Romania. The Romanians made their man advantage pay; their 3 -- 1 win included two late goals. This match had the smallest crowd of any in World Cup history. The official attendance was 2,459, but the actual figure is generally accepted to be around 300.
Because of construction delays at Estadio Centenario, Uruguay 's first match was not played until five days into the tournament. The first to be held at the Centenario, it was preceded by a ceremony in honour of the Uruguayan centenary celebrations. The Uruguayan team spent the four weeks preceding the match in a training camp, at which strict discipline was exercised. Goalkeeper Andrés Mazali was dropped from the squad for breaking a curfew to visit his wife. One hundred years to the day of the creation of Uruguay 's first constitution, the hosts won a tight match against Peru 1 -- 0. Spectators praised Peru 's defense, and this turned out to be the only tournament match in which Uruguay scored only one goal. The result was viewed as a poor performance by the Uruguayan press, but lauded in Peru. Uruguay subsequently defeated Romania with ease, scoring four first half goals to win 4 -- 0.
The fourth group contained Belgium, Paraguay and The United States. The American team, which contained a significant number of new caps, were reputedly nicknamed "the shot - putters '' by an unnamed source in the French contingent. They beat their first opponents, Belgium, 3 -- 0. The ease of the victory was unexpected; Uruguayan newspaper Imparcial wrote that "the large score of the American victory has really surprised the experts ''. Belgian reports bemoaned the state of the pitch and refereeing decisions, claiming that the second goal was offside. The group 's second match, played in windy conditions, witnessed the first tournament hat - trick, scored by Bert Patenaude of the United States against Paraguay. Until 10 November 2006, the first hat - trick that FIFA acknowledged had been scored by Guillermo Stábile of Argentina, two days after Patenaude; however, in 2006 FIFA announced that Patenaude 's claim to being the first hat - trick scorer was valid, as a goal previously assigned to teammate Tom Florie was reattributed to Patenaude. With the United States having secured qualification, the final match in the group was a dead rubber. Paraguay beat Belgium by a 1 -- 0 margin.
The four group winners, Argentina, Yugoslavia, Uruguay and the United States, moved to the semi-finals. The two semi-final matches saw identical scores. The first semi-final was played between the USA and Argentina on a rain - drenched pitch. The United States team, which featured six British - born players, lost midfielder Raphael Tracy after ten minutes to a broken leg as the match became violent. A Monti goal halfway through the first half gave Argentina a 1 -- 0 half - time lead. In the second half, the strength of the United States team was overwhelmed by the pace of the Argentinian attacks, the match finishing 6 -- 1 to Argentina.
In the second semi-final there were shades of the 1924 Summer Olympics match between Yugoslavia and Uruguay. Here, though, Yugoslavia took a surprise lead through Vujadinović. Uruguay then took a 2 -- 1 lead. Then shortly before half - time Yugoslavia had a goal disallowed by a controversial offside decision. The hosts scored three more in the second half to win 6 -- 1, Pedro Cea completing a hat - trick.
The now - traditional third place play - off was not established until 1934, so the format of the 1930 World Cup is unique in not distinguishing between the third and fourth placed teams. Occasional sources, notably a FIFA Bulletin from 1984, incorrectly imply that a third - place match occurred and was won 3 -- 1 by Yugoslavia. Accounts differ as to whether a third - place match was originally scheduled. According to a 2009 book by Hyder Jawad, Yugoslavia refused to play a third - place match because they were upset with the refereeing in their semi-final against Uruguay.
At the end of the championship, the captains of the United States team (Tom Florie) and Yugoslavia (Milutin Ivković) both received bronze medals. Yet a FIFA technical committee report on the 1986 World Cup included full retrospective rankings of all teams at all previous World Cup finals; this report ranked the United States third and Yugoslavia fourth, due to a better goal difference on otherwise identical records, a practice since continued by FIFA. In 2010, the son of Kosta Hadži, the chief of Yugoslav delegation at the 1930 World Cup and the vice-president of the Football Association of Yugoslavia at the time, claimed that Yugoslavia, as a team, has been awarded one bronze medal, which has been kept by Hadži himself and his family for the following 80 years. According to this source, Yugoslavia was placed third because of the semi-finals loss to the eventual champions, Uruguay.
The resounding wins for Uruguay and Argentina in the semi-finals meant the final was a repeat of the matchup in the 1928 Olympic final, which Uruguay had won 2 -- 1 after a replay.
The final was played at the Estadio Centenario on 30 July. Feelings ran high around the La Plata Basin as the Argentine supporters crossed the river with the war cry Victoria o muerte ("victory or death ''), dispelling any uncertainty as to whether the tournament had captured the imagination of the public. The ten boats earmarked to carry Argentine fans from Buenos Aires to Montevideo proved inadequate, and any number of assorted craft attempted the crossing. An estimated 10 -- 15,000 Argentinians made the trip, but the port at Montevideo was so overwhelmed that many did not even make landfall before kick - off, let alone reach the stadium. At the stadium, supporters were searched for weapons. The gates were opened at eight o'clock, six hours before kick - off, and at noon the ground was full, the official attendance 93,000. A disagreement overshadowed the build - up to the match as the teams failed to agree on who should provide the match ball, forcing FIFA to intervene and decree that the Argentine team would provide the ball for the first half and the Uruguayans would provide their own for the second. Uruguay made one change from their semi-final line - up. Castro replaced Anselmo, who missed out due to illness. Monti played for Argentina despite receiving death threats on the eve of the match. The referee was Belgian John Langenus, who only agreed to officiate a few hours before the game, having sought assurances for his safety. One of his requests was for a boat to be ready at the harbour within one hour of the final whistle, in case he needed to make a quick escape.
The hosts scored the opening goal through Pablo Dorado, a low shot from a position on the right. Argentina, displaying superior passing ability, responded strongly. Within eight minutes they were back on level terms; Carlos Peucelle received a Ferreira through - ball, beat his marker and equalised. Shortly before half - time leading tournament goalscorer Guillermo Stábile gave Argentina a 2 -- 1 lead. Uruguay captain Nasazzi protested, maintaining that Stábile was offside, but to no avail. In the second half Uruguay gradually became ascendant. Shortly after Monti missed a chance to make the score 3 -- 1, Uruguay attacked in numbers, and Pedro Cea scored an equaliser. Ten minutes later a goal by Santos Iriarte gave Uruguay the lead, and just before full - time Castro made it 4 -- 2 to seal the win. Langenus ended the match a minute later, and Uruguay thus added the title World Cup winners to their mantle of Olympic champions. Jules Rimet presented the World Cup Trophy, which was later named for him, to the head of the Uruguayan Football Association, Raúl Jude. The following day was declared a national holiday in Uruguay; in the Argentinian capital, Buenos Aires, a mob threw stones at the Uruguayan consulate. Francisco Varallo (who played as a forward for Argentina) was the last player of the final to die, on 30 August 2010.
France, Yugoslavia and the United States all played friendlies in South America following the competition. Brazil played France on 1 August, Yugoslavia on 10 August and the United States on 17 August, while Argentina hosted Yugoslavia on 3 August.
Uruguay 's aggregate goal difference of + 12 over four games, at an average of + 3 per match, remains the highest average goal difference per match of any World Cup champion, and the second highest of any World Cup Finals participant, after Hungary in 1954.
With eight goals, Guillermo Stábile was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 70 goals were scored by 36 players, with only one of them credited as an own goal.
In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1930 tournament were as follows:
The last surviving player from Uruguay 's World Cup - winning side was Ernesto Mascheroni, who died on 3 July 1984 at the age of 76. He was outlived by reserve defender Emilio Recoba who died on 12 September 1992 (aged 87), but did not play any matches in the tournament. However, many other players who participated in the tournament were still alive by this stage and the last surviving player from the tournament was Argentina 's Francisco Varallo, who died on 30 August 2010 at the age of 100 -- eighty years after the tournament. Lucien Laurent, the scorer of the first ever World Cup Goal was the last surviving Member of the France Squad and was invited in 1998 Final seeing France lifting its first ever World Cup win also as the only France member. He died in 2005 at the age of 97.
A recreation of the tournament from the point of view of the Yugoslavian team can be seen in the 2014 Serbian film See You in Montevideo.
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who is hosting the 2026 soccer world cup | 2026 FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The 2026 FIFA World Cup (Spanish: Copa mundial de la FIFA de 2026; French: Coupe du monde de la FIFA de 2026) will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will be jointly hosted by 16 cities in three North American countries; 60 matches, including the quarterfinals, semi-finals, and the final, will be hosted by the United States while neighboring Canada and Mexico will each host 10 matches. The tournament will be the first hosted by three nations.
The United 2026 bid beat a rival bid by Morocco during a final vote at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow. It will be the first World Cup since South Korea / Japan in 2002 that will be hosted by more than one nation. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will also become the first country to host all or part of three men 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup will also see the tournament expanded from 32 to 48 teams.
Michel Platini, who was then the UEFA president, had suggested in October 2013 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams, an idea that FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016. A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on October 4, 2016. Four expansion options were considered:
On January 10, 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48 - team tournament.
The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams. The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, but one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, the same as previous 32 - team tournaments.
The European Club Association and its member clubs opposed the proposal for expansion, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable '' level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify. They contended that it was a decision taken for political reasons because Infantino would thus satisfy his electorate, rather than for sporting reasons. Liga de Fútbol Profesional president Javier Tebas agreed, affirming the unacceptability of the new format. He told Marca that the football industry is maintained thanks to clubs and leagues, not FIFA, and that Infantino did politics because to be elected he promised more countries in the World Cup; he wanted to keep the electoral promises. German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit. Another criticism of the new format is that with three - team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round of the group stage will increase compared with four - team groups (where simultaneous kick - offs have been employed). One suggestion by president Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts.
On March 30, 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA president and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council.
On May 9, 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental playoff tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths.
The issue of how to allocate automatic host country qualification given that there are multiple host countries has not yet been resolved and will be decided by the FIFA council. The United bid anticipated all three host countries being awarded automatic places.
The ratification of slot allocation gives OFC a guaranteed berth in the final tournament for the first time in FIFA World Cup history. The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the first tournament in which all six confederations have guaranteed berths.
A playoff tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths, consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country (i.e. CONCACAF).
Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams.
The tournament is to be played in the host country (ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing playoff window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition.
The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament, before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However, the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second - to - last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements. In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. '' Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (North America; last hosted in 1994), CAF (Africa; last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (South America; last hosted in 2014), or OFC (Oceania, never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements.
Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup -- which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup -- was approved for the 2026 World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case - by - case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition.
Canada, Mexico and the United States had all publicly considered bidding for the tournament separately, but the United joint bid was announced on April 10, 2017. The United bid contacted 48 venues in 43 cities (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 37 venues in 34 cities in the United States). This bid was ultimately cut down to 23 venues in 23 cities (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico and 17 in the United States; the American venues will be cut down to 10 for a total of 16 venues for the tournament). Morocco announced its bid in August 2017, and had 14 proposed venues in 12 cities.
The voting took place on June 13, 2018, during FIFA 's annual congress in Moscow, and it was reopened to all eligible members. The United bid won receiving 134 valid ballots, while the Morocco bid received 65 valid ballots. Upon the selection, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup -- the latter was in 2015, Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups -- previously in 1970 and 1986, and the United States becomes the first country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup twice each -- having hosted the 1994 men 's and the 1999 and 2003 women 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup 's qualification process has yet to be decided. The FIFA Council is expected to decide which hosts, if any, will receive automatic qualifications to the tournament. The United Bid personnel anticipated that all three host countries would be awarded automatic places.
During the bidding process, there were 49 venues in 43 cities contacted to be part of the bid. 41 cities with 45 venues responded and submitted to be part of the bid (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 38 venues in 34 cities in the United States). A first round elimination cut 9 venues and 9 cities, then a second round elimination cut 9 venues in 6 cities, reducing the total number to 23 venues, each in their own city or metropolitan area. The 23 candidate cities and venues will be narrowed down to 16 in 2020 or 2021 (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico, and 10 in the United States):
FIFA president Gianni Infantino criticized the U.S. travel ban on several Muslim - majority nations. Infantino said, "When it comes to FIFA competitions, any team, including the supporters and officials of that team, who qualify for a World Cup need to have access to the country, otherwise there is no World Cup. That is obvious. ''
However, assurances were later given by the government that there would be no such discrimination.
U.S. President Donald Trump threatened the countries that intended to support the Morocco bid to host the 2026 World Cup, tweeting: "The US has put together a STRONG bid w / Canada & Mexico for the 2026 World Cup. It would be a shame if countries that we always support were to lobby against the U.S. bid. Why should we be supporting these countries when they do n't support us (including at the United Nations)? ''
On February 12, 2015, Fox, Telemundo, and Bell Media 's rights to the tournament were renewed by FIFA to cover 2026, without accepting any other bids. The New York Times believed that this extension was intended as compensation for the rescheduling of the 2022 World Cup to November - December rather than its traditional June - July scheduling, which falls during the heart of the regular season for several major North American sports leagues (including the National Football League; Fox is a main U.S. rightsholder).
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who did puss n boots grow up with in the orphanage | Puss in Boots (2011 film) - wikipedia
Puss in Boots is a 2011 American 3D computer - animated fantasy action comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by Chris Miller (who also directed 2007 's Shrek the Third) and written by Brian Lynch and Tom Wheeler. It stars Antonio Banderas, Salma Hayek, Zach Galifianakis, Billy Bob Thornton and Amy Sedaris. The film was released in theaters on October 28, 2011 in Digital 3D and IMAX 3D.
Although the character of Puss in Boots originated in a European fairy tale in 1697, the film is a spin - off prequel to the Shrek franchise. It follows the character Puss in Boots on his adventures before his first appearance in Shrek 2 in 2004. Accompanied by his friends, Humpty Dumpty and Kitty Softpaws, Puss is pitted against Jack and Jill, two murderous outlaws in ownership of legendary magical beans which lead to great fortune.
Puss in Boots grossed $554.9 million at the box office. It was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 84th Academy Awards. A television series, titled The Adventures of Puss in Boots, premiered on Netflix in 2015. A sequel film, titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves, was scheduled to be released in 2018, but removed from the DreamWorks schedule in early 2015.
Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas) is a talking cat named for his signature pair of boots. Puss is a fugitive on the run from the law, looking to restore his lost honor. He learns that the outlaw couple Jack (Billy Bob Thornton) and Jill (Amy Sedaris) have the magic beans he 's been looking for most of his life, which can lead him to a giant 's castle holding valuable golden goose eggs. When Puss tries to steal them from the outlaws ' room, a female cat named Kitty Softpaws interrupts, and both fail. Kitty is allied with Humpty Alexander Dumpty, a talking egg and Puss ' long - estranged childhood friend from the orphanage where he was raised. Puss tells Kitty his origin story and of his feelings of betrayal for a youthful misadventure when Humpty tricked Puss into helping commit a bank robbery in his hometown of San Ricardo; Puss has been on the run ever since. Humpty eventually convinces Puss to join them in finding the beans and retrieving the golden eggs.
The trio steal the beans from Jack and Jill and plant them in the desert. Puss and Kitty 's relationship becomes romantic. The trio ride the beanstalk into the clouds to find the castle of the late giant, while avoiding the Great Terror, a giant goose that guards the Golden Goose. When they realize the golden eggs are too heavy to carry, they steal the Goose, which is just a gosling, and escape the castle. While celebrating their victory, the group is ambushed by Jack and Jill, who knock Puss unconscious.
When Puss wakes up, he tracks Jack and Jill to San Ricardo where he learns the entire heist was a plot by Humpty to lure him home to be arrested, as revenge for abandoning him to the authorities when Humpty 's youthful heist went bad. Jack, Jill, and Kitty were involved in the con. After pleas from Imelda, his adoptive mother, Puss turns himself in to the guards while Humpty donates many golden eggs to the town and becomes a hero.
While in prison, Puss meets the original Jack from "Jack and the Beanstalk '' who warns him that the Great Terror is in fact the Goose 's mother, and it will stop at nothing to get its child back. Realizing Humpty intended to destroy the town all along, Puss lets a repentant Kitty help him break out of prison and she also tells him she loves him. Tracking him down just as the Great Terror arrives, Puss convinces Humpty to help him fight off the Great Terror, saying he knows Humpty is a good person at heart. Using the Goose as bait, Puss and Humpty lure the Great Terror out of the town. During the chase, Jack and Jill betray Humpty and try to take the Goose, but get crushed by the Great Terror. Humpty and the Goose are knocked off a bridge with Puss holding onto them. Humpty knows Puss can not hold both of them, so he lets go, sacrificing himself to save the Goose and the town. Humpty 's shell cracks open to reveal he was a golden egg on the inside. The Great Terror then takes the Goose and Humpty back to the giant 's castle.
Puss ' efforts to save San Ricardo make him a hero among the townspeople and Imelda. In the epilogue, Jack and Jill are recovering from their injuries, Humpty is shown once again in his regular egg form, wearing a golden egg suit, as he rides the Great Terror into the clouds, and Puss and Kitty kiss.
The film had been in development since 2004, when Shrek 2 was released. As a Shrek 2 spin - off, it was initially planned for release in 2008 as a direct - to - video film, then titled Puss in Boots: The Story of an Ogre Killer. By October 2006, the film was re-slated as a theatrical release due to market conditions, and due to DreamWorks Animation 's realization that the Puss character deserved more.
In September 2010, Guillermo del Toro signed on as executive producer. Discussing del Toro, Miller stated: "We worked out a system for him to come in once every few months or whenever we had something new to show him. If we needed someone to bounce ideas off of, he was always there, and if we had a problem we were tackling, we 'd get Guillermo on the red phone -- our emergency phone -- and ask him advice on what we should do with a certain character or scene. It was like having our own film school. '' Miller stated that del Toro was particularly involved in Humpty 's character design. "Guillermo loved the dreamy quality of Humpty Dumpty. He suggested we push that further, make him more like da Vinci. '' It was del Toro 's idea to make Humpty "an ingenious freak of nature '' who builds contraptions such as a flying machine. Del Toro rewrote the ending to redeem the character and deepen his relationship with Puss -- an unconventional conclusion for a children 's film. He helped design the fantasy elements of the giant 's castle, as well as the architecture of the town, which he conceived as "an amalgam of Spain and Mexico ''.
Except for Puss, the film features new characters. Citing the co-writer, David H. Steinberg, "It does n't overlap with Shrek at all. Partly that was done to tell an original Puss story, but partly because we did n't know what Shrek 4 were going to do with the characters and we could n't write conflicting storylines. '' The film was teased in Shrek Forever After, when Shrek finally shuts the book titled "Shrek '', and puts it away next to a book titled "Puss in Boots ''.
Puss in Boots is the first DreamWorks Animation feature film that was partly made in India. A Bangalore studio owned by Technicolor, which had mainly worked on TV specials and DVD bonus material, spent six months animating three major scenes in the film. The outsourcing had financial advantages, with 40 % less labor costs than in the US, but the primary reason for outsourcing to India was lack of personnel, due to the studio producing as many as three films a year.
The release date was originally set for November 4, 2011, but was pushed a week earlier to October 28, 2011. Anne Globe, head of worldwide marketing for DreamWorks Animation, said the decision to move the film 's release date a week earlier was to attract parents and their children to see the film before other family - friendly movies were released in November 2011.
The film was renamed Cat in Boots in the United Arab Emirates for officially unknown reasons, but it is suspected for religious and cultural reasons. According to UAE 's The National Media Council, which is responsible for censorship, UAE did n't have any involvement in the rename and that "the decision to change the name had been made by the Hollywood studio and the movie distributors in the UAE. '' Consequently, since the film 's distributor was based in the UAE, the same print was syndicated to all theaters throughout the Middle East. However, the name change was limited to the film 's original theatrical run, as merchandise and later regional home media release retained the film 's original title.
Henry Jackman, the composer for Puss in Boots, utilized folk instruments of traditional Latin music. Inspired by Spanish composer Manuel de Falla, Jackman blended guitars and Latin percussion with an orchestral sound influenced by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Mexican guitar duo Rodrigo y Gabriela contributed to Jackman 's score, and two of their songs, Diabolo Rojo and Hanuman were included in the soundtrack. Lady Gaga 's song "Americano '' was also featured in the film. The soundtrack for the film, featuring the original score by Jackman, was released on October 24, 2011, by Sony Classical.
Puss in Boots had its world premiere on October 16, 2011, aboard the Royal Caribbean International 's cruise ship Allure of the Seas, docked in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the time. It was theatrically released in the United States on October 28, 2011. The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and was released in 268 North American IMAX theaters and at least 47 IMAX theaters outside North America.
Puss in Boots was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on February 24, 2012. The movie was accompanied by a short animated film called Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos. As of July 2013, 7.2 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide.
Another featured extra short is "Klepto Kitty ''; a three - minute profile of Dusty the Klepto Kitty, a notorious cat in California who steals items from neighbors ' yards, some of it captured on a night vision kitty - cam, hung around Dusty 's neck by the Animal Planet network for their own documentary.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 84 % based on reviews from 142, with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10. The website 's consensus is, "It is n't deep or groundbreaking, but what it lacks in profundity, Puss in Boots more than makes up for with an abundance of wit, visual sparkle, and effervescent charm. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 65 % based on 24 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss in Boots is a perfectly diverting romp that happens to showcase some of the best 3D work yet from a mainstream animated feature. Colorful, clever enough, free of cloying showbiz in - jokes, action - packed without being ridiculous about it and even well choreographed. '' Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss ' origin story could easily stand on its own -- a testament to clever writing on the part of its creative team and an irresistible central performance by Antonio Banderas. '' Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For quick, lively, family friendly entertainment, "Puss in Boots '' works just fine, even in 3 - D, which is integrated thoughtfully into the narrative and does n't just feel like a gimmick. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "As good as Banderas and Hayek are together, Galifianakis is better, making Humpty - Dumpty, of all people, one of the more intriguing animated characters to come along in a while. He 's a nice surprise. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "I left dreaming of a world in which cats could tango - and when 's the last time a movie did that? '' Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The seductive interplay of Banderas and Hayek, the barely recognizable vocal contributions of Galifianakis, and the Southern backwoods speech of Thornton and Sedaris all keep us attuned to the events on the screen. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C, saying "In the Shrek films, the joke of Puss in Boots, with his trilled consonants and penchant for chest - puffing sword duels, is that no one this cuddly should try to be this dashing. But in Puss in Boots, that joke wears out its welcome in 15 minutes. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots does n't break any new ground in the storytelling department, and its reliance on go - go - go state - of - the - art action sequences grows wearying by the end, but the movie has a devilish wit that works for parent and child alike. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's always a pleasure to find a family film that respects its audience all the way up the line. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Remember that toy where you yank a string and hear the sound of a barnyard animal? "Puss in Boots '' has about half as much entertainment value. '' Olly Richards of Empire gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Like most kittens, it 's not always perfectly behaved, but at least this new Puss adventure does n't have you reaching for the cinematic spray bottle. And thank goodness the spin - off does nothing to neuter the charismatic cat 's appeal. '' Stan Hall of The Oregonian gave the film a B, saying "Puss in Boots is n't particularly deep, nor does it take itself seriously -- it just wants to seek glory, win affection and cash in. Done, done and done. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Perhaps the most engaging thing about "Puss in Boots '' is that it never takes itself too seriously. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "It is a cheerfully chaotic jumble of fairy tale and nursery rhyme characters parachuted into a Spanish storybook setting. '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Basically, this toon is a tired riff on Sergio Leone 's spaghetti Westerns, punctuated by more puns and cat jokes than you can shake a litter box at. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, saying "With his impeccable comic timing and lyrical Spanish accent, Banderas ' swashbuckling charmer is an undeniable treat. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots '' proves there is at least one cat with multiple lives. The feature - length animated spinoff - a star turn for the popular "Shrek '' supporting character voiced by Antonio Banderas - is almost shockingly good. And not just because a lot of you will approach it with lowered expectations. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "An almost purr - fect little film that even a dog owner can enjoy. ''
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss made his debut in "Shrek 2, '' then did time in the two decreasingly funny sequels. Now he 's got a movie of his own, and not a moment too soon. '' Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It would overstate matters to say Puss in Boots leaves its cat holding the bag (we had to get that in). But it also leaves its hero awaiting a richer fable, one befitting his charms and his portrayer 's talents. '' Anna Smith of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots is uneven, but when it 's on course, cat fans will be in heaven. '' Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots prances along on three basic truths. One, cats are funny. Two, vain Spanish cats in high - heeled musketeer boots are even funnier. Lastly, booted, vain Spanish cats voiced by a breathy Antonio Banderas are flat - out hilarious. '' Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Puss In Boots makes a great theme - park ride, a thrill - a-minute feast for the eyes and the semicircular canals. But while the settings are impressively multidimensional, the characters are flatter than old - school cel drawings. ''
The film grossed $149,260,504 in North America, and $405,726,973 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $554,987,477. It is the eleventh highest - grossing film of 2011 and is also the third highest - grossing animated film that year behind Kung Fu Panda 2 ($665.7 million) and Cars 2 ($559.9 million).
In North America, the film topped the box office on its opening day with $9.6 million. On its opening weekend, the film made $34,077,439, topping Saw III 's record ($33.6 million) for the highest Halloween weekend opening ever. It retained first place during its second weekend, with $33,054,644, declining only 3 %.
Outside North America, on its opening weekend, it earned second place with $17.2 million. The film opened at # 1 in both the UK with a weekend gross of £ 1.98 million ($3.1 million), and Australia, with $2.98 million. It topped the box office outside North America on its seventh weekend with $47.1 million from 40 countries. It ranks as the ninth highest - grossing film of 2011 outside North America. Its highest - grossing country after North America was Russia and the CIS ($50.6 million), followed by Germany ($33.9 million) and France and the Maghreb region ($33.2 million).
In November 2012, executive producer Guillermo del Toro said that they already did a couple of script drafts for a sequel, and that the director Chris Miller wants to take Puss on an adventure to exotic places. In April 2014, Antonio Banderas, the voice of Puss, said that the work on the sequel had just begun. In June 2014, the movie was titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves and was scheduled to be released on November 2, 2018. Two months later, it was moved back to December 21, 2018. In January 2015, Puss in Boots 2 was removed from the release schedule following corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation 's new policy to release two films a year. Two months later, Banderas said in an interview that the script was under restructuring, and that Shrek may appear in the film.
The film also spawned an animated series that premiered on Netflix on January 16, 2015.
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mccauley brothers i just want to be your everything | The McAuley Boys - wikipedia
The McAuley Boys are an R&B vocal quartet based in London, Ontario, Canada. The members include brothers Ronald (Gary) McAuley, George McAuley, Mark McAuley, and Randal (Randy) McAuley. They are most notable for their 1997 Juno Award nomination for Best R&B / Soul Recording, having their cover of the Andy Gibb song "I Just Want To Be Your Everything '' released on BMG Music Canada 's Beat Factory Music GROOVEssentials Volume One, and performing the Canadian National Anthem "O Canada '' at the 1997 Major League Baseball All - Star Game. They cite The Jackson 5 as being their main influence.
The brothers were born to Rita and Winston McAuley, a schoolteacher and social worker respectively, who immigrated to Canada from their native Grenada where both parents performed music professionally. Rita McAuley sang with her sisters as The Mark Sisters.
In 1992, while attending the University of Western Ontario (UWO) in London, Ontario, Gary McAuley began songwriting with a then - unknown Stephan Moccio. In an interview with Billboard magazine, Moccio states that the pair had written a song for Celine Dion, which they used as an introduction to Dion and her husband / manager René Angélil during a visit to the campus. In the same interview, Moccio states that throughout his four years at UWO, he and Gary McAuley would play jazz and R&B in local clubs around London. In a 2016 interview with Shad on CBC Radio One 's Q, Moccio said the song "How Do I Win Your Heart '' (co-written with Gary) earned praise from David Foster after they sent him a demo on cassette. The multi-platinum producer praised their strong songwriting skills, saying "You have the talent to go all the way. '' For Gary, this led to a brief mentorship session in L.A. with Foster.
The McAuley Boys ' first album, Wonderful Christmas Time, was self - released and entirely financed by their mother for Christmas 1995 using her own $13,000. The group credits the demand for the disc, which promptly recouped Rita 's investment, as the catalyst for their professional approach to music.
Victor (Vic) Sinclair, then Music Director for CFPL in London, recognized the brothers ' potential and left his tenured position at one of Canada 's largest radio stations to manage the group, founding 80 / 20 Records and 80 / 20 Management. It was on the fledgling 80 / 20 Records that the album In Another Lifetime got its release, distributed across Canada through a regional Canadian distributor, ' Nuff Entertainment, otherwise known primarily for importing music from the Caribbean islands into Canada.
The first song pushed to radio stations from In Another Lifetime was the dance - floor friendly "Down, Down, Down '', which after some success was included in the compilation album All Stars Dance Hits 97 released by Warner Music Canada - owned Popular Records. The momentum continued when their Juno Award nomination for Best R&B / Soul Recording was announced on January 29, 1997.
After the Juno Awards broadcast on March 9, 1997, the video for the single "Down, Down, Down '' hit # 10 on the MuchMusic Playlist for the week ending March 29, 1997, as reported by Billboard Magazine 's "The Clip List ''.
Their appearance at the 1997 Major League Baseball All - Star Game was cut out of the live television broadcast by Fox Sports, which led to many irate phone calls to the press. Fox spokesman Lou D'Ermilio was quoted as saying "Due to time constraints, and since we 're a U.S. - based broadcaster, the decision was made just to air the ' Star Spangled Banner ' ''.
Their success was mentioned in a Billboard Magazine article about Carlos Morgan, the winner of the Juno Award in their category that year, along with Choclair and Denosh as "a significant sign of the growing force of Canadian R&B ''.
To end off 1997 's eventful year, they played twice on The Pamela Wallin Show, once partnered with Canadian fiddle group Leahy on December 19, and again with Dayna Manning on December 24, as part of the show 's Christmas music special: "Heavenly Duets ''.
On June 26, 1998, The McAuley Boys performed as part of the official launch to a $26 - million entertainment expansion for the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario.
The Fall 1998 issue of Jr. Jays magazine, a promotional product of the Toronto Blue Jays organization, gave away "a compact disc from The McAuley Boys '' as part of their contest prizing.
In 1999, they signed with Aquarius Records, which meant distribution through EMI Music Canada, but also a group name change to the truncated "McAuley ''. After releasing the album My Heaven at the CNE Bandshell on September 1, 2000 opening for Eiffel 65, they joined Maestro on tour in support of his album Ever Since.
The video for the single "My Heaven '' hit # 5 on the MuchMusic Playlist for the week ending June 10, 2000, as reported by Billboard Magazine 's "The Clip List ''.
The video for the single "By The Way '' hit # 7 on the MuchMusic Playlist for the week ending October 14, 2000, as reported by Billboard Magazine 's "The Clip List ''. They remained in that spot the following week (October 21, 2000).
In 2002, Gary McAuley produced, arranged, and played multiple instruments on Jackie Ungar 's album One Step. Mark McAuley is also credited as a vocalist. The record was executive produced by Gary McAuley and released on his label Yel Records / Yel Entertainment. One Step was nominated for "Contemporary / Pop Album Of The Year '' at the 2003 Gospel Vibe Awards in Calgary, Alberta.
In 2007, Mark McAuley donned the stage name Mac Graham to release a solo EP "7 Grahams '' and in 2010 an album entitled "Midnight ''.
Gary McAuley contributed to the 2007 album The Reason released by Urban X Entertainment artist Rufus.
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who plays bonnie's mom on baby daddy | MELISSA Peterman - wikipedia
Melissa Margaret Peterman is an American actress and comedian who is best known for her role as Barbra Jean in the television comedy series Reba. Peterman has appeared as Bonnie Wheeler in the ABC Family / Freeform series Baby Daddy, and as host of ABC Family 's Dancing Fools, ABC 's Bet on Your Baby, and CMT 's The Singing Bee.
Upon graduating from Minnesota State University, Mankato with theater as one of her majors, Peterman was cast as Madeline Monroe in Hey City Theater 's production of Tony n ' Tina 's Wedding. After more than 600 performances, she went on to write and perform at Brave New Workshop, the improvisational comedy theatre in Minneapolis. The theater boasts such alumni as Pat Proft, Louie Anderson, Cedric Yarbrough, Mo Collins and Al Franken. While with the Brave New Workshop, she also performed at the Chicago Improv Festival and the Big Stink Comedy Festival in Austin, Texas.
In 1996, Peterman made her film debut as "Hooker # 2 '' in the Oscar - winning Coen brothers ' movie Fargo.
In 2001, Peterman was cast as Barbra Jean Booker - Hart in Reba opposite country music singer Reba McEntire and television veteran Christopher Rich. The show was the most - watched comedy on The WB in its debut season. In 2007, the show ended its run after six seasons. Episodes continue to air in syndication on multiple networks.
During this time, Peterman also returned to film with Recipe for Disaster alongside Lesley Ann Warren and John Larroquette. She also made appearances in How High and the unreleased independent film Cook - Off. Peterman remained loyal to her comic roots, too, as the host of 15 Minutes of Fem, a comedy showcase for women presented at the Egyptian Theatre. On television, she appeared in the Oxygen sketch comedy show Running with Scissors and guest - starred on Just Shoot Me! and The Pitts. She also portrayed an unstable guidance counselor, Mrs. Splitz, on Ned 's Declassified School Survival Guide.
During her summer hiatus from Reba, Peterman hosted The Sound of Music Sing - a-Long, reprising her hosting gig the previous summer 's The Wizard of Oz Sing - a-Long, at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. Peterman also made appearances on the World Cup Comedy Challenge television series, as well as on the celebrity edition of Trading Spaces, with her Reba co-star Christopher Rich.
In October, ABC announced Peterman had been cast in an untitled comedy pilot starring Cedric the Entertainer. The show was taped before an audience on October 30, 2007. In December, the network announced they had secured the actors, indicating they were interested in the project. During the annual upfront presentation on May 13, 2008, ABC confirmed they did not order the pilot to series.
In 2007, Peterman appeared as the opening act on country singer and former Reba co-star Reba McEntire 's tour. Peterman returned the following year, with an almost - identical comedy routine, when McEntire toured with Kelly Clarkson. She was also the opening act for the second leg of the tour in 2008.
In 2007, Peterman hosted Comedy Stage for CMT. The series finished its run after eight episodes. The next year, she hosted a special, Redneck Dreams, for the network. Also in 2008, she was in two episodes of Wanna Bet? as a celebrity panelist. Peterman also appeared in an episode of animated comedy American Dad!. She announced she was shooting another comedy, this time for FOX, titled Living With Abandon. The pilot was not ordered to series.
In 2009, she landed the hosting gig for The Singing Bee. The show had been cancelled by NBC, and CMT expressed interested in reviving the competition. The show has gone on for over four seasons. Also in 2009, Peterman appeared in Rita Rocks on Lifetime, and in Surviving Suburbia on ABC. She starred opposite Gary Valentine in Dusty Peacock, an online comedy series on Crackle.
In February 2010, Big Machine Records announced that they signed Peterman to a recording contract, and she was to release her debut comedy album that year. The album has been recorded, but has not yet been released. Peterman is no longer listed on the record label website. Her debut comedy special, Melissa Peterman: Am I The Only One?, premiered March 12, 2010 on CMT. The special was taped before an audience in Nashville, Tennessee. Also that year, Peterman hosted the CMT Music Awards red carpet.
Peterman had revealed, in 2010, she was starring in another pilot. The family sitcom, titled Working Class, was the first original scripted comedy for the CMT network. Peterman starred alongside comedy veteran Ed Asner and renowned television actor Patrick Fabian. The series debut was the most - watched and highest - rated in network history. The series was canceled after one season.
In 2012, Peterman announced she was appearing in an upcoming ABC Family sitcom, Baby Daddy. In March, the network announced Peterman, originally only appearing in one episode, had been upgraded to series regular. The network also revealed the pilot was the highest - testing comedy pilot in network history. Baby Daddy finished its season as the highest - rated comedy in key demographics. The show has been renewed for a second season, returning Wednesday, May 29.
In January 2013, ABC ordered Bet On Your Baby and announced Peterman was the host. The competition series debuts Saturday, April 6. In February 2013, ABC Family announced Peterman was also the host of another upcoming competition, Dancing Fools. The series debuts Wednesday, May 29, immediately following Baby Daddy.
Peterman married John Brady on June 5, 1999, and their son was born October 20, 2005. She was a bridesmaid at Reba co-star JoAnna Garcia Swisher 's wedding, along with Reba McEntire. She works with The Unusual Suspects Theatre Company, a non-profit organization helping at - risk youth in the Los Angeles area.
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what happened to adam on man v food | Adam Richman - wikipedia
Adam Richman (born May 16, 1974) is an American actor and television personality. He has hosted various dining and eating - challenge programs on the Travel Channel.
Richman was born into a Jewish family in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in the Sheepshead Bay neighborhood of the borough. He attended "a Solomon Schechter school through eighth grade and then a Talmud Torah high school '', ultimately graduating from Midwood High School. He completed his undergraduate degree in International Studies at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and earned a master 's degree from the Yale School of Drama. While attending Emory University, Richman was a member of Alpha Epsilon Pi fraternity.
Richman 's acting career has included guest roles on Guiding Light, All My Children, Law & Order: Trial by Jury, and he portrayed God as a butcher on Joan of Arcadia in 2004. In addition to appearing in regional theater productions throughout the United States, he was also seen in several national television commercials.
As a self - educated food expert and trained sushi chef, Richman has kept a travel journal that includes every restaurant he has visited since 1995. To maintain his health while indulging for his show on Travel Channel 's Man v. Food (which originally aired between 2008 and 2012), Richman would exercise twice a day while on the road. When the schedule permitted, he would not eat the day before a challenge. He also tried to stay hydrated by drinking lots of water or club soda and forgoing coffee and soft drinks. Richman retired from competitive eating in January 2012; thus, Man v. Food Nation was the final season of Man v. Food. During his time as a competitive eater, Richman gained a considerable amount of weight and became depressed. After retiring from competitive eating, he lost 60 pounds (27 kg).
Richman was a paid spokesman for Zantac during Season 3 of Man v. Food.
Richman is also the author of America the Edible: A Hungry History from Sea to Dining Sea, which was released on November 9, 2010, by Rodale Publishing.
On January 23, 2011, Richman appeared on Food Network 's Iron Chef America as a judge for a battle with Gruyère cheese as the theme ingredient.
Richman hosted Travel Channel 's The Traveler 's Guide to Life, which debuted on January 26, 2011, and Amazing Eats, a spin - off of his popular series Man v. Food and Man v. Food Nation, which premiered on January 11, 2012.
Richman also hosted the TV series Adam Richman 's Best Sandwich in America which premiered Wednesday, June 6, 2012 at 9 p.m. ET. This 11 episode weekly series documented Richman 's "nationwide quest to find the best thing since sliced bread ' on ' sliced bread. '' He ultimately declared the roast - pork sandwich from Tommy DiNic 's in Philadelphia 's Reading Terminal Market his "Best Sandwich in America. ''
Richman hosts the Travel Channel 's Adam Richman 's Fandemonium. An NBC game show called Food Fighters, with Richman as host, premiered on July 22, 2014.
In June 2014, Richman found himself embroiled in a social media controversy over comments he made about his weight loss, which were accompanied by a hashtag said to be linked to eating disorders. Highlighting the controversial nature of the encounter are allegations that Richman referred to one or more of his followers as "haters '' and further advised them to "grab a razor blade & draw a bath '' He later apologized, but the Travel Channel postponed Richman 's series Man Finds Food.
In 2015, Richman told The Independent that he eats a vegan diet when training for soccer.
Also in 2015, Richman was a judge on the British television series BBQ Champ, hosted by Myleene Klass and broadcast on ITV.
Richman is a fan of the New York Yankees, English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur and Miami Dolphins (especially their Hall of Fame quarterback, Dan Marino.)
On June 8, 2014, Richman represented the "Rest of the World '' team in the annual Soccer Aid match against England at Old Trafford, Manchester in a game that combined former professional players and celebrities. Richman was quoted as saying that he lost 30 kilograms (66 lb) for the game, and cried when he was asked to take part.
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the cast of the kingsman the golden circle | Kingsman: the Golden Circle - wikipedia
Kingsman: The Golden Circle is a 2017 action spy comedy film produced and directed by Matthew Vaughn and written by Vaughn and Jane Goldman. It is a sequel to Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014), which is based on the comic book series Kingsman, created by Dave Gibbons and Mark Millar. The film features Colin Firth, Taron Egerton, Mark Strong, Edward Holcroft, Sophie Cookson, and Hanna Alström reprising their roles from the first film, with Julianne Moore, Halle Berry, Pedro Pascal, Elton John, Channing Tatum, and Jeff Bridges joining the cast. The plot follows the members of Kingsman needing to team up with their American counterpart, Statesman, after the world is held hostage by a new threat.
The Golden Circle premiered in London on 18 September 2017, and was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 20 September 2017, In 3D, 2D and in the United States on 22 September, in IMAX. It has grossed $261 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, with the use of new characters and over-stylized action being met with a polarized reception and the 141 minute runtime being criticized.
A year has passed since Eggsy Unwin and the secret organisation Kingsman saved the world from Richmond Valentine 's neurological wave broadcast. He has since taken his late mentor Harry Hart 's title of Galahad and lives with Crown Princess Tilde of Sweden. On his way home he is ambushed by Charlie Hesketh, a former Kingsman trainee who lost his arm and vocal cords during the Valentine incident. Eggsy evades Charlie and his henchmen in a car chase across London, but Charlie 's severed cybernetic arm hacks into the Kingsman servers through the car 's computer system. While Eggsy is away in Sweden, a volley of missiles destroy the Kingsman headquarters and wipe out all of the agents in Britain.
Being the only surviving agents, Eggsy and Merlin follow the Doomsday protocol, which leads them to Statesman, a secret American organisation posing as a Bourbon whiskey distillery in Kentucky. There, they discover that Harry survived Valentine 's gunshot a year earlier, but is suffering from amnesia. Eggsy and Merlin are briefed by Statesman head Champagne about a secret terrorist organisation called The Golden Circle. They begin their mission by following Charlie 's ex-girlfriend Clara Von Gluckfberg. When Statesman agent Tequila develops blue rashes, he is replaced by agent Whiskey as Eggsy 's partner. At the Glastonbury Festival, Eggsy manages to plant a tracking device inside Clara, but his revelation of the mission to Princess Tilde strains their relationship. After several failed attempts to cure Harry 's amnesia, Eggsy triggers Harry 's memories by threatening to shoot a Cairn Terrier that resembles Harry 's late dog.
Poppy Adams, head of world 's largest drug cartel, broadcasts a message telling the world about a toxin she laced within every recreational drug available, which causes users to develop blue rashes before progressing through mania, paralysis, and ultimately, death. She also demonstrates the antidote on a captive Elton John and offers it to the world if the President of the United States ends his country 's War on Drugs and offers her organisation immunity. The President decides to have every affected user quarantined, including his Chief of Staff, Fox. Eggsy, Harry, and Whiskey head to the antidote factory in Italy after intercepting a phone call to Charlie by Clara. Eggsy manages to steal an antidote sample, but it is broken by Whiskey during an ambush by The Golden Circle 's henchmen. During the gunfight, Harry shoots Whiskey in the head, as he suspects that Whiskey is playing both sides, but Eggsy saves him with the same alpha - gel that Statesman had used to save Harry. Princess Tilde calls Eggsy in a state of mania, revealing that she has been affected. Eggsy, Harry, and Merlin discover the location of Poppy 's hideout, "Poppy Land '', in Cambodia and fly there to steal the remote control for the antidote drones.
Upon their arrival at Poppy Land, Eggsy steps on a land mine, but is saved by Merlin, who sacrifices himself while taking the lair 's guards with him. Eggsy and Harry storm through the lair and Eggsy kills Charlie while Harry destroys Poppy 's robotic attack dogs with the help of Elton. They secure the briefcase with the access code to the drones and inject Poppy with a more potent dose of her toxin. She gives them the password before succumbing to an overdose. Before they can activate the drones they are stopped by Whiskey, who, having previously lost his wife to crossfire from two drug users, is revealed to be working alone to ensure that all drug users are eliminated. Eggsy and Harry battle and brutally kill Whiskey in a fight. They release the antidote drones, saving millions of lives around the world.
In the aftermath, Chief of Staff Fox has the President impeached for conspiring to commit genocide on the drug victims. Champ announces that Statesman has acquired a distillery in Scotland to help rebuild Kingsman. To avoid the confusion of two Kingsman agents using the codename "Galahad '', Champagne offers either Eggsy or Harry the agent title of Whiskey, but they decline and Statesman tech support Ginger Ale steps in to take the role. Eggsy marries Princess Tilde, and Tequila moves to London to work for Kingsman.
Michael Gambon portrays Sir Giles / Arthur, the head of Kingsman. Footage from The Secret Service includes Samuel L. Jackson and Sofia Boutella as Richmond Valentine and Gazelle, respectively. Tobias Bakare and Theo Barklem - Biggs return as Eggsy 's friends Jamal and Ryan, with Thomas Turgoose and Calvin Demba introduced as two of Eggsy 's other friends, Liam and Brandon. Furthermore, Samantha Womack makes a brief return appearance as Michelle Unwin, Eggsy 's mother. Keith Allen and Tom Benedict Knight feature as Charles and Angel, two of Poppy 's henchmen, while Mark Arnold portrays General McCoy, an advisor to the President of the United States. Björn Granath (in his final film performance) and Lena Endre feature as the King and Queen of Sweden.
Near the release of Kingsman: The Secret Service, Mark Millar and Matthew Vaughn stated that a sequel would be possible if the first film was to perform well at the box office, and Vaughn expressed interest in returning to direct. Vaughn also noted that he had hoped to have Firth back in the sequel, though it was later stated that Firth would not be returning.
On 29 April 2015, Fox announced that a sequel was in production, but that it was unclear if Vaughn would return due to his interest in directing a Flash Gordon film. On 11 June 2015, Vaughn told Yahoo that he had begun writing the script for the sequel, and that he could return to direct. In September 2015, Millar reiterated that the sequel was in development, and that Vaughn was looking for ways to bring Firth back without sacrificing the integrity of the story. Later that month, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Egerton had also signed on for a new Robin Hood film, which was then set to begin shooting in February 2016; Egerton 's schedule was thus in conflict with the Kingsman sequel. However, in mid-October, it was confirmed that scheduling issues had been settled between both studios. Lionsgate began Robin Hood 's production right after Egerton wrapped filming on Kingsman: The Golden Circle, which began in May 2016.
On 17 February 2016, it was revealed that Julianne Moore was in negotiations to play the villain in the film. On 10 March 2016, Halle Berry was cast in the film, in a role that later turned out to be the Statesmen 's tech support. In late March, Vaughn confirmed Berry 's and Moore 's casting, as well as the title, Kingsman: The Golden Circle. On 8 April 2016, Pedro Pascal was cast in the film as Jack Daniels, and on the same day, a promotional poster was released featuring Firth 's character 's glasses, confirming Firth 's return for the film; Firth 's return was later officially confirmed on 11 July 2016. Channing Tatum confirmed his casting through his Twitter account, while Variety reported that Elton John was in talks for a role. In late April, Vaughn talked about writing the sequel, and stated "writing this was the hardest thing I 've ever done. '' Jeff Bridges was added to the cast on 28 May 2016. Vinnie Jones announced on Twitter that he had been cast, though he did not appear in the finished film.
Principal photography on the film began on 15 May 2016 in Birmingham. Filming also took place in Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. On 13 September 2016, Kingsman: The Golden Circle completed initial filming. Additional footage was filmed on location in London in December 2016.
Henry Jackman and Matthew Margeson reunited to compose the score for the film. The soundtrack was released on iTunes on 22 September 2017, and is scheduled for CD release on October by La - La Land Records.
On 20 July 2017, FOX released an animated Kingsman / Archer crossover short film featuring Eggsy and Sterling Archer. On 18 September, FOX released a TV spot featuring a mock Kingsman board game. In August 2017, FOX partnered with Old Forester to release a Statesman edition of their 95 proof Bourbon whisky for the U.S. market. In addition, GlenDronach released a Kingsman Edition 1991 of their scotch whisky. Director Vaughn cited GlenDronach as his favourite scotch whisky brand, and the distillery used casks from 1991, as it is the fictional year of Eggsy 's birth. Only 240 bottles have been allocated to the U.S. market, all of which are signed by Vaughn. In September 2017, Hard Rock Cafe introduced the "Poppy Burger '' in their menu to promote the film.
20th Century Fox originally scheduled Kingsman: The Golden Circle for a summer release date of 16 June 2017, but pushed the film back to 6 October 2017. The film was then moved up to 20 September in the UK and 22 September 2017 in the US, likely to avoid competition with Blade Runner 2049. The film had an IMAX release.
As of 11 October 2017, Kingsman: The Golden Circle has grossed $83 million in the United States and Canada and $178.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $261.2 million, against a production budget of $104 million.
In North America, the film was released alongside The Lego Ninjago Movie and Friend Request, and was projected to gross $40 -- 45 million from 4,003 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3.4 million from Thursday night previews at 3,100 theaters, up from the $1.4 million made by the first film, and $15.3 million on its first day. It went on to open to $39 million, an increase over the first film 's $36.2 million debut and topping the box office, overtaking two - time defender It. In its second week, the film initially made a projected gross of $17 million, finishing second at the box office behind It. However the following day, actual results had the film finishing atop It by a gross of $16.93 million to $16.90 million, and also beat out newcomer American Made ($16.8 million).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50 % based on 220 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Kingsman: The Golden Circle offers more of everything that made its predecessor so much fun, but lacks the original 's wild creative spark. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor.
Writing for Uproxx, Amy Nicholson called the film better than the first, writing: "The Golden Circle has matured just enough. It 's doubled down on the mayhem and hammered out the tone. Everything is sincere even when it 's insane. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars and wrote, "The stunts defy the laws of gravity, but are no less fun for that; watch out for the fight on the ski lift. Even when Kingsman: The Golden Circle goes off the rails, and it inevitably does, this cracked caper wears you down with action and giggles. Sometimes overkill can hurt so good. ''
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1.5 / 4 stars and said, "Kingsman: The Golden Circle offers everything -- several bored Oscar winners; two scenes featuring death by meat grinder; Elton John, mugging in close - up -- except a good time. '' Wendy Ide, reviewing the film for The Guardian, gave it 1 / 5 stars and called it "a knowing sneer of a movie that shrugs off its plot holes along with a particularly unsavoury attitude to violence and a tendency to use female characters as the decorative punchline to jokes. '' Writing for RogerEbert.com, Glenn Kenny gave the film 0 / 4 stars, saying: "As action - packed as the movie is, it feels like it 's six hours. That 's in part because the pacing is so spavined; the movie lurches twitchily from set piece to set piece and spends inordinate amounts of time on shots of its sharp - dressed characters slow - motioning into the widescreen frames showing off accessories that will be sold to you by various companies in various Kingsman tie - ins all over the Internet. ''
In August 2017, it was confirmed that Kingsman: The Golden Circle would have a tie - in game to accompany its release, and that it would be a turn - based match - 3 role - playing combat game, released on iOS and Android by the Korean mobile game company NHN PixelCube. The game also includes characters from Kingsman: The Secret Service, and was released globally on 14 September 2017, about a week before the film 's release. Unlike the films, the game does not have graphic violence or explicit language, but it is classified a "12 + '' rating for "mild realistic violence ''. In the days before the film 's release, another mobile game based on the Kingsman franchise, simply titled Kingsman: The Secret Service, was announced to be in development also for iOS and Android, by American mobile game developer YesGnome. The game is a hybrid action adventure - construction simulator, where players construct impregnable secret bases, similar to Fallout Shelter, while infiltrating enemy bases in run - and - gun missions based on the plot of at least the first film. The Android version is currently in early access. Both games are free - to - play, offer in - app purchases, and support online player - versus - player multiplayer, with the former game requiring an Internet connection to play.
Vaughn has stated that he and Goldman have a third Kingsman film planned. In the September 2017 edition of Total Film, Egerton revealed that his personal choice for the role of the villain of Kingsman 3 is Dwayne Johnson. He also went on to suggest that this sequel may be the last, as he envisions the Kingsman franchise to be a trilogy.
Vaughn has also revealed that with the success of the Kingsman films, he is interested in making a Statesman spin - off.
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who did the voice of king louie in the original jungle book | King Louie - wikipedia
King Louie (Hindi: राजा लुई; Urdu: بادشاہ لوئی ) is a fictional character introduced in Walt Disney 's 1967 animated musical film, The Jungle Book. Unlike the majority of the adapted characters in the film, Louie was not in Rudyard Kipling 's original works.
He was voiced by Louis Prima in the original film and by Christopher Walken in the 2016 live - action / CGI The Jungle Book film.
Jim Cummings and others voiced him in other incarnations. Initially, the producers considered Louis Armstrong for the role, but to avoid the likely controversy that would result from casting a black person to voice an ape, they instead chose Prima.
Although the Disney adaptation is based on the Kipling stories, the character King Louie does not appear in Rudyard Kipling 's original book, as orangutans, the species as which he is portrayed, are not native to India in real life. It is also stated by Kipling in the original that the Bandar - log, or monkeys over which King Louie rules, have no effective leadership, let alone a king. In the book, Mowgli is abducted by a band of nameless and leaderless bandar - log monkeys, but the rest of the scene plays out very differently from Disney 's version.
Bill Peet 's original story for the film did not feature King Louie, but did feature a larger monkey without a tail, who was perhaps meant to be their king. Peet left the Disney company due to a dispute he had with Walt Disney regarding the contents of his script, so his ultimate vision for the king of the Bandar - log remains unknown. Development of the story continued following Peet 's departure, with his darker story giving way to a new emphasis on lightheartedness and jazzy tunes. It was in this company milieu that King Louie eventually came into being, given life through the voice and personality of popular performer Louis Prima. Personality was also given to Louie by Milt Kahl, Frank Thomas, and John Lounsbery, three of Disney 's Nine Old Men who animated the character. Kahl animated Louie 's interaction with Mowgli, Thomas his solo song and dance portions, while Lounsbery animated his memorable scat duet with a disguised Baloo.
Famed Italian - American and New Orleans native Louis Prima portrayed King Louie in the film. Louis Prima considered playing King Louie as one of the highlights of his career and felt he had become "immortal '' thanks to Walt Disney and the entire studio.
In the Disney animated television series TaleSpin, Louie (voiced by Jim Cummings) is a fun - loving orangutan who wears a Hawaiian shirt, a straw hat, and a lei. He owns an island nightclub, restaurant and hotel called "Louie 's Place '', located near but outside the protection of the city of Cape Suzette. It also serves as a refueling station / pit stop area for pilots. Louie is Baloo 's best friend (unlike in The Jungle Book, but like in the later Jungle Cubs) but sometimes can be competitive with him when it comes to women, treasure - hunting and, on occasion, in business and monetary matters. His hold on the island is somewhat tenuous, though through his own ingenuity and the aid of his friends he has managed to avoid losing it (in the episode "Louie 's Last Stand '').
In the Disney animated television series Jungle Cubs, Louie (voiced by Jason Marsden in Season 1, and Cree Summer in Season 2) is a juvenile orangutan and Baloo 's best friend. He is very physically active, spending a great deal of his time in trees and eating bananas. Prince Louie (as he is referred to in the show) wants to become king of the jungle one day, and when any man - made objects turn up he immediately shows great interest.
A slightly different version of the character appeared in Disney 's 1994 live - action film. Once again he is an orangutan (portrayed by a trained Bornean orangutan), and is the ' leader ' of a group of monkeys that make their home in an abandoned human city. His name arises in this version from the vast wealth that humans left behind in the city, and in particular to his habit of wearing a crown similar in appearance to that worn by the King of France, Louis XIV. Kaa appeared to serve him, being summoned with a clap of his hands, Louie using Kaa to ward off or even kill intruders, the latter for his own amusement. At first, he acts a rival to Mowgli, but later warms up to him after seeing him defeat Kaa. Louie would later on appear during the battle between Mowgli and Captain William Boone (Cary Elwes), as he is seen cheering for Mowgli. After Mowgli defeats Boone, Louie happily applauds Mowgli for a job well done before summoning Kaa, who then kills Boone in the moat.
Christopher Walken voiced King Louie in Disney 's 2016 live - action film. He is portrayed as a Gigantopithecus, an extinct species of great ape, because orangutans themselves are not native to India. In an interview regarding the character, Christopher Walken described King Louie as standing around 12 feet tall, and "as charming as he is intimidating when he wants to be ''. In the film, Louie offers Mowgli protection from Shere Khan in exchange for the secret of making fire, which he and his fellow Bandar Log plan to use to take over the jungle. While accommodating and friendly at first, Louie quickly becomes spiteful and impatient, refusing to believe Mowgli 's protests that he does not know how to make fire. He is briefly distracted by the appearance of Baloo, allowing Mowgli to be rescued by Bagheera. However, they are spotted by one of Louie 's pig - tailed macaque servants, and Louie orders the trio to be captured. Emerging from the temple, Louie finds his Bandar Log too preoccupied fighting Bagheera and Baloo to capture Mowgli, so he goes after the man cub himself. Blocking Mowgli 's escape, he tries to coerce him into staying whilst antagonizing him with the revelation of Akela 's death. Mowgli refuses to stay, infuriating Louie into chasing him through the temple. During his rampage, he destroys several of the pillars supporting the temple, causing it to collapse over him. During the credits, Louie is shown emerging from the rubble, and performs "I Wan'na Be like You ''.
King Louie appears in the Fables comic series published by Vertigo Comics and he is only referred to as King. He is one of the revolutionaries who wish to overthrow the Fabletown government out of resentment at the apparent second - class status of Fables. Due to his peripheral involvement, he is given a sentence of hard labor -- - twenty years, reduced to five years conditional on good behavior.
In Fables, Louie is wrongly described as a "Kipling '' character; on his official forums, Fables author Bill Willingham cited Louie 's appearance in Fables as "a very good example on why it 's best to go back to the source material before one embarks on a major story, rather than rely on often faulty memory of which characters were original canon and which were n't. ''
The characterization of King Louie has frequently been cited as an example of racial stereotyping in Disney films. However, in his 2004 book The Gospel According to Disney, Mark Pinsky asserts that a child in the current environment (as opposed to in the late 1960s) would not discern any racial dimension to the portrayal. Pinsky also relates Orlando Sentinel 's film critic Jay Bogar 's assertion that "the primates could be perceived as representing African Americans in a time of turmoil, but (that Bogar) saw no racism in the portrayal. ''
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majestic theatre majestic theatre broadway 245 west 44th st | Majestic Theatre (Broadway) - wikipedia
The Majestic Theatre is a Broadway theatre located at 245 West 44th Street in midtown Manhattan. It is one of the largest Broadway theatres with 1,645 seats, and traditionally has been used as a venue for major musical theatre productions. Among the notable shows that have premiered at the Majestic are Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The Music Man (1957), Camelot (1960), A Little Night Music (1973), and The Wiz (1975). It was also the second home of 42nd Street and the third home of 1776. The theatre has housed The Phantom of the Opera since it opened on January 26, 1988. With a record - breaking 12,139 performances to date, it is currently the longest - running production in Broadway history.
Designed by architect Herbert J. Krapp, the present - day Majestic was constructed by the Chanin Brothers as part of an entertainment complex including the John Golden Theatre, the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre, and the Milford Plaza hotel. It opened on March 28, 1927 with the musical Rufus LeMaire 's Affairs.
The Majestic was purchased by the Shubert brothers during the Great Depression and currently is owned and operated by the Shubert Organization. Both the interior and exterior were designated New York City landmarks in 1987.
Productions are listed by the year they commenced performances:
The Phantom of the Opera achieved the box office record for the Majestic Theatre. The production grossed $1,843,296 over nine performances, for the week ending December 29, 2013, beating the previous record of $1,390,530.53 set on the week ending January 2, 2011.
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who wrote brown eyes by destiny's child | Survivor (Destiny 's Child album) - wikipedia
Survivor is the third studio album by American girl group Destiny 's Child. It was first released by Columbia Records on May 1, 2001, in the United States. The album features production by lead singer Beyoncé Knowles and J.R. Rotem, with additional production from Poke & Tone, Cory Rooney and Mark J. Feist. Five singles were released from the album: "Independent Women Part I '', "Survivor '', "Bootylicious '', a cover of Samantha Sang 's "Emotion '', and "Nasty Girl ''.
In the US, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart on May 19, 2001 with first - week sales of 663,000 units and stayed at number one for two consecutive weeks. It earned Destiny 's Child three Grammy nominations for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, Best R&B Song, and Best R&B Album. Survivor was certified quadruple Platinum by the RIAA on January 7, 2002. Billboard ranked Survivor at number 70 on the magazine 's Top 200 Albums of the Decade. The album went on to sell over 4.7 million copies in the United States. With sales over 12 million copies worldwide, it became the biggest - selling album in the 21st century by a girl group, and one of the most successful albums of all time by a girl group.
In December 1999, LeToya Luckett and LaTavia Roberson tried to split with their manager, Mathew Knowles, claiming that he was keeping too much of the group 's profits and that he favored Beyoncé Knowles and Kelly Rowland. When the music video for "Say My Name '' debuted in February 2000, Roberson and Luckett found out that they were being replaced with Michelle Williams, a former backup singer for Monica, and Farrah Franklin, an aspiring singer - actress. In July 2000, just five months after joining, it was announced that Franklin would be leaving the group. According to the group, Franklin missed a handful of promotional appearances and concerts and was asked to leave the group. Franklin stated that she quit because of negative vibes in the group and her inability to assert any control in decision making.
After emerging as the group 's focal point, Knowles assumed more control taking a greater hand in writing the material and even producing some of the record herself. Knowles ' intention was not to monopolize the spotlight, however, she did co-write and produce all of the album 's 18 cuts. She explained, "I only wanted to do like three songs... The label kept saying "Do another song, do another song, do another song ''. It was n't planned. It was n't like I said, OK, I 'm going to take charge. '' The album was originally planned to be called Independent Women, but was later changed to Survivor because of the turmoil that has coincided with the group.
The song "Survivor '' was inspired by a joke that a radio station had made about the fact that three members had already left the group. Knowles was inspired to take the negative comment and turn it into a positive thing by writing a song out of it. Knowles wrote the song "Bootylicious '' on a plane flight to London while listening to the track "Edge of Seventeen '' by Stevie Nicks when the word "Bootylicious '' just popped in to her head. This claim has been highly disputed as Rob Fusari said in a 2010 interview that he alone had the idea for the song and had wanted to use a guitar riff from the song "Eye of the Tiger '' but after not being able to find it used a similar riff from the Stevie Nicks song "Edge of Seventeen ''. After hearing Beyoncé claim credit for the song in an interview with Barbara Walters, he telephoned Mathew Knowles,
And he explained to me, in a nice way, he said, "People do n't want to hear about Rob Fusari, producer from Livingston, N.J. No offense, but that 's not what sells records. What sells records is people believing that the artist is everything. '' And I 'm like, "Yeah, I know, Mathew. I understand the game. But come on, I 'm trying too. I 'm a squirrel trying to get a nut, too. ''
While recording sessions were going on, Rowland recorded the song "Angel '' which appeared on the soundtrack of Down to Earth.
The album received generally positive reviews. Survivor received a score of 63 / 100 on Metacritic, based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Entertainment Weekly praised the album saying that "(Survivor) is the divas ' premature, but inevitable growing pains album. '' Spin magazine commented that "Survivor is relentlessly inventive in its recombinations. '' But New York Magazine was less impressed saying: "All fifteen tracks are one - dimensional disses and dismissals of scantily clad women, vengeful boyfriends, and the group 's assorted doubters. '' Allmusic commented that the album is "as contrived and calculated as a Mariah Carey record, only without the joy. ''
The album won the Soul Train Lady of Soul Award for Best R&B / Soul Album of the Year, the Teen Choice Award for R&B / Soul Album of the Year -- Group, Band, or Duo, and the American Music Award for Favorite Pop / Rock Album. Destiny 's Child won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Vocal by Duo or Group for the song "Survivor ''. Survivor itself was nominated for Best R&B Album.
Survivor, entered the Billboard albums chart at number one with the highest first - week sales figures (more than 663,275) of any female group in the SoundScan era and the highest first - week sales figures of any album in Columbia Records ' history. It remained atop the chart in its second week with a 49 % decline to 358,959, pushing the albums sales past the one million mark after only 2 weeks in stores and remains the longest run atop the chart for Destiny 's Child. In its third week Survivor slipped to number 3 scanning 221,884 and held the same position in its fourth frame with 175,237 copies sold. In its fifth week the album climbed one spot to No. 2 with 169,487 scans. Survivor spent its first thirteen weeks in the top 10 of the Billboard 200 (2 more than The Writing 's on the Wall) and by the end of 2001 had sold 3,718,446 copies in the US and ranked as the seventh best - selling album of the year, the second year in a row that the group had made the top ten best - sellers list.
Survivor debuted at number one in over nine countries, including the United Kingdom where it was certified 3 × Platinum by BPI for sales of over 900,000 and went on to sell over a million copies. It also reached number one in Canada, selling over 31,000 copies in its first week (and was eventually certified 4 × Platinum, for sales of 400,000 copies), as well as debuting or peaking in the top ten in Australia, Sweden, Japan, France, Italy, Finland and Poland. With Survivor, Destiny 's Child became the first US female group to have a number one album on the UK charts since Diana Ross and the Supremes hit the position 24 years ago with a greatest hits package. Survivor is the first album of original studio material (i.e., not a greatest hits collection) by a female American group to hit number one in the 43 - year history of the UK chart.
"Survivor '', the album 's title track, spent six weeks at the number - two position on the Billboard Hot 100. "Independent Women Part I '' (also featured in the remake film Charlie 's Angels and on its soundtrack) occupied the number one slot on Billboard 's Hot 100 (for 11 weeks), R&B and dance charts. The video for the following single from Survivor, "Bootylicious '' (which topped the Hot 100 for 2 weeks), featured a cameo by Stevie Nicks.
In Europe the album was certified 2 × Platinum in recognition of two million albums sold across the continent; its sales have since surpassed the three million mark. The album was certified 2 × Platinum in Australia. The IFPI reported that Survivor was the 3rd best - selling album worldwide of 2001 with 7.8 million copies sold during the year.
With sales over 12 million copies worldwide, becoming the biggest - selling album in this millennium by a girl group and one of the most successful albums of by a girl group.
The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. This and other notable rankings appear in the table below. The information regarding accolades attributed to "Survivor '' is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except where otherwise noted.
Notes
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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in the early eighteenth century which group controlled california and texas | History of California before 1900 - wikipedia
Human history in California began when indigenous Americans first arrived some 13,000 -- 15,000 years ago. Coastal exploration by Europeans began in the 16th century, and settlement by Europeans along the coast and in the inland valleys began in the 18th century. California was ceded to the United States under the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the defeat of Mexico in the Mexican -- American War. American westward expansion intensified with the California Gold Rush, beginning in 1848. California joined the Union as a free state in 1850, due to the Compromise of 1850. By the end of the 19th century, California was still largely rural and agricultural, but had a population of about 1.4 million.
The most commonly accepted model of migration to the New World is that peoples from Asia crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas some 16,500 years ago. The remains of Arlington Springs Man on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of a very early habitation, dated to the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent ice age) about 13,000 years ago. In all, some 30 tribes or culture groups lived in what is now California, gathered into perhaps six different language family groups. These groups included the early - arriving Hokan family (winding up in the mountainous far north and Colorado River basin in the south) and the recently arrived Uto - Aztecan of the desert southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America, and was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10,000 -- 15,000 years. At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes included the Chumash, Nisenan, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tataviam, Tongva, Wintu and Yurok.
Tribes adapted to California 's many climates. Coastal tribes were a major source of trading beads, produced from mussel shells using stone tools. Tribes in California 's broad Central Valley and the surrounding foothills developed an early agriculture, burning the grasslands to encourage growth of edible wild plants, especially oak trees. The acorns from these trees were pounded into a powder, and the acidic tannin leached out to make edible flour. Tribes living in the mountains of the north and east relied heavily on salmon and game hunting, and used California 's volcanic legacy by collecting and shaping obsidian for themselves and for trade. The deserts of the southeast were home to tribes who learned to thrive in that harsh environment by making careful use of local plants and living in oases and along water courses. The indigenous people practiced various forms of forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The Native Americans controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low - intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low - density "wild '' agriculture in loose rotation. By burning underbrush and grass, the Native Americans revitalized patches of land whose regrowth provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of fire - stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle; a primitive permaculture.
The relative strength of the tribes was dynamic, as the more successful expanded their territories and less successful tribes contracted. Slave - trading and war among tribes alternated with periods of relative peace. The total population of Native California is estimated, by the time of extensive European contact in the 18th century, to have been perhaps 300,000. Before Europeans landed in North America, about one - third of all natives in what is now the United States were living in the area that is now California.
The first European explorers, flying the flags of Spain and of England, sailed along the coast of California from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century, but no European settlements were established. The most important colonial power, Spain, focused attention on its imperial centers in Mexico and Peru. Confident of Spanish claims to all lands touching the Pacific Ocean (including California), Spain sent an exploring party sailing along the California coastline. The California seen by these ship - bound explorers was one of hilly grasslands and wooded canyons, with few apparent resources or natural ports to attract colonists.
The other colonial states of the era, with their interest on more densely populated areas, paid limited attention to this distant part of the world. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that both Russian and British explorers and fur traders began establishing stations on the coast.
Around 1530, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán (president of New Spain) was told by an Indian slave of the Seven Cities of Cibola that had streets paved with gold and silver. About the same time Hernán Cortés was attracted by stories of a wonderful country far to the northwest, populated by Amazonish women and abounding with gold, pearls and gems. The Spaniards conjectured that these places may be one and the same.
An expedition in 1533 discovered a bay, most likely that of La Paz, before experiencing difficulties and returning. Cortés accompanied expeditions in 1534 and 1535 without finding the sought - after city.
On May 3, 1535, Cortés claimed "Santa Cruz Island '' (now known as the Baja California Peninsula) and laid out and founded the city that was to become La Paz later that spring.
Also: Island of California
In July 1539, moved by the renewal of those stories, Cortés sent Francisco de Ulloa out with three small vessels. He made it to the mouth of the Colorado River, then sailed around the peninsula as far as Cedros Island.
The account of this voyage marks the first - recorded application of the name "California ''. It can be traced to the fifth volume of a chivalric romance, Amadis de Gallia, arranged by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo and first printed around 1510, in which a character travels through an island called "California ''.
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo is believed to be the first European to explore the California coast. He was either of Portuguese or Spanish background, although his origins remain unclear. He was a soldier, crossbowman, and navigator who sailed for the Spanish Crown.
In June 1542 Cabrillo led an expedition in two ships of his own design and construction from the west coast of what is now Mexico. He landed on September 28 at San Diego Bay, claiming what he thought was the Island of California for Spain. Californias ' channel islands lie offshore from Baja California to northern California, and Cabrillo named each of the channel islands as he passed and claimed them for Spain.
Cabrillo and his crew continued north and came ashore October 8 at San Pedro bay, later to become the port of Los Angeles, which he originally named the bay of smoke (bahia de los fumos) due to the many cooking fires of the native Chumash Indians along the shore. The expedition then continued north in an attempt to discover a supposed coastal route to the mainland of Asia. Cabrillo may have sailed as far north as Point Reyes (north of San Francisco), but died as the result of an accident during this voyage; the remainder of the expedition, which may have reached as far north as the Rogue River in today 's southern Oregon, was led by Bartolomé Ferrer.
On June 7, 1579, the English explorer Sir Francis Drake saw an excellent harbor, on a land mass that he called Nova Albion and claimed for England. The accepted location for Drake 's port is at Drake 's Cove in Drakes Bay which has been named a National Historic Landmark. There was no English follow - up. Subsequent English maps name the land above Baja California, New Granada, New Mexico and Florida "Nova Albion ''. Drake held the first Protestant Christian service at Nova Albion.
In 1602 the Spaniard Sebastián Vizcaíno explored California 's coastline as far north as Monterey Bay, where he put ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast and recorded a visit to what is likely Carmel Bay. His major contributions to the state 's history were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years).
Spanish ships plying the China trade probably stopped in California every year after 1680. Between 1680 and 1740, Spanish merchants out of Mexico City financed thriving trade between Manila, Acapulco and Callao. In Manila, they picked up cotton from India and silks from China. The Spanish Crown viewed too much imported Asian cloth to Mexico and Lima as a competitive threat to the Spanish American markets for cloth produced in Spain, and as a result, restricted the tonnage permitted on the ships from Manila to Acapulco. Mexico City merchants in retaliation overstuffed the ships, even using the space for water to carry additional contraband cargo. As a result, the ships coming from Manila had enough water for two months, but the trip took four to six months. (Hawaii was unknown to the Spanish navigators). The sea currents take ships sailing from Manila to Acapulco up north, so that they first touch land at San Francisco or Monterey, in what is now California. By the late 18th century, imperial war was heating up between Britain and Spain. In 1762, Britain occupied Manila in the Pacific and Havana in the Atlantic. This was probably a stimulus for Spain to build presidios at San Francisco and Monterey in 1769. The British, too, stepped up their activities in the Pacific. British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard the HMS Resolution, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait. In 1786 Jean - François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, led a group of scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey. They compiled an account of the Californian mission system, the land and the people. Traders, whalers and scientific missions followed in the next decades.
In 1697 the Viceroy Duque de Linares along with the Conde de Miravalle (180) and the treasurer of Acapulco (Pedro Gil de la Sierpe) financed Jesuit expansion into California. The Duque de Linares lobbied the Spanish Crown in 1711 to increase trade between Asia, Acapulco and Lima. It is possible that Baja California Sur was used as a stopping point for unloading contraband on the way back from Manila to Acapulco. The contraband might then have been shipped across the Gulf of California to enter mainland Mexico by way of Sonora, where the Jesuits also had missions and sympathies for their financial backers.
In 1697 the Jesuit missionary Juan María de Salvatierra established Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó, the first permanent mission on the Baja California Peninsula. Spanish control over the peninsula, including missions, was gradually extended, first in the region around Loreto, then to the south in the Cape region, and finally to the north across the northern boundary of present - day Baja California Sur. A total of 30 Spanish missions in Baja California were established.
During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first Spanish settlements were established in what later became the Las Californias Province of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Reacting to interest by the Russian Empire and, later, Great Britain in the fur - bearing animals of the Pacific north coast, Spain further extended the series of Catholic missions, accompanied by troops and establishing ranches, along the southern and central coast of California. These missions were intended to demonstrate the claim of the Spanish Empire to what is now California. By 1823, 21 Spanish missions had been established in Alta California. Operations were based out of the naval base at San Blas and included not only the establishment and supply of missions in California, but a series of exploration expeditions to the Pacific Northwest and Alaska.
The first quarter of the 19th century showed the continuation of the slow colonization of the southern and central California coast by Spanish missionaries, ranchers and troops. By 1820 Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from Loreto, north to San Diego, to just north of today 's San Francisco Bay Area, and extended inland approximately 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) from the missions. Outside of this zone, perhaps 200,000 to 250,000 Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The Adams -- Onís Treaty, signed in 1819, set the northern boundary of the Spanish claims at the 42nd parallel, effectively creating today 's northern boundary between California and Oregon.
Spain had maintained a number of missions and presidios in New Spain since 1519. The Crown laid claim to the north coastal provinces of California in 1542. Excluding Santa Fe in New Mexico, settlement of northern New Spain was slow for the next 155 years. Settlements in Loreto, Baja California Sur, were established in 1697, but it was not until the threat of incursion by Russian fur traders and potentially settlers, coming down from Alaska in 1765, that Spain, under King Charles III, felt development of more northern installations was necessary.
By then, the Spanish Empire was engaged in the political aftermath of the Seven Years ' War, and colonial priorities in far away California afforded only a minimal effort. Alta California was to be settled by Franciscan Friars, protected by troops in the California missions. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to further explore and settle Alta California and the Pacific Northwest.
In May 1768, the Spanish Inspector General (Visitador) José de Gálvez planned a four - prong expedition to settle Alta California, two by sea and two by land, which Gaspar de Portolá volunteered to command.
The Portolá land expedition arrived at the site of present - day San Diego on June 29, 1769, where it established the Presidio of San Diego. Eager to press on to Monterey Bay, de Portolá and his group, consisting of Father Juan Crespí, 63 leather - jacket soldiers and a hundred mules, headed north on July 14. They reached the present - day site of Los Angeles on August 2, Santa Monica on August 3, Santa Barbara on August 19, San Simeon on September 13, and the mouth of the Salinas River on October 1. Although they were looking for Monterey Bay, the group failed to recognize it when they reached it.
On October 31, de Portolá 's explorers became the first Europeans known to view San Francisco Bay. Ironically, the Manila Galleons had sailed along this coast for almost 200 years by then, without noticing the bay. The group returned to San Diego in 1770.
De Portolá was the first governor of Las Californias.
Junípero Serra was a Majorcan Franciscan who founded the first Alta California Spanish missions. After King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits expelled from New Spain on February 3, 1768, Serra was named "Father Presidente ''.
Serra founded San Diego de Alcalá in 1769. Later that year, Serra, Governor de Portolá and a small group of men moved north, up the Pacific Coast. They reached Monterey in 1770, where Serra founded the second Alta California mission, San Carlos Borromeo.
The California missions comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans. Eighty percent of the financing of Spain 's California program went not to missions but rather to the military garrisons established to keep Britain and Russia out of the three great Pacific Ports of San Diego, Monterey and San Francisco; the Santa Barbara presidio on the Channel was added later. The primary benefit to Spain of occupying California was to confirm historic claims to the territory in the context of imperial war with Britain. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, agricultural industry, along with invasive species of plants into the California regions. It is widely believe in California that the labor supply for the missions was supplied by the forcible relocation of the Native Americans and keeping them in peonage. However, more recent scholarship suggests that the tiny number of Spaniards at each mission relied more upon negotiation, enticement and the threat of force to control the estimated 5,000 Indians typically surrounding what would become a mission. The missionaries and military were often at cross purposes in their vision of what California could become, and the missionaries preferred to rely upon Indian allies to maintain control.
Most missions became enormous in terms of land area (approximately the size of modern counties in California), and yet the Spanish and Mexican staff was small, with normally two Franciscans and six to eight soldiers in residence. The size of the Indian congregations would grow from a handful at the founding to perhaps two thousand by the end of the Spanish period (1810). All of these buildings were built largely by the native people, under Franciscan supervision. Again, there is controversy in the literature as to whether the labor was forced. Production on missions between 1769 and 1810 was distributed primarily among the Indian congregation. However, in 1810, the California missions and presidios lost their financing as the Spanish Empire collapsed from Buenos Aires to San Francisco, as a result of the imprisonment of King Fernando VII in 1808 by the French. In this context, Indians came under increased pressure to produce, and the missions exported the produce of Indian labor via Anglo - American and Mexican merchants. Whether the proceeds were distributed to Indians or to local military men came increasingly to depend on the political skill and dedication of the individual missionaries. In 1825, independent Mexico finally send a governor to take control of California, but he arrived without adequate payroll for the military. In 1825, the use of uncompensated Indian labor at missions to finance Mexican presidios in California became normalized.
In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown in an attempt to consolidate its colonial territories. None of these missions were completely self - supporting, requiring continued (albeit modest) financial support.
Starting with the onset of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, this support largely disappeared, and the missions and their converts were left on their own. By 1827, the Mexican government passed the General Law of Expulsion, which exiled Spanish - born people, decimating the clergy in California. Some of the missions were then nationalized by the Mexican government and sold off. It was not until after statehood that the US Supreme Court restored some missions to the orders that owned them.
In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 km) apart, so that they were separated by one day 's long ride on horseback along the 600 - mile - long (970 km) el Camino Real, Spanish for "the Royal Road '', though often referred to today as the "King 's Highway '', and also known as the "California Mission Trail ''. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers. Later El Camino Viejo, another more direct route from Los Angeles to Mission San José and San Francisco Bay, developed along the western edge of the San Joaquin Valley. Heavy freight movement over long distances was practical only via water, but soldiers, settlers and other travelers and merchandise on horses, mules, or carretas (ox carts), and herds of animals used these routes.
Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast and organized into separate military districts, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California.
A number of mission structures survive today or have been rebuilt, and many have congregations established since the beginning of the 20th century. The highway and missions became for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The Mission Revival style was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California 's past.
The Spanish encouraged settlement with large land grants called ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. The California missions were secularized following Mexican independence, with the passing of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and the division of the extensive former mission lands into more ranchos. Cow hides (at roughly $1 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century.
The owners of these ranchos styled themselves after the Dons in Spain. The rancho workers were primarily Native Americans, many of them former residents of the missions who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses. Some ranchos, such as Rancho El Escorpión and Rancho Little Temecula, were land grants directly to Native Americans.
In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions (whose control had been passed to the Dominicans) and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu. Due to the growth of the Hispanic population in Alta California by 1804, the province of Las Californias, then a part of the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces, was divided into two separate territorial administrations following Palóu 's division between the Dominican and Franciscan missions. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta California and Baja California 's official borders. The Baja California Peninsula became the territory of Baja California ("Lower California ''), also referred to at times as Vieja California ("Old California ''). The northern part became Alta California, also alternatively called Nueva California ("New California ''). Because the eastern boundaries of Alta California Province were not defined, it included Nevada, Utah and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming. The province bordered on the east with the Spanish settlements in Arizona and the province of Nuevo México, with the Sierra Nevada or Colorado River serving as the de facto border.
Part of Spain 's motivation to settle upper Las Californias was to forestall Russian colonization and British incursion into their territory. In the early 19th century, fur trappers with the Russian - American Company of the tsarist Russian Empire explored down the West Coast from trading settlements in Alaska, hunting for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego. In August 1812, the Russian - American Company set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross, near present - day Bodega Bay on the Sonoma Coast of Northern California, 60 miles (97 km) north of San Francisco on land claimed, but not occupied, by the British Empire. This colony was active until the Russians departed in 1841.
In 1836 El Presidio de Sonoma, or "Sonoma Barracks '', was established by General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, the Comandante of the northern frontier of Alta California. It was established as a part of Mexico 's strategy to halt Russian incursions into the region, as the Mission San Francisco de Solano (Sonoma Mission) was for the Spanish.
Substantial changes occurred during the second quarter of the 19th century. By 1809, Spain no longer governed California because the Spanish king was imprisoned by the French. For the next decade and a half, the colony came to rely upon trade with Anglo - Americans and Spanish - Americans from Lima and San Blas for economic survival and political news. The victory in the Mexican War of Independence from Spain in 1821 marked the beginning of Mexican rule in California, in theory, though in practice Mexico did not exert control until 1825. The Indian congregations at missions and the missionaries provided the critical source of products that underlay export revenues for the entire colony between 1810 and 1825. Converting new Indians faded, while ranching and trade increased.
As the successor state to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Mexico automatically included the provinces of Alta California and Baja California as territories. With the establishment of a republican government in 1823, Alta California, like many northern territories, was not recognized as one of the constituent states of Mexico because of its small population. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico refers to Alta California as a "territory ''. Independent Mexico came into existence in 1821, yet did not send a governor to California until 1825, when José María de Echeandía brought the spirit of republican government and mestizo liberation to the frontier. Echeandia began the moves to emancipate Indians from missions, and to also liberate the profit motive among soldiers who were granted ranches where they utilized Indian labor. Pressure grew to abolish missions, which prevented private soldiers from extending their control over the most fertile land which was tilled by the Indian congregations. By 1829, the most powerful missionaries had been removed from the scene: Luis Martinez of San Luis Obispo, and Peyri of Mission San Luis Rey. The Mexican Congress had passed the General Law of Expulsion in 1827. This law declared all persons born in Spain to be "illegal immigrants '' and ordered them to leave the new country of Mexico. Many of the missionary clergy were Spanish and aging, and gave in to the pressure to leave.
In 1831 a small group made up of the more wealthy citizens of Alta California got together and petitioned Governor Manuel Victoria asking for democratic reforms. The previous governor, José María de Echeandía, was more popular, so the leading wealthy citizens suggested to Echeandía that Victoria 's stay as governor would be coming to an abrupt end soon. They built up a small army, marched into Los Angeles, and "captured '' the town. Victoria gathered a small army and went to fight the upstart army, leading it himself. He met the opposing army on December 5, 1831, at Cahuenga Pass. In the Battle of Cahuenga Pass Victoria was wounded and resigned the governorship of Alta California. The previous governor, Echeandía, took the job, which he did until José Figueroa took over in 1833.
Next, the Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17, 1833. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year. The military received legal permission to distribute the Indian congregations ' land amongst themselves in 1834 with secularization. Some aging Franciscans never abandoned the missions, such as Zalvidea of San Juan Capistrano. From Spain, Peyri regretted that he had departed.
In 1836, Mexico repealed the 1824 federalist constitution and adopted a more centralist political organization (under the Siete Leyes) that reunited Alta and Baja California in a single California Department (Departamento de las Californias). The change, however, had little practical effect in far - off Alta California. The capital of Alta California remained Monterey, as it had been since the 1769 Portola expedition first established an Alta California government, and the local political structures were unchanged.
In September 1835, Nicolás Gutiérrez was appointed as interim governor of California in January 1836, to be replaced by Mariano Chico in April, but he was very unpopular. Thinking a revolt was coming, Chico returned to Mexico to gather troops, but was reprimanded for leaving his post. Gutierrez, the military commandant, re-assumed the governorship, but he too was unpopular. Senior members of Alta California 's legislature Juan Bautista Alvarado and José Castro, with support from Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, Comandante of the Fourth Military District and Director of Colonization of the Northern Frontier, and assistance from a group of Americans led by Isaac Graham, staged a revolt in November 1836 and forced Gutierrez to relinquish power. The Americans wanted Californian independence, but Alvarado instead preferred staying part of Mexico, albeit with greater autonomy.
In 1840, Graham allegedly began agitating for a Texas - style revolution in California, in March issuing a notice for a planned horse race that was loosely construed into being a plot for revolt. Alvarado notified Vallejo of the situation, and in April the Californian military began arresting American and English immigrants, eventually detaining about 100 in the Presidio of Monterey. At the time, there were fewer than 400 foreigners from all nations in the department. Vallejo returned to Monterey and ordered Castro to take 47 of the prisoners to San Blas by ship, to be deported to their home countries. Under pressure from British and American diplomats, President Anastasio Bustamante released the remaining prisoners and began a court martial against Castro. Also assisting in the release of those caught up in the Graham Affair was American traveler Thomas J. Farnham. In 1841, Graham and 18 of his associates returned to Monterey, with new passports issued by the Mexican federal government.
Also in 1841, political leaders in the United States were declaring their doctrine of Manifest Destiny, and Californios grew increasingly concerned over their intentions. Vallejo conferred with Castro and Alvarado recommending that Mexico send military reinforcements to enforce their military control of California.
In response, Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna sent Brigadier General Manuel Micheltorena and 300 men to California in January 1842. Micheltorena was to assume the governorship and the position of commandant general. In October, before Micheltorena reached Monterey, American Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones mistakenly thought that war had broken out between the United States and Mexico. He sailed into Monterey Bay and demanded the surrender of the Presidio of Monterey. Micheltorena 's force was still in the south, and the Monterey presidio was undermanned. As such, Alvarado reluctantly surrendered, and retired to Rancho El Alisal. The next day Commodore Jones learned of his mistake, but Alvarado declined to return and instead referred the commodore to Micheltorena.
Micheltorena eventually made it to Monterey, but was unable to control his troops, a number of whom were convicts. This fomented rumors of a revolt, and by 1844, Alvarado himself became associated with the malcontents and an order was given by Micheltorena for his arrest. His detention, however, was short - lived as Micheltorena was under orders to organize a large contingent in preparation for war against the United States. All hands would be required for the task at hand.
This turned out to backfire on him, as on November 14, 1844, a group of Californios led by Manuel Castro revolted against Mexican authority. José Castro and Alvarado commanded the troops. There was no actual fighting, however; a truce was negotiated and Micheltorena agreed to dismiss his convict troops. However, Micheltorena reneged on the deal and fighting broke out this time. The rebels won the Battle of Providencia in February 1845 at the Los Angeles River and Micheltorena and his troops left California.
Pío Pico was installed as governor in Los Angeles, and José Castro became commandant general. Later, Alvarado was elected to the Mexican Congress. He prepared to move to Mexico City, but Pico declined funding for the transfer, and relations between the northern part of Alta California, with the increased presence of Americans, and the southern part, where the Spanish - speaking Californios dominated, became more tense.
John C. Frémont arrived in Monterey at the beginning of 1846. Afraid of foreign aggression, Castro assembled his militia, with Alvarado second in command, but Frémont went north to Oregon instead. An unstable political situation in Mexico strained relations among the Californios, and it seemed that civil war would break out between north and south.
By 1846, Alta California had a Spanish - speaking population of under 10,000, tiny even compared to the sparse population of states in the rest of northern Mexico. The Californios consisted of about 800 families, mostly concentrated on large ranchos. About 1,300 American citizens and a very mixed group of about 500 Europeans, scattered mostly from Monterey to Sacramento, dominated trading as the Californios dominated ranching. In terms of adult males, the two groups were about equal, but the American citizens were more recent arrivals.
The Russian - American Company established Fort Ross in 1812 as its southernmost colony in North America, intended to provide Russian posts farther north with agricultural goods. When this need was filled by a deal between the RAC and the Hudson 's Bay Company for produce from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River and other installations, the fort 's intent was derailed, although it remained in Russian hands until 1841, and for the duration had a small population of Russians and other nationalities from the Russian Empire.
In this period, American and British traders began entering California in search of beaver. Using the Siskiyou Trail, Old Spanish Trail, and later, the California Trail, these trading parties arrived in California, often without the knowledge or approval of the Mexican authorities, and laid the foundation for the arrival of later Gold Rush era Forty - Niners, farmers and ranchers.
In 1840, the American adventurer, writer and lawyer Richard Henry Dana, Jr., wrote of his experiences aboard ship off California in the 1830s in Two Years Before the Mast.
The leader of a French scientific expedition to California, Eugène Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840, "... it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man - of - war and two hundred men. '' In 1841, General Vallejo wrote Governor Alvarado that "... there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California '', but a series of troubled French governments did not uphold French interests in the area. During disagreements with Mexicans, the German - Swiss francophile John Sutter threatened to raise the French flag over California and place himself and his settlement, New Helvetia, under French protection.
Although a small number of American traders and trappers had lived in California since the early 1830s, the first organized overland party of American immigrants was the Bartleson -- Bidwell Party of 1841. With mules and on foot, this pioneering group groped its way across the continent using the still untested California Trail. Also in 1841, an overland exploratory party of the United States Exploring Expedition came down the Siskiyou Trail from the Pacific Northwest. In 1844, Caleb Greenwood guided the first settlers to take wagons over the Sierra Nevada. In 1846, the misfortunes of the Donner Party earned notoriety as they struggled to enter California.
The non-Indian population of California in 1840 was about 8,000, as confirmed by the California 1850 U.S. Census, which asked everyone their place of birth. The Indian population is unknown but has been variously estimated at about 30,000 to 150,000 in 1840. The population in 1850, the first U.S. census, does not count the Indian population and omits San Francisco, the largest city, as well as the counties of Santa Clara and Contra Costa, all of whose tabulations were lost before they could be included in the totals. Some estimates can be obtained from the Alta Californian newspapers published in San Francisco in 1850. A corrected California 1850 Census would go from 92,597 (the uncorrected "official number '') to over 120,000. The 1850 U.S. Census, the first census that included the names and sex of everyone in a family, showed only 7,019 females, with 4,165 non-Indian females older than 15 in the state. To this should be added about 1,300 women older than 15 from San Francisco, Santa Clara, and Contra Costa counties whose censuses were lost and not included in the totals. There were less than 10,000 females in a total California population (not including Indians who were not counted) of about 120,000 residents in 1850. About 3.0 % of the Gold Rush "Argonauts '' before 1850 were female or about 3,500 female Gold Rushers, compared to about 115,000 male California Gold Rushers.
By California 's 1852 "special '' State Census, the population had already increased to about 200,000, of which about 10 % or 20,000 were female. Competition by 1852 had decreased the steamship fare via Panama to about $200. Many of the new and successful California residents sent off for their wives, sweethearts and families to join them in California. After 1850 the Panama Railroad (completed 1855) was already working its way across the Isthmus of Panama, making it ever easier to get to and from California in about 40 days. Additional thousands came via the California Trail, but this took longer -- about 120 to 160 days. The "normal '' male to female ratio of about one to one would not arrive until the 1950 census. California for over a century was short on females.
After the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. Upon hearing rumors of war, U.S. consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, tried to keep peace between the Americans and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. American army captain John C. Frémont, with about 60 well - armed men, had entered California in December 1845 and was making a slow march to Oregon when they received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent.
On June 15, 1846, some 30 non-Mexican settlers, mostly Americans, staged a revolt, seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma, and captured Mexican general Mariano Vallejo. They raised the "Bear Flag '' of the California Republic over Sonoma. The so - called California Republic lasted one week, with William B. Ide as its president, until Frémont arrived with his U.S. army detachment and took over military command on June 23. The California state flag today is based on the original Bear Flag, and continues to contain the words "California Republic ''.
Commodore John Drake Sloat, on hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, landed and occupied Monterey. Sloat next ordered his naval forces to occupy Yerba Buena (present San Francisco) on July 7 and raise the American flag. On July 23, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton. Commodore Stockton put Frémont 's forces under his command. Frémont 's "California Battalion '' swelled to about 160 men with the addition of volunteers recruited from American settlements, and on July 19 he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton 's sailors and marines. The official word had been received -- the Mexican -- American War was on. The U.S. naval forces (which included U.S. Marines) easily took over the north of California; within days, they controlled Monterey, Yerba Buena, Sonoma, San Jose, and Sutter 's Fort.
In Southern California, Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico abandoned Los Angeles. When Stockton 's forces entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force (36 men) in Los Angeles, and the Californians, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, led by José María Flores, forced the small American garrison to retire in late September.
Two hundred reinforcements were sent by Stockton, led by US Navy Captain William Mervine, but were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 7 -- 9, 1846, near San Pedro, where 14 U.S. Marines were killed. Meanwhile, General Kearny with a much - reduced squadron of 100 dragoons finally reached California after a grueling march from Santa Fe, New Mexico across the Sonoran Desert. On December 6, 1846, they fought the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, where 18 of Kearny 's troops were killed -- the largest number of American casualties lost in any battle in California.
Stockton rescued Kearny 's surrounded troops and, with their combined force, they moved northward from San Diego. Entering the present - day Orange County area on January 8, they linked up with Frémont 's northern force. With the combined American forces totaling 660 troops, they fought the Californians in the Battle of Rio San Gabriel. The next day, January 9, 1847, they fought the Battle of La Mesa. Three days later, on January 12, 1847, the last significant body of Californians surrendered to American forces. That marked the end of the war in California. On January 13, 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed.
On January 26, 1847, Army lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and his unit arrived in Monterey. On March 15, 1847, Col. Jonathan D. Stevenson 's Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men began to arrive. All of these troops were still in California when gold was discovered in January 1848.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, marked the end of the Mexican -- American War. In that treaty, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $18,250,000; Mexico formally ceded California (and other northern territories) to the United States; and the first international boundary was drawn between the U.S. and Mexico by treaty. The previous boundary had been negotiated in 1819 between Spain and the United States in the Adams -- Onís Treaty, which established the present border between California and Oregon. San Diego Bay is one of the few natural harbors in California south of San Francisco, and to claim this strategic asset the southern border was slanted to include the entire bay in California.
In January 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 40 miles east of Sacramento -- beginning the California Gold Rush, which had the most extensive impact on population growth of the state of any era.
The miners and merchants settled in towns along what is now California State Highway 49, and settlements sprang up along the Siskiyou Trail as gold was discovered elsewhere in California (notably in Siskiyou County). The nearest deep - water seaport was San Francisco Bay, and San Francisco became the home for bankers who financed exploration for gold.
The Gold Rush brought the world to California. By 1855, some 300,000 "Forty - Niners '' had arrived from every continent; many soon left, of course -- some rich, most not very rich. A precipitous drop in the Native American population occurred in the decade after the discovery of gold.
From mid-1846 to December, 1849, California was run by the U.S. military; local government continued to be run by alcaldes (mayors) in most places, but now some were Americans. Bennett C. Riley, the last military governor, called a constitutional convention to meet in Monterey in September 1849. Its 48 delegates were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; eight were Californians. They unanimously outlawed slavery and set up a state government that operated for nearly 8 months before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850.
After Monterey, the state capital was variously San Jose (1850 -- 1851), Vallejo (1852 -- 1853) and Benicia (1853 -- 1854), until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854.
Californians (dissatisfied with inequitable taxes and land laws) and pro-slavery Southerners in lightly - populated rural areas of Southern California attempted three times in the 1850s to achieve a separate statehood or territorial status separate from Northern California. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, signed by the state governor, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed "Territory of Colorado '' and sent to Washington, D.C., with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However, the secession crisis in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote.
Because of the distance factor, California played a minor role in the American Civil War. Although some settlers sympathized with the Confederacy, they were not allowed to organize, and their newspapers were closed down. Former Senator William M. Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Powerful capitalists dominated Californian politics through their control of mines, shipping, and finance. They controlled the state through the new Republican Party. Nearly all the men who volunteered as soldiers stayed in the West to guard facilities, suppress secessionists, or fight the Indians. Some 2,350 men in the California Column marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The California Column then spent most of the remainder of the war fighting hostile Indians in the area.
In his maiden speech before the United States Senate, California Senator David C. Broderick stated, "There is no place in the Union, no place on earth, where labor is so honored and so well rewarded... '' as in California. Early immigrants to California came with skills in many trades, and some had come from places where workers were being organized. California 's labor movements began in San Francisco, the only large city in California for decades and once the center of trade - unionism west of the Rockies. Los Angeles remained an open - shop stronghold for half a century until unions from the north collaborated to make California a union state.
Because of San Francisco 's relative isolation, skilled workers could make demands that their counterparts on the East Coast could not. Printers first attempted to organize in 1850, teamsters, draymen, lightermen, riggers and stevedores in 1851, bakers and bricklayers in 1852, caulkers, carpenters, plasterers, brickmasons, blacksmiths and shipwrights in 1853 and musicians in 1856. Although these efforts required several starts to become stabilized, they did earn better pay and working conditions and began the long efforts of state labor legislation. Between 1850 and 1870, legislation made provisions for payment of wages, the mechanic 's lien and the eight - hour workday.
It was said that during the last half of the 19th century more of San Francisco 's workers enjoyed an eight - hour workday than any other American city. The molders ' and boilermakers ' strike of 1864 was called in opposition to a newly formed iron - works employers association which threatened a one thousand dollar a day fine on any employer who granted the strikers ' demands and had wired for strikebreakers across the country. The San Francisco Trades Union, the city 's first central labor body, sent a delegation to meet a boatload of strikebreakers at Panama and educated them. They arrived in San Francisco as enrolled union members.
After the Civil War ended in 1865, California continued to grow rapidly. Independent miners were largely displaced by large corporate mining operations. Railroads began to be built, and both the railroad companies and the mining companies began to hire large numbers of laborers. The decisive event was the opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869; six days by train brought a traveler from Chicago to San Francisco, compared to six months by ship. The era of comparative protection for California labor ended with the arrival of the railroad. For decades after, labor opposed Chinese immigrant workers and politicians pushed anti-Chinese legislation.
Importation of slaves or so - called "contract '' labor was fought by miners and city workers and made illegal through legislation in 1852.
The first statewide federated labor body was the Mechanics ' State Council that championed the eight - hour day against the employers ' 1867 "Ten Hour League ''. The Council affiliated with the National Labor Union, America 's first national union effort. By 1872 Chinese workers comprised half of all factory workers in San Francisco and were paid wages far below white workers. "The Chinese Must Go! '' was the slogan of Denis Kearney, a prominent labor leader in San Francisco. He appeared on the scene in 1877 and led sandlot vigilantes that roamed the city beating Chinese and wrecking their businesses.
Twice the seamen of the West Coast had tried to organize a union, but were defeated. In 1875, the Seaman 's Protective Association was established and began the struggle for higher wages and better conditions on ships. The effort was joined by Henry George, editor of the San Francisco Post. The legislative struggle to enforce laws against brutal ship 's captains and the requirement that two - thirds of sailors be Americans was proposed, and the effort was carried for thirty years by Andrew Furuseth and the Sailors ' Union of the Pacific after 1908, and the International Seamen 's Union of America. The Coast 's Seamen 's Journal was founded in 1887, for years the most important labor journal in California.
Concurrently, waterfront organizing led to the Maritime Federation of the Pacific.
See: History of California 1900 to present.
Thousands of Chinese men arrived in California to work as laborers, recruited by industry as low - wage workers. Over time, conflicts in the gold fields and cities created resentment toward the Chinese laborers. During the decade - long depression after the transcontinental railroad was completed, white workers began to lay blame on the Chinese laborers. Many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields. Some returned to China after the Central Pacific was built. Those who stayed mostly moved to the Chinatowns in San Francisco and other cities, where they were relatively safe from violent attacks they suffered elsewhere.
From 1850 through 1900, anti-Chinese nativist sentiment resulted in the passage of innumerable laws, many of which remained in effect well into the middle of the 20th century. The most flagrant episode was probably the creation and ratification of a new state constitution in 1879. Thanks to vigorous lobbying by the anti-Chinese Workingmen 's Party, led by Denis Kearney (an immigrant from Ireland), Article XIX, Section 4 forbade corporations from hiring Chinese "coolies '', and empowered all California cities and counties to completely expel Chinese persons or to limit where they could reside. The law was repealed in 1952.
The 1879 constitutional convention also dispatched a message to Congress pleading for strong immigration restrictions, which led to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and it would not be repealed by Congress until 1943. Similar sentiments led to the development of the Gentlemen 's Agreement with Japan, by which Japan voluntarily agreed to restrict emigration to the United States. California also passed an Alien Land Act which barred aliens, especially Asians, from holding title to land. Because it was difficult for people born in Asia to obtain U.S. citizenship until the 1960s, land ownership titles were held by their American - born children, who were full citizens. The law was overturned by the California Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1952.
In 1886, when a Chinese laundry owner challenged the constitutionality of a San Francisco ordinance clearly designed to drive Chinese laundries out of business, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor, and in doing so, laid the theoretical foundation for modern equal protection constitutional law. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886). Meanwhile, even with severe restrictions on Asian immigration, tensions between unskilled workers and wealthy landowners persisted up to and through the Great Depression. Novelist Jack London writes of the struggles of workers in the city of Oakland in his visionary classic The Valley of the Moon, a title evoking the pristine situation of Sonoma County between sea and mountains, redwoods and oaks, fog and sunshine.
The Big Four were the famous railroad tycoons who built the Central Pacific Railroad, (C.P.R.R.), which formed the western portion of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. They were Leland Stanford, (1824 -- 1893), Collis Potter Huntington (1821 -- 1900), Mark Hopkins (1813 -- 1878), and Charles Crocker (1822 -- 1888). The establishment of America 's transcontinental rail lines permanently linked California to the rest of the country, and the far - reaching transportation systems that grew out of them during the century that followed contributed immeasurably to the state 's unrivaled social, political, and economic development.
The Big Four dominated California 's economy and politics in the 1880s and 1890s, and Collis P. Huntington became one of the most hated man in California. One typical California textbook argues:
Huntington, however, defended himself:
1898 saw the founding of the League of California Cities, an association intended to fight city government corruption, coordinate strategies for cities facing issues such as electrification, and to lobby the state government on behalf of cities.
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un declaration on economic social and cultural rights | International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights - wikipedia
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1966, and in force from 3 January 1976. It commits its parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to the Non-Self - Governing and Trust Territories and individuals, including labour rights and the right to health, the right to education, and the right to an adequate standard of living. As of January 2018, the Covenant has 166 parties. A further four countries, including the United States, have signed but not ratified the Covenant.
The ICESCR is part of the International Bill of Human Rights, along with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), including the latter 's first and second Optional Protocols.
The Covenant is monitored by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
The ICESCR has its roots in the same process that led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A "Declaration on the Essential Rights of Man '' had been proposed at the 1945 San Francisco Conference which led to the founding of the United Nations, and the Economic and Social Council was given the task of drafting it. Early on in the process, the document was split into a declaration setting forth general principles of human rights, and a convention or covenant containing binding commitments. The former evolved into the UDHR and was adopted on 10 December 1948.
Drafting continued on the convention, but there remained significant differences between UN members on the relative importance of negative civil and political versus positive economic, social and cultural rights. These eventually caused the convention to be split into two separate covenants, "one to contain civil and political rights and the other to contain economic, social and cultural rights. '' The two covenants were to contain as many similar provisions as possible, and be opened for signature simultaneously. Each would also contain an article on the right of all peoples to self - determination.
The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self - Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self - determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.
The first document became the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the second the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The drafts were presented to the UN General Assembly for discussion in 1954, and adopted in 1966.
The Covenant follows the structure of the UDHR and the ICCPR, with a preamble and thirty - one articles, divided into five parts.
Part 1 (Article 1) recognises the right of all peoples to self - determination, including the right to "freely determine their political status '', pursue their economic, social and cultural goals, and manage and dispose of their own resources. It recognises a negative right of a people not to be deprived of its means of subsistence, and imposes an obligation on those parties still responsible for non-self governing and trust territories (colonies) to encourage and respect their self - determination.
Part 2 (Articles 2 -- 5) establishes the principle of "progressive realisation '' -- see below. It also requires the rights be recognised "without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status ''. The rights can only be limited by law, in a manner compatible with the nature of the rights, and only for the purpose of "promoting the general welfare in a democratic society ''.
Part 3 (Articles 6 -- 15) lists the rights themselves. These include rights to
Many of these rights include specific actions which must be undertaken to realise them.
Part 4 (Articles 16 -- 25) governs reporting and monitoring of the Covenant and the steps taken by the parties to implement it. It also allows the monitoring body -- originally the United Nations Economic and Social Council -- now the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights -- see below -- to make general recommendations to the UN General Assembly on appropriate measures to realise the rights (Article 21)
Part 5 (Articles 26 -- 31) governs ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Covenant.
Article 2 of the Covenant imposes a duty on all parties to
take steps... to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures.
This is known as the principle of "progressive realisation ''. It acknowledges that some of the rights (for example, the right to health) may be difficult in practice to achieve in a short period of time, and that states may be subject to resource constraints, but requires them to act as best they can within their means.
The principle differs from that of the ICCPR, which obliges parties to "respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction '' the rights in that Convention. However, it does not render the Covenant meaningless. The requirement to "take steps '' imposes a continuing obligation to work towards the realisation of the rights. It also rules out deliberately regressive measures which impede that goal. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights also interprets the principle as imposing minimum core obligations to provide, at the least, minimum essential levels of each of the rights. If resources are highly constrained, this should include the use of targeted programmes aimed at the vulnerable.
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights regards legislation as an indispensable means for realising the rights which is unlikely to be limited by resource constraints. The enacting of anti-discrimination provisions and the establishment of enforceable rights with judicial remedies within national legal systems are considered to be appropriate means. Some provisions, such as anti-discrimination laws, are already required under other human rights instruments, such as the ICCPR.
Article 6 of the Covenant recognises the right to work, defined as the opportunity of everyone to gain their living by freely chosen or accepted work. Parties are required to take "appropriate steps '' to safeguard this right, including technical and vocational training and economic policies aimed at steady economic development and ultimately full employment. The right implies parties must guarantee equal access to employment and protect workers from being unfairly deprived of employment. They must prevent discrimination in the workplace and ensure access for the disadvantaged. The fact that work must be freely chosen or accepted means parties must prohibit forced or child labor.
The work referred to in Article 6 must be decent work. This is effectively defined by Article 7 of the Covenant, which recognises the right of everyone to "just and favourable '' working conditions. These are in turn defined as fair wages with equal pay for equal work, sufficient to provide a decent living for workers and their dependants; safe working conditions; equal opportunity in the workplace; and sufficient rest and leisure, including limited working hours and regular, paid holidays.
Article 8 recognises the right of workers to form or join trade unions and protects the right to strike. It allows these rights to be restricted for members of the armed forces, police, or government administrators. Several parties have placed reservations on this clause, allowing it to be interpreted in a manner consistent with their constitutions (e.g., China, Mexico), or extending the restriction of union rights to groups such as firefighters (e.g., Japan).
Article 9 of the Covenant recognizes "the right of everyone to social security, including social insurance ''. It requires parties to provide some form of social insurance scheme to protect people against the risks of sickness, disability, maternity, employment injury, unemployment or old age; to provide for survivors, orphans, and those who can not afford health care; and to ensure that families are adequately supported. Benefits from such a scheme must be adequate, accessible to all, and provided without discrimination. The Covenant does not restrict the form of the scheme, and both contributory and non-contributory schemes are permissible (as are community - based and mutual schemes).
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has noted persistent problems with the implementation of this right, with very low levels of access.
Several parties, including France and Monaco, have reservations allowing them to set residence requirements in order to qualify for social benefits. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights permits such restrictions, provided they are proportionate and reasonable.
Article 10 of the Covenant recognises the family as "the natural and fundamental group unit of society '', and requires parties to accord it "the widest possible protection and assistance ''. Parties must ensure that their citizens are free to establish families and that marriages are freely contracted and not forced. Parties must also provide paid leave or adequate social security to mothers before and after childbirth, an obligation which overlaps with that of Article 9. Finally, parties must take "special measures '' to protect children from economic or social exploitation, including setting a minimum age of employment and barring children from dangerous and harmful occupations.
Article 11 recognises the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living. This includes, but is not limited to, the right to adequate food, clothing, housing, and "the continuous improvement of living conditions ''. It also creates an obligation on parties to work together to eliminate world hunger.
The right to adequate food, also referred to as the right to food, is interpreted as requiring "the availability of food in a quantity and quality sufficient to satisfy the dietary needs of individuals, free from adverse substances, and acceptable within a given culture ''. This must be accessible to all, implying an obligation to provide special programmes for the vulnerable. This must also ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need, taking into account the problems of food - importing and food - exporting countries. The right to adequate food also implies a right to water.
The right to adequate housing, also referred to as the right to housing, is "the right to live somewhere in security, peace and dignity ''. It requires "adequate privacy, adequate space, adequate security, adequate lighting and ventilation, adequate basic infrastructure and adequate location with regard to work and basic facilities -- all at a reasonable cost ''. Parties must ensure security of tenure and that access is free of discrimination, and progressively work to eliminate homelessness. Forced evictions, defined as "the permanent or temporary removal against their will of individuals, families and / or communities from the homes and / or land which they occupy, without the provision of, and access to, appropriate forms of legal or other protection '', are a prima facie violation of the Covenant.
The right to adequate clothing, also referred to as the right to clothing, has not been authoritatively defined and has received little in the way of academic commentary or international discussion. What is considered "adequate '' has only been discussed in specific contexts, such as refugees, the disabled, the elderly, or workers.
Article 12 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to "the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health ''. "Health '' is understood not just as a right to be healthy, but as a right to control one 's own health and body (including reproduction), and be free from interference such as torture or medical experimentation. States must protect this right by ensuring that everyone within their jurisdiction has access to the underlying determinants of health, such as clean water, sanitation, food, nutrition and housing, and through a comprehensive system of healthcare, which is available to everyone without discrimination, and economically accessible to all.
Article 12.2 requires parties to take specific steps to improve the health of their citizens, including reducing infant mortality and improving child health, improving environmental and workplace health, preventing, controlling and treating epidemic diseases, and creating conditions to ensure equal and timely access to medical services for all. These are considered to be "illustrative, non-exhaustive examples '', rather than a complete statement of parties ' obligations.
The right to health is interpreted as requiring parties to respect women 's ' reproductive rights, by not limiting access to contraception or "censoring, withholding or intentionally misrepresenting '' information about sexual health. They must also ensure that women are protected from harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation.
Right to health is inclusive right extending not only to timely and appropriate health care but also to the underlying determinants of health, such as access to safe and potable water and adequate sanitation, an adequate supply of safe food, nutrition and housing, healthy occupational and environmental conditions.
Article 13 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to free education (free for the primary level and "the progressive introduction of free education '' for the secondary and higher levels). This is to be directed towards "the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity '', and enable all persons to participate effectively in society. Education is seen both as a human right and as "an indispensable means of realizing other human rights '', and so this is one of the longest and most important articles of the Covenant.
Article 13.2 lists a number of specific steps parties are required to pursue to realise the right of education. These include the provision of free, universal and compulsory primary education, "generally available and accessible '' secondary education in various forms (including technical and vocational training), and equally accessible higher education. All of these must be available to all without discrimination. Parties must also develop a school system (though it may be public, private, or mixed), encourage or provide scholarships for disadvantaged groups. Parties are required to make education free at all levels, either immediately or progressively; "(p) rimary education shall be compulsory and available free to all ''; secondary education "shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education ''; and "(h) igher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education ''.
Articles 13.3 and 13.4 require parties to respect the educational freedom of parents by allowing them to choose and establish private educational institutions for their children, also referred to as freedom of education. It also recognises the right of parents to "ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions ''. This is interpreted as requiring public schools to respect the freedom of religion and conscience of their students, and as forbidding instruction in a particular religion or belief system unless non-discriminatory exemptions and alternatives are available.
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interpret the Covenant as also requiring states to respect the academic freedom of staff and students, as this is vital for the educational process. It also considers corporal punishment in schools to be inconsistent with the Covenant 's underlying principle of the dignity of the individual.
Article 14 of the Covenant requires those parties which have not yet established a system of free compulsory primary education, to rapidly adopt a detailed plan of action for its introduction "within a reasonable number of years ''.
Article 15 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to participate in cultural life, enjoy the benefits of scientific progress, and to benefit from the protection of the moral and material rights to any scientific discovery or artistic work they have created. The latter clause is sometimes seen as requiring the protection of intellectual property, but the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interprets it as primarily protecting the moral rights of authors and "proclaim (ing) the intrinsically personal character of every creation of the human mind and the ensuing durable link between creators and their creations ''. It thus requires parties to respect the right of authors to be recognised as the creator of a work. The material rights are interpreted as being part of the right to an adequate standard of living, and "need not extend over the entire lifespan of an author. ''
Parties must also work to promote the conservation, development and diffusion of science and culture, "respect the freedom indispensable for scientific research and creative activity '', and encourage international contacts and cooperation in these fields.
A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Covenant.
Algeria interprets parts of Article 13, protecting the liberty of parents to freely choose or establish suitable educational institutions, so as not to "impair its right freely to organize its educational system. ''
Bangladesh interprets the self - determination clause in Article 1 as applying in the historical context of colonialism. It also reserves the right to interpret the labour rights in Articles 7 and 8 and the non-discrimination clauses of Articles 2 and 3 within the context of its constitution and domestic law.
Belgium interprets non-discrimination as to national origin as "not necessarily implying an obligation on States automatically to guarantee to foreigners the same rights as to their nationals. The term should be understood to refer to the elimination of any arbitrary behaviour but not of differences in treatment based on objective and reasonable considerations, in conformity with the principles prevailing in democratic societies. ''
China restricts labour rights in Article 8 in a manner consistent with its constitution and domestic law.
Egypt accepts the Covenant only to the extent it does not conflict with Islamic Sharia law. Sharia is "a primary source of legislation '' under Article 2 of both the suspended 1973 Constitution and the 2011 Provisional Constitutional Declaration.
France views the Covenant as subservient to the UN Charter. It also reserves the right to govern the access of aliens to employment, social security, and other benefits.
India interprets the right of self - determination as applying "only to the peoples under foreign domination '' and not to apply to peoples within sovereign nation - states. It also interprets the limitation of rights clause and the rights of equal opportunity in the workplace within the context of its constitution.
Indonesia interprets the self - determination clause (Article 1) within the context of other international law and as not applying to peoples within a sovereign nation - state.
Ireland reserves the right to promote the Irish language.
Japan reserved the right not to be bound to progressively introduce free secondary and higher education, the right to strike for public servant and the remuneration on public holidays.
Kuwait interprets the non-discrimination clauses of Articles 2 and 3 within its constitution and laws, and reserves the right to social security to apply only to Kuwaitis. It also reserves the right to forbid strikes.
Mexico restricts the labour rights in Article 8 within the context of its constitution and laws.
Monaco interprets the principle of non-discrimination on the grounds of national origin as "not necessarily implying an automatic obligation on the part of States to guarantee foreigners the same rights as their nationals '', and reserves the right to set residence requirements on the rights to work, health, education, and social security.
New Zealand reserved the right not to apply Article 8 (the right to form and join trade unions) insofar as existing measures (which at the time included compulsory unionism and encouraged arbitration of disputes) were incompatible with it.
Norway reserves the right to strike so as to allow for compulsory arbitration of some labour disputes.
Pakistan has a general reservation to interpret the Covenant within the framework of its constitution.
Thailand interprets the right to self - determination within the framework of other international law.
Trinidad and Tobago reserves the right to restrict the right to strike of those engaged in essential occupations.
Turkey will implement the Covenant subject to the UN Charter. It also reserves the right to interpret and implement the right of parents to choose and establish educational institutions in a manner compatible with its constitution.
United Kingdom views the Covenant as subservient to the UN Charter. It made several reservations regarding its overseas territories.
United States -- Amnesty International writes that "The United States signed the Covenant in 1979 under the Carter administration but is not fully bound by it until it is ratified. For political reasons, the Carter administration did not push for the necessary review of the Covenant by the Senate, which must give its ' advice and consent ' before the US can ratify a treaty. The Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations took the view that economic, social, and cultural rights were not really rights but merely desirable social goals and therefore should not be the object of binding treaties. The Clinton Administration did not deny the nature of these rights but did not find it politically expedient to engage in a battle with Congress over the Covenant. The George W. Bush administration followed in line with the view of the previous Bush administration. '' The Obama Administration stated "The Administration does not seek action at this time '' on the Covenant. The Heritage Foundation, a critical conservative think tank, argues that signing it would obligate the introduction of policies that it opposes such as universal health care.
The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a side - agreement to the Covenant which allows its parties to recognise the competence of the Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights to consider complaints from individuals.
The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 2008. It was opened for signature on 24 September 2009, and as of February 2013 has been signed by 40 parties and ratified by 22. Having passed the threshold of required ratifications it has entered into force on 5 May 2013.
The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a body of human rights experts tasked with monitoring the implementation of the Covenant. It consists of 18 independent human rights experts, elected for four - year terms, with half the members elected every two years.
Unlike other human rights monitoring bodies, the Committee was not established by the treaty it oversees. Rather, it was established by the Economic and Social Council following the failure of two previous monitoring bodies.
All states parties are required to submit regular reports to the Committee outlining the legislative, judicial, policy and other measures they have taken to implement the rights affirmed in the Covenant. The first report is due within two years of ratifying the Covenant; thereafter reports are due every five years. The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of "concluding observations ''.
The Committee typically meets every May and November in Geneva.
The following are parties to the covenant:
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what is the meaning of go set a watchman | Go Set a Watchman - wikipedia
Go Set a Watchman is a novel by Harper Lee published on July 14, 2015 by HarperCollins, United States and William Heinemann, United Kingdom. Although written before her first and only other published novel, the Pulitzer Prize - winning To Kill a Mockingbird -- and initially promoted by its publisher as a sequel -- it is now more widely accepted as being a first draft of the famous novel. The title comes from Isaiah 21: 6: "For thus hath the Lord said unto me, Go, set a watchman, let him declare what he seeth. '' It alludes to Jean Louise Finch 's view of her father, Atticus Finch, as the moral compass ("watchman '') of Maycomb, and has a theme of disillusionment, as she discovers the extent of the bigotry in her home community.
The book 's unexpected and controversial discovery, decades after it was written, together with the status of the author 's only other book -- an American classic -- caused its publication to be highly anticipated; Amazon stated that it was their "most pre-ordered book '' since Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in 2007, and stores arranged all - night openings beginning at midnight to cope with expected demand.
Go Set a Watchman tackles the racial tensions brewing in the South in the 1950s and delves into the complex relationship between father and daughter. It includes treatments of many of the characters who appear in To Kill a Mockingbird.
Jean Louise "Scout '' Finch, 26, returns to her hometown of Maycomb, Alabama, from New York. While on this two week annual visit to home, she is met by her childhood sweetheart Henry "Hank '' Clinton. Clinton works for her father Atticus, who is a lawyer and former state legislator. Jack, Atticus 's brother and retired doctor is Scout 's mentor. Their sister Alexandria runs the house and took Calpurnia 's place when she retired. The Supreme Court 's Brown v. Board of Education decision and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) are introduced as sources of controversy in the community.
Returning from a trip to Finch 's Landing, Jean Louise and Henry are passed by a car of black men travelling dangerously at high speed. Henry mentions that the black people in the county now have money for cars but neglect to get licenses and insurance. The next day is spent dealing with the minor scandal the previous evening has caused, and there are sequences during Jean Louise 's youth, spent with "Dill '' Harris, and her older brother Jeremy "Jem '' Finch, who has since died of a heart condition which also killed her mother.
When Jean Louise finds a pamphlet titled "The Black Plague '' among her father 's papers, she follows him to a Citizens ' Council meeting where Atticus introduces a man who delivers a racist speech. Jean Louise watches in secret from the balcony and is horrified. She is unable to forgive him for betraying her and flees from the hall. After dreaming about her black family maid, Calpurnia, whom she sees as a mother figure, Jean Louise has breakfast with her father. They soon learn that Calpurnia 's grandson killed a drunk pedestrian the previous night while speeding in his car. Atticus agrees to take the case in order to stop the NAACP from getting involved. Jean Louise visits Calpurnia and is treated politely but coldly, causing her to leave, devastated.
While at lunch with her Uncle Jack, Jean Louise asks Atticus why he was at the meeting. Jack says that Atticus has n't suddenly become racist but is trying to slow federal government intervention into state politics. Her uncle lectures her on the complexity of history, race, and politics in the South, in an attempt to get Jean Louise to come to a conclusion, which she struggles to grasp. She then has a flashback to when she was a teenager and recalls an incident where Atticus planted the seed for an idea in Henry 's brain, then let him come to the right conclusion on his own.
While having coffee with Henry, Jean Louise tells him she does n't love him and will never marry him. She expresses her disgust at seeing him and her father at the council meeting. Henry explains that sometimes people have to do things they do n't want to do. Henry then defends his own case by saying that the reason that he is still part of the Citizens ' Council is because he wants to use his intelligence to make an impact on his hometown of Maycomb and to make money to raise a family. She screams that she could never live with a hypocrite, only to notice that Atticus is standing behind them, smiling.
During a discussion with his daughter, Atticus argues that the blacks of the South are not ready for full civil rights, and the Supreme Court 's decision was unconstitutional and irresponsible. Although Jean Louise agrees that the South is not ready to be fully integrated, she says the court was pushed into a corner by the NAACP and had to act. She is confused and devastated by her father 's positions as they are contrary to everything he has ever taught her. She returns to the family home furious and packs her things. As she is about to leave town, her uncle comes home. She angrily complains to him, and her uncle slaps her across the face. He tells her to think of all the things that have happened over the past two days and how she has processed them. When she says she can now stand them, he tells her it is bearable because she is her own person. He says that at one point she had fastened her conscience to her father 's, assuming that her answers would always be his answers. Her uncle tells her that Atticus was letting her break her idols so that she could reduce him to the status of a human being.
Jean Louise returns to the office and makes a date with Henry for the evening. She reflects that Maycomb has taught him things she had never known and rendered her useless to him except as his oldest friend. She goes to apologize to Atticus, but he tells her how proud of her he is. He hoped that she would stand for what she thinks is right. She reflects that she did n't want her world disturbed but that she tried to crush the man who is trying to preserve it for her. She tells him that she thinks she loves him very much. As she follows him to the car, she silently welcomes him to the human race, seeing him as just a man for the first time.
Although promoted by its publisher and initially described in media reports as a sequel to Lee 's best - selling novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which was published in 1960, Go Set a Watchman is actually that novel 's first draft. The novel was finished in 1957 and purchased by the J.B. Lippincott Company. Lee 's editor, Tay Hohoff, although impressed with elements of the story, saying that "the spark of the true writer flashed in every line '', thought it was by no means ready for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel ''. As Jonathan Mahler recounts in his Times article on Hohoff, she thought the strongest aspect of Lee 's novel was the flashback sequences featuring a young Scout, and thus requested that Lee use those flashbacks as a basis for a new novel. Lee agreed, and "during the next couple of years, Hohoff led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form and was retitled To Kill a Mockingbird. ''
According to Mahler, "Ms. Hohoff also references a more detailed characterization of the development process, found in the Lippincott corporate history: ' After a couple of false starts, the story - line, interplay of characters, and fall of emphasis grew clearer, and with each revision -- there were many minor changes as the story grew in strength and in her own vision of it -- the true stature of the novel became evident. ' (In 1978, Lippincott was acquired by Harper & Row, which became HarperCollins, publisher of Watchman.) '' Mahler remarks that "there appeared to be a natural give and take between author and editor. ' When she disagreed with a suggestion, we talked it out, sometimes for hours, ' Ms. Hohoff wrote. ' And sometimes she came around to my way of thinking, sometimes I to hers, sometimes the discussion would open up an entirely new line of controversy. ' ''
In terms of the initial characterization of Atticus as a segregationist, an element to his character that was dropped in the later draft, there are various theories already offered. Mahler offers that it could have been Hohoff that inspired the change. Raised "in a multigenerational Quaker home near Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Hohoff attended a Quaker school, Brooklyn Friends. Such an upbringing suggests certain progressive values. But probably the clearest window into her state of mind when she was coaching Ms. Lee through the rewrite of Mockingbird is the book she was writing herself at the time: a biography of John Lovejoy Elliott, a social activist and humanist in early - 20th - century New York who had committed his life to helping the city 's underclass. The book, A Ministry to Man, was published in 1959, one year before Mockingbird. ''
Michiko Kakutani made note of the changes between the two versions: "Some plot points that have become touchstones in Mockingbird are evident in the earlier Watchman. Scout 's older brother, Jem, vividly alive as a boy in Mockingbird, is dead in Watchman; the trial of a black man accused of raping a young white woman... is only a passing aside in Watchman. (Interestingly, the trial results in a guilty verdict for the accused man, Tom Robinson, in Mockingbird, but leads to an acquittal in Watchman.) '' She continues, "Students of writing will find Watchman fascinating for these reasons: How did a lumpy tale about a young woman 's grief over her discovery of her father 's bigoted views evolve into a classic coming - of - age story about two children and their devoted widower father? How did a distressing narrative filled with characters spouting hate speech (from the casually patronizing to the disgustingly grotesque -- and presumably meant to capture the extreme prejudice that could exist in small towns in the Deep South in the 1950s) mutate into a redemptive novel associated with the civil rights movement, hailed, in the words of the former civil rights activist and congressman Andrew Young, for giving us "a sense of emerging humanism and decency ''?
Kakutani also goes on to describe that not only are characterizations and plot points different, the motivation behind the novel shifts as well, stating: "Somewhere along the way, the overarching impulse behind the writing also seems to have changed. Watchman reads as if it were fueled by the alienation of a native daughter -- who, like Lee, moved away from small - town Alabama to New York City -- might feel upon returning home. It seems to want to document the worst in Maycomb in terms of racial and class prejudice, the people 's enmity and hypocrisy and small - mindedness. At times, it also alarmingly suggests that the civil rights movement roiled things up, making people who "used to trust each other '' now "watch each other like hawks ''.
According to Kakutani, "Mockingbird, in contrast, represents a determined effort to see both the bad and the good in small - town life, the hatred and the humanity; it presents an idealized father - daughter relationship (which a relative in Watchman suggests has kept Jean Louise from fully becoming her own person) and views the past not as something lost but as a treasured memory. In a 1963 interview, Lee, whose own hometown is Monroeville, Ala., said of Mockingbird: ' The book is not an indictment so much as a plea for something, a reminder to people at home. ' ''
The papers of Harper Lee 's literary agents in the 1950s, Annie Laurie Williams and Maurice Crain, are held by Columbia University 's Rare Book & Manuscript Library. Their records show that Go Set a Watchman was an early draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, and underwent significant changes in story and characters during the revision process. Harper Lee was writing Go Set a Watchman in January 1957, and sold the manuscript to the publisher J.B. Lippincott in October 1957. She then continued to work on the manuscript for the next two years, submitting revised manuscripts to her literary agents. At some point in that two - year period, Lee renamed her book To Kill a Mockingbird. Some of these records have been copied and posted online.
The manuscript for the novel was originally thought to be lost. According to The New York Times, the typed manuscript of Go Set a Watchman was first found during an appraisal of Lee 's assets in 2011 in a safe deposit box in Lee 's hometown of Monroeville. Lee 's lawyer, Tonja Carter, later revealed that she had first assumed the manuscript to be an early draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Later, upon learning in the middle of 2014 of the existence of a second novel at a family gathering, she then re-examined Lee 's safe - deposit box and found the manuscript for Go Set a Watchman. After contacting Lee and reading the manuscript, she passed it on to Lee 's agent, Andrew Nurnberg.
Lee released a statement through her attorney in regards to the discovery. "In the mid-1950s, I completed a novel called Go Set a Watchman. It features the character known as Scout as an adult woman and I thought it a pretty decent effort. My editor, who was taken by the flashbacks to Scout 's childhood, persuaded me to write a novel from the point of view of the young Scout. I was a first - time writer, so I did as I was told. I had n't realized it had survived, so was surprised and delighted when my dear friend and lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it. After much thought and hesitation I shared it with a handful of people I trust and was pleased to hear that they considered it worthy of publication. I am humbled and amazed that this will now be published after all these years. ''
Some publications have called the timing of the book "suspicious '', citing Lee 's declining health, statements she had made over several decades that she would not write or release another novel, and the recent death of her sister and caregiver -- two months before the announcement. NPR reported on the news of her new book release, with circumstances "raising questions about whether she is being taken advantage of in her old age ''. Some publications have even called for fans to boycott the work. News sources, including NPR and BBC News, have reported that the conditions surrounding the release of the book are unclear and posit that Lee may not have had full control of the decision. Investigators for the state of Alabama interviewed Lee in response to a suspicion of elder abuse in relation to the publication of the book. However, by April 2015 the investigation had found that the claims were unfounded.
Historian and Lee 's longtime friend Wayne Flynt told Associated Press that the "narrative of senility, exploitation of this helpless little old lady is just hogwash. It 's just complete bunk. '' Flynt said he found Lee capable of giving consent and believes no one will ever know for certain the terms of said consent.
Marja Mills, author of The Mockingbird Next Door: Life with Harper Lee, a friend and former neighbor of Lee and her sister Alice, paints a very different picture. In her piece for The Washington Post "The Harper Lee I knew '', she quotes Lee 's sister Alice, whom she describes as "gatekeeper, advisor, protector '' for most of Lee 's adult life, as saying "Poor Nelle Harper ca n't see and ca n't hear and will sign anything put before her by anyone in whom she has confidence. '' She makes note that Watchman was announced just two and a half months after Alice 's death and that all correspondence to and from Lee goes through her new attorney. She describes Lee as "in a wheelchair in an assisted living center, nearly deaf and blind, with a uniformed guard posted at the door '' and her visitors "restricted to those on an approved list ''.
New York Times columnist Joe Nocera continues this argument. He also takes issue with how the book has been promoted by the ' Murdoch Empire ' as a "Newly discovered '' novel, attesting that the other people in the Sotheby 's meeting insist that Lee 's attorney was present in 2011, when Lee 's former agent (whom she subsequently fired) and the Sotheby 's specialist found the manuscript. They say she knew full well that it was the same one submitted to Lippencott in the ' 50s that was reworked into Mockingbird, and that Carter had been sitting on the discovery, waiting for the moment when she, and not Alice, would be in charge of Harper Lee 's affairs. He questions how commentators are treating the character of Atticus as though he were a real person and are deliberately trying to argue that the character evolved with age as opposed to evolved during development of the novel. He quotes Lee herself from one of her last interviews in 1964 where she said "I think the thing that I most deplore about American writing -- is a lack of craftsmanship. It comes right down to this -- the lack of absolute love for language, the lack of sitting down and working a good idea into a gem of an idea. '' He states that, "a publisher that cared about Harper Lee 's legacy would have taken those words to heart, and declined to publish Go Set a Watchman -- the good idea that Lee eventually transformed into a gem. That HarperCollins decided instead to manufacture a phony literary event is n't surprising. It 's just sad. ''
Others have questioned the context of the book 's release, not in matters of consent, but that it has been publicized as a sequel as opposed to an unedited first draft. There is no foreword to the book, and the dust jacket, although noting that the book was written in the mid-1950s, gives the impression that the book was written as a sequel or companion to Mockingbird, which was never Lee 's intention. Edward Burlingame, who was an executive editor at Lippincott at the time of Mockingbird 's release, has stated there was never any intention, then or after, on the part of Lee or Hohoff, to publish Watchman. It was simply regarded as a first draft. "Lippincott 's sales department would have published Harper Lee 's laundry list '', Burlingame said. "But Tay really guarded Nelle like a junkyard dog. She was not going to allow any commercial pressures or anything else to put stress on her to publish anything that would n't make Nelle proud or do justice to her. Anxious as we all were to get another book from Harper Lee, it was a decision we all supported. '' He said that in all his years at Lippincott, "there was never any discussion of publishing Go Set a Watchman ''.
Brilliant Books, an independent bookstore in Michigan, made headlines by offering full refunds to customers who felt duped by the marketing of the book, calling it "shameful '' and "exploitative ''. They released a statement shortly after Go Set a Watchman was released, comparing the book to James Joyce 's Stephen Hero and condemning its publication.
Go Set a Watchman received mixed reviews. Michiko Kakutani in The New York Times described Atticus ' characterization as "shocking '', as he "has been affiliating with raving anti-integration, anti-black crazies, and the reader shares (Scout 's) horror and confusion ''. Aside from this reveal, Kakutani does make note that Watchman is the first draft of Mockingbird and discusses how students of writing will find Watchman fascinating for those reasons. A reviewer for The Wall Street Journal described the key theme of the book as disillusionment. Despite Atticus ' bigotry in the novel, he wins a case similar to the one he loses in To Kill a Mockingbird.
Entertainment Weekly panned the book as "a first draft of To Kill a Mockingbird '' and said "Though Watchman has a few stunning passages, it reads, for the most part, like a sluggishly - paced first draft, replete with incongruities, bad dialogue, and underdeveloped characters ''. "Ponderous and lurching '', wrote William Giraldi in The New Republic, "haltingly confected, the novel plods along in search of a plot, tranquilizes you with vast fallow patches, with deadening dead zones, with onslaughts of cliché and dialogue made of pamphleteering monologue or else eye - rolling chitchat ''. In The New Yorker, Adam Gopnik commented that the novel could be seen as "a string of clichés '', although he went on to remark that "some of them are clichés only because, in the half century since Lee 's generation introduced them, they 've become clichés; taken on their own terms, they remain quite touching and beautiful ''. Maureen Corrigan in NPR Books called the novel "kind of a mess ''. In The Spectator, Philip Hensher called Go Set a Watchman "an interesting document and a pretty bad novel '', as well as a "piece of confused juvenilia ''. "Go Set A Watchman is not a horrible book, but it 's not a very good one, either '', judged the Fort Worth Star - Telegram, citing among other flaws its "overly simplistic '' plot.
Alexandra Petri wrote in The Washington Post, "It is an inchoate jumble... Go Set a Watchman is not, by any stretch of the imagination, a good, or even a finished book. For the first 100 pages it lacks anything that could even charitably be described as a plot... (T) he writing is laughably bad... I flung the book down and groaned audibly and I almost did not pick it back up even though I knew I had fewer than 100 pages to go... This should not have been published. It 's 280 pages in desperate need of an editor... If you were anywhere in the vicinity of me when I was reading the thing, you heard a horrible bellowing noise, followed by the sound of a book being angrily tossed down... ''
Author Ursula K. Le Guin wrote that "Harper Lee was a good writer. She wrote a lovable, greatly beloved book. But this earlier one, for all its faults and omissions, asks some of the hard questions To Kill a Mockingbird evades. ''
Go Set a Watchman set a record for the highest adult novel one - day sales at Barnes & Noble, which included digital sales and pre-orders made before July 14. Barnes & Noble declined to release the exact number.
Some translations of the novel have appeared. In the Finnish translation of the novel by Kristiina Drews "nigger '' is translated as if "negro '' or "black '' had been used. Drews stated that she interpreted what was meant each time, and used vocabulary not offensive to black people.
In 2015, the book won the primary Goodreads Choice Award.
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ab tumhare hawale watan saathiyo 2004 ki movie | Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo - Wikipedia
Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo (English: "We entrust this nation in you, O countrymen '') is a 2004 Indian war drama film, directed by Anil Sharma and starring Amitabh Bachchan, Akshay Kumar, Bobby Deol, Divya Khosla Kumar, Sandali Sinha and Nagma
Major General Amarjeet Singh (Amitabh Bachchan) is a dedicated officer for the Indian Army. His son Lieutenant Commander Vikramjeet Singh (Bobby Deol) follows in his footsteps and joins the Navy. In 1971 during the Indo - Pak war and the formation of Bangladesh, Lt. Commander Vikramjeet Singh has a ship in his command and a regiment of soldiers of the Indian Army, commandeered by his dad, Major General Amarjeet Singh. The ship comes under attack by a submarine of the Pakistani Navy, undergoes damage, and sinks along with Vikramjeet, but not before he courageously rescues about a hundred trapped army soldiers.
Years later, Vikramjeet 's son Kunaljeet joins the army as a Captain, but he lacks the values his dad and grandfather had in them about serving the country selflessly. He just wants to be employed with the army for a couple of years, then re-locate to the U.S., run a business, and make lots of money. In order to accomplish this he always makes up excuses of not going to the front. He falls in love with Shweta Bhansali, and decides to stay in the army in order to be close to her. In order to achieve a medal, he fakes heroism; then carelessly jeopardizes a planned attack on terrorists and as a result several terrorist escape to their hideouts. Disciplined and chastised, an injured and humbled Kunaljeet waits to meet his sweetheart - only to find out that she is in love and married to his senior officer Major Rajeev Singh, who was assumed to be dead but actually was a prisoner of war. The only thread binding him to the army is broken, and it is then Kunaljeet finds out that the terrorists in collusion with rebel Pakistani officers are planning to bomb the Bhagwan Shivji 's Amarnath Temple in Jammu & Kashmir in order to wipe foment communal strife. Kunaljeet saves everyone and wins his grandfather 's heart.
The music is composed by Anu Malik. Lyrics are penned by Sameer. The song "Humein tumse hua hai pyaar '' became extremely popular.
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what is the gdp of the democratic republic of congo | Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - wikipedia
Sparsely populated in relation to its area, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is home to a vast potential of natural resources and mineral wealth. Despite this, the economy has declined drastically since the mid-1980s.
At the time of its independence in 1960, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa. It boasted a thriving mining sector and its agriculture sector was relatively productive. Since then, corruption, war and political instability have been a severe detriment to further growth, today leaving DRC with a GDP per capita among the world 's lowest.
Despite this the DRC is quickly modernizing having tied with Malaysia for the largest positive change in HDI development in 2016. And projects which include strengthening the health system for maternal and child health, expansion of electricity access, water supply reconstructions, and urban and social rehabilitation programs.
The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, have increased external debt, and have resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war, and associated famine and disease. Malnutrition affects approximately two thirds of the country 's population.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9 % of GDP in 1997. In 1996, agriculture employed 66 % of the work force.
Rich in minerals, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s. The economy of the third largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. However, much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.
In 2006 Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index, tying Bangladesh, Chad, and Sudan with a 2.0 rating. President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.
The conflicts in the DRC were over water, minerals, and other resources. Political agendas have worsened the economy, as in times of crisis, the elite benefit while the general populace suffers. This is worsened as a result of corrupt national and international corporations. The corporations instigate and allow the fighting for resources because they benefit from it. A large proportion of fatalities in the country are attributed to a lack of basic services, which is a reflection of the treatment of the citizens of the DRC. The influx of refugees since the war in 1998 only serves to worsen the issue of poverty. Money of the taxpayers in the DRC is often misappropriated by the corrupt leaders of the country, who often use the money to benefit themselves instead of the citizens of the DRC. The DRC is consistently rated the lowest on the UN Human Development Index.
Forced labor was important for the rural sector. The corporations that dominated the economy were mostly owned by Belgium, but British capital also played an important role. Independence caused the Congo to become the most industrialized country in Sub-Saharan Africa, after South Africa. The 1950s were a period of rising income and expectations. Congo was said to have the best public health system in Africa, but there was also a huge wealth disparity. Belgian companies favored workers in certain areas more and exported them to work in different areas, restricting opportunities for others. Favored groups also received better education and were able to secure jobs for people in the same ethnic group which increased tensions. In 1960 there were only 16 university graduates out of a population of 20 million. Belgium still had economic power and independence gave little opportunity for improvement. Common refrains included "no elite, no trouble '' and "before independence = after independence ''. When the Belgians left, most of the government officials and educated residents left with them. Before independence there were just 3 out of 5000 government jobs held by Congolese people. The resulting loss of institutional knowledge and human capital crippled the government.
After the Congo crisis, Mobutu arose as the country 's sole ruler and stabilized the country politically. Economically, however, the situation continued to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4 % of that from 1960. Starting in 1976 the IMF provided stabilizing loans to the dictatorship. Much of the money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle. This was not a secret as the 1982 report by IMF 's envoy Erwin Blumenthal documented. He stated, it is "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire 's economy ''. Blumenthal indicated that there was "no chance '' that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects ''. "Structural adjustment programmes '' implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo. Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.
Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted. The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure. Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability. Although depreciated, congolese francs have been stable for few years (Ndonda, 2014)
Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms.
The DRC is embarking on the establishment of special economic zones (SEZ) to encourage the revival of its industry. The first SEZ was planned to come into being in 2012 in N'Sele, a commune of Kinshasa, and will focus on agro-industries. The Congolese authorities also planned to open another zone dedicated to mining (Katanga) and a third dedicated to cement (in the Bas - Congo). There are three phases to the program that each have their own objectives. Phase I was the precursor to the actual investment in the Special Economic Zone where policymakers agreed to the framework, the framework was studied for its establishment, and to predict the potential market demand for the land. Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone, finding good sites for businesses, and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment. Stage two of Phase II has n't been started yet and it involves assisting the government in creating framework for the country, creating an overall plan for the site, figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be, and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment. Phase III involves the World Bank creating a transaction phase that will keep everything competitive. The program is looking for options to hand over the program to the World Bank which could be very beneficial for the western part of the country.
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980 -- 2017.
Ongoing conflicts dramatically reduced government revenue and increased external debt. As Reyntjens wrote, "Entrepreneurs of insecurity are engaged in extractive activities that would be impossible in a stable state environment. The criminalization context in which these activities occur offers avenues for considerable factional and personal enrichment through the trafficking of arms, illegal drugs, toxic products, mineral resources and dirty money. '' Ethnic rivalries were made worse because of economic interests and looting and coltan smuggling took place. Illegal monopolies formed in the country where they used forced labor for children to mine or work as soldiers. National parks were overrun with people looking to exploit minerals and resources. Increased poverty and hunger from the war and that increased the hunting of rare wildlife. Education was denied when the country was under foreign control and very few people make money off the minerals in the country. The national resources are not the root cause for the continued fighting in the region, however, the competition has become an incentive to keep fighting. (1) The DRC 's level of economic freedom is one of the lowest in the world, putting it in the repressed category. The armed militias fight with the government in the eastern section of the country over the mining sector or the corruption of the government, and weak policies lead to the instability of the economy. Human rights abuses also ruin economic activity; the DRC has a 7 % unemployment rate, but still has one of the lowest GDP 's per capita in the world. A major problem for people trying to start their own companies is that the minimum amount of capital needed to launch the company is 5 times the average annual income, and prices are regulated by the government, which almost forces people to have to work for the larger, more corrupt businesses; otherwise, they wo n't have work. It is hard for the DRC to encourage foreign trade because of the regulatory barriers.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo. Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.
Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted. The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure. Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability. 125 companies in 2003 contributed to the conflict in DRC showing the corruption.
With the help of the International Development Association the DRC has worked toward the reestablishment of social services. This is done by giving 15 million people access to basic health services and giving bed nets to prevent malaria from spreading to people. With the Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Program more than 107,000 adults and 34,000 child soldiers stood down their militarized posture. The travel time from Lubumbashi to Kasomeno in Katanga went down from seven days to two hours because of the improved roads which led to the decrease of prices of main goods by 60 %. With the help of the IFC, KfW, and the EU the DRC improved its businesses by reducing the time it took to create a business by 51 %, reducing the time it took to get construction permits by 54 %, and reducing the number of taxes from 118 to 30. Improvements in health have been noticeable specifically that deliveries attended by trained staff jumped from 47 to 80 %. In education 14 million textbooks were provided to children, completion rates of school have increased, and higher education was made available to students that chose to pursue it.
The Democratic Republic of Congo ranks 183 on the low end of the ease of doing business scale as ranked by the World Bank. This measures the difficulties of starting a business, enforcing contracts, paying taxes, resolving insolvency, protecting investors, trading across borders, getting credit, getting electricity, dealing with construction permits and registering property (World Bank 2014: 8). Noticeable changes in the Ease of doing business rank from 2015 to 2016 are an 83 rank increase in the ability to start businesses from 172 to 89. Another noticeable change was the rank of dealing with construction permits which increased from 157 to 131.
The IMF plans on giving the DRC a $1 billion loan after its two - year suspension after it failed to give details about a mining deal from one of its state owned mines and an Israeli billionaire, Dan Gertler. The loan may be necessary for the country because there will be elections in December 2016 for the next president and the cost of funding this would range around $1.1 billion. The biggest problem with the vote is getting a country of 68 million people the size of Western Europe to polling stations with less than 1,860 miles of paved roads.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9 % of the GDP in 1997. Main cash crops include coffee, palm oil, rubber, cotton, sugar, tea, and cocoa. Food crops include cassava, plantains, maize, groundnuts, and rice. In 1996, agriculture employed 66 % of the work force.
The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa 's forests and a river system that could provide hydro - electric power to the entire continent, according to a United Nations report on the country 's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa. Fish are the single most important source of animal protein in the DRC. Total production of marine, river, and lake fisheries in 2003 was estimated at 222,965 tons, all but 5,000 tons from inland waters. PEMARZA, a state agency, carries on marine fishing.
Forests cover 60 percent of the total land area. There are vast timber resources, and commercial development of the country 's 61 million hectares (150 million acres) of exploitable wooded area is only beginning. The Mayumbe area of Bas - Congo was once the major center of timber exploitation, but forests in this area were nearly depleted. The more extensive forest regions of the central cuvette and of the Ubangi River valley have increasingly been tapped.
Roundwood removals were estimated at 72,170,000 m in 2003, about 95 percent for fuel. Some 14 species are presently being harvested. Exports of forest products in 2003 totalled $25.7 million. Foreign capital is necessary in order for forestry to expand, and the government recognizes that changes in tax structure and export procedures will be needed to facilitate economic growth.
Rich in minerals, the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s. Although the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining, is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from long - term "uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of transparency in government policy. '' The informal sector.
In her book entitled The Real Economy of Zaire, MacGaffey described a second, often illegal economy, "system D, '' which is outside the official economy (MacGaffey 1991: 27). and therefore is not reflected in the GDP.
exploitation of mineral substances as MIBA EMAXON and De Beers The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. The Congo is the world 's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds. The Congo has 70 % of the world 's coltan, and more than 30 % of the world 's diamond reserves., mostly in the form of small, industrial diamonds. The coltan is a major source of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones. In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but, to date, mining has been on a small scale.
Smuggling of the conflict minerals, coltan and cassiterite (ores of tantalum and tin, respectively), has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo.
Katanga Mining Limited, a London - based company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008.
Much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.
Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult. The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country. Furthermore, chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under - investment over many years.
On the other hand, the Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two - thirds of the country.
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who is the governor of the central bank of nigeria | Central Bank of Nigeria - wikipedia
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) is the Central bank and apex monetary authority of Nigeria established by the CBN Act of 1958 and commenced operations on July 1, 1959.
The major regulatory objectives of the bank as stated in the CBN Act are to: maintain the external reserves of the country, promote monetary stability and a sound financial environment, and to act as a banker of last resort and financial adviser to the federal government. The central bank 's role as lender of last resort and adviser to the federal government has sometimes pushed it into murky regulatory waters. After the end of imperial rule the desire of the government to become pro-active in the development of the economy became visible especially after the end of the Nigerian civil war, the bank followed the government 's desire and took a determined effort to supplement any short falls in credit allocations to the real sector. The bank soon became involved in lending directly to consumers, contravening its original intention to work through commercial banks in activities involving consumer lending. However, the policy was an offspring of the indigenisation policy at the time. Nevertheless, the government through the central bank has been actively involved in building the nation 's money and equity centers, forming securities regulatory board and introducing treasury instruments into the capital market.
In 1948, an inquiry under the leadership of G.D Paton was established by the colonial administration to investigate banking practices in Nigeria. Prior to the inquiry, the banking industry was largely uncontrolled. The G.D Paton report, an offshoot of the inquiry became the cornerstone of the first banking legislation in the country: the banking ordinance of 1952. The ordinance was designed to prevent non viable banks from mushrooming, and to ensure orderly commercial banking. The banking ordinance triggered a rapid growth in the industry, with growth also came disappointment. By 1958, a few number of banks had failed. To curtail further failures and to prepare for indigenous control, in 1958, a bill for the establishment of Central Bank of Nigeria was presented to the House of Representatives of Nigeria. The Act was fully implemented on July 1, 1959, when the Central Bank of Nigeria came into full operation. In April 1960, the Bank issued its first treasury bills. In May 1961 the Bank launched the Lagos Bankers Clearing House, which provided licensed banks a framework in which to exchange and clear checks rapidly. By July 1, 1961 the Bank had completed issuing all denominations of new Nigerian notes and coins and redeemed all of the West African Currency Board 's previous money.
The CBN 's early functions were mainly to act as the government 's agency for the control and supervision of the banking sector, to monitor the balance of payments according to the demands of the federal government and to tailor monetary policy along the demands of the federal budget. The central bank 's initial lack of financial competence over the finance ministry led to deferment of major economic decisions to the finance ministry. A key instrument of the bank was to initiate credit limit legislation for bank lending. The initiative was geared to make credit available to neglected national areas such as agriculture and manufacturing. By the end of 1979, most of the banks did not adhere to their credit limits and favored a loose interpretation of CBN 's guidelines. The central bank did not effectively curtail the prevalence of short term loan maturities. Most loans given out by commercial banks were usually set within a year. The major policy to balance this distortion in the credit market was to create a new Bank of Commerce and industry, a universal bank. However, the new bank did not fulfill its mission. Another policy of the bank in concert with the intentions of the government was direct involvement in the affairs of the three major expatriate commercial banks in order to forestall any bias against indigenous borrowers and consumers. By 1976, the federal government had acquired 40 % of equity in the three largest commercial banks. The bank 's slow reaction to curtail inflation by financing huge deficits of the federal government has been one of the sore points in the history of the central bank. Coupled with its failure to control the burgeoning trade arrears in 1983, the country was left with huge trade debts totaling $6 billion.
Governors of the Central Bank since independence:
The central bank was instrumental in the growth and financial credibility of Nigerian commercial banks by making sure that all the financial banks operating in the country had a capital base (required reserves). This helped to make sure that bank customers just did not bear losses alone, in the event of bank failures. However, this policy led to the failure of some Nigerian commercial banks; some banks could not meet up with the new capital base requirements, which was 25,000,000,000.00 Naira at the time. Those banks that could not meet the new capital base requirements had to fold up, while some that could not come up with the money on their own, had to merge with other banks in order to raise the money. This policy helped solidify the commercial banks of Nigeria, and made it impossible for individuals or organizations without financial stability to operate a bank in the country. Today Nigeria has one of the most advanced financial sectors in Africa, with most of its commercial banks having branches in other countries.
The Central Bank is active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a leading member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. It is also one of the original 17 regulatory institutions to make specific national commitments to financial inclusion under the Maya Declaration during the 2011 Global Policy Forum held in Mexico. The CBN has ensured all Banks in Nigeria to have a uniform year end. The various commercial bank includes Access Bank Plc, Citibank Nigeria Plc, Diamond Bank Plc, First Bank of Nigeria Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Zenith Bank plc, Wema Bank, StanbicIbtc Bank, Fidelity Bank, United Bank for Africa etc.
Mr. Godwin Emefiele, the former Zenith Bank Plc Chief Executive assumed the mantle as the 11th CBN chief as well as its 10th indigenous governor. Emefiele, who replaced Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, whose tenure elapsed on June 1 brings to the job over 20 years of banking experience. He has held several strategic positions in his 18 years in the banking industry. Before becoming the Managing Director of Zenith Bank Plc, he had worked in corporate banking, treasury and financial controls. Before that, he was a lecturer in Finance and Insurance at the University of Port Harcourt, as well as his alma mater, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he obtained both BSc and MBA degrees in Finance. He is also an alumnus of Executive Education at Stanford University, Harvard University and Wharton Graduate Schools of Business. Emefiele in his maiden press briefing two days after his resumption of office gave a presentation titled "ENTRENCHING MACROECONOMIC STABILITY AND ENGENDERING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA ''. He acknowledged the excellent work that the Bank had done to achieve financial system stability, low inflation, exchange rate stability, an efficient payment system, and a consistent monetary policy in the last couple of years. He maintained that the vision of the Central Bank of Nigeria is to create a people - centered Central Bank by "delivering price and financial system stability and promoting sustainable economic development ''.
The name of the Central Bank of Nigeria has been used in a series of so - called ' Nigerian 419 Scams '. The fraudster sends an e-mail that appears to come from a Central Bank employee to millions of people saying the Bank has found an excess of money, or a debt owing to, a person or persons who have since died, and they wish to export it. The victim submits his own bank account so that the money may be placed therein, however this information is only used to add credibility to the scam, in order to lure the victim in further. Bank details and other personal information is used to create fake certificate or document that are allegedly from the Bank. Contrary to popular belief, the victim 's bank account can not be emptied in this fashion. And, if money was taken from an account, it could be reimbursed as it can be traced Instead, the fraudster will ask the victim to send money via wire transfer services such as Western Union or MoneyGram. A wire transfer sent abroad is untraceable and not reversible. The bank is in no way associated with such scams.
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when does episode 5 come out for game of thrones | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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who was the last american soldier killed in vietnam | Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge - wikipedia
Charles McMahon (May 10, 1953 -- April 29, 1975) and Darwin Lee Judge (February 16, 1956 -- April 29, 1975) were the last two United States servicemen killed in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The two men, both U.S. Marines, were killed in a rocket attack one day before the Fall of Saigon.
Charles McMahon, 11 days short of his 22nd birthday, was a corporal from Woburn, Massachusetts. Darwin Judge was a 19 - year - old lance corporal and Eagle Scout from Marshalltown, Iowa.
McMahon and Judge were members of the Marine Security Guard (MSG) Battalion at the US Embassy, Saigon and were providing security for the DAO Compound, adjacent to Tân Sơn Nhứt Airport, Saigon. McMahon had arrived in Saigon on 18 April, while Judge had arrived in early March. Both died in a North Vietnamese rocket attack on Tân Sơn Nhứt on the morning of April 29, 1975.
In accordance with procedures for deceased Americans in Vietnam, their bodies were transferred to the Seventh Day Adventist Hospital, nearby Tan Son Nhut. In telephone calls to the hospital on the afternoon of April 29, the few remaining staff advised that the bodies had been evacuated; in fact the bodies were left behind. Operation Frequent Wind, the American evacuation of Saigon, was completed the following day, April 30, 1975. Senator Edward M. Kennedy of Massachusetts, through diplomatic channels, secured the return of the bodies the following year.
Lance Corporal Darwin L Judge was buried with full military honors in March 1976 in Marshalltown, Iowa. There was a flag draped coffin, a Marine Honor Guard, and a rifle firing salute. The flag that covered his coffin was folded and presented to his parents. His funeral was so ignored that major and minor media did not attend the event. The lone exception was the Daily Iowan (Iowa City, Iowa). A full set of photographs of the event is available. Due to ignorance of his military funeral in March 1976, Judge was given a second Marine burial honors 25 years later through planning by Douglas Potratz, USMC MSG who served with Judge in Saigon and Ken Locke, boyhood friend and fellow Eagle Scout; retired USMC Lieutenant Colonel Jim Kean, the commanding officer of the Marines during the Fall of Saigon, presented a flag to Judge 's parents at a ceremony held at the Iowa Veteran 's Home Vietnam War Memorial. The Fall of Saigon Marines Association, a California non-profit, public - benefit corporation, was formed to honor the last two Marines to be killed in action in Vietnam. The association sponsors two $500 scholarships for Eagle Scouts attending Marshalltown High School in Marshalltown, Iowa (as a memorial to Eagle Scout Judge).
The first U.S. casualty in Vietnam was Flying Tiger John T. Donovan who was killed on May 12, 1942, but American involvement in Vietnam was not considered official at that time and as such his name does not appear on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
For over 40 years the first person who died in Vietnam was in controversy. Richard B. Fitzgibbon, Jr. 's death in June 1956 was deemed to have taken place before the start of the Vietnam War. However, the family of Fitzgibbon had long lobbied to have the start date changed and their cause was taken up by U.S. Representative Ed Markey (D - MA). After a high level review by the DoD and through the efforts of Fitzgibbon 's family, the start date of the Vietnam war was changed to November 1, 1955. The November 1955 date was chosen as the new start date because that was when the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG), Vietnam was separated out from MAAG, Indochina in a reorganization into the different countries that the deployments were stationed. With this new date Fitzgibbon became the first person to die in the Vietnam War, Fitzgibbon 's name was added to the Vietnam Memorial Wall in 1999. The former first two official casualties were U.S. Army major Dale R. Buis and Master Sergeant Chester Charles Ovnand who were killed on July 8, 1959.
While McMahon and Judge were the last American ground casualties in Vietnam, they are not the last casualties of the Vietnam War (a term which also covers the U.S. involvement in Cambodia and Laos) recorded on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial; those names belong to the 18 Americans killed in the Mayaguez Incident.
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when does the next play station come out | PlayStation - wikipedia
PlayStation (Japanese: プレイステーション, Hepburn: Pureisutēshon, abbreviated as PS) is a gaming brand that consists of four home video game consoles, as well as a media center, an online service, a line of controllers, two handhelds and a phone, as well as multiple magazines. It is created and owned by Sony Interactive Entertainment since December 3, 1994, with the launch of the original PlayStation in Japan.
The original console in the series was the first video game console to ship 100 million units, 9 years and 6 months after its initial launch. Its successor, the PlayStation 2, was released in 2000. The PlayStation 2 is the best - selling home console to date, having reached over 155 million units sold as of December 28, 2012. Sony 's next console, the PlayStation 3, was released in 2006 and has sold over 80 million consoles worldwide as of November 2013. Sony 's latest console, the PlayStation 4, was released in 2013, selling 1 million consoles in its first 24 hours on sale, becoming the fastest selling console in history.
The first handheld game console in the PlayStation series, the PlayStation Portable or PSP, sold a total of 80 million units worldwide by November 2013. Its successor, the PlayStation Vita, which launched in Japan on December 17, 2011 and in most other major territories in February 2012, had sold over 4 million units by January 2013. PlayStation TV is a microconsole and a non-portable variant of the PlayStation Vita handheld game console. Other hardware released as part of the PlayStation series includes the PSX, a digital video recorder which was integrated with the PlayStation and PlayStation 2, though it was short lived due to its high price and was never released outside Japan, as well as a Sony Bravia television set which has an integrated PlayStation 2. The main series of controllers utilized by the PlayStation series is the DualShock, which is a line of vibration - feedback gamepad having sold 28 million controllers as of June 28, 2008.
The PlayStation Network is an online service with over 110 million users worldwide (as of July 2013). It comprises an online virtual market, the PlayStation Store, which allows the purchase and download of games and various forms of multimedia, a subscription - based online service known as PlayStation Plus and a social gaming networking service called PlayStation Home, which had over 41 million users worldwide at the time of its closure in March 2015. PlayStation Mobile (formerly PlayStation Suite) is a software framework that provides PlayStation content on mobile devices. Version 1. xx supports both PlayStation Vita, PlayStation TV and certain devices that run the Android operating system, whereas version 2.00 released in 2014 would only target PlayStation Vita and (optionally) PlayStation TV. Content set to be released under the framework consist of only original PlayStation games currently.
7th generation PlayStation products also use the XrossMediaBar, which is an award - winning graphical user interface. A touch screen - based user interface called LiveArea was launched for the PlayStation Vita, which integrates social networking elements into the interface. Additionally, the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 consoles also featured support for Linux - based operating systems; Linux for PlayStation 2 and OtherOS respectively, though this has since been discontinued. The series has also been known for its numerous marketing campaigns, the latest of which being the "Greatness Awaits '' commercials in the United States.
The series also has a strong line - up of first - party titles due to Sony Interactive Entertainment Worldwide Studios, a group of fifteen first - party developers owned by Sony Interactive Entertainment which are dedicated to developing first - party games for the series. In addition, the series features various budget re-releases of titles by Sony with different names for each region; these include the Greatest Hits, Platinum, Essentials, Favorites and The Best ranges of titles.
PlayStation was the brainchild of Ken Kutaragi, a Sony executive who had just finished managing one of the company 's hardware engineering divisions at that time and would later be dubbed as "The Father of the PlayStation ''.
The console 's origins date back to 1988 where it was originally a joint project between Nintendo and Sony to create a CD - ROM for the Super Famicom. Although Nintendo denied the existence of the Sony deal as late as March 1991, Sony revealed a Super Famicom with a built - in CD - ROM drive, that incorporated Green Book technology or CD - i, called "Play Station '' (also known as SNES - CD) at the Consumer Electronics Show in June 1991. However, a day after the announcement at CES, Nintendo announced that it would be breaking its partnership with Sony, opting to go with Philips instead but using the same technology. The deal was broken by Nintendo after they were unable to come to an agreement on how revenue would be split between the two companies. The breaking of the partnership infuriated Sony President Norio Ohga, who responded by appointing Kutaragi with the responsibility of developing the PlayStation project to rival Nintendo.
At that time, negotiations were still on - going between Nintendo and Sony, with Nintendo offering Sony a "non-gaming role '' regarding their new partnership with Philips. This proposal was swiftly rejected by Kutaragi who was facing increasing criticism over his work with regard to entering the video game industry from within Sony. Negotiations officially ended in May 1992 and in order to decide the fate of the PlayStation project, a meeting was held in June 1992, consisting of Sony President Ohga, PlayStation Head Kutaragi and several senior members of Sony 's board. At the meeting, Kutaragi unveiled a proprietary CD - ROM - based system he had been working on which involved playing video games with 3D graphics to the board. Eventually, Sony President Ohga decided to retain the project after being reminded by Kutaragi of the humiliation he suffered from Nintendo. Nevertheless, due to strong opposition from a majority present at the meeting as well as widespread internal opposition to the project by the older generation of Sony executives, Kutaragi and his team had to be shifted from Sony 's headquarters to Sony Music, a completely separate financial entity owned by Sony, so as to retain the project and maintain relationships with Philips for the MMCD development project (which helped lead to the creation of the DVD).
According to SCE 's producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama, there was uncertainty over whether the console should primarily focus on 2D sprite graphics or 3D polygon graphics. It was only after witnessing the success of Sega 's Virtua Fighter in Japanese arcades that "the direction of the PlayStation became instantly clear '' and 3D polygon graphics became the console 's primary focus.
At Sony Music Entertainment, Kutaragi worked closely with Shigeo Maruyama, the CEO of Sony Music, and with Akira Sato to form Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. (SCEI) on November 16, 1993. A building block of SCEI was its initial partnership with Sony Music which helped SCEI attract creative talent to the company as well as assist SCEI in manufacturing, marketing and producing discs, something that Sony Music had been doing with Music Discs. The final two key members of SCEI were Terry Tokunaka, the President of SCEI from Sony 's headquarters, and Olaf Olafsson. Olafsson was CEO and president of New York - based Sony Interactive Entertainment which was the mother company for the 1994 - founded Sony Computer Entertainment of America (SCEA).
The PlayStation project, SCEI 's first official project, was finally given the green light by Sony executives in 1993 after a few years of development. Also in 1993, Phil Harrison, who would later become President of Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios, was recruited into SCEI to attract developers and publishers to produce games for their new PlayStation platform.
Computer Gaming World in March 1994 reported a rumor that the "Sony PS - X '' would be released in Japan "before the end of this year and will retail for less than $400 ''. After a demonstration of Sony 's distribution plan as well as tech demos of its new console to game publishers and developers in a hotel in Tokyo in 1994, numerous developers began to approach PlayStation. Two of whom later became major partners were Electronic Arts in the West and Namco in Japan. One of the factors which attracted developers to the platform was the use of a 3D - capable, CD - ROM - based console which was much cheaper and easier to manufacture for in comparison to Nintendo 's rival console, which used cartridge systems. The project eventually hit Japanese stores in December 1994 and gained massive sales due to its lower price point than its competitor, the Sega Saturn. Popularity of the console spread after its release worldwide in North America and Europe.
The original PlayStation, released in Japan on December 3, 1994, was the first of the ubiquitous PlayStation series of console and hand - held game devices. It has included successor consoles and upgrades including the Net Yaroze (a special black PlayStation with tools and instructions to program PlayStation games and applications), "PS one '' (a smaller version of the original) and the PocketStation (a handheld which enhances PlayStation games and also acts as a memory card). It was part of the fifth generation of video game consoles competing against the Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. By December 2003, the PlayStation and PS one had shipped a combined total of 102.49 million units, eventually becoming the first video game console to sell 120 million units.
Released on July 7, 2000, concurrently with its successor the PlayStation 2, the PS one was a considerably smaller, redesigned version of the original PlayStation video game console. The PS one went on to outsell all other consoles, including its successor, throughout the remainder of the year. It featured two main changes from its predecessor, the first being a cosmetic change to the console and the second being the home menu 's Graphical User Interface; a variation of the GUI previously used only on PAL consoles up to that point.
Released in 2000, 15 months after the Dreamcast and a year before its other competitors, the Xbox and the Nintendo GameCube, the PlayStation 2 is part of the sixth generation of video game consoles, and is backwards - compatible with most original PlayStation games. Like its predecessor, it has received a slimmer redesign. It is the most successful home console in the world, having sold over 155 million units as of December 28, 2012. On November 29, 2005, the PS2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped, accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch. This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor, the PlayStation, which took "9 years and 6 months since launch '' to reach the same figure. PlayStation 2 shipments in Japan ended on December 28, 2012. The Guardian reported on January 4, 2013 that PS2 production had ended worldwide, but studies showed that many people all around the world still own one even if it is no longer in use. PlayStation 2 has been ranked as the best selling console of all time as of 2015.
Released in 2004, four years after the launch of the original PlayStation 2, the PlayStation 2 Slimline was the first major redesign of the PlayStation 2. Compared to its predecessor, the Slimline was smaller, thinner, quieter and also included a built - in Ethernet port (in some markets it also has an integrated modem). In 2007, Sony began shipping a revision of the Slimline which was lighter than the original Slimline together with a lighter AC adapter. In 2008, Sony released yet another revision of the Slimline which had an overhauled internal design incorporating the power supply into the console itself like the original PlayStation 2 resulting in a further reduced total weight of the console.
Released on November 17, 2006 in North America, the PlayStation 3 is a seventh generation game console from Sony. It competes with the Microsoft Xbox 360 and the Nintendo Wii. The PS3 is the first console in the series to introduce the use of motion - sensing technology through its Sixaxis wireless controller. The console also incorporates a Blu - ray Disc player and features high - definition resolution. The PS3 was originally offered with either a 20 GB or 60 GB hard drive, but over the years its capacity increased in increments available up to 500 GB. The PlayStation 3 has sold over 80 million consoles worldwide as of November 2013.
Like its predecessors, the PlayStation 3 was re-released in 2009 as a "slim '' model. The redesigned model is 33 % smaller, 36 % lighter, and consumes 34 % to 45 % less power than previous models. In addition, it features a redesigned cooling system and a smaller Cell processor which was moved to a 45nm manufacturing process. It sold in excess of a million units within its first 3 weeks on sale. The redesign also features support for CEC (more commonly referred to by its manufacturer brandings of BraviaSync, VIERA Link, EasyLink and others) which allows control of the console over HDMI by using the remote control as the controller. The PS3 slim also runs quieter and is cooler than previous models due to its 45 nm Cell. The PS3 Slim no longer has the "main power '' switch (similar to PlayStation 2 slim), like the previous PS3 models, which was located at the back of the console. It was officially released on September 1, 2009 in North America and Europe and on September 3, 2009 in Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
In 2012, Sony revealed a new "Super Slim '' PlayStation 3. The new console, with a completely redesigned case which has a sliding door covering the disc drive (which has been moved to the top of the console), is 4.3 pounds, almost three pounds lighter than the previous "slim '' model. The console comes with either 12GB flash memory or a 250GB, 500GB hard drive. Several bundles which include a Super Slim PS3 and a selection of games are available.
The PlayStation 4 (PS4) is the latest video game console from Sony Computer Entertainment announced at a press conference on February 20, 2013. In the meeting, Sony revealed some hardware specifications of the new console. The eighth - generation system, launched in the fourth quarter of 2013, introduced the x86 architecture to the PlayStation series. According to lead system architect, Mark Cerny, development on the PlayStation 4 began as early as 2008. PlayStation Europe CEO Jim Ryan emphasized in 2011 that Sony wanted to avoid launching the next - generation console behind the competition.
Among the new applications and services, Sony introduced the PlayStation App, allowing PS4 owners to turn smartphones and tablets into a second screen to enhance gameplay. The company also plans to debut PlayStation Now game streaming service, powered by technology from Gaikai. By incorporating a share button on the new controller and making it possible to view in - game content being streamed live from friends, Sony plans to place more focus on social gameplay as well. The PlayStation 4 was first released in North America on November 15, 2013.
PlayStation 4 Slim (officially marketed simply as PlayStation 4 or PS4) was unveiled on September 7, 2016. It is a revision of the original PS4 hardware with a streamlined form factor. The new casing is 40 % smaller, and carries a rounded body with a matte finish on the top of the console rather than a two - tone finish. The two USB ports on the front have a larger gap between them, and the optical audio port was also removed. It ships with a minor update to the DualShock 4 controller, with the light bar visible through the top of the touchpad and dark matte grey coloured exterior instead of a partially shiny black. The PS4 Slim was released on September 15, 2016, with a 500 GB model at the same price point as the original PS4 model. Its model number is CUH - 2000.
PlayStation 4 Pro or PS4 Pro for short (originally announced under the codename Neo) was unveiled on September 7, 2016. Its model number is CUH - 7000. It is an updated version of the PlayStation 4 with improved hardware, including an upgraded GPU with 4.2 teraflops of processing power, and higher CPU clock. It is designed primarily to enable selected games to be playable at 4K resolution, and improved quality for PlayStation VR. All games are backwards and forward compatible between PS4 and PS4 Pro, but games with optimizations will have improved graphics performance on PS4 Pro. Although capable of streaming 4K video from online sources, PS4 Pro does not support Ultra HD Blu - ray. Additionally the PS4 Pro is the only PS4 model which can remote play at 1080p. The other models are limited to 720p.
A PlayStation 5 has been confirmed but no release date has been revealed yet
Resolution: 256x224 - 640x480 Sprite / BG drawing Adjustable frame buffer No line restriction Unlimited CLUTs (Color Look - Up Tables) 4,000 8x8 pixel sprites with individual scaling and rotation Simultaneous backgrounds (Parallax scrolling) 620,000 polygons / sec
Capable of multi-pass rendering;
Connected to VU1 on CPU (a vector only for visual style coding things with 3.2 Gflops) to deliver enhanced shader graphics and other enhanced graphics
DVD Playback
Audio file playback (ATRAC3, AAC, MP3, WAV, WMA) Video file playback (MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4, H. 264 - AVC, DivX)
Image editing and slideshows (JPEG, GIF, PNG, TIFF, BMP) Mouse and keyboard support Folding@Home client with visualizations from the RSX
DVD playback Audio playback from inserted USB flash drive
The PocketStation was a miniature game console created by SCE as a peripheral for the original PlayStation. Released exclusively in Japan on December 23, 1999, it featured a monochrome LCD, a speaker, a real - time clock and infrared communication capability. It could also be used as a standard PlayStation memory card by connecting it to a PlayStation memory card slot. It was extremely popular in Japan and Sony originally had plans to release it in the United States but the plan was ultimately scrapped due to various manufacturing and supply - and - demand problems.
The PlayStation Portable (PSP) was Sony 's first handheld console to compete with Nintendo 's DS console. The original model (PSP - 1000) was released in December 2004 and March 2005, The console is the first to utilize a new proprietary optical storage medium known as Universal Media Disc (UMD), which can store both games and movies. It contains 32 MB of internal flash memory storage, expandable via Memory Stick PRO Duo cards. It has a similar control layout to the PS3 with its PlayStation logo button and its (' Triangle '), (' Circle / O '), (' Cross / X ') and (' Square ') buttons in their white - colored forms.
The PSP - 2000 (also known as the Slim & Lite in PAL territories) was the first major hardware revision of the PlayStation Portable, released in September 2007. The 2000 series was 33 % lighter and 19 % slimmer than the original PlayStation Portable. The capacity of the battery was also reduced by 1⁄3 but the run time remained the same as the previous model due to lower power consumption. Older model batteries will still work and they extend the amount of playing time. The PSP Slim & Lite has a new gloss finish. Its serial port was also modified in order to accommodate a new video - out feature (while rendering older PSP remote controls incompatible). On a PSP - 2000, PSP games will only output to external monitors or TVs in progressive scan mode, so that televisions incapable of supporting progressive scan will not display PSP games; non-game video will output in either progressive or interlaced mode. USB charging was also made possible. Buttons are also reportedly more responsive on the PSP - 2000. In 2008, Sony released a second hardware revision called the PSP - 3000 which included several features that were not present in the PSP - 2000, such as a built - in microphone and upgraded screen, as well as the ability to output PSP games in interlaced mode.
Released in October 2009, the PSP Go is the biggest redesign of the PlayStation Portable to date. Unlike previous PSP models, the PSP Go does not feature a UMD drive but instead has 16 GB of internal flash memory to store games, videos and other media. This can be extended by up to 32GB with the use of a Memory Stick Micro (M2) flash card. Also unlike previous PSP models, the PSP Go 's rechargeable battery is not removable or replaceable by the user. The unit is 43 % lighter and 56 % smaller than the original PSP - 1000, and 16 % lighter and 35 % smaller than the PSP - 3000. It has a 3.8 '' 480 × 272 LCD (compared to the larger 4.3 '' 480 × 272 pixel LCD on previous PSP models). The screen slides up to reveal the main controls. The overall shape and sliding mechanism are similar to that of Sony 's mylo COM - 2 internet device. The PSP Go is being produced and sold concurrently with its predecessor the PSP - 3000 although it will not replace it. All games on the PSP Go must be purchased and downloaded from the PlayStation Store as the handheld is not compatible with the original PSP 's physical media, the Universal Media Disc. The handheld also features connectivity with the PlayStation 3 's controllers the Sixaxis and DualShock 3 via Bluetooth connection.
The PSP - E1000 is a budget - focused PSP model which, unlike previous PSP models, does not feature Wi - Fi or stereo speakers (replaced by a single mono speaker) and has a matte "charcoal black '' finish similar to the slim PlayStation 3. The E1000 was announced at Gamescom 2011 and available across the PAL region for an RRP of € 99.99.
Released in Japan on December 17, 2011 and North America on February 22, 2012, the PlayStation Vita was previously codenamed Next Generation Portable (NGP). It was officially unveiled by Sony on January 27, 2011 at the PlayStation Meeting 2011. The original model of the handheld, the PCH - 1000 series features a 5 - inch OLED touchscreen, two analog sticks, a rear touchpad, Sixaxis motion sensing and a 4 core ARM Cortex - A9 MPCore processor.
The new PCH - 2000 series system is a lighter redesign of the device that was announced at the SCEJA Press Conference in September 2013 prior to the Tokyo Game Show. This model is 20 % thinner and 15 % lighter compared to the original model, has an additional hour of battery life, an LCD instead of OLED, includes a micro USB Type B port, 1GB of internal storage memory. It was released in Japan on October 10, 2013 in six colors: white, black, pink, yellow, blue, and olive green, and in North America on May 6, 2014.
Released solely in Japan in 2003, the Sony PSX was a fully integrated DVR and PlayStation 2 video game console. It was the first Sony product to utilize the XrossMediaBar (XMB) and can be linked with a PlayStation Portable to transfer videos and music via USB. It also features software for video, photo and audio editing. PSX supports online game compatibility using an internal broadband adapter. Games that utilize the PS2 HDD (for example, Final Fantasy XI) are supported as well. It was the first product released by Sony under the PlayStation brand that did not include a controller with the device itself.
Released in 2010, the Sony BRAVIA KDL22PX300 is a 22 - inch 720p television which incorporates a PlayStation 2 console, along with 4 HDMI ports.
A 24 - inch 1080p PlayStation branded 3D television, officially called the PlayStation 3D Display, was released in late 2011. A feature of this 3D television is SimulView. During multiplayer games, each player will only see their respective screen (in full HD) appear on the television through their respective 3D glasses, instead of seeing a split screen (e.g. player 1 will only see player 1 's screen displayed through their 3D glasses).
The Xperia Play is an Android - powered smartphone with a slide - up gamepad resembling the PSP Go developed by Sony Ericsson aimed at gamers, and is the first to be PlayStation Certified. Also can download PlayStation Suite App.
Sony Tablets are PlayStation Certified Android tablets, released in 2011, 2012, and 2013. They offer connectivity with PlayStation 3 controllers, and integrate with the PlayStation network using a proprietary application. The following models were released between 2011 and 2013: S, Sony Tablet S, Sony Tablet P, Xperia Tablet S and Xperia Tablet Z.
PlayStation TV, known in Asia as PlayStation Vita TV, is a microconsole and a non-portable variant of the PlayStation Vita handheld. It was announced on September 9, 2013 at a Sony Computer Entertainment Japan presentation. Instead of featuring a display screen, the console connects to a television via HDMI. Users can play using a DualShock 3 controller, although due to the difference in features between the controller and the handheld, certain games are not compatible with PS TV, such as those that are dependent on the system 's touch - screen, rear touchpad, microphone or camera. The device is said to be compatible with over 100 Vita games, as well as various digital PlayStation Portable, PlayStation and PC Engine titles. The system supports Remote Play compatibility with the PlayStation 4, allowing players to stream games from the PS4 to a separate TV connected to PS TV, and also allows users to stream content from video services such as Hulu and Niconico, as well as access the PlayStation Store. The system was released in Japan on November 14, 2013, in North America on October 14, 2014, and in Europe and Australasia on November 14, 2014.
PlayStation VR is a virtual reality device that is produced by Sony Computer Entertainment. It features a 5.7 inch 1920x1080 resolution OLED display, and operates at 120fps which can eliminate blur and produce a smooth image; the device also has a low latency of less than 18ms. Additionally, it produces two sets of images, one being visible on a TV and one for the headset, and includes 3D audio technology so the player can hear from all angles. The PlayStation VR was released in October 2016.
Each console has a variety of games. Most games released on the original PlayStation are backwards compatible and can be played directly on its successors, the PlayStation 2, PSX and PlayStation 3. Some of these games can also be played on the PlayStation Portable but they must be purchased and downloaded from a list of PS one Classics from the PlayStation Store. Games released on the PlayStation 2 can currently only be played on the original console as well as the PSX and the early models of the PlayStation 3 which are backwards compatible. The PlayStation 3 has two types of games, those released on Blu - ray Discs and downloadable games from the PlayStation Store. The PlayStation Portable consists of numerous games available on both its physical media, the Universal Media Disc and the Digital Download from the PlayStation Store. However, some games are only available on the UMD while others are only available on the PlayStation Store. The PlayStation Vita consists of games available on both its physical media, the PlayStation Vita card and digital download from the PlayStation Store.
Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios is a group of video game developers owned by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is dedicated to developing video games exclusively for the PlayStation series of consoles. The series has produced several best - selling franchises such as the Gran Turismo series of racing video games as well as critically acclaimed titles such as the Uncharted series. Other notable franchises include God of War, Twisted Metal and more recently, LittleBigPlanet (series), InFAMOUS, and MotorStorm.
Greatest Hits (North America), Platinum Range (PAL territories) and The Best (Japan and Asia) are video games for the Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, and PlayStation Portable consoles that have been officially re-released at a lower price by Sony. Each region has its own qualifications to enter the re-release program. Initially, during the PlayStation era, a game had to sell at least 150,000 copies (later 250,000) and be on the market for at least a year to enter the Greatest Hits range. During the PlayStation 2 era, the requirements increased with the minimum number of copies sold increasing to 400,000 and the game had to be on the market for at least 9 months. For the PlayStation Portable, games had to be on the market for at least 9 months with 250,000 copies or more sold. Currently, a PlayStation 3 game must be on the market for 10 months and sell at least 500,000 copies to meet the Greatest Hits criteria. PS one Classics were games that were released originally on the PlayStation and have been re-released on the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable. Classics HD are compilations of PlayStation 2 games that have been remastered for the PlayStation 3 on a single disc with additional features such as upscaled graphics, PlayStation Move support, 3D support and PlayStation Network trophies. PlayStation Mobile (formerly PlayStation Suite) is a cross-platform, cross-device software framework aimed at providing PlayStation content, currently original PlayStation games, across several devices including PlayStation Certified Android devices as well as the PlayStation Vita.
Online gaming on PlayStation consoles first started in July 2001 with the release of PlayStation 2 's unnamed online service in Japan. Later in August 2002 saw its release in North America, followed by the European release in June 2003. This service was shut down on March 31, 2016.
Released in 2006, the PlayStation Network is an online service focusing on online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery. The service is provided and run by Sony Computer Entertainment for use with the PlayStation 3, and was later implemented on the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 video game consoles. The service currently has over 110 million users worldwide (as of July 2013). The Sony Entertainment Network provides other features for users like PlayStation Home, PlayStation Store, and Trophies.
The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Portable game consoles via the PlayStation Network. The store uses both physical currency and PlayStation Network Cards. The PlayStation Store 's gaming content is updated every Tuesday and offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge. Available content includes full games, add - on content, playable demos, themes and game and movie trailers. The service is accessible through an icon on the XMB on the PS3 and PSP. The PS3 store can also be accessed on the PSP via a Remote Play connection to the PS3. The PSP store is also available via the PC application, Media Go. As of September 24, 2009, there have been over 600 million downloads from the PlayStation Store worldwide.
Video content such as films and television shows are also available from the PlayStation Store on the PlayStation 3 and PSP and will be made available on some new Sony BRAVIA televisions, VAIO laptop computers and Sony Blu - ray Disc players from February 2010.
Life with PlayStation was a Folding@home application available for PlayStation 3 which connected to Stanford University 's Folding@home distributed computer network and allowed the user to donate their console 's spare processing cycles to the project. Folding@home is supported by Stanford University and volunteers make a contribution to society by donating computing power to this project. Research made by the project may eventually contribute to the creation of vital cures. The Folding@home client was developed by Sony Computer Entertainment in collaboration with Stanford University. Life with PlayStation also consisted of a 3D virtual view of the Earth and contained current weather and news information of various cities and countries from around the world, as well as a World Heritage channel which offered information about historical sites, and the United Village channel which is a project designed to share information about communities and cultures worldwide. As of PlayStation 3 system software update version 4.30 on October 24, 2012, the Life With PlayStation project has ended.
PlayStation Plus, a subscription - based service on the PlayStation Network, compliments the standard PSN services. It enables an auto - download feature which allows the console to automatically download game patches and system software updates. Subscribers also gain early or exclusive access to some betas, game demos, premium downloadable content (such as full game trials of retail games like Infamous and LittleBigPlanet) and other PlayStation Store items, as well as a free subscription to Qore. Other downloadable items include PlayStation Store discounts and free PlayStation Network games, PS one Classics, PlayStation Minis, themes and avatars.
PlayStation Blog is an online PlayStation focused gaming blog which is part of the PlayStation Network. It was launched on June 11, 2007 and since its launch, has featured in numerous interviews with third - party companies such as Square Enix. It also has posts from high - ranking Sony Computer Entertainment executives such as Jack Tretton, former President and Chief Executive Officer of Sony Computer Entertainment, and Shawn Layden, current President, SIEA, and Chairman, SIE Worldwide Studios. A sub-site of the blog called PlayStation Blog Share was launched on March 17, 2010 and allowed readers of the blog as well as users of the PlayStation Blog to submit ideas to the PlayStation team about anything PlayStation - related and vote on the ideas of other submissions.
The PlayStation App is an application that was released on January 11, 2011 in several European countries for iOS (version 4 and above) and for Android (version 1.6 and above), and has been installed more than 3.6 million times as of March 2, 2014. It allows users to view their trophies, see which of their PSN friends are online and read up to date information about PlayStation. It does not feature any gaming functionality.
The PlayStation Mobile (formerly PlayStation Suite) is a software framework that will be used to provide downloadable PlayStation content to devices running Android 2.3 and above as well as the PlayStation Vita. The framework will be cross-platform and cross-device, which is what Sony calls "hardware - neutral ''. It was set to release before the end of calendar year 2011. In addition, Android devices that have been certified to be able to play back PlayStation Suite content smoothly will be certified with the PlayStation Certified certification.
PlayStation Now (PS Now) is a Gaikai - based video game streaming service used to provide PlayStation gaming content to PlayStation 3 (PS3), PlayStation 4 (PS4), PlayStation Vita, PlayStation TV and BRAVIA televisions. The service currently allows users to pay for access to a selection of original PlayStation 3 titles on either a per - game basis or via a subscription. PlayStation Now was announced on January 7, 2014 at the 2014 Consumer Electronic Show. At CES, Sony presented demos of The Last of Us, God of War: Ascension, Puppeteer and Beyond: Two Souls, playable through PS Now on Bravia TVs and PlayStation Vitas. PlayStation Now was launched in Open Beta in the United States and Canada on PS4 on July 31, 2014, on PS3 on September 18, 2014, on PS Vita and PS TV on October 14, 2014, with support for select 2014 Bravia TVs coming later in the year.
PlayStation Home is a community - based social gaming networking service for the PlayStation 3 on the PlayStation Network (PSN). It is available directly from the PlayStation 3 XrossMediaBar. Membership is free, and only requires a PSN account. Home has been in development since early 2005 and started an open public beta test on December 11, 2008. Home allows users to create a custom avatar, which can be made to suit the user 's preference. Users can decorate their avatar 's personal apartment ("HomeSpace '') with default, bought, or won items. They can travel throughout the Home world (except cross region), which is constantly updated by Sony and partners. Each part of the world is known as a space. Public spaces can just be for display, fun, or for meeting people. Home features many mini-games which can be single player or multiplayer. Users can shop for new items to express themselves more through their avatars or HomeSpace. Home features video screens in many places for advertising, but the main video content is shown at the theatre for entertainment. Home plays host to a variety of special events which range from prize - giving events to entertaining events. Users can also use Home to connect with friends and customize content. Xi, a once notable feature of Home, is the world 's first console based Alternate Reality Game that took place in secret areas in Home and was created by nDreams.
"Room '' (officially spelled as R ∞ M with capital letters and the infinity symbol in place of the "oo '') was being beta tested in Japan from October 2009 to April 2010. Development of Room has been halted on April 15, 2010 due to negative feedback from the community. Announced at TGS 2009, it was supposed to be a similar service to the PlayStation Home and was being developed for the PSP. Launching directly from the PlayStation Network section of the XMB was also to be enabled. Just like in Home, PSP owners would have been able to invite other PSP owners into their rooms to "enjoy real time communication. '' A closed beta test had begun in Q4 2009 in Japan.
The XrossMediaBar, originally used on the PSX, is a graphical user interface currently used for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable, as well as a variety of other Sony devices. The interface features icons that are spread horizontally across the screen. Navigation moves the icons instead of a cursor. These icons are used as categories to organize the options available to the user. When an icon is selected on the horizontal bar, several more appear vertically, above and below it (selectable by the up and down directions on a directional pad). The XMB can also be accessed in - game albeit with restrictions, it allows players to access certain areas of the XMB menu from within the game and is only available for the PlayStation 3. Although the capacity to play users ' own music in - game was added with this update, the feature is dependent on game developers who must either enable the feature in their games or update existing games.
LiveArea, designed to be used on the PlayStation Vita, is a graphical user interface set to incorporate various social networking features via the PlayStation Network. It has been designed specifically as a touchscreen user interface for users.
In 2002, Sony released the first useful and fully functioning operating system for a video game console, after the Net Yaroze experiment for the original PlayStation. The kit, which included an internal hard disk drive and the necessary software tools, turned the PlayStation 2 into a full - fledged computer system running Linux. Users can utilize a network adapter to connect the PlayStation 2 to the internet, a monitor cable adaptor to connect the PlayStation 2 to computer monitors as well as a USB Keyboard and Mouse which can be used to control Linux on the PlayStation 2.
The PlayStation 3 (excluding PlayStation 3 Slim) also supports running Linux OS on firmware versions prior to 3.21 without the need for buying additional hardware purchase. Yellow Dog Linux provides an official distribution that can be downloaded, and other distributions such as Fedora, Gentoo and Ubuntu have been successfully installed and operated on the console. The use of Linux on the PlayStation 3 allowed users to access 6 of the 7 Synergistic Processing Elements; Sony implemented a hypervisor restricting access to the RSX. The feature to install a second operating system on a PlayStation 3 was removed in a firmware update released in 2010.
Released in 1994, the PlayStation control pad was the first controller made for the original PlayStation. It featured a basic design of a D - pad, 4 main select buttons ((' Green Triangle '), (' Red Circle / Red O ')), (' Blue Cross / Blue X ') and (' Pink Square '), and start and select buttons on the face. ' Shoulder buttons ' are also featured on the top (L1, L2, R1, R2) (named by the side (L = Left, R = Right) and 1 and 2 (top and bottom)). In 1996, Sony released the PlayStation Analog Joystick for use with flight simulation games. The original digital controller was then replaced by the Dual Analog in 1997, which added two analog sticks based on the same potentiometer technology as the Analog Joystick. This controller was then also succeeded by the DualShock controller.
Released in 1998, the DualShock controller for the PlayStation succeeded its predecessor, the Dual Analog, and would go on to become the longest running series of controllers for the PlayStation brand. In addition to the inputs of the original, digital, controller (,,,, L1, L2, R1, R2, Start, Select and a D - pad), the DualShock featured two analog sticks in a similar fashion to the previous Dual Analog controller, which can also be depressed to activate the L3 and R3 buttons.
The DualShock series consists of four controllers: the DualShock which was the fourth controller released for the PlayStation; the DualShock 2, the only standard controller released for the PlayStation 2, and the DualShock 3, the second and current controller released for the PlayStation 3, and the DualShock 4, which went through a massive redesign and is the default input of the PlayStation 4, and upon release was compatible with the PS3 originally only via USB and eventually with a firmware update, Bluetooth connectivity was enabled. The Sixaxis was the first official controller for the PlayStation 3, and is based on the same design as the DualShock series (but lacking the vibration motors of the DualShock series of controllers).
Like the Dual Analog, the DualShock and DualShock 2 feature an "Analog '' button between the analog sticks that toggles the analog sticks on and off (for use with games which support only the digital input of the original controller). On the PlayStation 3 Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers, the analog sticks are always enabled. Beginning with the Sixaxis, a ' PlayStation button ' (which featured the incorporated PS logo and is similar in function to the Xbox 360 "Guide '' button) was included on controllers. The PlayStation button replaces the "Analog '' button of the DualShock and DualShock 2 controllers. Pressing the PS button on the PS3 brings up the XMB, while holding it down brings up system options (such as quit the game, change controller settings, turn off the system, and turn off the controller).
PlayStation Move is a motion - sensing game controller platform for the PlayStation 3 video game console by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE). Based on the handheld motion controller wand, PlayStation Move uses the PlayStation Eye webcam to track the wand 's position and the inertial sensors in the wand to detect its motion. First revealed on June 2, 2009, PlayStation Move was launched in Q3 / Q4 2010. Hardware available at launch included the main PlayStation Move motion controller and an optional PlayStation Move sub-controller. Although PlayStation Move is implemented on the existing PlayStation 3 console, Sony states that it is treating Move 's debut as its own major "platform launch '', planning an aggressive marketing campaign to support it. In addition to selling the controllers individually, Sony also plans to provide several different bundle options for PlayStation Move hardware; including a starter kit with a PS Eye, a Move motion controller, and a demo / sampler disc, priced under US $ 100; a full console pack with a PS3 console, DualShock 3 gamepad, PS Eye, and Move motion controller; and bundles of a Move motion controller with select games.
The PlayStation brand has a wide series of magazines, from across different continents, covering PlayStation related articles and stories. Many of these magazines work closely with Sony and thus often come with demo discs for PlayStation games. Currently there are three magazines still in circulation namely PlayStation: The Official Magazine, PlayStation Official Magazine, Official PlayStation Magazine (Australia). However, over the years, many PlayStation magazines have spawned while a few have also become defunct, these include the Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine, Official UK PlayStation Magazine, Official UK PlayStation 2 Magazine.
PlayStation Underground was a non-traditional magazine that Sony Computer Entertainment America produced and published between Spring 1997 to Spring 2001. Subscribers received two PlayStation CDs, along with a booklet and colorful packaging every quarter. The CDs contained interviews, cheats, programmers moves, game demos and one - of - a-kind Memory Card saves. Several issues showed how a game was created from basic design to final product. Since the CDs could only be run on a PlayStation, it proved a useful marketing tool which spawned a line of PlayStation Underground JamPacks Demo CDs and which contained highlights from recent issues of PlayStation Underground, along with seemingly as many game demos that could be packed on a single CD. Unlike PlayStation Underground these were available in most stores for $4.95, were published twice a year in Summer and Winter and usually spotlighted newly released or coming soon games. By 2001, Sony had decided to phase out Underground to focus on the JamPacks with the release of the PlayStation 2. PlayStation Underground CDs are mainly in the hands of collectors these days.
The PlayStation has been known for several advertising campaigns.
Advertising slogans used for each PlayStation console iteration:
The most notable of recent PlayStation commercials is the series of "It Only Does Everything '' commercials featuring a fictional character called Kevin Butler who is a Vice President at PlayStation. These commercials usually advertise the PlayStation 3 and its games through a series of comedic answers to "Dear PlayStation '' queries. These commercials garnered popularity among gamers, though its debut commercial received criticism from the Nigerian government due to a reference to the common 419 scams originating in Nigeria. Sony issued an apology and a new version of the advert with the offending line changed was produced.
A spin - off of the campaign has been created for the PlayStation Portable which features similar campaign commercials called the "Step Your Game Up '' campaign featuring a fictional teenage character named Marcus Rivers acting in a similar fashion to Kevin Butler but answering the "Dear PlayStation '' queries about the PSP.
In July 2006, an advertising campaign in the Netherlands was released in which a white model dressed entirely in white and a black model dressed entirely in black was used to compare Sony 's new Ceramic White PSP and the original Piano Black PSP. This series of ads depicted both models fighting with each other and drew criticism from the media for being racist, though Sony maintains that the ad did not feature any racist message.
In November 2006, a marketing company employed by Sony 's American division created a website entitled "All I want for Xmas is a PSP '', designed to promote the PSP virally. The site contained a blog which was purportedly written by "Charlie '', a teenage boy attempting to get his friend Jeremy 's parents to buy him a PSP, and providing a "music video '' of either Charlie or Jeremy "rapping '' about the PSP. Visitors to the website quickly recognized that the website was registered to a marketing company, exposing the campaign on sites such as YouTube and digg. Sony was forced to admit that the site was in fact a marketing campaign and in an interview with next-gen.biz, Sony admitted that the idea was "poorly executed ''.
In 2005, Australian newspaper The Age wrote an article about the PlayStation brand. Among the numerous interviews conducted with various people in the industry was an interview with Dr Jeffrey Brand, associate professor in communication and media at Bond University who said, "PlayStation re-ignited our imagination with video games ''. Game designers Yoshiki Okamoto called the brand "revolutionary -- PlayStation has changed gaming, distribution, sales, image and more '', while Evan Wells of Naughty Dog said "PlayStation is responsible for making playing games cool. ''
In 2009, ViTrue, Inc. listed the PlayStation brand as number 13 on their "The Vitrue 100: Top Social Brands of 2009 ''. The ranking was based on various aspects mainly dealing with popular social media sites in aspects such as Social Networking, Video Sharing, Photo Sharing and Blogs.
In 2010, Gizmodo stated that the PlayStation brand was one of the last Sony products to completely stand apart from its competitors, stating that "If you ask the average person on the street what their favorite Sony product is, more often than not you 'll hear PlayStation ''. As of April 2012, the PlayStation brand is the "most followed '' brand on social networking site, Facebook, with over 22 million fans and followers in total which is more than any other brand in the entertainment industry. A study by Greenlight 's Entertainment Retail has also shown that the PlayStation brand is the most interactive making 634 posts and tweets on social networking sites Facebook and Twitter.
In July 2014, Sony boasted in a company release video that the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita sold a combined total of 100 million units. It was announced at Tokyo Game Show on September 1, 2014, that PlayStation home game consoles claim 78 % market share of all home consoles in Japan.
As of 2015, PlayStation is the strongest selling console brand worldwide.
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who was the first lulu on general hospital | Julie Berman - wikipedia
Julie Marie Berman (born November 3, 1983) is an American actress. She is also known for her role as Lulu Spencer on the ABC Daytime soap opera General Hospital, for which she received three Daytime Emmy Awards, and for her role on the Hulu comedy series, Casual as Leia, Valerie 's receptionist.
Berman was born in Los Angeles, California to Peter and Renée Berman. She started acting at the age of six.
Berman made her television debut with the recurring role in the WB family drama series, 7th Heaven as the misunderstood Shelby Connor, a friend of Lucy Camden. Berman continued her role on 7th Heaven, while simultaneously adding a recurring role in the ABC drama Once and Again. She also guest - starred on ER and Boston Public, and starred alongside Shelley Long in the 1999 television movie Vanished Without a Trace.
Berman is best known for her role as Lulu Spencer, the stubborn, troubled daughter of Luke & Laura, in the ABC daytime soap opera General Hospital. She joined the soap in, making her first appearance on October 28, 2005. The casting immediately garnered much attention due to Berman 's strong resemblance to Genie Francis who played Laura; Lulu and Laura 's strong resemblance was often mentioned within the series. In July 2012, Berman informed producers that she had no plans of renewing her contract when it expired in November. Despite no official word from ABC or Berman, rumors began to circulate that Berman was about to vacate the role. After months of speculation, on February 26, 2013, an issue of Soaps In Depth confirmed that Berman was indeed leaving the series and had just filmed her final scenes.
Berman earned her first Daytime Emmy nomination in 2007, and won her first Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Younger Actress in 2009. She won her second consecutive Emmy in 2010 in the same category. Berman departed her role as Lulu in 2013, and was replaced by The Young and the Restless actress Emme Rylan In 2013, Berman won her third Emmy, but in the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress category.
After leaving daytime television, Berman guest - starred on prime time comedy series include Two and a Half Men and Jane the Virgin. In 2015, she began the recurring role opposite Michaela Watkins and Frances Conroy in the Hulu comedy series, Casual. She was promoted to series regular for second season. Later that year, Berman joined the cast of NBC medical drama Chicago Med, playing the recurring role of Dr. Samantha "Sam '' Zanetti.
Berman graduated with a bachelor 's degree in Television and Cinema from the University of Southern California in May 2006. While at the university she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma Sorority.
Berman married Mike Grady on August 15, 2008.
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when did hurricane maria hit us virgin islands | Hurricane Maria - wikipedia
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Hurricane Maria is regarded as being the worst natural disaster on record to affect Dominica and Puerto Rico and the deadliest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Jeanne in 2004. The tenth-most intense Atlantic hurricane on record and the most intense tropical cyclone worldwide of 2017, Maria was the thirteenth named storm, eighth consecutive hurricane, fourth major hurricane, second Category 5 hurricane, and the deadliest storm of the hyperactive 2017 Atlantic hurricane season. At its peak, the hurricane caused catastrophic damage and numerous fatalities across the northeastern Caribbean, compounding recovery efforts in the areas of the Leeward Islands already struck by Hurricane Irma. Maria was the third consecutive major hurricane to threaten the Leeward Islands in two weeks, after Irma had made landfall in several of the islands two weeks prior and Hurricane Jose passed dangerously close shortly afterward, bringing tropical storm force winds to Barbuda.
Originating from a tropical wave, Maria became a tropical storm on September 16, east of the Lesser Antilles. Highly favorable environmental conditions allowed the storm to undergo explosive intensification as it approached the island arc. The hurricane reached Category 5 strength on September 18 just before making landfall on Dominica, becoming the first Category 5 hurricane on record to strike the island. After weakening slightly due to crossing Dominica, Maria achieved its peak intensity over the eastern Caribbean with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km / h) and a pressure of 908 mbar (hPa; 26.81 inHg), making it the tenth-most intense Atlantic hurricane on record. On September 20, an eyewall replacement cycle took place, weakening Maria to a high - end Category 4 hurricane by the time it struck Puerto Rico. Interaction with land further weakened the hurricane, though it regained some strength as it moved northeast of The Bahamas. Moving slowly to the north, Maria gradually degraded and weakened to a tropical storm on September 28. Embedded in the westerlies, Maria accelerated toward the east and later east - northeast over the open Atlantic, becoming extratropical on September 30 and dissipating by October 3.
Maria wrought catastrophic damage to the entirety of Dominica, which suffered an island - wide communication blackout. Much of the housing stock and infrastructure were left beyond repair, while the island 's lush vegetation was practically eradicated. The islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique endured widespread flooding, damaged roofs, and uprooted trees. Puerto Rico suffered catastrophic damage and a major humanitarian crisis; most of the island 's population suffered from flooding and lack of resources, compounded by the slow relief process. The storm caused the worst electrical blackout in U.S. history and in June 2018, thousands of homes and businesses were still without power. Total losses from the hurricane are estimated at upwards of $91.61 billion (2017 USD), mostly in Puerto Rico, ranking it as the third - costliest tropical cyclone on record.
As of August 28, 2018, 3,057 people were estimated to have been killed by the hurricane: 2,975 in Puerto Rico, 65 in Dominica, 5 in the Dominican Republic, 4 in the contiguous United States, 3 in Haiti, 2 in Guadeloupe, and 3 in the United States Virgin Islands. Maria is the deadliest hurricane in Dominica since the 1834 Padre Ruíz hurricane, and the deadliest in Puerto Rico since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane.
Maria originated from a tropical wave that left the western coast of Africa on September 12. Gradual organization occurred as it progressed eastwards across the tropical Atlantic under the influence of a mid-level ridge that was located to the system 's north, and by 12: 00 UTC on September 16, it had developed into a tropical depression as deep convection consolidated and developed into curved bands wrapping into an increasingly - defined center of circulation. At that time, it was located about 665 mi (1,070 km) east of Barbados. Favourable conditions along the system 's path consisting of sea surface temperatures of 84 ° F (29 ° C), low wind shear and abundant moisture allowed the disturbance to become Tropical Storm Maria 6 hours later, after satellite images detected that the circulation of the wave had become well - defined.
Maria gradually strengthened, and by late on September 17, although the center had temporarily become exposed, a convective burst over the center enabled it to became a hurricane. Shortly afterward, explosive intensification occurred, with Maria nearly doubling its winds from 85 mph (140 km / h) -- a Category 1 hurricane, to 165 mph (270 km / h) -- a Category 5 hurricane, in just 24 hours, by which time it was located just 15 mi (25 km) east - southeast of Dominica late on September 18; the rate of intensification that occurred has been exceeded only a few times in the Atlantic since records began. Maria made landfall in Dominica at 01: 15 UTC on September 19, becoming the first Category 5 hurricane on record to strike the island nation.
Entering the Caribbean Sea, Maria weakened slightly to a Category 4 hurricane due to land interaction with the island of Dominica, however it quickly restrengthened to a Category 5 hurricane and attained its peak intensity with winds of 175 mph (280 km / h) and a pressure of 908 mbar (hPa; 26.81 inHg) at 03: 00 UTC on September 20 while southeast of Puerto Rico; this ranks it as the tenth-most intense Atlantic hurricane since reliable records began. An eyewall replacement cycle caused Maria weaken to Category 4 strength before it made landfall near Yabucoa, Puerto Rico at 10: 15 UTC (6: 15am local time) that day with winds of 155 mph (250 km / h) -- the most intense to strike on the island since the 1928 San Felipe Segundo hurricane. Maria weakened significantly while traversing Puerto Rico, but was able to restrengthen to a major hurricane once it emerged over the Atlantic later that afternoon, eventually attaining a secondary peak intensity with winds of 125 mph (205 km / h) on September 22 while north of Hispaniola.
Maria then began fluctuating in intensity for the next few days as the eye periodically appeared and disappeared, while slowly nearing the East Coast of the United States, although southwesterly wind shear gradually weakened the hurricane. By September 25, it passed over cooler sea surface temperatures that had been left behind by Hurricane Jose a week prior, causing its inner core to collapse and the structure of the storm to change significantly. On September 28, a trough that was beginning to emerge off the Northeastern United States swung Maria eastward out to sea, while also weakening to a tropical storm. Periodic bursts of convection near the center managed to maintain Maria 's intensity as it accelerated east - northeast across the northern Atlantic Ocean, but interaction with an encroaching frontal zone ultimately resulted in the storm becoming an extratropical cyclone on September 30, which continued east - northeastward, before dissipating on October 2.
Upon the initiation of the National Hurricane Center (NHC) 's first advisories for the system that would become Tropical Storm Maria on the morning of September 16, the government of France issued tropical storm watches for the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, while St. Lucia issued a tropical storm watch for its citizens, and the government of Barbados issued a similar watch for Dominica. Barbados would later that day declare a tropical storm watch for its citizens and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The government of Antigua and Barbuda issued Hurricane watches for the islands of Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis, and Montserrat by the time of the NHC 's second advisory which declared Maria a tropical storm. The Dominican Republic activated the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters for humanitarian satellite coverage on the 20th.
Still recovering from Hurricane Irma two weeks prior, approximately 80,000 remained without power as Maria approached. According to the National Hurricane Center of Miami, FL (as the hurricane Center in Puerto Rico collapsed). The axis of the eye entered by Maunabo (before 7: 00am), but immediately entered Yabucoa, then San Lorenzo, Caguas (8: 00am), Cidra (for the first time), Aguas Buenas (for the first time), Cidra (for the second time), Aguas Buenas (for the second time), Comerío, Naranjito, Corozal (9: 00am), south of Vega Alta, Southern Vega Baja (in both cases, almost enters to Morovis), the south of Manati (almost Ciales; 10: 00am), the south of Barceloneta (almost Florida), from southeast to northwest of Arecibo (almost Utuado; 12: 00pm), Hatillo and Camuy, leaving Puerto Rican land (2: 00pm), not without continuing to do damage while the eye is in the sea (after 2: 00pm to 2: 00am, which is 12 hours destroying, being the eye in the sea). Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) struggled with increasing debt and budget cuts imposed by PROMESA, reaching $9 billion in debt even before the hurricanes, prompting them to file for bankruptcy. Furthermore, the company lost 30 percent of its employees since 2012. Aging infrastructure across the island makes the grid more susceptible to damage from storms; the median age of PREPA power plants is 44 years. Inadequate safety also plagues the company and local newspapers frequently describe poor maintenance and outdated controls.
The island 's water system was also troubled before the hurricanes. Seventy percent of the island had water that did not meet the standards of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.
Evacuation orders were issued in Puerto Rico in advance of Maria, and officials announced that 450 shelters would open in the afternoon of September 18. As of September 19, at least 2,000 people in Puerto Rico had sought shelter.
Researchers, using anonymous aggregate cell phone tracking data, provided by Google from those that opted to share location data, reported that travel from Puerto Rico increased 20 % the day before the hurricane made landfall. They often chose to go to Orlando, Miami, New York City, and Atlanta. Internally, there was an influx of people into San Juan.
As Maria approached the coast of North Carolina and threatened to bring tropical storm conditions, a storm surge warning was issued for the coast between Ocracoke Inlet and Cape Hatteras, while a storm surge watch was issued for the Pamlico Sound, the lower Neuse River, and the Alligator River on the morning of September 26. A state of emergency was declared by officials in Dare and Hyde counties, while visitors were ordered to evacuate Hatteras and Ocracoke islands. Ferry service between Ocracoke and Cedar Island was suspended the evening of September 25, and remained suspended on September 26 and 27, due to rough seas, while ferry service between Ocracoke and Hatteras Island was suspended on September 26 and 27. The port in Morehead City was closed by the United States Coast Guard on the morning of September 26. Schools in Dare County closed on September 26 and 27, while schools in Carteret and Tyrrell counties, along with Ocracoke Island, dismissed early on September 26, in anticipation of high winds. Schools in Currituck County were closed on September 27, due to high winds.
The outer rainbands of Maria produced heavy rainfall and strong gusts across the southern Windward Islands. The Hewanorra and George F.L. Charles airports of Saint Lucia respectively recorded 4.33 in (110 mm) and 3.1 in (80 mm) of rain, though even higher quantities fell elsewhere on the island. Scattered rock slides, landslides and uprooted trees caused minor damage and blocked some roads. Several districts experienced localized blackouts due to downed or damaged power lines. The agricultural sector, especially the banana industry, suffered losses from the winds.
Heavy rainfall amounting to 3 -- 5 in (75 -- 125 mm) caused scattered flooding across Barbados; in Christ Church, the flood waters trapped residents from the neighborhood of Goodland in their homes and inundated the business streets of Saint Lawrence Gap. Maria stirred up rough seas that flooded coastal sidewalks in Bridgetown and damaged boats as operators had difficulties securing their vessels. High winds triggered an island - wide power outage and downed a coconut tree onto a residence in Saint Joseph.
Passing 30 mi (50 km) off the northern shorelines, Maria brought torrential rainfall and strong gusts to Martinique but spared the island of its hurricane - force windfield, which at the time extended 25 mi (35 km) around the eye. The commune of Le Marigot recorded 6.7 inches (170 mm) of rain over a 24 - hour period. By September 19, Maria had knocked out power to 70,000 households, about 40 % of the population. Water service was cut to 50,000 customers, especially in the communes of Le Morne - Rouge and Gros - Morne. Numerous roads and streets, especially along the northern coast, were impassible due to rock slides, fallen trees and toppled power poles. Streets in Fort - de-France were inundated. In the seaside commune of Le Carbet, rough seas washed ashore large rocks and demolished some coastal structures, while some boats were blown over along the bay of the commune of Schœlcher. Martinique 's agricultural sector suffered considerable losses: about 70 % of banana crops sustained wind damage, with nearly every tree downed along the northern coast. There were no deaths on the island, although four people were injured in the hurricane -- two seriously and two lightly.
Rainfall ahead of the hurricane caused several landslides in Dominica as water levels across the island began to rise by the afternoon of September 18. Maria made landfall at 21: 15 AST that day (1: 15 UTC, September 19) as a Category 5 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 165 mph (270 km / h). These winds, the most extreme to ever impact the island, damaged the roof of practically every home -- including the official residence of Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit, who required rescue when his home began to flood. Downing all cellular, radio and internet services, Maria effectively cut Dominica off from the outside world; the situation there remained unclear for a couple of days after the hurricane 's passage. Skerrit called the devastation "mind boggling '' before going offline, and indicated immediate priority was to rescue survivors rather than assess damage. Initial ham radio reports from the capital of Roseau on September 19 indicated "total devastation, '' with half the city flooded, cars stranded, and stretches of residential area "flattened ''.
The next morning, the first aerial footage of Dominica elucidated the scope of the destruction. Maria left the mountainous country blanketed in a field of debris: Rows of houses along the entirety of the coastline were rendered uninhabitable, as widespread floods and landslides littered neighborhoods with the structural remnants. The hurricane also inflicted extensive damage to roads and public buildings, such as schools, stores and churches, and affected all of Dominica 's 73,000 residents in some form or way. The air control towers and terminal buildings of the Canefield and Douglas Charles airports were severely damaged, although the runways remained relatively intact and open to emergency landings. The disaster affected all of the island 's 53 health facilities, including the badly damaged primary hospital, compromising the safety of many patients.
The infrastructure of Roseau was left in ruins; practically every power pole and line was downed, and the main road was reduced to fragments of flooded asphalt. The winds stripped the public library of its roof panels and demolished all but one wall of the Baptist church. To the south of Roseau, riverside flooding and numerous landslides impacted the town of Pointe Michel, destroying about 80 % of its structures and causing most of the deaths in the country. Outside the capital area, the worst of the destruction was concentrated around the east coast and rural areas, where collapsed roads and bridges isolated many villages. The port and fishing town of Marigot, Saint Andrew Parish, was 80 % damaged. Settlements in Saint David Parish, such as Castle Bruce, Good Hope and Grand Fond, had been practically eradicated; many homes hung off cliffs or decoupled from their foundations. In Rosalie, rushing waters gushed over the village 's bridge and damaged facilities in its bay area. Throughout Saint Patrick Parish, the extreme winds ripped through roofs and scorched the vegetation. Buildings in Grand Bay, the parish 's main settlement, experienced total roof failure or were otherwise structurally compromised. Many houses in La Plaine caved in or slid into rivers, and its single bridge was broken.
Overall, the hurricane damaged the roofs of as much as 98 % of the island 's buildings, including those serving as shelters; half of the houses had their frames destroyed. Its ferocious winds defoliated nearly all vegetation, splintering or uprooting thousands of trees and decimating the island 's lush rainforests. The agricultural sector, a vital source of income for the country, was completely wiped out: 100 % of banana and tuber plantations was lost, as well as vast amounts of livestock and farm equipment. In Maria 's wake, Dominica 's population suffered from an island - wide water shortage due to uprooted pipes. The Assessment Capacities Project estimates that the hurricane has caused $1.37 billion in losses across the island, which is equal to 226 percent of its 2016 GDP. As of April 12, there are 65 fatalities confirmed across the island, including 34 who are missing and presumed to be dead.
Blustery conditions spread over Guadeloupe as Maria tracked to the south of the archipelago, which endured hours of unabating hurricane - force winds. The strongest winds blew along the southern coastlines of Basse - Terre Island: Gourbeyre observed a peak wind speed of 101 mph (162 km / h), while winds up north in nearby Baillif reached 92 mph (148 km / h). Along those regions, the hurricane kicked up extremely rough seas with 20 ft (6 m) waves. The combination of rough seas and winds was responsible for widespread structural damage and flooding throughout the archipelago, especially from Pointe - à - Pitre, along Grand - Terre Island 's southwestern coast, to Petit - Bourg and the southern coasts on Basse - Terre Island. Aside from wind - related effects, rainfall from Maria was also significant. In just a day, the hurricane dropped nearly a month 's worth of rainfall at some important locations: Pointe - à - Pitre recorded a 24 - hour total of 7.5 inches (191 mm), while the capital of Basse - Terre measured 6.4 in (163 mm). Even greater quantities fell at higher elevations of Basse Terre Island, with a maximum total of 18.07 in (459 mm) measured at the mountainous locality of Matouba, Saint - Claude.
Throughout the archipelago, the hurricane left 40 % of the population (80,000 households) without power and 25 % of landline users without service. The islands of Marie - Galante, La Désirade and especially Les Saintes bore the brunt of the winds, which caused heavy damage to structures and nature alike and cut the islands off from their surroundings for several days. Homes on Terre - de-Haut Island of Les Saintes were flooded or lost their roofs. On the mainland, sections of Pointe - à - Pitre stood under more than 3.3 feet (1 m) of water, and the city 's hospital sustained significant damage. The Basse - Terre region suffered severe damage to nearly 100 % of its banana crops, comrpising a total area of more than 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares); farmers described the destruction to their plantations as "complete annihilation ''. Beyond their impact on farmland, the strong winds ravaged much of the island 's vegetation: fallen trees and branches covered practically every major road and were responsible for one death. Another person was killed upon being swept out to sea. Two people disappeared at sea after their vessel capsized offshore La Désirade, east of mainland Grande - Terre. Damage from Maria across Guadeloupe amounted to at least € 100 million (US $120 million).
Two weeks after Hurricane Irma hit St. Thomas and St. John while a Category 5 hurricane, Hurricane Maria 's weaker outer eyewall was reported by the National Hurricane Center to have crossed Saint Croix while the hurricane was at Category 5 intensity. Sustained winds at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge on St. Croix reached 99 to 104 mph (159 to 167 km / h) and gusted to 137 mph (220 km / h). Weather stations on St. Croix recorded 5 and 10 inches of rain from the hurricane, and estimates for St. John and St. Thomas were somewhat less.
The hurricane killed two people, both in their homes: one person drowned and another was trapped by a mudslide. A third person had a fatal heart attack during the hurricane. The hurricane caused extensive and severe damage to St. Croix. After both hurricanes, the office of V.I. congresswoman Stacey Plaskett stated that 90 % of buildings in the Virgin Islands were damaged or destroyed and 13,000 of those buildings had lost their roofs. The Luis Hospital suffered roof damage and flooding, but remained operational.
The storm made landfall on Puerto Rico on Wednesday, September 20, near the Yabucoa municipality at 10: 15 UTC (6: 15am local time) as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 155 mph (250 km / h). A sustained wind of 64 mph (103 km / h) with a gust to 113 mph (182 km / h) was reported in San Juan, immediately prior to the hurricane making landfall on the island. After landfall, wind gusts of 109 mph (175 km / h) were reported at Yabucoa Harbor and 118 mph (190 km / h) at Camp Santiago. In addition, very heavy rainfall occurred throughout the territory, peaking at 37.9 in (962.7 mm) in Caguas. The eyewall replacement cycle that caused María to weaken to Category 4 strength also caused the eye to triple in size as it changed from 9 nmi (10 mi) to 28 nmi (32 mi) prior to landfall. This change in size caused the area exposed to high intensity winds in the island to be far greater. Widespread flooding affected San Juan, waist - deep in some areas, and numerous structures lost their roof. The coastal La Perla neighborhood of San Juan was largely destroyed. Cataño saw extensive damage, with the Juana Matos neighborhood estimated to be 80 percent destroyed. The primary airport in San Juan, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport, was slated to reopen on September 22.
Storm surge and flash flooding -- stemming from flood gate releases at La Plata Lake Dam -- converged on the town of Toa Baja, trapping thousands of residents. Survivors indicate that flood waters rose at least 6 ft (1.8 m) in 30 minutes, with flood waters reaching a depth of 15 ft (4.6 m) in some areas. More than 2,000 people were rescued once military relief reached the town 24 hours after the storm. At least eight people died from the flooding, while many were unaccounted for.
On September 24, Puerto Rico 's Governor Ricardo Rosselló estimated that the damage from Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico was probably over the $8 billion damage figure from Hurricane Georges. Approximately 80 percent of the territory 's agriculture was lost due to the hurricane, with agricultural losses estimated at $780 million.
The hurricane completely destroyed the island 's power grid, leaving all 3.4 million residents without electricity. Governor Rosselló stated that it could take months to restore power in some locations, with San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz estimating that some areas would remain without power for four to six months. Communication networks were crippled across the island. Ninety - five percent of cell networks were down with 48 of the island 's 78 counties networks being completely inoperable. Eighty - five per cent of above - ground phone and internet cables were knocked out. Only twelve radio stations, WAPA 680 AM, WPAB 550 AM & WISO 1260 AM of Ponce, WKJB 710 AM, WPRA 990 AM & WTIL 1300 AM of Mayaguez, WMIA 1070 AM of Arecibo, WVOZ 1580 AM of Morovis, WXRF 1590 AM of Guayama, WALO 1240 AM of Humacao and WOIZ 1130 AM of Guayanilla, remained on the air during the storm.
The NEXRAD Doppler weather radar of Puerto Rico was blown away. The radome which covers the radar antenna, and which was designed to withstand winds of more than 130 mph, was destroyed while the antenna of 30 feet in diameter was blown from the pedestal, the latter remaining intact. The radar is 2800 feet above sea level and the anemometer at the site measured winds of about 145 mph before communications broke, which means winds at that height were likely 20 percent higher than what was seen at sea level. The radar was rebuilt and finally brought back online 9 months later.
The nearby island of Vieques suffered similarly extensive damage. Communications were largely lost across the island. Widespread property destruction took place with many structures leveled.
The recreational ship Ferrel carrying a family of four issued a distress signal while battling 20 ft (6.1 m) seas and 115 mph (185 km / h) winds on September 20. Communications with the vessel were lost near Vieques on September 20. The United States Coast Guard, United States Navy, and British Royal Navy conducted search - and - rescue operations utilizing an HC - 130 aircraft, a fast response cutter, USS Kearsarge, RFA Mounts Bay and Navy helicopters. On September 21, the mother and her two children were rescued while the father drowned inside the capsized vessel.
Maria 's Category 4 winds broke a 96 - foot (29 m) line feed antenna of the Arecibo Observatory, causing it to fall 500 feet (150 m) and puncturing the dish below, greatly reducing its ability to function until repairs could be made.
Hurricane Maria greatly affected Puerto Rico 's agriculture. Coffee was the worst affected, with 18 million coffee trees destroyed, which will require about five to ten years to bring back at least 15 % of the coffee production of the island.
Torrential rains and strong winds impacted the Dominican Republic as Maria tracked northeast of the country. Assessments on September 22 indicated that 110 homes were destroyed, 570 were damaged, and 3,723 were affected by flooding. Approximately 60,000 people lost power in northern areas of the country. Flooding and landslides rendered many roads impassable, cutting off 38 communities. Five people, all of them males, were killed in the Dominican Republic: four of them were of Haitian origin, killed when they were swept away by floodwaters; the fifth person was a Dominican man who died in a landslide.
Hurricane Maria 's center passed 250 km from Haiti northern coast, but triggered a large amount of rain and some flooding in Haiti. Three deaths were reported: a 45 - year - old man died in the commune of Limbe, in the department of the North, while attempting to cross a flooded river. Two other people, a woman and a man, were mortally wounded in Cornillon, a small town 40 kilometers east of the capital Port - au - Prince, according to the authorities.
Maria brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 26 as the center of the storm passed by offshore and brought tropical storm conditions to the area, along with a storm surge, large waves, and rip currents to the coast. The storm knocked out power to 800 Duke Energy Progress customers in the Havelock area, with restoration of power expected to take several hours. Dominion North Carolina Power and Cape Hatteras Electric Cooperative experienced scattered power outages. Winds of 23 mph (37 km / h) and gusts of 41 mph (66 km / h) were reported at Dare County Regional Airport at Manteo on September 27 while winds of 40 mph (64 km / h) were reported in Duck. Maria caused beach erosion at the ferry terminal at the north end of Ocracoke Island that washed out a portion of the paved lanes where vehicles wait to board the ferry. By the morning of September 26, the storm flooded North Carolina Highway 12 along the coast. Rip currents from Maria caused three swimmers to drown and several others to be rescued at the Jersey Shore on the weekend of September 23 -- 24. A fourth drowning death occurred in Fernandina Beach, Florida.
In the wake of the hurricane, more than 85 % of the island 's houses were damaged, of which more than 25 % were completely destroyed, leaving more than 50,000 of the island 's 73,000 residents displaced. Following the destruction of thousands of homes, most supermarkets and the water supply system, many of Dominica 's residents were in dire need of food, water and shelter for days. With no access to electricity or running water, and with sewage systems destroyed, fears of widespread diarrhea and dysentery arose. The island 's agriculture, a vital source of income for many, was obliterated as most trees were flattened. Meanwhile, the driving force of the economy -- tourism -- was expected to be scarce in the months that followed Maria. Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit characterized the devastation wrought by Irma and Maria as a sign of climate change and the threat it poses to the survival of his country, stating, "To deny climate change... is to deny a truth we have just lived. '' Many islanders suffered respiratory problems as a result of excessive dust borne out of the debris. Light rainfall in the weeks following Maria alleviated this problem, though it also slowed recovery efforts, particularly rebuilding damaged rooftops.
Through the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility, Dominica received approximately US $19.2 million in emergency funds. USS Wasp, previously deployed to Saint Martin to assist in relief efforts after Hurricane Irma, arrived in Dominica on September 22. The vessel carried two Sikorsky SH - 60 Seahawk helicopters to assist in distribution of relief supplies in hard - to - reach areas. At the United Nations General Assembly on September 23, Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit called the situation in Dominica an "international humanitarian emergency ''. The Royal Canadian Navy vessel HMCS St. John 's was dispatched to Dominica at the request of Dominican Prime Minister Skerrit.
The prime minister urged churches to encourage their membership to provide housing for senior citizens and disabled, many of whom remained in damaged structures despite tarpaulin donations from Venezuela, Palestine, Cuba, Jamaica, and other countries. As schools began to reopen on October 16, the United Nations Children 's Fund reported that the entire child population of Dominica -- 23,000 children -- remained vulnerable due to restricted access to clean drinking water.
The power grid was effectively destroyed by the hurricane, leaving millions without electricity. Governor Ricardo Rosselló estimated that Maria caused at least US $ 90 billion in damage. As of September 26, 95 % of the island was without power, less than half the population had tap water, and 95 % of the island had no cell phone service. On October 6, a little more than two weeks after the hurricane, 89 % still had no power, 44 % had no water service, and 58 % had no cell service. One month after the hurricane, 88 % of the island was without power (about 3 million people), 29 % lacked tap water (about 1 million people), and 40 % of the island had no cell service. Three months after the hurricane, 45 % of Puerto Ricans still had no power, over 1.5 million people. Fourteen percent of Puerto Rico had no tap water; cell service was returning with over 90 % of service restored and 86 % of cell towers functioning.
Two weeks after the hurricane, international relief organization Oxfam chose to intervene for the first time on American soil since Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
One month after the hurricane, all hospitals were open, but most were on backup generators that provide limited power. About half of sewage treatment plants on the island were still not functioning. FEMA reported 60,000 homes needed roofing help, and had distributed 38,000 roofing tarps. The island 's highways and bridges remained heavily damaged nearly a month later. Only 392 miles of Puerto Rico 's 5,073 miles of road were open. Some towns continue to be isolated and delivery of relief supplies including food and water are hampered -- helicopters are the only alternative.
As of October 1, there were ongoing fuel shortage and distribution problems, with 720 of 1,100 gas stations open.
The Guajataca Dam was structurally damaged, and on September 22, the National Weather Service issued a flash flood emergency for parts of the area in response. Tens of thousands of people were ordered to evacuate the area, with about 70,000 thought to be at risk.
The entirety of Puerto Rico was declared a Federal Disaster Zone shortly after the hurricane. The Federal Emergency Management Agency planned to open an air bridge with three to four aircraft carrying essential supplies to the island daily starting on September 22. Beyond flights involving the relief effort, limited commercial traffic resumed at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport on September 22 under primitive conditions. A dozen commercial flights operated daily as of September 26. By October 3, there were 39 commercial flights per day from all Puerto Rican airports, about a quarter of the normal number. The next day, airports were reported to be operating at normal capacity. In marked contrast to the initial relief efforts for Hurricane Katrina and the 2010 Haiti earthquake, on September 22, the only signs of relief efforts were beleaguered Puerto Rican government employees. The territory 's government contracted 56 small companies to assist in restoring power. Eight FEMA Urban Search & Rescue (US&R) teams were deployed to assist in rescue efforts.
On September 24, the amphibious assault ship USS Kearsarge and the dock landing ship USS Oak Hill under Rear Admiral Jeffrey W. Hughes along with the 2,400 marines of the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit arrived to assist in relief efforts. By September 24, there were 13 United States Coast Guard ships deployed around Puerto Rico assisting in the relief and restoration efforts: the National Security Cutter USCGC James; the medium endurance cutters USCGC Diligence, USCGC Forward, USCGC Venturous, and USCGC Valiant; the fast response cutters USCGC Donald Horsley, USCGC Heriberto Hernandez, USCGC Joseph Napier, USCGC Richard Dixon, and USCGC Winslow W. Griesser; the coastal patrol boat USCGC Yellowfin; and the seagoing buoy tenders USCGC Cypress and USCGC Elm. Federal aid arrived on September 25 with the reopening of major ports. Eleven cargo vessels collectively carrying 1.3 million liters of water, 23,000 cots, and dozens of generators arrived. Full operations at the ports of Guayanilla, Salinas, and Tallaboa resumed on September 25, while the ports of San Juan, Fajardo, Culebra, Guayama, and Vieques had limited operations. The United States Air Force Air Mobility Command has dedicated eight C - 17 Globemaster aircraft to deliver relief supplies. The Air Force assisted the Federal Aviation Administration with air traffic control repairs to increase throughput capacity.
The United States Transportation Command moved additional personnel and eight U.S. Army UH - 60 Black Hawk helicopters from Fort Campbell, Kentucky to Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport to increase distribution capacity. The United States Army Corps of Engineers deployed 670 personnel engaged in assessing and restoring the power grid; as of September 25, 83 generators were installed and an additional 186 generators were en route. As of September 26, agencies of the U.S. government had delivered 4 million meals, 6 million liters of water, 70,000 tarps and 15,000 rolls of roof sheeting. National Guard troops were activated and deployed to Puerto Rico from Connecticut, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, New York, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin.
On September 29, the hospital ship USNS Comfort left port at Norfolk, Virginia to help victims of Hurricanes Irma and Maria, and arrived in San Juan on October 3. A couple of days later, Comfort departed on an around the island tour to assist, remaining a dozen miles off shore. Patients were brought to the ship by helicopter or boat tender after being referred by Puerto Rico 's Department of Health. However, most of the 250 bed floating state - of - the - art hospital went unused despite overburdened island clinics and hospitals because there were few referrals. Governor Rosselló explained on or about October 17 that "The disconnect or the apparent disconnect was in the communications flow '' and added "I asked for a complete revision of that so that we can now start sending more patients over there. '' After remaining offshore for three weeks, the Comfort docked in San Juan on October 27, briefly departing only once to restock at sea from a naval resupply ship. As of November 8, Comfort 's staff had treated 1,476 patients, including 147 surgeries and two births.
On September 27, the Pentagon reopened two major airfields on Puerto Rico and started sending aircraft, specialized units, and a hospital ship to assist in the relief effort; Brigadier General Richard C. Kim, the deputy commanding general of United States Army North, was responsible for coordinating operations between the military, FEMA and other government agencies, and the private sector. Massive amounts of water, food, and fuel either had been delivered to ports in Puerto Rico or were held up at ports in the mainland United States because there was a lack of truck drivers to move the goods into the interior; the lack of communication networks hindered the effort as only 20 % of drivers reported to work. As of September 28, the Port of San Juan had only been able to dispatch 4 % of deliveries received and had very little room to accept additional shipments. As of September 28, 44 percent of the population remained without drinking water and the U.S. military was shifting from "a short term, sea - based response to a predominantly land - based effort designed to provide robust, longer term support '' with fuel delivery a top priority. A joint Army National Guard and Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) team established an Installation Staging Base at the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station; they transported via helicopter Department of Health and Human Services assessment teams to hospitals across Puerto Rico to determine medical requirements. On September 29, the amphibious assault ship USS Wasp which had been providing relief activities to the island of Dominica was diverted to Puerto Rico. As of September 30, FEMA official Alejandro de la Campa stated that 5 % of electricity, 33 % of the telecommunications infrastructure, and 50 % of water services had been restored to the island.
On September 28, 2017, Lieutenant General Jeffrey S. Buchanan was dispatched to Puerto Rico to lead all military hurricane relief efforts there and to see how the military could be more effective in the recovery effort, particularly in dealing with the thousands of containers of supplies that were stuck in port because of "red tape, lack of drivers, and a crippling power outage ''. On September 29 he stated that there were not enough troops and equipment in place but more would be arriving soon.
With centralized fossil - fuel - based power plants and grid infrastructure expected to be out of commission for weeks to months, some renewable energy projects were in the works, including the shipment of hundreds of Tesla Powerwall battery systems to be integrated with solar PV systems and Sonnen solar microgrid projects at 15 emergency community centers; the first were expected to be completed in October. In addition, other solar companies jumped into help, including Sunnova and New Start Solar. A charity called Light Up Puerto Rico raised money to both purchase and deliver solar products, including solar panels, on Oct. 19.
Many TV and movie stars donated money to hurricane relief organizations to help the victims of Harvey and Maria. Prominently, Jennifer Aniston pledged a million U.S. dollars, dividing the amount equally between the Red Cross and The Ricky Martin Foundation for Puerto Rico. Martin 's foundation had raised over three million dollars as of October 13.
On October 10, 2017, Carnival Cruise Lines announced that it would resume departures of cruises from San Juan on October 15, 2017. On October 13, both CNN and The Guardian reported that Puerto Ricans were drinking water that was being pumped from a well at an EPA Superfund site; the water was later determined to be safe to drink.
On October 13, the Trump administration requested $4.9 billion to fund a loan program that Puerto Rico could use to address basic functions and infrastructure needs. As of October 20, only 18.5 % of the island had electricity, 49.1 % of cell towers were working, and 69.5 % of customers had running water, with the slowest restoration in the north. Ports and commercial flights were back to normal operations, but 7.6 % of USPS locations, 11.5 % of supermarkets, and 21.4 % of gas stations were still closed. 4,246 people were still living in emergency shelters, and tourism was down by half. As of November 5, more than 100,000 people had left Puerto Rico for the mainland. A December 17 report indicated that 600 people remained in shelters while 130,000 had left the island to go to the mainland.
Puerto Rico is a major manufacturer of medical devices and pharmaceuticals, representing 30 % of its economy. These factories shut down or greatly reduced production because of the hurricane, and have been slowly recovering since. This has caused a months long shortage in medical supplies in the United States, especially IV bags. Small IV bags often come pre-filled with saline or common drugs in solution, and have forced health care providers to scramble behind the scenes for alternative methods of drug delivery. In January 2018, when the shortage was projected to ease, flu season hit and led to a spike in patients.
By the end of January 2018, approximately 450,000 customers remained without power island - wide. On February 11, an explosion and fire damaged a power substation in Monacillo, causing a large blackout in northern parts of the island including San Juan, Trujillo Alto, Guaynabo, Carolina, Caguas, and Juncos. Cascading outages affected areas powered by substations in Villa Betina and Quebrada Negrito. Approximately 400 megawatts of electricity production was lost. On March 1, 2018, a second major blackout occurred when a transmission line failed and caused two power stations to shut down; more than 970,000 people lost electricity. Excluding those affected by the second blackout, more than 200,000 people remained without power following Maria as of March 2. Another large - scale blackout occurred on April 12 from a line failure. Less than a week later on April 18, another blackout affected all of Puerto Rico. Rapid transit line passengers required help to disembark stalled trains.
A timeline of FEMA 's response to Hurricane Maria can be found here. FEMA has been a major supplier of relief in the form of bereavement, food and other emergency supplies, as well as rebuilding some homes. FEMA 's relief efforts in Puerto Rico post Maria engaged a smaller work force and budget than the agency 's efforts in Florida and Texas in the wake of Hurricane Harvey, although damage to those communities was less severe. FEMA does not rebuild homes to which the owner has no title, which has presented a major obstacle for many Puerto Ricans who may have erected structures on family plots without procuring legal paperwork.
Thousands of Puerto Ricans remain without necessities six months after the storm.
As a consequence of the hurricane, a population drop of approximately 14 % has been forecasted due to an exodus to the United States, according to a research study conducted by the Center for Puerto Rican Studies of Hunter College.
An outbreak of leptospirosis may have affected survivors in the weeks following the hurricane. The bacterial infection is contracted through water contaminated with animal urine, with an incubation period of 2 to 30 days. Since large areas of Puerto Rico were without tap water, residents were forced to use other sources of water that may be contaminated, such as local streams. By October 23, four people were suspected of having died from the disease while 74 others were suspected of being infected. There were 18 confirmed cases, 4 confirmed deaths and 99 suspected cases by November 7. Puerto Rico averages 5 cases of leptospirosis per month under normal conditions. Despite the possibility of an outbreak, officials did not deem the situation being as dire.
In July 2018, CNN in collaboration with the Center for Investigative Journalism (CPI), published an online article in which they had seven disease experts review an official Puerto Rico government mortality database. The seven experts all agreed that since the records listed such a large number of confirmed cases of the bacterial disease leptospirosis, Puerto Rico officials should have declared an "epidemic '' or an "outbreak '' after Hurricane Maria, instead of choosing to not declare that a leptospirosis outbreak had occurred. The data reviewed included 57 laboratory - confirmed cases of leptospirosis illnesses in 2017. Of those, 54 of them were reported after Hurricane Maria made landfall on September 20, 2017. The number of laboratory - confirmed cases amounted to at least a three-fold increase in cases compared to 2016 and 2015.
The deaths of 64 people were initially directly attributed to the hurricane by the government of Puerto Rico.
In the immediate months following Maria, the initial death toll relayed from the Government of Puerto Rico came into question by media outlets, politicians, and investigative journalists. Scores of people who survived the hurricane 's initial onslaught later died from complications in its aftermath. Catastrophic damage to infrastructure and communication hampered efforts to accurately document the total loss of life.
Investigations in the hurricane 's aftermath suggested a wide variety of possible death tolls. On October 11, 2017, Vox reported 81 deaths directly or indirectly related to the hurricane, with another 450 deaths awaiting investigation. Furthermore, they indicated 69 people were missing. Official statistics showed increases of about 20 % and 27 % in overall fatalities in Puerto Rico during September 2017, compared to 2016 and 2015, followed by a decrease of about 10 % in October 2017 compared to the previous two Octobers. There were 238 more reported deaths in September and October 2017 than during the same months in 2016, and 336 more compared to September and October 2015. A two - week investigation in November 2017 by CNN of 112 funeral homes -- approximately half of the island -- found 499 deaths that were said to be hurricane - related between September 20 and October 19. Two scientists, Alexis Santos and Jeffrey Howard, estimated the death toll in Puerto Rico to be 1,085 by the end of November 2017. They utilized average monthly deaths and the spike in fatalities following the hurricane. The value only accounted for reported deaths, and with limitations to communication, the actual toll could have been even higher. Utilizing a similar method, The New York Times indicated an increase of 1,052 fatalities in the 42 days following Maria compared to previous years. Significant spikes in causes deaths compared to the two preceding Septembers included sepsis (+ 47 %), pneumonia (+ 45 %), emphysema (+ 43 %), diabetes (+ 31 %), and Alzheimer 's and Parkinson 's (+ 23 %). Robert Anderson at the National Center for Health Statistics conveyed the increase in monthly fatalities was statistically significant and likely driven in some capacity by Hurricane Maria. A Harvard study found an estimated 15 excess deaths in the four months after the hurricane in interviews with 3,299 households, resulting in an estimated 793 to 8,498 excess deaths (with a 95 % confidence interval).
On December 18, 2017, Governor Rosselló ordered a recount and a new analysis of the official death toll. The task of reviewing the death toll was given to George Washington University, with some assistance from the University of Puerto Rico, in February 2018. In response to three lawsuits, including one from CNN and Puerto Rico 's Center for Investigative Journalism, the Government of Puerto Rico released updated death statistics for the months following Hurricane Maria. Compared to the average deaths in September to December 2013 -- 2016, September to December 2017 had 1,427 excess deaths; however, it is unknown how many of these deaths are attributable to the hurricane. The government acknowledged the death toll was greater than 64, but awaited the results of the government commissioned study to determine the true death toll.
In late August 2018, almost a year after the hurricane, the Milken Institute School of Public Health at George Washington University published their results. They estimated 2,658 -- 3,290 additional people died in the six months after the hurricane over the expected background rate, after accounting for emigration from the island. As result, the official death toll was updated to an estimated 2,975 by the Governor of Puerto Rico.
As of September 25, the U.S. Coast Guard reported that the ports of Crown Bay, East Gregerie Channel, West Gregerie Channel, and Redhook Bay on Saint Thomas; the ports of Krause Lagoon, Limetree Bay, and Frederiksted on Saint Croix, and the port of Cruz Bay on Saint John were open with restrictions. On September 25, 11 flights arrived with 200,000 meals, 144,000 liters of water, and tarps. Troops were activated and deployed to the U.S. Virgin Islands from the Virginia National Guard, the West Virginia National Guard, Missouri National Guard, and UH - 60 Blackhawk helicopters from the Tennessee Army National Guard.
Nearly a month after the hurricane, electricity had been restored to only 16 percent of people in St. Thomas and 1.6 percent of people in St. Croix. Three months after Maria, about half the entire U.S. territory still had no power, and 25 % of the U.S. territory had no cell service.
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) did not immediately waive the Jones Act for Puerto Rico, which prevented the commonwealth from receiving any aid and supplies from non-U.S. - flagged vessels from U.S. ports. A DHS Security spokesman said that there would be enough U.S. shipping for Puerto Rico, and that the limiting factors would be port capacity and local transport capacity. The Jones Act was waived for a period of ten days starting on September 28 following a formal request by Puerto Rico Governor Rosselló.
San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz called the disaster a "terrifying humanitarian crisis '' and on September 26 pleaded for relief efforts to be sped up. The White House contested claims that the administration was not responding effectively. General Joseph L. Lengyel, Chief of the National Guard Bureau, defended the Trump Administration 's response, and reiterated that relief efforts were hampered by Puerto Rico being an island rather than on the mainland. President Donald Trump responded to accusations that he does not care about Puerto Rico: "Puerto Rico is very important to me, and Puerto Rico -- the people are fantastic people. I grew up in New York, so I know many people from Puerto Rico. I know many Puerto Ricans. And these are great people, and we have to help them. The island is devastated. ''
Mayor Cruz criticized the federal response on September 29 during a news conference. "We are dying and you are killing us with the inefficiency, '' she said. Trump responded by criticizing her for "poor leadership '', and tweeted that the mayor and "others in Puerto Rico... want everything to be done for them. ''
Frustrated with the federal government 's "slow and inadequate response '', relief group Oxfam announced on October 2 that it planned to get involved in the humanitarian aid effort, sending a team to "assess a targeted and effective response '' and support its local partners ' on - the - ground efforts. The organization released a statement, saying in part: "While the US government is engaged in relief efforts, it has failed to address the most urgent needs. Oxfam has monitored the response in Puerto Rico closely, and we are outraged at the slow and inadequate response the US Government has mounted, '' said Oxfam America 's president Abby Maxman. "Oxfam rarely responds to humanitarian emergencies in the US and other wealthy countries, but as the situation in Puerto Rico worsens and the federal government 's response continues to falter, we have decided to step in. The US has more than enough resources to mobilize an emergency response, but has failed to do so in a swift and robust manner. '' In an update on October 19, the agency called the situation in Puerto Rico "unacceptable '' and called for "a more robust and efficient response from the US government ''.
On October 3, 2017, President Trump visited Puerto Rico. He compared the damage from Hurricane Maria to that of Hurricane Katrina, saying: "If you looked -- every death is a horror, but if you look at a real catastrophe like Katrina, and you look at the tremendous hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of people that died, and you look at what happened here with really a storm that was just totally overbearing, nobody has seen anything like this (...) What is your death count as of this morning, 17? ''. Trump 's remarks were widely criticized for implying that Hurricane Maria was not a "real catastrophe ''. While in Puerto Rico, Trump also distributed canned goods and paper towels to crowds gathered at a relief shelter and told the residents of the devastated island "I hate to tell you, Puerto Rico, but you 've thrown our budget a little out of whack, because we 've spent a lot of money on Puerto Rico, and that 's fine. We saved a lot of lives. ''
On October 12, Trump tweeted, "We can not keep FEMA, the Military & the First Responders, who have been amazing (under the most difficult circumstances) in P.R. forever! '', prompting further criticism from lawmakers in both parties; Mayor Cruz replied, "You are incapable of empathy and frankly simply can not get the job done. '' In response to a request for clarification on the tweet from Governor Rosselló, John F. Kelly assured that no resources were being pulled and replied: "Our country will stand with those American citizens in Puerto Rico until the job is done ''.
After visiting Puerto Rico about two months after the hurricane, Refugees International issued a report that severely criticized the slow response of the federal authorities, noted poor coordination and logistics, and indicated the island was still in an emergency mode and in need of more help.
Politico compared the federal response to Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico to that for Hurricane Harvey, which had hit the greater Houston area of Texas a month earlier. Though Maria caused catastrophic damage, the response was slower in quantitative terms.
Conditions in Puerto Rico were more challenging, given the distance from the U.S. mainland (about a thousand miles), the lack of any safe nearby territory to stage a response, the poor condition of the island 's infrastructure, the poor financial condition of the territory 's government and economy, an island - wide communication outage, and the fact that this was the fourth in a series of major disasters the federal government was dealing with, after Irma, Harvey and the 2017 California wildfires. The government - owned electricity monopoly PREPA had declared bankruptcy in July, and the territorial government itself entered a bankruptcy - like status under a special law written to deal with its ongoing financial crisis.
According to the analysis, U.S. Northern Command had 70 helicopters over Texas for search and rescue in flooded areas, but it took three weeks to get a similar number deployed to Puerto Rico. About twice as many people were in the affected area in Texas. All ports and airports in Puerto Rico were rendered inoperable by the storm but were re-opened within a few days. The USS Abraham Lincoln, with helicopters onboard, was dispatched to Florida two days before the storm arrived to aid in rescue operations after Hurricane Irma, but was never sent to Puerto Rico. The hospital ship USNS Comfort was not dispatched to Puerto Rico until nine days after Maria, despite severe damage to hospitals in U.S. Caribbean territories.
Texas received considerably more Presidential attention in terms of visits and tweets, and also had a 38 - member delegation in Congress; as a territory, Puerto Rico only has a non-voting delegate.
Soon after the hurricane struck, Whitefish Energy, a small Montana - based company with only two full - time employees, was awarded a $300 million contract by PREPA, Puerto Rico 's state - run power company, to repair Puerto Rico 's power grid, a move considered by many to be highly unusual for several reasons. The company contracted more than 300 personnel, most of them subcontractors, and sent them to the island to carry out work. PREPA cited Whitefish 's comparatively small upfront cost of $3.7 million for mobilization as one of the main reasons for contracting them over larger companies. PREPA Executive Director Ricardo Ramos stated: "Whitefish was the only company -- it was the first that could be mobilized to Puerto Rico. It did not ask us to be paid soon or a guarantee to pay ''. No requests for assistance had been made to the American Public Power Association by October 24. The decision to hire such a tiny company was considered highly unusual by many, such as former Energy Department official Susan Tierney, who stated: "The fact that there are so many utilities with experience in this and a huge track record of helping each other out, it is at least odd why (the utility) would go to Whitefish ''. Several representatives, both Democrats and Republicans, also voiced their concern over the choice to contract Whitefish instead of other companies. As the company was based in Whitefish, Montana, the hometown of US Interior Secretary Ryan Zinke, and one of Zinke 's sons had once done a summer internship at Whitefish, Zinke knew Whitefish 's CEO personally. These facts led to accusations of privatization and cronyism, though Zinke dismissed these claims and stated that he had no role in securing the contract. In addition, Donald Trump himself, not just his cabinet, may having been involved in Whitefish obtaining the contract, as Whitefish 's primary investor, HBC Investments, was founded by a prominent donor of Donald Trump.
In a press release on October 27, FEMA stated it did not approve of PREPA 's contract with Whitefish and cited "significant concerns ''. Governor Rosselló subsequently ordered an audit of the contract 's budget. DHS Inspector General John Roth led the FEMA audit while Governor Rosselló called for a second review by Puerto Rico 's Office of Management and Budget. The governor then demanded that the contract be called; this was executed on October 29.
On March 12, 2018, Chairman Rob Bishop (R - UT), Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations Chairman Bruce Westerman (R - AR) and Subcommittee on Indian, Insular and Alaska Native Affairs Chairman Doug LaMalfa (R - CA) sent a letter to the Interim Executive Director of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) on recent allegations of corruption and mismanagement of power restoration operations on the island. "In one alleged incident, PREPA officials were reportedly paid $5,000 and provided free entry tickets, valued at $1,000 apiece, to restore power to San Juan area exotic dance clubs ahead of the scheduled restoration timeline. There are also allegations that PREPA restored power to their own homes and other areas before restoring power to critical locations such as San Juan 's Rio Piedras Medical Center '', part of Chairman Rob Bishop 's speech.
On April 18, 2018 (Wednesday), The Associated Press reported that the entire island experienced a blackout. On April 19, 2018 (Thursday), Puerto Rico 's power company said that it has restored electricity to all customers affected by an island - wide blackout that was caused by an excavator hitting a transmission line, but tens of thousands of families still remain without normal service seven months after hurricanes Maria and Irma.
San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz said one week before the blackout that about 700,000 Americans in Puerto Rico did n't have power after a line repaired by Montana contracting firm Whitefish Energy had failed. Puerto Rico 's electric grid has suffered in the months since Hurricane Maria struck the island. The territory announced earlier on 2018 that it would privatize its power system over its "deficient service. ''
Cruiseline French America Line claimed to be working with Whitefish Energy, and that their boat the "Louisiane '' would serve as "headquarters for relief services '' after Hurricane Maria. Further investigation revealed that the boat had been docked in New Orleans since 2016. French America Line has been accused of scamming customers without delivering on services, and some have alleged the company used proposed "Hurricane relief services '' as a coverup.
On April 11, 2018, at the 40th session of the Regional Association Hurricane Committee, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Maria from its rotating name lists, due to the highly extensive amount of damage and loss of life it caused along its path, especially in Dominica and Puerto Rico, and it will never again be used to name an Atlantic hurricane. It will be replaced with Margot for the 2023 Atlantic hurricane season.
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what other types of entertainment were popular in rome | Gladiator - wikipedia
A gladiator (Latin: gladiator, "swordsman '', from gladius, "sword '') was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death.
Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome 's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.
The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games.
The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. The games finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity as state church of the Roman Empire in 380, although beast hunts (venationes) continued into the 6th century.
Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. In the late 1st century BC, Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan. A generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by the Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites. Long after the games had ceased, the 7th century AD writer Isidore of Seville derived Latin lanista (manager of gladiators) from the Etruscan word for "executioner, '' and the title of Charon (an official who accompanied the dead from the Roman gladiatorial arena) from Charun, psychopomp of the Etruscan underworld. This was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games.
Reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators. Campania hosted the earliest known gladiator schools (ludi). Tomb frescoes from the Campanian city of Paestum (4th century BC) show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiatory funeral blood - rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games. Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb - paintings is tentative and late. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC.
Livy places the first Roman gladiator games (264 BC) in the early stage of Rome 's First Punic War against Carthage, when Decimus Iunius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome 's "cattle market '' Forum (Forum Boarium) to honor his dead father, Brutus Pera. This is described as a munus (plural: munera), a commemorative duty owed the manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants. The development of the munus and its gladiator types was most strongly influenced by Samnium 's support for Hannibal and the subsequent punitive expeditions against the Samnites by Rome and her Campanian allies; the earliest and most frequently mentioned type was the Samnite.
The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle - line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver... The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage... The Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour. So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites. (Livy 9.40)
Livy 's account skirts the funereal, sacrificial function of early Roman gladiator combats and reflects the later theatrical ethos of the Roman gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured barbarians, treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage. His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the Gods. Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. The munus became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well.
In 216 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, late consul and augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of gladiatora munera in the Forum Romanum, using twenty - two pairs of gladiators. Ten years later, Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative munus in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators. The context of the Punic Wars and Rome 's near - disastrous defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) link these early games to munificence, the celebration of military victory and the religious expiation of military disaster; these munera appear to serve a morale - raising agenda in an era of military threat and expansion. The next recorded munus, held for the funeral of Publius Licinius in 183 BC, was more extravagant. It involved three days of funeral games, 120 gladiators, and public distribution of meat (visceratio data) -- a practice that reflected the gladiatorial fights at Campanian banquets described by Livy and later deplored by Silius Italicus.
The enthusiastic adoption of gladiatoria munera by Rome 's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator munus permeated places far from Rome itself. By 174 BC, "small '' Roman munera (private or public), provided by an editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording:
Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond the rest -- that of Titus Flamininus which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances. The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought.
In 105 BC, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state - sponsored "barbarian combat '' demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of a training program for the military. It proved immensely popular. Thereafter, the gladiator contests formerly restricted to private munera were often included in the state games (ludi) that accompanied the major religious festivals. Where traditional ludi had been dedicated to a deity, such as Jupiter, the munera could be dedicated to an aristocratic sponsor 's divine or heroic ancestor.
Gladiator games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self - promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves. Gladiators became big business for trainers and owners, for politicians on the make and those who had reached the top and wished to stay there. A politically ambitious privatus (private citizen) might postpone his deceased father 's munus to the election season, when a generous show might drum up votes; those in power and those seeking it needed the support of the plebeians and their tribunes, whose votes might be won with the mere promise of exceptionally good show. Sulla, during his term as praetor, showed his usual acumen in breaking his own sumptuary laws to give the most lavish munus yet seen in Rome, on occasion of his wife 's funeral.
In the closing years of the politically and socially unstable Late Republic, any aristocratic owner of gladiators had political muscle at his disposal. In 65 BC, newly elected curule aedile Julius Caesar held games that he justified as munus to his father, who had been dead for 20 years. Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used three hundred and twenty gladiator pairs in silvered armour. He had more available in Capua but the Senate, mindful of the recent Spartacus revolt and fearful of Caesar 's burgeoning private armies and rising popularity, imposed a limit of 320 pairs as the maximum number of gladiators any citizen could keep in Rome. Caesar 's showmanship was unprecedented in scale and expense; he had staged a munus as memorial rather than funeral rite, eroding any practical or meaningful distinction between munus and ludi.
Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the Republic and beyond. Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BC attempted but failed to curb the political usefulness of the games to their sponsors. Following Caesar 's assassination and the Roman Civil War, Augustus assumed Imperial authority over the games, including munera, and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty. His revision of sumptuary law capped private and public expenditure on munera, claiming to save the Roman elite from the bankruptcies they would otherwise suffer, and restricted their performance to the festivals of Saturnalia and Quinquatria. Henceforth, the ceiling cost for a praetor 's "economical '' official munus employing a maximum 120 gladiators was to be 25,000 denarii; a "generous '' Imperial ludi might cost no less than 180,000 denarii. Throughout the Empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state - sponsored Imperial cult, which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the Emperor 's divine numen, his laws, and his agents. Between 108 and 109 AD, Trajan celebrated his Dacian victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals over 123 days. The cost of gladiators and munera continued to spiral out of control. Legislation of 177 AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, Commodus.
The earliest munera took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their munerator (who made the offering). Later games were held by an editor, either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him. As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged. In the Republican era, private citizens could own and train gladiators, or lease them from a lanista (owner of a gladiator training school). From the Principate onwards, private citizens could hold munera and own gladiators only under Imperial permission, and the role of editor was increasingly tied to state officialdom. Legislation by Claudius required that quaestors, the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, personally subsidise two - thirds of the costs of games for their small - town communities -- in effect, both an advertisement of their personal generosity and a part - purchase of their office. Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them. The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself.
The earliest types of gladiator were named after Rome 's enemies of that time: the Samnite, Thracian and Gaul. The Samnite, heavily armed, elegantly helmed and probably the most popular type, was renamed secutor and the Gaul renamed murmillo, once these former enemies had been conquered then absorbed into Rome 's Empire. In the mid-republican munus, each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type. In the later Republic and early Empire, various "fantasy '' types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types. For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius ("net - man ''), armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor. Most depictions of gladiators show the most common and popular types. Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction. Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or carts, or from horseback.
The trade in gladiators was empire - wide, and subjected to official supervision. Rome 's military success produced a supply of soldier - prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market. For example, in the aftermath of the Jewish Revolt, the gladiator schools received an influx of Jews -- those rejected for training would have been sent straight to the arenas as noxii (lit. "hurtful ones ''). The best -- the most robust -- were sent to Rome. In Rome 's military ethos, enemy soldiers who had surrendered or allowed their own capture and enslavement had been granted an unmerited gift of life. Their training as gladiators would give them opportunity to redeem their honour in the munus.
Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena (damnati), to gladiator schools or games (ad ludum gladiatorium) as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers (auctorati) who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half -- and possibly the most capable half -- of all gladiators. The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian munus of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.
For the poor, and for non-citizens, enrollment in a gladiator school offered a trade, regular food, housing of sorts and a fighting chance of fame and fortune. Mark Antony chose a troupe of gladiators to be his personal bodyguard. Gladiators customarily kept their prize money and any gifts they received, and these could be substantial. Tiberius offered several retired gladiators 100,000 sesterces each to return to the arena. Nero gave the gladiator Spiculus property and residence "equal to those of men who had celebrated triumphs. ''
From the 60s AD female gladiators appear as rare and "exotic markers of exceptionally lavish spectacle ''. In 66 AD, Nero had Ethiopian women, men and children fight at a munus to impress King Tiridates I of Armenia. Romans seem to have found the idea of a female gladiator novel and entertaining, or downright absurd; Juvenal titillates his readers with a woman named "Mevia '', hunting boars in the arena "with spear in hand and breasts exposed '', and Petronius mocks the pretensions of a rich, low - class citizen, whose munus includes a woman fighting from a cart or chariot. A munus of 89 AD, during Domitian 's reign, featured a battle between female gladiators, described as "Amazons ''. In Halicarnassus, a 2nd - century AD relief depicts two female combatants named "Amazon '' and "Achillia ''; their match ended in a draw. In the same century, an epigraph praises one of Ostia 's local elite as the first to "arm women '' in the history of its games. Female gladiators probably submitted to the same regulations and training as their male counterparts. Roman morality required that all gladiators be of the lowest social classes, and emperors who failed to respect this distinction earned the scorn of posterity. Cassius Dio takes pains to point out that when the much admired emperor Titus used female gladiators, they were of acceptably low class.
Some regarded female gladiators of any type or class as a symptom of corrupted Roman appetites, morals and womanhood. Before he became emperor, Septimius Severus may have attended the Antiochene Olympic Games, which had been revived by the emperor Commodus and included traditional Greek female athletics. His attempt to give Rome a similarly dignified display of female athletics was met by the crowd with ribald chants and cat - calls. Probably as a result, he banned the use of female gladiators in 200 AD.
Caligula, Titus, Hadrian, Lucius Verus, Caracalla, Geta and Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena, either in public or private, but risks to themselves were minimal. Claudius, characterised by his historians as morbidly cruel and boorish, fought a whale trapped in the harbor in front of a group of spectators. Commentators invariably disapproved of such performances.
Commodus was a fanatical participant at the ludi, much to the shame of the Senate, whom he loathed, and the probable delight of the populace at large. He was said to have restyled Nero 's colossal statue in his own image as "Hercules Reborn '', dedicated to himself as "Champion of secutores; only left - handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men. '' As a bestiarius, he was said to have killed 100 lions in one day, almost certainly from an elevated platform surrounding the arena perimeter, which allowed him to safely demonstrate his marksmanship. On another occasion, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart, carried the bloodied head and his sword over to the Senatorial seats and gesticulated as though they were next. As reward for these services, he drew a gigantic stipend from the public purse.
Gladiator games were advertised well beforehand, on billboards that gave the reason for the game, its editor, venue, date and the number of paired gladiators (ordinarii) to be used. Other highlighted features could include details of venationes, executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators, such as an awning against the sun, water sprinklers, food, drink, sweets and occasionally "door prizes ''. For enthusiasts and gamblers, a more detailed program (libellus) was distributed on the day of the munus, showing the names, types and match records of gladiator pairs, and their order of appearance. Left - handed gladiators were advertised as a rarity; they were trained to fight right - handers, which gave them an advantage over most opponents and produced an interestingly unorthodox combination.
The night before the munus, the gladiators were given a banquet and opportunity to order their personal and private affairs; Futrell notes its similarity to a ritualistic or sacramental "last meal ''. These were probably both family and public events which included even the noxii, sentenced to die in the arena the following day; and the damnati, who would have at least a slender chance of survival. The event may also have been used to drum up more publicity for the imminent game.
Official munera of the Imperial era seem to have followed a standard form. A procession (pompa) entered the arena, led by lictors who bore the fasces that signified the magistrate - editor 's power over life and death. They were followed by a small band of trumpeters (tubicines) playing a fanfare. Images of the gods were carried in to "witness '' the proceedings, followed by a scribe to record the outcome, and a man carrying the palm branch used to honour victors. The magistrate editor entered among a retinue who carried the arms and armour to be used; the gladiators presumably came in last.
The entertainments often began with venationes (beast hunts) and bestiarii (beast fighters). Next came the ludi meridiani, which were of variable content but usually involved executions of noxii, some of whom were condemned to be subjects of fatal re-enactments, based on Greek or Roman myths. Gladiators may have been involved in these as executioners, though most of the crowd, and the gladiators themselves, preferred the "dignity '' of an even contest. There were also comedy fights; some may have been lethal. A crude Pompeian graffito suggests a burlesque of musicians, dressed as animals named Ursus tibicen (flute - playing bear) and Pullus cornicen (horn - blowing chicken), perhaps as accompaniment to clowning by paegniarii during a "mock '' contest of the ludi meridiani.
The gladiators may have held informal warm - up matches, using blunted or dummy weapons -- some munera, however, may have used blunted weapons throughout. The editor, his representative or an honoured guest would check the weapons (probatio armorum) for the scheduled matches. These were the highlight of the day, and were as inventive, varied and novel as the editor could afford. Armatures could be very costly -- some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals. Increasingly the munus was the editor 's gift to spectators who had come to expect the best as their due.
Lightly armed and armoured fighters, such as the retiarius, would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponents; most bouts would have lasted 10 to 15 minutes, or 20 minutes at most. In late Republican munera, between 10 and 13 matches could have been fought on one day; this assumes one match at a time in the course of an afternoon.
Spectators preferred to watch highly skilled, well matched ordinarii with complementary fighting styles; these were the most costly to train and to hire. A general melee of several, lower - skilled gladiators was far less costly, but also less popular. Even among the ordinarii, match winners might have to fight a new, well - rested opponent, either a tertiarius ("third choice gladiator '') by prearrangement; or a "substitute '' gladiator (suppositicius) who fought at the whim of the editor as an unadvertised, unexpected "extra ''. This yielded two combats for the cost of three gladiators, rather than four; such contests were prolonged, and in some cases, more bloody; but they were likely not of high quality. Bato, a notably skilled fighter, won his first match but was then pitted by the emperor Caracalla against first one supposicitius, who he beat, then another, who killed him. At the opposite level of the profession, a gladiator reluctant to confront his opponent might be whipped, or goaded with hot irons, until he engaged through sheer desperation.
Combats between experienced, well trained gladiators demonstrated a considerable degree of stagecraft. Among the cognoscenti, bravado and skill in combat were esteemed over mere hacking and bloodshed; some gladiators made their careers and reputation from bloodless victories. Suetonius describes an exceptional munus by Nero, in which no - one was killed, "not even noxii (enemies of the state). ''
Trained gladiators were expected to observe professional rules of combat. Most matches employed a senior referee (summa rudis) and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs (rudes) to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match. Referees were usually retired gladiators whose decisions, judgement and discretion were, for the most part, respected; they could stop bouts entirely, or pause them to allow the combatants rest, refreshment and a rub - down. By common custom, the spectators decided whether or not a losing gladiator should be spared, and chose the winner in the rare event of a standing tie; but the outcome was ultimately up to the editor.
Ludi and munera were accompanied by music, played as interludes, or building to a "frenzied crescendo '' during combats, perhaps to heighten the suspense during a gladiator 's appeal; blows may have been accompanied by trumpet - blasts. The Zliten mosaic in Libya (circa 80 -- 100 AD) shows musicians playing an accompaniment to provincial games (with gladiators, bestiarii, or venatores and prisoners attacked by beasts). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (tubicen), a large curved horn (Cornu) and a water organ (hydraulis). Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and bestiari) are found on a tomb relief in Pompeii.
A match was won by the gladiator who overcame his opponent, or killed him outright. Victors received the palm branch and an award from the editor. An outstanding fighter might receive a laurel crown and money from an appreciative crowd but for anyone originally condemned ad ludum the greatest reward was manumission (emancipation), symbolised by the gift of a wooden training sword or staff (rudis) from the editor. Martial describes a match between Priscus and Verus, who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when both acknowledged defeat at the same instant, Titus awarded victory and a rudis to each. Flamma was awarded the rudis four times, but chose to remain a gladiator. His gravestone in Sicily includes his record: "Flamma, secutor, lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality. Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade - in - arms. ''
A gladiator could acknowledge defeat by raising a finger (ad digitum), in appeal to the referee to stop the combat and refer to the editor, whose decision would usually rest on the crowd 's response. In the earliest munera, death was considered a righteous penalty for defeat; later, those who fought well might be granted remission at the whim of the crowd or the editor. During the Imperial era, matches advertised as sine missione (without remission from the sentence of death) suggest that missio (the sparing of a defeated gladiator 's life) had become common practice. The contract between editor and his lanista could include compensation for unexpected deaths; this could be "some fifty times higher than the lease price '' of the gladiator.
Under Augustus ' rule, the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, and matches sine missione were officially banned; an economical, pragmatic development that happened to match popular notions of "natural justice ''. When Caligula and Claudius refused to spare defeated but popular fighters, their own popularity suffered. In general, gladiators who fought well were likely to survive. At a Pompeian match between chariot - fighters, Publius Ostorius, with previous 51 wins to his credit, was granted missio after losing to Scylax, with 26 victories. In any event, the final decision of death or life belonged to the editor, who signalled his choice with a gesture described by Roman sources as pollice verso meaning "with a turned thumb ''; a description too imprecise for reconstruction of the gesture or its symbolism. Whether victorious or defeated, a gladiator was bound by oath to accept or implement his editor 's decision, "the victor being nothing but the instrument of his (editor 's) will. '' Not all editors chose to go with the crowd, and not all those condemned to death for putting on a poor show chose to submit:
Once a band of five retiarii in tunics, matched against the same number of secutores, yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors. Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder.
A gladiator who was refused missio was despatched by his opponent. To die well, a gladiator should never ask for mercy, nor cry out. A "good death '' redeemed the gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched:
For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men the courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable. So the gladiator, no matter how faint - hearted he has been throughout the fight, offers his throat to his opponent and directs the wavering blade to the vital spot. (Seneca. Epistles, 30.8)
Some mosaics show defeated gladiators kneeling in preparation for the moment of death. Seneca 's "vital spot '' seems to have meant the neck. Gladiator remains from Ephesus confirm this.
The body of a gladiator who had died well was placed on a couch of Libitina and removed with dignity to the arena morgue, where the corpse was stripped of armour, and probably had its throat cut to prove that dead was dead. The Christian author Tertullian, commenting on ludi meridiani in Roman Carthage during the peak era of the games, describes a more humiliating method of removal. One arena official, dressed as the "brother of Jove '', Dis Pater (god of the underworld) strikes the corpse with a mallet. Another, dressed as Mercury, tests for life - signs with a heated "wand ''; once confirmed as dead, the body is dragged from the arena.
Whether these victims were gladiators or noxii is unknown. Modern pathological examination confirms the probably fatal use of a mallet on some, but not all the gladiator skulls found in a gladiators ' cemetery. Kyle (1998) proposes that gladiators who disgraced themselves might have been subjected to the same indignities as noxii, denied the relative mercies of a quick death and dragged from the arena as carrion. Whether the corpse of such a gladiator could be redeemed from further ignominy by friends or familia is not known.
The bodies of noxii, and possibly some damnati, were thrown into rivers or dumped unburied; Denial of funeral rites and memorial condemned the shade (manes) of the deceased to restless wandering upon the earth as a dreadful larva or lemur. Ordinary citizens, slaves and freedmen were usually buried beyond the town or city limits, to avoid the ritual and physical pollution of the living; professional gladiators had their own, separate cemeteries. The taint of infamia was perpetual.
Gladiators could subscribe to a union (collegia), which ensured their proper burial, and sometimes a pension or compensation for wives and children. Otherwise, the gladiator 's familia, which included his lanista, comrades and blood - kin, might fund his funeral and memorial costs, and use the memorial to assert their moral reputation as responsible, respectful colleagues or family members. Some monuments record the gladiator 's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories -- sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath -- defeats, career duration, and age at death. Some include the gladiator 's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included an engraved trident and sword. A wealthy editor might commission artwork to celebrate a particularly successful or memorable show, and include named portraits of winners and losers in action; the Borghese Gladiator Mosaic is a notable example. Most gladiators, however, would have had less costly forms of memorial. Tomb inscriptions from the Eastern Roman Empire include these brief examples:
"The familia set this up in memory of Saturnilos. '' "For Nikepharos, son of Synetos, Lakedaimonian, and for Narcissus the secutor. Titus Flavius Satyrus set up this monument in his memory from his own money. '' "For Hermes. Paitraeites with his cell - mates set this up in memory ''.
Very little evidence survives of the religious beliefs of gladiators as a class, or their expectations of an afterlife. Modern scholarship offers little support for the once - prevalent notion that gladiators, venatores and bestiarii were personally or professionally dedicated to the cult of the Graeco - Roman goddess Nemesis. Rather, she seems to have represented a kind of "Imperial Fortuna '' who dispensed Imperial retribution on the one hand, and Imperially subsidised gifts on the other - including the munera. One gladiator 's tomb dedication clearly states that her decisions are not to be trusted. Many gladiator epitaphs claim Nemesis, fate, deception or treachery as the instrument of their death, never the superior skills of the flesh - and - blood adversary who defeated and killed them. Having no personal responsibility for his own defeat and death, the losing gladiator remains the better man, worth avenging.
"I, Victor, left - handed, lie here, but my homeland was in Thessalonica. Doom killed me, not the liar Pinnas. No longer let him boast. I had a fellow gladiator, Polyneikes, who killed Pinnas and avenged me. Claudius Thallus set up this memorial from what I left behind as a legacy. ''
A gladiator might expect to fight in two or three munera annually, and an unknown number would have died in their first match. Few gladiators survived more than 10 contests, though one survived an extraordinary 150 bouts; and another died at 90 years of age, presumably long after retirement. A natural death following retirement is also likely for three individuals who died at 38, 45, and 48 years respectively. George Ville, using evidence from 1st century gladiator headstones, calculated an average age at death of 27, and mortality "among all who entered the arena '' at 19 / 100. Marcus Junkelmann disputes Ville 's calculation for average age at death; the majority would have received no headstone, and would have died early in their careers, at 18 -- 25 years of age. Between the early and later Imperial periods the risk of death for defeated gladiators rose from 1 / 5 to 1 / 4, perhaps because missio was granted less often. Hopkins and Beard tentatively estimate a total of 400 arenas throughout the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, with a combined total of 8,000 deaths per annum from executions, combats and accidents.
The earliest named gladiator school (singular: ludus; plural: ludi) is that of Aurelius Scaurus at Capua. He was lanista of the gladiators employed by the state circa 105 BC to instruct the legions and simultaneously entertain the public. Few other lanistae are known by name: they headed their familia gladiatoria, and had lawful power over life and death of every family member, including servi poenae, auctorati and ancillaries. Socially, they were infames, on a footing with pimps and butchers and despised as price gougers. No such stigma was attached to a gladiator owner (munerarius or editor) of good family, high status and independent means; Cicero congratulated his friend Atticus on buying a splendid troop -- if he rented them out, he might recover their entire cost after two performances.
The Spartacus revolt had originated in a gladiator school privately owned by Lentulus Batiatus, and had been suppressed only after a protracted series of costly, sometimes disastrous campaigns by regular Roman troops. In the late Republican era, a fear of similar uprisings, the usefulness of gladiator schools in creating private armies, and the exploitation of munera for political gain led to increased restrictions on gladiator school ownership, siting and organisation. By Domitian 's time, many had been more or less absorbed by the State, including those at Pergamum, Alexandria, Praeneste and Capua. The city of Rome itself had four; the Ludus Magnus (the largest and most important, housing up to about 2,000 gladiators), Ludus Dacicus, Ludus Gallicus, and the Ludus Matutinus, which trained bestiarii.
In the Imperial era, volunteers required a magistrate 's permission to join a school as auctorati. If this was granted, the school 's physician assessed their suitability. Their contract (auctoramentum) stipulated how often they were to perform, their fighting style and earnings. A condemned bankrupt or debtor accepted as novice (novicius) could negotiate with his lanista or editor for the partial or complete payment of his debt. Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled auctorati, Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000 sesterces.
All prospective gladiators, whether volunteer or condemned, were bound to service by a sacred oath (sacramentum). Novices (novicii) trained under teachers of particular fighting styles, probably retired gladiators. They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (singular: palus) in which primus palus was the highest. Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools -- weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used. Fighting styles were probably learned through constant rehearsal as choreographed "numbers ''. An elegant, economical style was preferred. Training included preparation for a stoical, unflinching death. Successful training required intense commitment.
Those condemned ad ludum were probably branded or marked with a tattoo (stigma, plural stigmata) on the face, legs and / or hands. These stigmata may have been text -- slaves were sometimes thus marked on the forehead until Constantine banned the use of facial stigmata in 325 AD. Soldiers were routinely marked on the hand.
Gladiators were typically accommodated in cells, arranged in barrack formation around a central practice arena. Juvenal describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: "even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they 're separate ''. Retiarii were kept away from damnati, and "fag targeteers '' from "armoured heavies ''. As most ordinarii at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful munus. Discipline could be extreme, even lethal. Remains of a Pompeian ludus site attest to developments in supply, demand and discipline; in its earliest phase, the building could accommodate 15 -- 20 gladiators. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible.
Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their lanista and were otherwise well fed and cared for. Their daily, high - energy, vegetarian diet consisted of barley, boiled beans, oatmeal, ash and dried fruit. Gladiators were sometimes called hordearii ("eaters of barley) ''. Romans considered barley inferior to wheat -- a punishment for legionaries replaced their wheat ration with it -- but it was thought to strengthen the body. Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regimen. Part of Galen 's medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long term health prospects of the gladiators.
"He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword. '' The gladiator 's oath as cited by Petronius (Satyricon, 117).
Modern customs and institutions offer few useful parallels to the legal and social context of the gladiatoria munera In Roman law, anyone condemned to the arena or the gladiator schools (damnati ad ludum) was a servus poenae (slave of the penalty), and was considered to be under sentence of death unless manumitted. A rescript of Hadrian reminded magistrates that "those sentenced to the sword '' (execution) should be despatched immediately "or at least within the year '', and those sentenced to the ludi should not be discharged before five years, or three years if granted manumission. On the one hand, only slaves found guilty of specific offences could be sentenced to the arena; citizens were legally exempt from this sentence. On the other hand, citizens found guilty of particular offenses could be stripped of citizenship, formally enslaved, then sentenced as slaves; and freedmen or freedwomen offenders could be legally reverted to slavery. Arena punishment could be meted for banditry, theft and arson, or treasonous acts such as rebellion, census evasion to avoid paying due taxes and refusal to swear lawful oaths.
Offenders seen as particularly obnoxious to the state (noxii) received the most humiliating punishments. By the 1st century BC, noxii were being condemned to the beasts (damnati ad bestias) in the arena, with almost no chance of survival, or were made to kill each other. From the early Imperial era, some were forced to participate in humiliating and novel forms of mythological or historical enactment, culminating in their execution.
Those judged less harshly might be condemned ad ludum venatorium or ad gladiatorium -- combat with animals or gladiators -- and armed as thought appropriate. These damnati at least might put on a good show and retrieve some respect. They might even -- and occasionally did -- survive to fight another day. Some may even have become "proper '' gladiators.
The phenomenon of the "volunteer '' gladiator is more problematic. All contracted volunteers, including those of equestrian and senatorial class, were legally enslaved by their auctoratio because it involved their potentially lethal submission to a master. Nor does the citizen or free volunteer 's "professional '' status translate into modern terms. All arenarii (those who appeared in the arena) were "infames by reputation '', a form of social dishonour which excluded them from most of the advantages and rights of citizenship. Payment for such appearances compounded their infamia. The legal and social status of even the most popular and wealthy auctorati was thus marginal at best. They could not vote, plead in court nor leave a will; unless they were manumitted, their lives and property belonged to their masters. Nevertheless, there is evidence of informal if not entirely lawful practices to the contrary. Some "unfree '' gladiators bequeathed money and personal property to wives and children, possibly via a sympathetic owner or familia; some had their own slaves and gave them their freedom. One gladiator was even granted "citizenship '' to several Greek cities of the Eastern Roman world.
Among the most admired and skilled auctorati were those who, having been granted manumission, volunteered to fight in the arena. Some of these highly trained and experienced specialists may have had no other practical choice open to them. Their legal status -- slave or free -- is uncertain. Under Roman law, a former gladiator could not "offer such services (as those of a gladiator) after manumission, because they can not be performed without endangering (his) life. ''
Caesar 's munus of 46 BC included at least one equestrian, son of a Praetor, and possibly two senatorial volunteers. Under Augustus, senators and equestrians and their descendants were formally excluded from the infamia of association with the arena and its personnel (arenarii). However, some magistrates -- and some later Emperors -- tacitly or openly condoned such transgressions and some volunteers were prepared to embrace the resulting loss of status. Some did so for payment, some for military glory and, in one recorded case, for personal honour. In 11 AD, Augustus, who enjoyed the games, bent his own rules and allowed equestrians to volunteer because "the prohibition was no use ''. Under Tiberius, the Larinum decree (19AD) reiterated the laws which Augustus himself had waived. Thereafter, Caligula flouted them and Claudius strengthened them. Nero and Commodus ignored them. Valentinian II, some hundreds of years later, protested against the same infractions and repeated similar laws: his was an officially Christian empire.
One very notable social renegade was an aristocratic descendant of the Gracchi, infamous for his marriage, as a bride, to a male horn player. He made a voluntary and "shameless '' arena appearance not only as a lowly retiarius tunicatus but in woman 's attire and a conical hat adorned with gold ribbon. In Juvenal 's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self - display, applause and the disgrace he inflicted on his more sturdy opponent by repeatedly skipping away from the confrontation.
As munera grew larger and more popular, open spaces such as the Forum Romanum were adapted (as the Forum Boarium had been) as venues in Rome and elsewhere, with temporary, elevated seating for the patron and high status spectators; they were popular but not truly public events:
A show of gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the market - place, and most of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting them for advantage. Caius commanded them to take down their scaffolds, that the poor people might see the sport without paying anything. But nobody obeying these orders of his, he gathered together a body of labourers, who worked for him, and overthrew all the scaffolds the very night before the contest was to take place. So that by the next morning the market - place was cleared, and the common people had an opportunity of seeing the pastime. In this, the populace thought he had acted the part of a man; but he much disobliged the tribunes his colleagues, who regarded it as a piece of violent and presumptuous interference.
Towards the end of the Republic, Cicero (Murena, 72 -- 3) still describes gladiator shows as ticketed -- their political usefulness was served by inviting the rural tribunes of the plebs, not the people of Rome en masse -- but in Imperial times, poor citizens in receipt of the corn dole were allocated at least some free seating, possibly by lottery. Others had to pay. Ticket scalpers (Locarii) sometimes sold or let out seats at inflated prices. Martial wrote that "Hermes (a gladiator who always drew the crowds) means riches for the ticket scalpers ''.
The earliest known Roman amphitheatre was built at Pompeii by Sullan colonists, around 70 BC. The first in the city of Rome was the extraordinary wooden amphitheatre of Gaius Scribonius Curio (built in 53 BC). The first part - stone amphitheatre in Rome was inaugurated in 29 -- 30 BC, in time for the triple triumph of Octavian (later Augustus). Shortly after it burned down in 64 AD, Vespasian began its replacement, later known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum), which seated 50,000 spectators and would remain the largest in the Empire. It was inaugurated by Titus in 80 AD as the personal gift of the Emperor to the people of Rome, paid for by the imperial share of booty after the Jewish Revolt.
Amphitheatres were usually oval in plan. Their seating tiers surrounded the arena below, where the community 's judgments were meted out, in full public view. From across the stands, crowd and editor could assess each other 's character and temperament. For the crowd, amphitheatres afforded unique opportunities for free expression and free speech (theatralis licentia). Petitions could be submitted to the editor (as magistrate) in full view of the community. Factiones and claques could vent their spleen on each other, and occasionally on Emperors. The emperor Titus 's dignified yet confident ease in his management of an amphitheatre crowd and its factions were taken as a measure of his enormous popularity and the rightness of his imperium. The amphitheatre munus thus served the Roman community as living theatre and a court in miniature, in which judgement could be served not only on those in the arena below, but on their judges. Amphitheatres also provided a means of social control. Their seating was "disorderly and indiscriminate '' until Augustus prescribed its arrangement in his Social Reforms. To persuade the Senate, he expressed his distress on behalf of a Senator who could not find seating at a crowded games in Puteoli:
In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed. He separated the soldiery from the people. He assigned special seats to the married men of the commons, to boys under age their own section and the adjoining one to their preceptors; and he decreed that no one wearing a dark cloak should sit in the middle of the house. He would not allow women to view even the gladiators except from the upper seats, though it had been the custom for men and women to sit together at such shows. Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor 's tribunal.
These arrangements do not seem to have been strongly enforced.
Popular factions supported favourite gladiators and gladiator types. Under Augustan legislation, the Samnite type was renamed Secutor ("chaser '', or "pursuer ''). The secutor was equipped with a long, heavy "large '' shield called a scutum); Secutores, their supporters and any heavyweight secutor - based types such as the Murmillo were secutarii. Lighter types, such as the Thraex, were equipped with a smaller, lighter shield called a parma, from which they and their supporters were named parmularii ("small shields ''). Titus and Trajan preferred the parmularii and Domitian the secutarii; Marcus Aurelius took neither side. Nero seems to have enjoyed the brawls between rowdy, enthusiastic and sometimes violent factions, but called in the troops if they went too far.
There were also local rivalries. At Pompeii 's amphitheatre, during Nero 's reign, the trading of insults between Pompeians and Nucerian spectators during public ludi led to stone throwing and riot. Many were killed or wounded. Nero banned gladiator munera (though not the games) at Pompeii for ten years as punishment. The story is told in Pompeian graffiti and high quality wall painting, with much boasting of Pompeii 's "victory '' over Nuceria.
A man who knows how to conquer in war is a man who knows how to arrange a banquet and put on a show.
Rome was essentially a landowning military aristocracy. From the early days of the Republic, ten years of military service were a citizen 's duty and a prerequisite for election to public office. Devotio (willingness to sacrifice one 's life to the greater good) was central to the Roman military ideal, and was the core of the Roman military oath. It applied from highest to lowest alike in the chain of command. As a soldier committed his life (voluntarily, at least in theory) to the greater cause of Rome 's victory, he was not expected to survive defeat.
The Punic Wars of the late 3rd century BC -- in particular the near - catastrophic defeat of Roman arms at Cannae -- had long - lasting effects on the Republic, its citizen armies, and the development of the gladiatorial munera. In the aftermath of Cannae, Scipio Africanus crucified Roman deserters and had non-Roman deserters thrown to the beasts. The Senate refused to ransom Hannibal 's Roman captives: instead, they consulted the Sibylline books, then made drastic preparations:
In obedience to the Books of Destiny, some strange and unusual sacrifices were made, human sacrifices amongst them. A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium... They were lowered into a stone vault, which had on a previous occasion also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings. When the gods were believed to be duly propitiated... Armour, weapons, and other things of the kind were ordered to be in readiness, and the ancient spoils gathered from the enemy were taken down from the temples and colonnades. The dearth of freemen necessitated a new kind of enlistment; 8,000 sturdy youths from amongst the slaves were armed at the public cost, after they had each been asked whether they were willing to serve or no. These soldiers were preferred, as there would be an opportunity of ransoming them when taken prisoners at a lower price.
The account notes, uncomfortably, the bloodless human sacrifices performed to help turn the tide of the war in Rome 's favour. While the Senate mustered their willing slaves, Hannibal offered his dishonoured Roman captives a chance for honourable death, in what Livy describes as something very like the Roman munus. The munus thus represented an essentially military, self - sacrificial ideal, taken to extreme fulfillment in the gladiator 's oath. By the devotio of a voluntary oath, a slave might achieve the quality of a Roman (Romanitas), become the embodiment of true virtus (manliness, or manly virtue), and paradoxically, be granted missio while remaining a slave. The gladiator as a specialist fighter, and the ethos and organization of the gladiator schools, would inform the development of the Roman military as the most effective force of its time. In 107 BC, the Marian Reforms established the Roman army as a professional body. Two years later, following its defeat at Arausio:
... weapons training was given to soldiers by P. Rutilius, consul with C. Mallis. For he, following the example of no previous general, with teachers summoned from the gladiatorial training school of C. Aurelus Scaurus, implanted in the legions a more sophisticated method of avoiding and dealing a blow and mixed bravery with skill and skill back again with virtue so that skill became stronger by bravery 's passion and passion became more wary with the knowledge of this art.
The military were great aficionados of the games, and supervised the schools. Many schools and amphitheatres were sited at or near military barracks, and some provincial army units owned gladiator troupes. As the Republic wore on, the term of military service increased from ten to the sixteen years formalised by Augustus in the Principate. It would rise to twenty, and later, to twenty five years. Roman military discipline was ferocious; severe enough to provoke mutiny, despite the consequences. A career as a volunteer gladiator may have seemed an attractive option for some.
In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, Otho 's troops at Bedriacum included 2000 gladiators. Opposite him on the field, Vitellius 's army was swollen by levies of slaves, plebs and gladiators. In 167 AD, troop depletions by plague and desertion may have prompted Marcus Aurelius to draft gladiators at his own expense. During the Civil Wars that led to the Principate, Octavian (later Augustus) acquired the personal gladiator troop of his erstwhile opponent, Mark Antony. They had served their late master with exemplary loyalty but thereafter, they disappear from the record.
Roman writing as a whole demonstrates a deep ambivalence towards the gladiatoria munera. Even the most complex and sophisticated munera of the Imperial era evoked the ancient, ancestral dii manes of the underworld and were framed by the protective, lawful rites of sacrificium. Their popularity made their co-option by the state inevitable; Cicero acknowledged their sponsorship as a political imperative. Despite the popular adulation of gladiators, they were set apart, despised; and despite Cicero 's contempt for the mob, he shared their admiration: "Even when (gladiators) have been felled, let alone when they are standing and fighting, they never disgrace themselves. And suppose a gladiator has been brought to the ground, when do you ever see one twist his neck away after he has been ordered to extend it for the death blow? '' His own death would later emulate this example. Yet, Cicero could also refer to his popularist opponent Clodius, publicly and scathingly, as a bustuarius -- literally, a "funeral - man '', implying that Clodius has shown the moral temperament of the lowest sort of gladiator. Such finer distinctions aside, "gladiator '' could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period, and "Samnite '' doubled the insult, despite the popularity of the Samnite type. Silius Italicus wrote, as the games approached their peak, that the degenerate Campanians had devised the very worst of precedents, which now threatened the moral fabric of Rome: "It was their custom to enliven their banquets with bloodshed and to combine with their feasting the horrid sight of armed men ((Samnites)) fighting; often the combatants fell dead above the very cups of the revelers, and the tables were stained with streams of blood. Thus demoralised was Capua. '' Death could be rightly meted out as punishment, or met with equanimity in peace or war, as a gift of fate; but when inflicted as entertainment, with no underlying moral or religious purpose, it could only pollute and demean those who witnessed it.
The munus itself could be interpreted as pious necessity, but its increasing luxury corroded Roman virtue, and created an un-Roman appetite for profligacy and self - indulgence. Caesar 's 46 BC ludi were mere entertainment for political gain, a waste of lives and of money that would have been better doled out to his legionary veterans. Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius -- both professed Stoics -- the degradation of gladiators in the munus highlighted their Stoic virtues: their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death. Having "neither hope nor illusions '', the gladiator could transcend his own debased nature, and disempower death itself by meeting it face to face. Courage, dignity, altruism and loyalty were morally redemptive; Lucian idealised this principle in his story of Sisinnes, who voluntarily fought as a gladiator, earned 10,000 drachmas and used it to buy freedom for his friend, Toxaris. Seneca had a lower opinion of the mob 's un-Stoical appetite for ludi meridiani: "Man (is)... now slaughtered for jest and sport; and those whom it used to be unholy to train for the purpose of inflicting and enduring wounds are thrust forth exposed and defenceless. ''
These accounts seek a higher moral meaning from the munus, but Ovid 's very detailed (though satirical) instructions for seduction in the amphitheatre suggest that the spectacles could generate a potent and dangerously sexual atmosphere. Augustan seating prescriptions placed women -- excepting the Vestals, who were legally inviolate -- as far as possible from the action of the arena floor; or tried to. There remained the thrilling possibility of clandestine sexual transgression by high - caste spectators and their heroes of the arena. Such assignations were a source for gossip and satire but some became unforgivably public:
What was the youthful charm that so fired Eppia? What hooked her? What did she see in him to make her put up with being called "the gladiator 's moll ''? Her poppet, her Sergius, was no chicken, with a dud arm that prompted hope of early retirement. Besides his face looked a proper mess, helmet - scarred, a great wart on his nose, an unpleasant discharge always trickling from one eye. But he was a gladiator. That word makes the whole breed seem handsome, and made her prefer him to her children and country, her sister, her husband. Steel is what they fall in love with.
Eppia -- a senator 's wife -- and her Sergius eloped to Egypt, where he deserted her. Most gladiators would have aimed lower. Two wall graffiti in Pompeii describe Celadus the Thraex as "the sigh of the girls '' and "the glory of the girls '' -- which may or may not have been Celadus ' own wishful thinking.
In the later Imperial era, Servius Maurus Honoratus uses the same disparaging term as Cicero -- bustuarius -- for gladiators. Tertullian used it somewhat differently -- all victims of the arena were sacrificial in his eyes -- and expressed the paradox of the arenarii as a class, from a Christian viewpoint:
On the one and the same account they glorify them and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum, senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace.
In this new Play, I attempted to follow the old custom of mine, of making a fresh trial; I brought it on again. In the first Act I pleased; when in the meantime a rumor spread that gladiators were about to be exhibited; the populace flock together, make a tumult, clamor aloud, and fight for their places: meantime, I was unable to maintain my place.
Images of gladiators could be found throughout the Republic and Empire, among all classes. Walls in the 2nd century BC "Italian Agora '' at Delos were decorated with paintings of gladiators. Mosaics dating from the 2nd through 4th centuries AD have been invaluable in the reconstruction of combat and its rules, gladiator types and the development of the munus. Throughout the Roman world, ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall paintings and statuary offer evidence, sometimes the best evidence, of the clothing, props, equipment, names, events, prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat. Earlier periods provide only occasional, perhaps exceptional examples. The Gladiator Mosaic in the Galleria Borghese displays several gladiator types, and the Bignor Roman Villa mosaic from Provincial Britain shows Cupids as gladiators. Souvenir ceramics were produced depicting named gladiators in combat; similar images of higher quality, were available on more expensive articles in high quality ceramic, glass or silver.
Pliny the Elder gives vivid examples of the popularity of gladiator portraiture in Antium and an artistic treat laid on by an adoptive aristocrat for the solidly plebeian citizens of the Roman Aventine:
When a freedman of Nero was giving a gladiatorial show at Antium, the public porticoes were covered with paintings, so we are told, containing life - like portraits of all the gladiators and assistants. This portraiture of gladiators has been the highest interest in art for many centuries now, but it was Gaius Terentius who began the practice of having pictures made of gladiatorial shows and exhibited in public; in honour of his grandfather who had adopted him he provided thirty pairs of Gladiators in the Forum for three consecutive days, and exhibited a picture of the matches in the Grove of Diana.
The decline of the munus was a far from straightforward process. The crisis of the 3rd century imposed increasing military demands on the imperial purse, from which the Roman Empire never quite recovered, and lesser magistrates found the obligatory munera an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office. Still, emperors continued to subsidize the games as a matter of undiminished public interest. In the early 3rd century AD, the Christian writer Tertullian had acknowledged their power over the Christian flock, and was compelled to be blunt: the combats were murder, their witnessing spiritually and morally harmful and the gladiator an instrument of pagan human sacrifice. In the next century, Augustine of Hippo deplored the youthful fascination of his friend (and later fellow - convert and Bishop) Alypius of Thagaste, with the munera spectacle as inimical to a Christian life and salvation. Amphitheatres continued to host the spectacular administration of Imperial justice: in 315 Constantine the Great condemned child - snatchers ad bestias in the arena. Ten years later, he banned the gladiator munera:
In times in which peace and peace relating to domestic affairs prevail bloody demonstrations displease us. Therefore, we order that there may be no more gladiator combats. Those who were condemned to become gladiators for their crimes are to work from now on in the mines. Thus they pay for their crimes without having to pour their blood.
An imperially sanctioned munus at some time in the 330s suggests that yet again, imperial legislation failed to entirely curb the games, not least when Constantine defied his own law. In 365, Valentinian I (r. 364 -- 375) threatened to fine a judge who sentenced Christians to the arena and in 384 attempted, like most of his predecessors, to limit the expenses of munera.
In 393, Theodosius I (r. 379 -- 395) adopted Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire and banned pagan festivals. The ludi continued, very gradually shorn of their stubbornly pagan munera. Honorius (r. 395 -- 423) legally ended munera in 399, and again in 404, at least in the Western Roman Empire. According to Theodoret, the ban was in consequence of Saint Telemachus ' martyrdom by spectators at a munus. Valentinian III (r. 425 -- 455) repeated the ban in 438, perhaps effectively, though venationes continued beyond 536. By this time, interest in munera had waned throughout the Roman world. In the Eastern Empire, theatrical shows and chariot races continued to attract the crowds, and drew a generous Imperial subsidy.
It is not known how many gladiatoria munera were given throughout the Roman period. Many, if not most, involved venationes, and in the later Empire some may have been only that. In 165 BC, at least one munus was held during April 's Megalesia. In the early Imperial era, munera in Pompeii and neighbouring towns were dispersed from March through November. They included a provincial magnate 's five - day munus of thirty pairs, plus beast - hunts. A single late primary source, the Calendar of Furius Dionysius Philocalus for 354, shows how seldom gladiators featured among a multitude of official festivals. Of 176 days reserved for spectacles of various kinds, 102 were for theatrical shows, 64 for chariot races and just 10 in December for gladiator games and venationes. Thomas Wiedemann interprets this in the much earlier context of the Historia Augusta, in which Alexander Severus (r. 222 -- 235) was said to intend the redistribution of munera throughout the year. This would have broken with what had become the traditional positioning of the major gladiator games, at the year 's end: as Wiedemann points out, December was the month for Saturnalia, the festival in which the lowest became the highest, and in which death was linked to renewal.
Some Roman reenactors attempt to recreate Roman gladiator troupes. Some of these groups are part of larger Roman reenactment groups, and others are wholly independent, though they might participate in larger demonstrations of Roman reenacting or historical reenacting in general. These groups usually focus on portraying mock gladiatorial combat in as accurate a manner as possible.
Gladiator show fight in Trier in 2005.
Nimes, 2005.
Carnuntum, Austria, 2007.
Video of a show fight at the Roman Villa Borg, Germany, in 2011 (Retiarius vs. Secutor, Thraex vs. Murmillo).
Gladiator fights have been depicted in a number of peplum films (also known as "sword - and - sandal '' movies). This is a genre of largely Italian - made historical epics (costume dramas) that dominated the Italian film industry from 1958 to 1965. They can be immediately differentiated from the competing Hollywood product by their use of dubbing. The pepla attempted to emulate the big - budget Hollywood historical epics of the time, such as Spartacus. Inspired by the success of Spartacus, there were a number of Italian peplums that emphasized the gladiatorial arena fights in their plots, with it becoming almost a peplum subgenre in itself; One group of supermen known as "The Ten Gladiators '' appeared in a trilogy, all three films starring Dan Vadis in the lead role.
The Arena (also known as the Naked Warriors) is a 1974 gladiator exploitation film, starring Margaret Markov and Pam Grier, and directed by Steve Carver and an uncredited Joe D'Amato. Grier and Markov portray female gladiators in ancient Rome, who have been enslaved and must fight for their freedom. Gladiator is a 2000 British - American epic historical drama film directed by Ridley Scott, and starring Russell Crowe and Joaquin Phoenix. Crowe portrays a fictional Roman general who is reduced to slavery and then rises through the ranks of the gladiatorial arena to avenge the murder of his family. Amazons and Gladiators is a 2001 drama action adventure film directed and written by Zachary Weintraub starring Patrick Bergin and Jennifer Rubin.
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what is the eia/tia 232 protocol concerned with | RS - 232 - wikipedia
In telecommunications, RS - 232, Recommended Standard 232 is a standard introduced in 1960 for serial communication transmission of data. It formally defines the signals connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit - terminating equipment or data communication equipment), such as a modem. The RS - 232 standard had been commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors. The current version of the standard is TIA - 232 - F Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit - Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in 1997.
An RS - 232 serial port was once a standard feature of a personal computer, used for connections to modems, printers, mice, data storage, uninterruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices. RS - 232, when compared to later interfaces such as RS - 422, RS - 485 and Ethernet, has lower transmission speed, short maximum cable length, large voltage swing, large standard connectors, no multipoint capability and limited multidrop capability. In modern personal computers, USB has displaced RS - 232 from most of its peripheral interface roles. Many computers no longer come equipped with RS - 232 ports (although some motherboards come equipped with a COM port header that allows the user to install a bracket with a DE-9 port) and must use either an external USB - to - RS - 232 converter or an internal expansion card with one or more serial ports to connect to RS - 232 peripherals. Nevertheless, thanks to their simplicity and past ubiquity, RS - 232 interfaces are still used -- particularly in industrial machines, networking equipment, and scientific instruments where a short - range, point - to - point, low - speed wired data connection is adequate.
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard RS - 232 - C as of 1969 defines:
The standard does not define such elements as the character encoding (i.e. ASCII, EBCDIC, or others), the framing of characters (start or stop bits, etc.), transmission order of bits, or error detection protocols. The character format and transmission bit rate are set by the serial port hardware which may also contain circuits to convert the internal logic levels to RS - 232 compatible signal levels. The standard does not define bit rates for transmission, except that it says it is intended for bit rates lower than 20,000 bits per second.
RS - 232 was first introduced in 1960 by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) as a Recommended Standard. The original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters, and the original DCEs were (usually) modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb) began to be used, they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypewriters, and so supported RS - 232. The C revision of the standard was issued in 1969 in part to accommodate the electrical characteristics of these devices.
Because the standard did not foresee the requirements of devices such as computers, printers, test instruments, POS terminals, and so on, designers implementing an RS - 232 compatible interface on their equipment often interpreted the standard idiosyncratically. The resulting common problems were non-standard pin assignment of circuits on connectors, and incorrect or missing control signals. The lack of adherence to the standards produced a thriving industry of breakout boxes, patch boxes, test equipment, books, and other aids for the connection of disparate equipment. A common deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage. Some manufacturers therefore built transmitters that supplied + 5 V and − 5 V and labeled them as "RS - 232 compatible ''.
Later personal computers (and other devices) started to make use of the standard so that they could connect to existing equipment. For many years, an RS - 232 - compatible port was a standard feature for serial communications, such as modem connections, on many computers (with the computer acting as the DTE). It remained in widespread use into the late 1990s. In personal computer peripherals, it has largely been supplanted by other interface standards, such as USB. RS - 232 is still used to connect older designs of peripherals, industrial equipment (such as PLCs), console ports, and special purpose equipment.
The standard has been renamed several times during its history as the sponsoring organization changed its name, and has been variously known as EIA RS - 232, EIA 232, and, most recently as TIA 232. The standard continued to be revised and updated by the Electronic Industries Association and since 1988 by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). Revision C was issued in a document dated August 1969. Revision D was issued in 1986. The current revision is TIA - 232 - F Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit - Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in 1997. Changes since Revision C have been in timing and details intended to improve harmonization with the CCITT standard V. 24, but equipment built to the current standard will interoperate with older versions.
Related ITU - T standards include V. 24 (circuit identification) and V. 28 (signal voltage and timing characteristics).
In revision D of EIA - 232, the D - subminiature connector was formally included as part of the standard (it was only referenced in the appendix of RS - 232 - C). The voltage range was extended to ± 25 volts, and the circuit capacitance limit was expressly stated as 2500 pF. Revision E of EIA - 232 introduced a new, smaller, standard D - shell 26 - pin "Alt A '' connector, and made other changes to improve compatibility with CCITT standards V. 24, V. 28 and ISO 2110.
Overview:
Because RS - 232 is used beyond the original purpose of interconnecting a terminal with a modem, successor standards have been developed to address the limitations. Issues with the RS - 232 standard include:
In the book PC 97 Hardware Design Guide, Microsoft deprecated support for the RS - 232 compatible serial port of the original IBM PC design. Today, RS - 232 has mostly been replaced in personal computers by USB for local communications. Advantages compared to RS - 232 are that USB is faster, uses lower voltages, and has connectors that are simpler to connect and use. Disadvantages of USB compared to RS - 232 are that USB is far less immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and that maximum cable length is much shorter (15 meters for RS - 232 v.s. 3 - 5 meters for USB depending on USB speed used).
In fields such as laboratory automation or surveying, RS - 232 devices may continue to be used. Some types of programmable logic controllers, variable - frequency drives, servo drives, and computerized numerical control equipment are programmable via RS - 232. Computer manufacturers have responded to this demand by re-introducing the DE-9M connector on their computers or by making adapters available.
RS - 232 ports are also commonly used to communicate to headless systems such as servers, where no monitor or keyboard is installed, during boot when operating system is not running yet and therefore no network connection is possible. A computer with an RS - 232 serial port can communicate with the serial port of an embedded system (such as a router) as an alternative to monitoring over Ethernet.
In RS - 232, user data is sent as a time - series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each data or control circuit only operates in one direction, that is, signaling from a DTE to the attached DCE or the reverse. Because transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character encoding.
The RS - 232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are either in the range of + 3 to + 15 volts or the range − 3 to − 15 volts with respect to the "Common Ground '' (GND) pin; consequently, the range between − 3 to + 3 volts is not a valid RS - 232 level. For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD, and their secondary channel equivalents), logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called "mark ''. Logic zero is positive and the signal condition is termed "space ''. Control signals have the opposite polarity: the asserted or active state is positive voltage and the deasserted or inactive state is negative voltage. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR).
The standard specifies a maximum open - circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of ± 5 V, ± 10 V, ± 12 V, and ± 15 V are all commonly seen depending on the voltages available to the line driver circuit. Some RS - 232 driver chips have inbuilt circuitry to produce the required voltages from a 3 or 5 volt supply. RS - 232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to ± 25 volts. The slew rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled.
Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These also protect the device 's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS - 232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply with the slew rate requirements for data transmission.
Because both ends of the RS - 232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS - 232 to applications with relatively short cables. If the two devices are far enough apart or on separate power systems, the local ground connections at either end of the cable will have differing voltages; this difference will reduce the noise margin of the signals. Balanced, differential serial connections such as RS - 422, RS - 485, and USB can tolerate larger ground voltage differences because of the differential signaling.
Unused interface signals terminated to ground will have an undefined logic state. Where it is necessary to permanently set a control signal to a defined state, it must be connected to a voltage source that asserts the logic 1 or logic 0 level, for example with a pullup resistor. Some devices provide test voltages on their interface connectors for this purpose.
RS - 232 devices may be classified as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) or Data Circuit - terminating Equipment (DCE); this defines at each device which wires will be sending and receiving each signal. According to the standard, male connectors have DTE pin functions, and female connectors have DCE pin functions. Other devices may have any combination of connector gender and pin definitions. Many terminals were manufactured with female connectors but were sold with a cable with male connectors at each end; the terminal with its cable satisfied the recommendations in the standard.
The standard recommends the D - subminiature 25 - pin connector up to revision C, and makes it mandatory as of revision D. Most devices only implement a few of the twenty signals specified in the standard, so connectors and cables with fewer pins are sufficient for most connections, more compact, and less expensive. Personal computer manufacturers replaced the DB - 25M connector with the smaller DE-9M connector. This connector, with a different pinout (see Serial port pinouts), is prevalent for personal computers and associated devices.
Presence of a 25 - pin D - sub connector does not necessarily indicate an RS - 232 - C compliant interface. For example, on the original IBM PC, a male D - sub was an RS - 232 - C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on reserved pins), but the female D - sub connector on the same PC model was used for the parallel "Centronics '' printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard voltages or signals on some pins of their serial ports.
The standard does not define a maximum cable length, but instead defines the maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely used rule of thumb indicates that cables more than 15 m (50 ft) long will have too much capacitance, unless special cables are used. By using low - capacitance cables, communication can be maintained over larger distances up to about 300 m (1,000 ft). For longer distances, other signal standards are better suited to maintain high speed.
Since the standard definitions are not always correctly applied, it is often necessary to consult documentation, test connections with a breakout box, or use trial and error to find a cable that works when interconnecting two devices. Connecting a fully standard - compliant DCE device and DTE device would use a cable that connects identical pin numbers in each connector (a so - called "straight cable ''). "Gender changers '' are available to solve gender mismatches between cables and connectors. Connecting devices with different types of connectors requires a cable that connects the corresponding pins according to the table below. Cables with 9 pins on one end and 25 on the other are common. Manufacturers of equipment with 8P8C connectors usually provide a cable with either a DB - 25 or DE-9 connector (or sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can work with multiple devices). Poor - quality cables can cause false signals by crosstalk between data and control lines (such as Ring Indicator).
If a given cable will not allow a data connection, especially if a gender changer is in use, a null modem cable may be necessary. Gender changers and null modem cables are not mentioned in the standard, so there is no officially sanctioned design for them.
A minimal "3 - wire '' RS - 232 connection consisting only of transmit data, receive data, and ground, is commonly used when the full facilities of RS - 232 are not required. Even a two - wire connection (data and ground) can be used if the data flow is one way (for example, a digital postal scale that periodically sends a weight reading, or a GPS receiver that periodically sends position, if no configuration via RS - 232 is necessary). When only hardware flow control is required in addition to two - way data, the RTS and CTS lines are added in a 5 - wire version.
The following table lists commonly used RS - 232 signals (called "circuits '' in the specifications) and their pin assignments on the recommended DB - 25 connectors. (See Serial port pinouts) for other commonly used connectors not defined by the standard.)
The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. The ground pin is a common return for the other connections, and establishes the "zero '' voltage to which voltages on the other pins are referenced. The DB - 25 connector includes a second "protective ground '' on pin 1; this is connected internally to equipment frame ground, and should not be connected in the cable or connector to signal ground.
Ring Indicator (RI) is a signal sent from the DCE to the DTE device. It indicates to the terminal device that the phone line is ringing. In many computer serial ports, a hardware interrupt is generated when the RI signal changes state. Having support for this hardware interrupt means that a program or operating system can be informed of a change in state of the RI pin, without requiring the software to constantly "poll '' the state of the pin. RI does not correspond to another signal that carries similar information the opposite way.
On an external modem the status of the Ring Indicator pin is often coupled to the "AA '' (auto answer) light, which flashes if the RI signal has detected a ring. The asserted RI signal follows the ringing pattern closely, which can permit software to detect distinctive ring patterns.
The Ring Indicator signal is used by some older uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to signal a power failure state to the computer.
Certain personal computers can be configured for wake - on - ring, allowing a computer that is suspended to answer a phone call.
The RTS and CTS signals were originally defined for use with half - duplex (one direction at a time) modems such as the Bell 202. These modems disable their transmitters when not required and must transmit a synchronization preamble to the receiver when they are re-enabled. The DTE asserts RTS to indicate a desire to transmit to the DCE, and in response the DCE asserts CTS to grant permission, once synchronization with the DCE at the far end is achieved. Such modems are no longer in common use. There is no corresponding signal that the DTE could use to temporarily halt incoming data from the DCE. Thus RS - 232 's use of the RTS and CTS signals, per the older versions of the standard, is asymmetric.
This scheme is also employed in present - day RS - 232 to RS - 485 converters. RS - 485 is a multiple - access bus on which only one device can transmit at a time, a concept that is not provided for in RS - 232. The RS - 232 device asserts RTS to tell the converter to take control of the RS - 485 bus so that the converter, and thus the RS - 232 device, can send data onto the bus.
Modern communications environments use full - duplex (both directions simultaneously) modems. In that environment, DTEs have no reason to deassert RTS. However, due to the possibility of changing line quality, delays in processing of data, etc., there is a need for symmetric, bidirectional flow control.
A symmetric alternative providing flow control in both directions was developed and marketed in the late 1980s by various equipment manufacturers. It redefined the RTS signal to mean that the DTE is ready to receive data from the DCE. This scheme was eventually codified in version RS - 232 - E (actually TIA - 232 - E by that time) by defining a new signal, "RTR (Ready to Receive) '', which is CCITT V. 24 circuit 133. TIA - 232 - E and the corresponding international standards were updated to show that circuit 133, when implemented, shares the same pin as RTS (Request to Send), and that when 133 is in use, RTS is assumed by the DCE to be asserted at all times.
In this scheme, commonly called "RTS / CTS flow control '' or "RTS / CTS handshaking '' (though the technically correct name would be "RTR / CTS ''), the DTE asserts RTR whenever it is ready to receive data from the DCE, and the DCE asserts CTS whenever it is ready to receive data from the DTE. Unlike the original use of RTS and CTS with half - duplex modems, these two signals operate independently from one another. This is an example of hardware flow control. However, "hardware flow control '' in the description of the options available on an RS - 232 - equipped device does not always mean RTS / CTS handshaking.
Equipment using this protocol must be prepared to buffer some extra data, since the remote system may have begun transmitting just before the local system deasserts RTR.
The EIA - 232 standard specifies connections for several features that are not used in most implementations. Their use requires 25 - pin connectors and cables.
The DTE or DCE can specify use of a "high '' or "low '' signaling rate. The rates, as well as which device will select the rate, must be configured in both the DTE and DCE. The prearranged device selects the high rate by setting pin 23 to ON.
Many DCE devices have a loopback capability used for testing. When enabled, signals are echoed back to the sender rather than being sent on to the receiver. If supported, the DTE can signal the local DCE (the one it is connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 18 to ON, or the remote DCE (the one the local DCE is connected to) to enter loopback mode by setting pin 21 to ON. The latter tests the communications link, as well as both DCEs. When the DCE is in test mode, it signals the DTE by setting pin 25 to ON.
A commonly used version of loopback testing does not involve any special capability of either end. A hardware loopback is simply a wire connecting complementary pins together in the same connector (see loopback).
Loopback testing is often performed with a specialized DTE called a bit error rate tester (or BERT).
Some synchronous devices provide a clock signal to synchronize data transmission, especially at higher data rates. Two timing signals are provided by the DCE on pins 15 and 17. Pin 15 is the transmitter clock, or send timing (ST); the DTE puts the next bit on the data line (pin 2) when this clock transitions from OFF to ON (so it is stable during the ON to OFF transition when the DCE registers the bit). Pin 17 is the receiver clock, or receive timing (RT); the DTE reads the next bit from the data line (pin 3) when this clock transitions from ON to OFF.
Alternatively, the DTE can provide a clock signal, called transmitter timing (TT), on pin 24 for transmitted data. Data is changed when the clock transitions from OFF to ON, and read during the ON to OFF transition. TT can be used to overcome the issue where ST must traverse a cable of unknown length and delay, clock a bit out of the DTE after another unknown delay, and return it to the DCE over the same unknown cable delay. Since the relation between the transmitted bit and TT can be fixed in the DTE design, and since both signals traverse the same cable length, using TT eliminates the issue. TT may be generated by looping ST back with an appropriate phase change to align it with the transmitted data. ST loop back to TT lets the DTE use the DCE as the frequency reference, and correct the clock to data timing.
Synchronous clocking is required for such protocols as SDLC, HDLC, and X. 25.
A secondary data channel, identical in capability to the primary channel, can optionally be implemented by the DTE and DCE devices. Pin assignments are as follows:
Other serial signaling standards may not interoperate with standard - compliant RS - 232 ports. For example, using the TTL levels of near + 5 and 0 V puts the mark level in the undefined area of the standard. Such levels are sometimes used with NMEA 0183 - compliant GPS receivers and depth finders.
A 20 mA current loop uses the absence of 20 mA current for high, and the presence of current in the loop for low; this signaling method is often used for long - distance and optically isolated links. Connection of a current - loop device to a compliant RS - 232 port requires a level translator. Current - loop devices can supply voltages in excess of the withstand voltage limits of a compliant device. The original IBM PC serial port card implemented a 20 mA current - loop interface, which was never emulated by other suppliers of plug - compatible equipment.
Other serial interfaces similar to RS - 232:
When developing or troubleshooting systems using RS - 232, close examination of hardware signals can be important to find problems. A simple indicator device uses LEDs to show the high / low state of data or control pins. Y cables may be used to allow using another serial port to monitor all traffic on one direction. A serial line analyzer is a device similar to a logic analyzer but specialized for RS - 232 's voltage levels, connectors, and, where used, clock signals. The serial line analyzer can collect, store, and display the data and control signals, allowing developers to view them in detail. Some simply display the signals as waveforms; more elaborate versions include the ability to decode characters in ASCII or other common codes and to interpret common protocols used over RS - 232 such as SDLC, HDLC, DDCMP, and X. 25. Serial line analyzers are available as standalone units, as software and interface cables for general - purpose logic analyzers and oscilloscopes, and as programs that run on common personal computers and devices.
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who does the album art for circa survive | Esao Andrews - wikipedia
Esao Andrews is an American painter, working with oil on wood panels. His work blends Gothic grotesque, erotic and surrealism.
Andrews was born and grew up in Mesa, Arizona where he attended Red Mountain High School. He designed skateboards for Baker Skateboards.
Andrews has exhibited in group shows; one with John John Jesse, and another with Travis Louie and Tara McPherson. He has produced cover art for all of Circa Survive 's official releases...
Andrews recently had a story published in the original Fables graphic novel 1001 Nights of Snowfall. He cites Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Alfons Mucha, and Joe Sorren as influences.
Andrews has said, when asked about possible work as an illustrator;
Andrews participated in the 2002 BP Portrait Award at the National Portrait Gallery in London.
On the subject of the diversity of his work, Andrews states that he is constantly looking for new subject matter as he does not want to become known for one subject. Andrews also stated when asked about ' good vs evil ' in his work that he thinks more along the lines of dominant versus subordinate; that he is attempting to catch a moment of mystery or deviousness in his work.
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what year does the movie alpha take place | Alpha (film) - wikipedia
Alpha is a 2018 American historical adventure film directed by Albert Hughes and written by Daniele Sebastian Wiedenhaupt, from a story by Hughes. The film stars Kodi Smit - McPhee as a young hunter who befriends an injured wolf during the last ice age, with Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson as his father. The wolf is played by Chuck, a five - year - old Czechoslovakian Wolfdog.
Principal photography began in February 2016 in Canada and lasted through that April. The film was delayed several times, before being released in the United States on August 17, 2018, by Sony Pictures Releasing. It has grossed over $97 million worldwide and received generally favorable reviews from critics, who praised the performances and cinematography.
In Upper Paleolithic Europe, 20,000 years in the past, a small tribe of hunter - gatherers prepares for an expedition to hunt for the coming winter 's food. Tau, its chief, trains his adolescent son Keda, accepting him and another boy to join the hunting party. His wife Rho worries that Keda is not ready, but Tau believes he is and the hunters set out.
Tau tests Keda by having him kill a boar they 've caught, but Keda balks. One night, the party 's fire draws the attention of a Machairodus, which lunges through their circle, snatching Keda 's friend. Hearing the fatal struggle in the darkness, the tribe gives him up for dead. The member is given a memorial service in the form of placing rocks to symbolize the passing of one 's spirit to the afterlife.
The hunters eventually reach a herd of steppe bison, which they attempt to stampede off a cliff in relative success. Amidst the chaos, a bison rushes Keda and throws him over the edge, leaving him gripping the rough cliff edge with his hand. Keda loses grip and falls to a further ledge where he appears to break his leg and is knocked to unconsciousness. Tau attempts to climb down to him, but he is stopped by another member of the tribe who assures him in good faith that Keda is dead and there would be no way to reach him nonetheless. The tribe leaves and Tau performs another funeral ritual, stricken with grief.
Keda awakes and tries to climb the rest of the way down the cliff. A sudden heavy rainfall causes the ravine below to flood. Losing his grip, Keda jumps into the water. He survives and splints his injured foot before returning to the top of the cliff. Seeing the memorial cairn left by his tribe, he realizes he must trek back to the village by himself.
He is attacked by a pack of wolves, but escapes up a tree, wounding one of them which the others leave behind. Keda takes pity on it and cares for its injury. Gradually gaining the wolf 's trust, he gives it water and then food, establishing himself as dominant by feeding himself first. He sets out for the village without the wolf, but it follows him. Their companionship grows, and they learn to hunt small boar together. Along the way, Keda names the wolf Alpha.
One night, they are approached menacingly by a pack of wolves. They hesitate upon seeing Alpha, who steps forward and greets them. The pack runs off and with Keda 's blessing, Alpha joins them.
Keda continues his journey alone as the season changes to winter. On a frozen lake, he encounters a pack of wolves feeding. Recognizing Alpha, he runs to them, but the ice breaks and he falls through. Alpha helps rescue him and they are reunited.
Continuing the journey together, they find a man who has frozen to death outside his tent and scavenge a bow and arrow from it. Later, they take refuge from cave hyenas in a cave where they are attacked by another Machairodus. Alpha and the Machairodus fight, and Keda kills the Machairodus with the arrow. However, Alpha is badly injured and now travels with difficulty. Meanwhile, Keda begins to cough up blood. When Alpha finally can not walk, Keda carries the wolf.
Keda eventually finds the village and reunites happily with his parents, who are amazed and proud of him. As the village healer tends to Alpha 's wounds, the wolf delivers a litter of pups to Keda 's surprise. Alpha and her pups are formally welcomed into the tribe and grow up in the care of Alpha and Keda.
In time, the tribe becomes one of both humans and domesticated wolves, hunting together.
The film was first announced in September 2015, with Albert Hughes as director, produced by Studio 8. The film uses the IMAX 3D format. Kodi Smit - McPhee was confirmed as its star in November 2015, and other casting was finalized the following February.
Filming took place in Drumheller, Burnaby, and Vancouver, where a large set was built in Boundary Road near East Kent Avenue. Filming in Vancouver took place from February to May 2016, and at Dinosaur Provincial Park near Patricia, Alberta in April 2016, and in Iceland.
The production was investigated after five Alberta bison were allegedly killed in the making of the film. Following an investigation, the American Humane Association denied its "No Animals Were Harmed '' end - credit certification to the production. Two days before the film 's release, PETA called for a boycott of the film.
In June 2017, the film 's title was changed from The Solutrean to Alpha. The term Solutrean is derived from Solutré. Initially set for a September 2017 release date, it was pushed back to March 2018. In December 2017, it was again delayed, this time to September 2018. In April 2018, the release date was moved up to August 17, 2018.
As of September 25, 2018, Alpha has grossed $35.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $55.4 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $90.7 million, against a production budget of $51 million.
In the United States and Canada, Alpha was released alongside Crazy Rich Asians and Mile 22, and was projected to gross $7 -- 9 million from 2,719 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3.4 million on its first day, including $525,000 from Thursday night previews at 2,303 theaters. It went on to debut to $10.3 million, finishing fifth at the box office. In its second weekend the film dropped to seventh place, making $5.6 million.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80 % based on 111 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Well - acted and beautifully filmed, Alpha offers a canine - assisted epic adventure that blends rousing action with an extra helping of canine charm. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 63 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
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where do they film wicked tuna outer banks | Wicked Tuna: Outer Banks - wikipedia
Wicked Tuna: Outer Banks (previously known as Wicked Tuna: North vs. South) is a reality television series about commercial tuna fishermen based in the Outer Banks who fish for the lucrative Atlantic bluefin tuna off the coast of North Carolina. The teams of fishermen battle each other to see who can catch the most fish, while trying to earn their livelihood.
In addition to offering an inside look at one of America 's oldest industries, Wicked Tuna: Outer Banks also sheds light on important issues surrounding the fate of the bluefin tuna. Captains adhere to U.S. regulations that determine size limits and quotas for the season.
Wicked Tuna: Outer Banks is a spin - off of Wicked Tuna. Several vessels from the original show also appear in this version. Originally called Wicked Tuna: North vs. South, the name of the show was changed at the beginning of the second season. Season 3 began airing on July 26, 2016.
Season 4 premiered on Sunday July 30 / 2017 on the National Geographic channel.
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who is the girl that sings the thursday night football song | Thursday Night Football - Wikipedia
12 (NFL Network seasons) 4 (CBS seasons) 2 (NBC seasons)
Thursday Night Football (or simply TNF) is the branding used for broadcasts of National Football League (NFL) games that broadcast primarily on Thursday nights. Most of the games kick off at 8: 25 p.m. Eastern Time, but games in the package also air occasionally on Saturdays in the later portion of the season, as well as a single Sunday morning game from London in the NFL International Series (these games have been branded since 2017 as NFL Network Special).
Debuting on November 23, 2006, the telecasts were originally part of NFL Network 's Run to the Playoffs package, which consisted of eight total games broadcast on Thursday and Saturday nights (five on Thursdays, and three on Saturdays, originally branded as Saturday Night Football) during the latter portion of the season. Since 2012, the TNF package has begun during the second week of the NFL season; the NFL Kickoff Game and the Thanksgiving primetime game are both broadcast as part of NBC Sports ' Sunday Night Football contract and are not included in Thursday Night Football, although the Thanksgiving primetime game was previously part of the package from 2006 until 2011.
At its launch, the package proved highly controversial mainly due to the relative unavailability of NFL Network at the time; the league used the games as leverage to encourage television providers to carry NFL Network on their basic service tiers, rather than in premium, sports - oriented packages that required subscribers to pay a higher fee; although, as with all other national cable telecasts of NFL games, the league 's own regulations require the games to be syndicated to over-the - air television stations in the local markets of the teams. These issues were magnified in 2007, when a game that saw the New England Patriots close out a perfect regular season was simulcast nationally on both CBS and NBC, in addition to NFL Network and the local stations that the game was sold to, following concerns from politicians and other critics.
In 2014, production of the Thursday Night Football games was taken over by CBS Sports under a one - year deal. As part of the deal, CBS would carry nine Thursday night games (which were simulcast on NFL Network) and lend its primary broadcast team, consisting of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms, to cover the remaining Thursday telecasts airing exclusively on NFL Network. In addition, NFL Network extended the length of the Thursday telecasts to Week 16 of the season, and added a new Saturday doubleheader split between CBS and NFL Network. On January 18, 2015, CBS and NFL Network extended the same arrangement for a second season. On February 1, 2016, the NFL announced that CBS and NBC would split the broadcast television portion of the Thursday Night Football schedule for the 2016 and 2017 seasons, with each network broadcasting 5 games per year in simulcast with NFL Network. CBS will air the first 5 games and NBC will air the other 5 games. Additionally, games televised by CBS and NBC are streamed via Amazon 's Prime Video as part of an agreement for the 2017 season.
The games are broadcast on radio via Westwood One, which syndicates the broadcasts to its partner radio stations around the United States. It also airs on Fox Sports Latin America, ESPN Brasil and Esporte Interativo. In Canada, it is simultaneously aired on CTV Two and TSN, the former simsubbing the CBS and NBC feeds, while the NFL Network feed is replaced with alternate programming, mainly consecutive episodes of NFL Top 10.
The NFL Network 's coverage was not the first time that NFL games were covered on Thursday or Saturday. Prior to the new contract, ESPN carried a handful of sporadic Thursday night games (usually those displaced from Sunday night) and the broadcast networks used to air several national games on Saturday afternoons in mid-to - late December after the college football regular season ended. Incidentally, the only reason the league is even allowed to televise football games on Saturday night stems from a legal loophole: the league 's antitrust exemption, the Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961, was written when the NFL regular season ended in mid-December, and as such, it contains specific language that prohibits televising NFL games in most markets on Friday nights and all day on Saturdays between the second week of September and the second week of December, to protect high school and college football. Since most high school and college seasons have ended by mid-December, other than bowl games, there has been little desire to close this loophole, even though the regular season has expanded well beyond mid-December since the law 's passage.
In 2005, when the NFL negotiated a new set of television contracts, Comcast - owned OLN offered to pay $450 million for an eight - year contract to carry NFL prime time games. In exchange, Comcast planned to add NFL Network to its digital cable lineup. The channel was added, but NFL Network decided to air the games itself, foregoing a rights fee. The other television deals generated $3.735 billion per year over an eight - year period for CBS, Fox, NBC, ESPN and DirecTV (owner of the out - of - market sports package NFL Sunday Ticket).
Thursday Night Football debuted on November 23, 2006, with the Kansas City Chiefs handing the visiting Denver Broncos a 19 -- 10 Thanksgiving defeat. Each of the game broadcasts were titled either Thursday Night Football or Saturday Night Football, depending on the night on which it aired. This format carried over to the 2007 season.
Starting in 2008, NFL Network eliminated all but one of the Saturday night games and started their Thursday night package three weeks earlier. This was done to accommodate the earlier schedule and the league 's antitrust exemption that prohibits Saturday games from being held for most of the season. In the following season, all references to Saturday Night Football were dropped, and any games that are not played on Thursday (such as in 2016, two Christmas weekend games and an NFL International Series game) have since been branded as "special editions '' of Thursday Night Football, and later Thursday Night Special or NFL Network Special. The Thanksgiving matchup was moved from NFL Network to NBC 's Sunday Night Football package as part of the new broadcast contract after the 2011 season. During Super Bowl week in 2012, it was announced that the Thursday Night Football package would expand from eight to 13 games and air on NFL Network, again soliciting and rejecting offers from Turner Sports and Comcast.
In January 2014, it was reported that the NFL was planning to sub-license a package of up to eight Thursday Night Football games to another broadcaster for the 2014 NFL season. The league had negotiated with its existing broadcast partners, along with Turner Sports. These eight games were to be simulcast by NFL Network, and reports indicated that ESPN planned to place the games on ABC in the event it won the rights, bringing the NFL back to the network for the first time since Super Bowl XL and the move of Monday Night Football to ESPN in 2006. The remaining games would remain exclusive to NFL Network, due to carriage contracts with TV providers requiring at least eight NFL games to air exclusively on the channel per - season. The decision came as the league wished to heighten the profile of its Thursday night games, which had suffered from relatively lower viewership and advertising revenue in comparison to other games.
On February 5, 2014, the NFL announced that CBS had acquired the partial rights to Thursday Night Football for the 2014 season. Under the agreement, all of the Thursday Night Football telecasts would be produced by CBS Sports and called by the network 's primary announcing team of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms. The first eight games of the season were simulcast nationally on NFL Network and CBS; the remaining games in the package only aired nationally on NFL Network, but per league broadcast polices, were simulcast on local stations in the participating teams ' markets. CBS affiliates were given right of first refusal to air the local simulcast before it is offered to another station (as had occurred in Cincinnati, Ohio where the market 's NBC affiliate WLWT aired a game between the Bengals and the Cleveland Browns instead of CBS affiliate WKRC - TV). A Saturday doubleheader was also added on Week 16: NFL Network aired the early game, while CBS aired the second, prime time game.
The NFL considered CBS 's bid to be the most attractive, owing to the network 's overall ratings stature (CBS had been the highest - rated broadcast network in the U.S. since the 2005 - 06 television season), a commitment to aggressively promote the Thursday games across its properties, and its plans to utilize CBS Sports ' top NFL talent and production staff across all of the games in the package to ensure a major improvement in quality over the previous, in - house productions. CBS staff also cited experience with its joint coverage of the NCAA Men 's basketball tournament with Turner Sports as an advantage in its collaboration with NFL Network staff, as talent from both networks collaborate on pre-game, halftime and post-game coverage. During the games, a distinct graphics package co-branded with both CBS and NFL Network logos is used, certain players on each team wear microphones, and 4K cameras are used to allow zoom - in shots during instant replays.
With the move of selected games to CBS, media executives expected more major match - ups to appear on Thursday Night Football than in previous years in order to attract better viewership; in the past, Thursday Night Football had been criticized for often featuring games between lesser and poorer - performing teams. CBS and the NFL unveiled the games scheduled for Thursday Night Football in April 2014; CBS 's slate of games featured a number of major divisional rivalries, including New York Giants -- Washington, Green Bay -- Minnesota, and its opening game on September 11, 2014, featuring the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Baltimore Ravens.
In the wake of the controversy surrounding Ravens player Ray Rice (who had been removed from the team and suspended from the NFL earlier in the week following the discovery of footage showing the player physically assaulting his wife, Janay, who was engaged to Rice at the time the security camera footage was recorded), changes were made to pre-game coverage on the first game in order to accommodate additional interviews and discussion related to the incident. Among these changes were the removal of an introductory segment featuring Rihanna (who was similarly assaulted by fellow performer Chris Brown in 2009) performing her song "Run This Town ''. Following complaints by Rihanna on Twitter regarding the removal, the song was pulled entirely from future broadcasts.
The rights were negotiated under a one - year contract valued at $275 million; on January 18, 2015, the NFL announced that it would renew the arrangement with CBS for the 2015 season, with its value increasing to around $300 million.
In November 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that in response to the success of the package under CBS, the NFL was planning to negotiate a long - term contract for Thursday Night Football, with CBS, Fox, NBC, and Turner Sports showing interest. The New York Post reported that this deal would also include the sale of a stake in NFL Network itself.
On December 16, 2015, it was reported that the NFL was shopping the Thursday Night Football package as a one - year deal with an option for a second year, similarly to the current arrangement with CBS; the league also requested that bidders outline goals for "growing '' NFL Network. The league was also reportedly interested in selling non-exclusive digital rights to simulcast the games to another partner, such as Amazon.com, Apple Inc., Google, or Yahoo! (which exclusively streamed an International Series as part of a trial during the 2015 season, but would shut down its original video content service in January 2016). In January 2016, it was reported that the NFL was considering splitting the Thursday Night Football package across multiple broadcasters in tandem with the possibility of expanding the overall package to 17 games. It was also reported that ESPN and Turner Sports were not interested in the package due to its short - term nature, and that Fox was attempting to outbid CBS.
On February 1, 2016, the NFL announced that Thursday Night Football would be shared between CBS, NBC, and NFL Network for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. CBS and NBC will each air five games (resulting in a schedule of 10 games on broadcast TV in comparison to 8 under the previous deal), followed by an additional eight games exclusively on NFL Network to satisfy NFL Network 's retransmission consent contracts with cable providers; the eight NFL Network - exclusive games included six Thursday contests, a Sunday morning International Series contest, and a Christmas afternoon game. As with the previous contract, all games will be simulcast by NFL Network. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the league was "thrilled to add NBC to the Thursday Night Football mix, a trusted partner with a proven track record of success broadcasting NFL football in primetime, and look forward to expanding with a digital partner for what will be a unique tri-cast on broadcast, cable and digital platforms. '' On April 5, 2016, it was revealed that Twitter had acquired non-exclusive worldwide digital streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television TNF games. The collaboration will also include streaming content on Twitter 's Periscope service, such as behind the scenes access.
Rogers Media, who owns television rights to the Thursday Night Football package in Canada through the end of the 2016 season but has not yet acquired digital rights (the majority of the NFL 's media rights in Canada are owned by Rogers 's rival, Bell Media), successfully forced Twitter to block the game streams in that country, overriding the league 's insistence that the free stream be global. Due to the streaming deal, over-the - top television providers PlayStation Vue and Sling TV are also required to black out the simulcast of the games on NFL Network.
The first game produced by NBC Sports was broadcast exclusively on NFL Network on November 3, 2016, while the first game simulcast nationally on NBC aired on November 17. A cappella group Pentatonix recorded a reworked version of their song "Sing '' ("Weekend Go '') to serve as the opening theme song for NBC 's Thursday Night Football telecasts, NBC also commissioned new instrumental theme music by Jimmy Greco, "Ca n't Hold Us Down '', which was performed by members of the orchestra from the Broadway musical Hamilton. Both were retained for NBC 's games in 2017.
On April 4, 2017, it was announced that Amazon.com had acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television games for the 2017 season over their Amazon Prime Video service, under a deal valued at $50 million, a five-fold increase over the $10 million paid by Twitter. The streams will be exclusive to paid Prime subscribers. The deal includes $30 million worth of promotion. Amazon planned several special features for its inaugural game, including broadcasting alternate feeds with Spanish, Portuguese and British English commentary (the last of which being intended for those unfamiliar with the rules and terminology of American football), and a pre-show hosted by Tiki Barber and Curtis Stone that featured presentations of NFL merchandise available for purchase on Amazon.
The November 16, 2017 telecast between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Tennessee Titans was the first NFL broadcast to intentionally use the Skycam as its primary camera angle, as opposed to the usual sideline camera that has been used since telecasts of NFL games began in 1939. NBC Sports had previously switched to a skycam - only presentation for portions of two Sunday night games earlier that season because of fog and smoke (and, sixteen years prior, during its coverage of the XFL); positive reaction to the impromptu change prompted NBC to experiment with using the strategy for the full game.
The initial NFL Network team consisted of HBO Sports ' Bryant Gumbel as play - by - play announcer, NBC Sports ' Cris Collinsworth as the color commentator for the Thursday telecasts, and Dick Vermeil replacing Collinsworth for Saturday telecasts. In 2007, Collinsworth replaced Vermeil alongside Gumbel for all games.
Gumbel left the network after the 2007 season and his then - HBO colleague Bob Papa, who is also the radio voice of the New York Giants, was brought in to replace him. Collinsworth stayed on until the end of the 2008 season, then left to take over for the retiring John Madden as lead analyst on NBC Sunday Night Football. NFL Network replaced him with Matt Millen, who returned to broadcasting in 2009, and then added former ESPN analyst Joe Theismann for 2010.
For 2011, then ESPN now CBS play - by - play man Brad Nessler took over the Thursday night broadcast. He was joined by NFL Network draft analyst and NBC Notre Dame color man Mike Mayock, and the pairing spent three seasons calling games.
As a result of CBS taking over production responsibilities for the Thursday Night Football broadcasts, its number one broadcast team of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms took over the broadcast booth. With NBC adding games in 2016, Al Michaels and Cris Collinsworth, the broadcast team of NBC Sunday Night Football, were required under league contract to do the same. NBC had initially hired former Monday Night Football play - by - play man Mike Tirico for Thursdays before the league nixed the idea of any separate broadcast teams for Sunday and Thursday nights. Tirico would eventually call three Sunday Night Football games, including the Thanksgiving night game which is in the SNF package, in order for NBC to allow Michaels over a week 's rest before the end of the season. Tirico would also call the December 22, 2016 TNF game alongside Collinsworth, as well as two NBC - produced Thursday Night Special game broadcasts on December 18 and Christmas Day, respectively, both alongside former USFL and NFL quarterback Doug Flutie, who serves as the analyst for NBC 's college football coverage as well. On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels full - time for NBC 's Thursday Night Football games. For 2017, Kurt Warner will similarly fill in for Collinsworth on two non-Thursday games.
For 2017, CBS hired Tony Romo as its lead color commentator. Numerous complications needed to be resolved, namely Romo 's reluctance to cover both Sunday and Thursday nights as required under the Thursday Night Football contract, and the fact that Simms remains under contract with CBS through the next several years. However, the network confirmed via press release that Romo 's duties would include Sunday and Thursday games.
Each game telecast is preceded on NFL Network by TNF GameDay, which broadcasts live from the site of each game and currently features Rich Eisen as its host, with Steve Mariucci, Deion Sanders, Michael Irvin and either Kurt Warner or other NFL Network colleagues as analysts. The show generally begins two hours before game time (6: 00 p.m. Eastern Time).
The game proper is preceded by a pre-game show; CBS games are preceded by Thursday Night Kickoff, hosted by James Brown, Bill Cowher, and Deion Sanders. NBC games are preceded by Football Night in America (renamed in reference of the host city of the game, such as Football Night in Tampa), hosted by Liam McHugh, Tony Dungy, and Rodney Harrison. CBS joined Thursday Night Kickoff at 7: 30 p.m. Eastern Time during its games. This resulted in some controversy among viewers and the producers of syndicated programming in the locally programmed timeslot before network primetime, where the pre-game affects programs such as Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy! and Entertainment Tonight (all distributed by CBS 's sister syndication division CBS Television Distribution), along with several other programs, which then require pre-emption or slotting on lower - profile alternate timeslots or stations to air in markets where they are carried by CBS or NBC affiliates in order to accommodate the Thursday games.
Westwood One provides national radio broadcasts of the Thursday Night Football games, with Ian Eagle calling play - by - play, Tony Boselli handling color analysis and Hub Arkush as the sideline reporter. Boomer Esiason, the Monday Night Football analyst for Westwood One, is a regular substitute should Boselli be unavailable due to other commitments (in some cases, Esiason would call the Thursday night game if he is unavailable for the previous / next Monday night game and / or if the Thursday game is in close proximity to his New York home.)
This list shows the National Football League teams ' all - time standings in the games they played on Thursday Night Football since 2006.
Standings are current as of December 16, 2017.
† St. Louis Rams, 1995 -- 2015 ‡ San Diego Chargers, 1961 -- 2016
Upon the original launch of the Thursday and Saturday night games, few television service providers carried the NFL Network due to disputes during the network 's terms in its carriage contracts during negotiations. These disputes were magnified throughout the 2007 season, as two high - profile matchups were to be broadcast by the network. The first was a matchup between the Dallas Cowboys and Green Bay Packers which was scheduled for the week after Thanksgiving and saw both teams at 10 - 1, vying for the top seed in the NFC, and the second was Week 17 Saturday night game between the New England Patriots and the New York Giants, where the Patriots had a chance to become the first team since the 1972 Miami Dolphins to end a regular season undefeated.
In the first case, fans were displeased that a matchup between two teams at such a critical point in the season was not available on broadcast television except in the Dallas and Green Bay markets. To avoid such a problem with the potential sixteenth victory for the Patriots, CBS and NBC bought broadcast rights to the game so it could be seen by a nationwide audience on both cable and broadcast television. This ended up causing another controversy, however, as the move by the networks infringed on the exclusivity that would normally have been enjoyed by WWOR - TV in New York City and WCVB - TV in Boston, which were the Giants ' and Patriots ' respective local over-the - air broadcasters for cable - televised games (the game aired on these stations, as well as on WCBS - TV, WNBC, WBZ - TV and WHDH in the teams ' market areas).
Thursday Night Football games on NFL Network are among the lowest - rated nationally televised NFL broadcasts. Critics have argued that the games televised on Thursday Night Football have been of lower quality than other prime time games, as they often featured match - ups between lesser or poor - performing teams, and that the shortened rest between games triggered by Thursday games also has an effect on their overall quality. In an analysis by Sports on Earth writer Aaron Roberts, it was determined that most Thursday games were of average or above - average quality in comparison to normal, non-prime time games, but that this was "by design '' due to the leverage of other NFL broadcasters on how games are scheduled throughout the season (which traditionally prioritizes "major '' games for either late - afternoon or Sunday and Monday nights).
The move of selected games to CBS brought improved ratings: the inaugural game was the highest - rated program of the night, with an audience share of 13.7 and an average of 20.7 million viewers, representing a 108 % increase in ratings over the first NFL Network game in 2013. The game, whose ratings were boosted by coverage of the Ray Rice scandal, also brought CBS its highest prime time ratings on a Thursday night since May 2006. While lower, at 9.6 million viewers, the Week 3 game between the Atlanta Falcons and Tampa Bay Buccaneers was also the highest - rated program of the night. The first four games of the package, however, featured blowout victories. In total, average viewership of the games increased from around 7 million to around 11.8 million in the 2014 season.
Controversy over ratings and the quality of play in Thursday night contests escalated when on November 28, 2016, a report circulated that the league was considering ending the franchise. The NFL, however, denied this rumor. The subsequent game on December 1, 2016 between the Dallas Cowboys and the Minnesota Vikings was the highest rated Thursday Night Football of the season.
During the 2016 season, current and former players including Richard Sherman, J.J. Watt, and Charles Woodson expressed their dislikes for Thursday Night Football, with Richard Sherman calling it a "poopfest ''.
As mentioned, a team needing to play a Thursday night game can result in a shortened rest period for players between games. On October 6, 2014, Arian Foster, then of the Houston Texans, made a statement considering it hypocritical for the NFL to emphasize the safety of players (particularly in regards to concussions) while allowing its players to play a game on only three days ' rest, which he considered to be equally "dangerous ''. Richard Sherman of the Seattle Seahawks has also voiced displeasure about Thursday night games reducing prep time, and wrote a 2016 editorial for The Players ' Tribune about the games. Sherman 's 2017 season would end on November 9, 2017 during a Thursday night game against the Arizona Cardinals, when he ruptured his Achilles tendon.
On January 29, 2015, the NFL released its health and safety report, which states that an average of 4.8 injuries were sustained during Thursday games compared to 6.9 injuries per game on Sundays and Mondays.
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when was the term morbidly obese first used | Obesity - Wikipedia
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have a negative effect on health. People are generally considered obese when their body mass index (BMI), a measurement obtained by dividing a person 's weight by the square of the person 's height, is over 7002294199500000000 ♠ 30 kg / m, with the range 7002245166250000000 ♠ 25 -- 30 kg / m defined as overweight. Some East Asian countries use lower values. Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis and depression.
Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive food intake, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibility. A few cases are caused primarily by genes, endocrine disorders, medications, or mental disorder. The view that obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is not medically supported. On average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their normal counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.
Obesity is mostly preventable through a combination of social changes and personal choices. Changes to diet and exercising are the main treatments. Diet quality can be improved by reducing the consumption of energy - dense foods, such as those high in fat or sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietary fiber. Medications can be used, along with a suitable diet, to reduce appetite or decrease fat absorption. If diet, exercise, and medication are not effective, a gastric balloon or surgery may be performed to reduce stomach volume or length of the intestines, leading to feeling full earlier or a reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food.
Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children. In 2015, 600 million adults (12 %) and 100 million children were obese in 195 countries. Obesity is more common in women than men. Authorities view it as one of the most serious public health problems of the 21st century. Obesity is stigmatized in much of the modern world (particularly in the Western world), though it was seen as a symbol of wealth and fertility at other times in history and still is in some parts of the world. In 2013, the American Medical Association classified obesity as a disease.
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health. It is defined by body mass index (BMI) and further evaluated in terms of fat distribution via the waist -- hip ratio and total cardiovascular risk factors. BMI is closely related to both percentage body fat and total body fat. In children, a healthy weight varies with age and sex. Obesity in children and adolescents is defined not as an absolute number but in relation to a historical normal group, such that obesity is a BMI greater than the 95th percentile. The reference data on which these percentiles were based date from 1963 to 1994, and thus have not been affected by the recent increases in weight. BMI is defined as the subject 's weight divided by the square of their height and is calculated as follows.
BMI is usually expressed in kilograms per square metre, resulting when weight is measured in kilograms and height in metres. To convert from pounds per square inch multiply by 703 (kg / m) / (lb / sq in).
The most commonly used definitions, established by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1997 and published in 2000, provide the values listed in the table.
Some modifications to the WHO definitions have been made by particular organizations. The surgical literature breaks down class II and III obesity into further categories whose exact values are still disputed.
As Asian populations develop negative health consequences at a lower BMI than Caucasians, some nations have redefined obesity; Japan have defined obesity as any BMI greater than 25 kg / m while China uses a BMI of greater than 28 kg / m.
Excessive body weight is associated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus type 2, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and asthma. As a result, obesity has been found to reduce life expectancy.
Obesity is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide. A number of reviews have found that mortality risk is lowest at a BMI of 20 -- 25 kg / m in non-smokers and at 24 -- 27 kg / m in current smokers, with risk increasing along with changes in either direction. This appears to apply in at least four continents. In contrast, a 2013 review found that grade 1 obesity (BMI 30 -- 35) was not associated with higher mortality than normal weight, and that overweight (BMI 25 -- 30) was associated with "lower '' mortality than was normal weight (BMI 18.5 -- 25). Other evidence suggests that the association of BMI and waist circumference with mortality is U - or J - shaped, while the association between waist - to - hip ratio and waist - to - height ratio with mortality is more positive. In Asians the risk of negative health effects begins to increase between 22 -- 25 kg / m. A BMI above 32 kg / m has been associated with a doubled mortality rate among women over a 16 - year period. In the United States, obesity is estimated to cause 111,909 to 365,000 deaths per year, while 1 million (7.7 %) of deaths in Europe are attributed to excess weight. On average, obesity reduces life expectancy by six to seven years, a BMI of 30 -- 35 kg / m reduces life expectancy by two to four years, while severe obesity (BMI > 40 kg / m) reduces life expectancy by ten years.
Obesity increases the risk of many physical and mental conditions. These comorbidities are most commonly shown in metabolic syndrome, a combination of medical disorders which includes: diabetes mellitus type 2, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and high triglyceride levels.
Complications are either directly caused by obesity or indirectly related through mechanisms sharing a common cause such as a poor diet or a sedentary lifestyle. The strength of the link between obesity and specific conditions varies. One of the strongest is the link with type 2 diabetes. Excess body fat underlies 64 % of cases of diabetes in men and 77 % of cases in women.
Health consequences fall into two broad categories: those attributable to the effects of increased fat mass (such as osteoarthritis, obstructive sleep apnea, social stigmatization) and those due to the increased number of fat cells (diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease). Increases in body fat alter the body 's response to insulin, potentially leading to insulin resistance. Increased fat also creates a proinflammatory state, and a prothrombotic state.
Although the negative health consequences of obesity in the general population are well supported by the available evidence, health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be improved at an increased BMI, a phenomenon known as the obesity survival paradox. The paradox was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing hemodialysis, and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure and peripheral artery disease (PAD).
In people with heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with a normal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight as they become progressively more ill. Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have heart disease. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, the risk of further cardiovascular events is increased. Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another found that if one takes into account chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in those with PAD, the benefit of obesity no longer exists.
At an individual level, a combination of excessive food energy intake and a lack of physical activity is thought to explain most cases of obesity. A limited number of cases are due primarily to genetics, medical reasons, or psychiatric illness. In contrast, increasing rates of obesity at a societal level are felt to be due to an easily accessible and palatable diet, increased reliance on cars, and mechanized manufacturing.
A 2006 review identified ten other possible contributors to the recent increase of obesity: (1) insufficient sleep, (2) endocrine disruptors (environmental pollutants that interfere with lipid metabolism), (3) decreased variability in ambient temperature, (4) decreased rates of smoking, because smoking suppresses appetite, (5) increased use of medications that can cause weight gain (e.g., atypical antipsychotics), (6) proportional increases in ethnic and age groups that tend to be heavier, (7) pregnancy at a later age (which may cause susceptibility to obesity in children), (8) epigenetic risk factors passed on generationally, (9) natural selection for higher BMI, and (10) assortative mating leading to increased concentration of obesity risk factors (this would increase the number of obese people by increasing population variance in weight). While there is evidence supporting the influence of these mechanisms on the increased prevalence of obesity, the evidence is still inconclusive, and the authors state that these are probably less influential than the ones discussed in the previous paragraph.
A 2016 review supported excess food as the primary factor. Dietary energy supply per capita varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time. From the early 1970s to the late 1990s the average food energy available per person per day (the amount of food bought) increased in all parts of the world except Eastern Europe. The United States had the highest availability with 3,654 calories (15,290 kJ) per person in 1996. This increased further in 2003 to 3,754 calories (15,710 kJ). During the late 1990s Europeans had 3,394 calories (14,200 kJ) per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2,648 calories (11,080 kJ) per person, and in sub-Saharan Africa people had 2,176 calories (9,100 kJ) per person. Total food energy consumption has been found to be related to obesity.
The widespread availability of nutritional guidelines has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice. From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in the United States increased from 14.5 % to 30.9 %. During the same period, an increase occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase was 335 calories (1,400 kJ) per day (1,542 calories (6,450 kJ) in 1971 and 1,877 calories (7,850 kJ) in 2004), while for men the average increase was 168 calories (700 kJ) per day (2,450 calories (10,300 kJ) in 1971 and 2,618 calories (10,950 kJ) in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fat consumption. The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in America, and potato chips. Consumption of sweetened drinks such as soft drinks, fruit drinks, iced tea, and energy and vitamin water drinks is believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity and to an increased risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Vitamin D deficiency is related to diseases associated with obesity.
As societies become increasingly reliant on energy - dense, big - portions, and fast - food meals, the association between fast - food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning. In the United States consumption of fast - food meals tripled and food energy intake from these meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.
Agricultural policy and techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food prices. In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables. Calorie count laws and nutrition facts labels attempt to steer people toward making healthier food choices, including awareness of how much food energy is being consumed.
Obese people consistently under - report their food consumption as compared to people of normal weight. This is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter room and by direct observation.
A sedentary lifestyle plays a significant role in obesity. Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work, and currently at least 30 % of the world 's population gets insufficient exercise. This is primarily due to increasing use of mechanized transportation and a greater prevalence of labor - saving technology in the home. In children, there appear to be declines in levels of physical activity due to less walking and physical education. World trends in active leisure time physical activity are less clear. The World Health Organization indicates people worldwide are taking up less active recreational pursuits, while a study from Finland found an increase and a study from the United States found leisure - time physical activity has not changed significantly. A 2011 review of physical activity in children found that it may not be a significant contributor.
In both children and adults, there is an association between television viewing time and the risk of obesity. A review found 63 of 73 studies (86 %) showed an increased rate of childhood obesity with increased media exposure, with rates increasing proportionally to time spent watching television.
Like many other medical conditions, obesity is the result of an interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose to obesity when sufficient food energy is present. As of 2006, more than 41 of these sites on the human genome have been linked to the development of obesity when a favorable environment is present. People with two copies of the FTO gene (fat mass and obesity associated gene) have been found on average to weigh 3 -- 4 kg more and have a 1.67-fold greater risk of obesity compared with those without the risk allele. The differences in BMI between people that are due to genetics varies depending on the population examined from 6 % to 85 %.
Obesity is a major feature in several syndromes, such as Prader -- Willi syndrome, Bardet -- Biedl syndrome, Cohen syndrome, and MOMO syndrome. (The term "non-syndromic obesity '' is sometimes used to exclude these conditions.) In people with early - onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before 10 years of age and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7 % harbor a single point DNA mutation.
Studies that have focused on inheritance patterns rather than on specific genes have found that 80 % of the offspring of two obese parents were also obese, in contrast to less than 10 % of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight. Different people exposed to the same environment have different risks of obesity due to their underlying genetics.
The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that, due to dietary scarcity during human evolution, people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would be more likely to survive famine. This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies. This theory has received various criticisms, and other evolutionarily - based theories such as the drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed.
Certain physical and mental illnesses and the pharmaceutical substances used to treat them can increase risk of obesity. Medical illnesses that increase obesity risk include several rare genetic syndromes (listed above) as well as some congenital or acquired conditions: hypothyroidism, Cushing 's syndrome, growth hormone deficiency, and the eating disorders: binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome. However, obesity is not regarded as a psychiatric disorder, and therefore is not listed in the DSM - IVR as a psychiatric illness. The risk of overweight and obesity is higher in patients with psychiatric disorders than in persons without psychiatric disorders.
Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.
While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they can not explain the current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally. Though it is accepted that energy consumption in excess of energy expenditure leads to obesity on an individual basis, the cause of the shifts in these two factors on the societal scale is much debated. There are a number of theories as to the cause but most believe it is a combination of various factors.
The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. A review in 1989 found that in developed countries women of a high social class were less likely to be obese. No significant differences were seen among men of different social classes. In the developing world, women, men, and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity. An update of this review carried out in 2007 found the same relationships, but they were weaker. The decrease in strength of correlation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization. Among developed countries, levels of adult obesity, and percentage of teenage children who are overweight, are correlated with income inequality. A similar relationship is seen among US states: more adults, even in higher social classes, are obese in more unequal states.
Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is thought that in developed countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they are under greater social pressure to remain slim, and have more opportunities along with greater expectations for physical fitness. In undeveloped countries the ability to afford food, high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring a larger body size are believed to contribute to the observed patterns. Attitudes toward body weight held by people in one 's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time has been found among friends, siblings, and spouses. Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk of obesity.
Smoking has a significant effect on an individual 's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years. However, changing rates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity.
In the United States the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A woman 's risk increases by 7 % per child, while a man 's risk increases by 4 % per child. This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents.
In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China overall rates of obesity are below 5 %; however, in some cities rates of obesity are greater than 20 %.
Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world. Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more food energy becomes available.
Consistent with cognitive epidemiological data, numerous studies confirm that obesity is associated with cognitive deficits. Whether obesity causes cognitive deficits, or vice versa is unclear at present.
The study of the effect of infectious agents on metabolism is still in its early stages. Gut flora has been shown to differ between lean and obese humans. There is an indication that gut flora in obese and lean individuals can affect the metabolic potential. This apparent alteration of the metabolic potential is believed to confer a greater capacity to harvest energy contributing to obesity. Whether these differences are the direct cause or the result of obesity has yet to be determined unequivocally. The use of antibiotics among children has also been associated with obesity later in life.
An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of obesity is yet to be determined.
There are many possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of obesity. This field of research had been almost unapproached until the leptin gene was discovered in 1994 by J.M. Friedman 's laboratory. While leptin and ghrelin are produced peripherally, they control appetite through their actions on the central nervous system. In particular, they and other appetite - related hormones act on the hypothalamus, a region of the brain central to the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its role in integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathway being the most well understood. The circuit begins with an area of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brain 's feeding and satiety centers, respectively.
The arcuate nucleus contains two distinct groups of neurons. The first group coexpresses neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti - related peptide (AgRP) and has stimulatory inputs to the LH and inhibitory inputs to the VMH. The second group coexpresses pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine - and amphetamine - regulated transcript (CART) and has stimulatory inputs to the VMH and inhibitory inputs to the LH. Consequently, NPY / AgRP neurons stimulate feeding and inhibit satiety, while POMC / CART neurons stimulate satiety and inhibit feeding. Both groups of arcuate nucleus neurons are regulated in part by leptin. Leptin inhibits the NPY / AgRP group while stimulating the POMC / CART group. Thus a deficiency in leptin signaling, either via leptin deficiency or leptin resistance, leads to overfeeding and may account for some genetic and acquired forms of obesity.
The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that overweight and obesity may soon replace more traditional public health concerns such as undernutrition and infectious diseases as the most significant cause of poor health. Obesity is a public health and policy problem because of its prevalence, costs, and health effects. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for all adults followed by behavioral interventions in those who are obese. Public health efforts seek to understand and correct the environmental factors responsible for the increasing prevalence of obesity in the population. Solutions look at changing the factors that cause excess food energy consumption and inhibit physical activity. Efforts include federally reimbursed meal programs in schools, limiting direct junk food marketing to children, and decreasing access to sugar - sweetened beverages in schools. The World Health Organization recommends the taxing of sugary drinks. When constructing urban environments, efforts have been made to increase access to parks and to develop pedestrian routes.
Many organizations have published reports pertaining to obesity. In 1998, the first US Federal guidelines were published, titled "Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report ''. In 2006 the Canadian Obesity Network, now known as Obesity Canada published the "Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) on the Management and Prevention of Obesity in Adults and Children ''. This is a comprehensive evidence - based guideline to address the management and prevention of overweight and obesity in adults and children.
In 2004, the United Kingdom Royal College of Physicians, the Faculty of Public Health and the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health released the report "Storing up Problems '', which highlighted the growing problem of obesity in the UK. The same year, the House of Commons Health Select Committee published its "most comprehensive inquiry (...) ever undertaken '' into the impact of obesity on health and society in the UK and possible approaches to the problem. In 2006, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) issued a guideline on the diagnosis and management of obesity, as well as policy implications for non-healthcare organizations such as local councils. A 2007 report produced by Derek Wanless for the King 's Fund warned that unless further action was taken, obesity had the capacity to cripple the National Health Service financially.
Comprehensive approaches are being looked at to address the rising rates of obesity. The Obesity Policy Action (OPA) framework divides measure into ' upstream ' policies, ' midstream ' policies, ' downstream ' policies. ' Upstream ' policies look at changing society, ' midstream ' policies try to alter individuals ' behavior to prevent obesity, and ' downstream ' policies try to treat currently afflicted people.
The main treatment for obesity consists of dieting and physical exercise. Diet programs may produce weight loss over the short term, but maintaining this weight loss is frequently difficult and often requires making exercise and a lower food energy diet a permanent part of a person 's lifestyle.
In the short - term low carbohydrate diets appear better than low fat diets for weight loss. In the long term; however, all types of low - carbohydrate and low - fat diets appear equally beneficial. A 2014 review found that the heart disease and diabetes risks associated with different diets appear to be similar. Promotion of the Mediterranean diets among the obese may lower the risk of heart disease. Decreased intake of sweet drinks is also related to weight - loss. Success rates of long - term weight loss maintenance with lifestyle changes are low, ranging from 2 -- 20 %. Dietary and lifestyle changes are effective in limiting excessive weight gain in pregnancy and improve outcomes for both the mother and the child. Intensive behavioral counseling is recommended in those who are both obese and have other risk factors for heart disease.
Five medications have evidence for long - term use orlistat, lorcaserin, liraglutide, phentermine -- topiramate, and naltrexone -- bupropion. They result in weight loss after one year ranged from 3.0 to 6.7 kg (6.6 - 14.8 lbs) over placebo. Orlistat, liraglutide, and naltrexone -- bupropion are available in both the United States and Europe, whereas lorcaserin and phentermine -- topiramate are available only in the United States. European regulatory authorities rejected the latter two drugs in part because of associations of heart valve problems with lorcaserin and more general heart and blood vessel problems with phentermine -- topiramate. Orlistat use is associated with high rates of gastrointestinal side effects and concerns have been raised about negative effects on the kidneys. There is no information on how these drugs affect longer - term complications of obesity such as cardiovascular disease or death.
The most effective treatment for obesity is bariatric surgery. The types of procedures include laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding, Roux - en - Y gastric bypass, vertical - sleeve gastrectomy, and biliopancreatic diversion. Surgery for severe obesity is associated with long - term weight loss, improvement in obesity - related conditions, and decreased overall mortality. One study found a weight loss of between 14 % and 25 % (depending on the type of procedure performed) at 10 years, and a 29 % reduction in all cause mortality when compared to standard weight loss measures. Complications occur in about 17 % of cases and reoperation is needed in 7 % of cases. Due to its cost and risks, researchers are searching for other effective yet less invasive treatments including devices that occupy space in the stomach.
In earlier historical periods obesity was rare, and achievable only by a small elite, although already recognised as a problem for health. But as prosperity increased in the Early Modern period, it affected increasingly larger groups of the population.
In 1997 the WHO formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic. As of 2008 the WHO estimates that at least 500 million adults (greater than 10 %) are obese, with higher rates among women than men. The percentage of adults affected in the United States as of 2015 - 2016 is about 39.6 % overall (37.9 % of males and 41.1 % of females).
The rate of obesity also increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old and severe obesity in the United States, Australia, and Canada is increasing faster than the overall rate of obesity.
Once considered a problem only of high - income countries, obesity rates are rising worldwide and affecting both the developed and developing world. These increases have been felt most dramatically in urban settings. The only remaining region of the world where obesity is not common is sub-Saharan Africa.
Obesity is from the Latin obesitas, which means "stout, fat, or plump ''. Ēsus is the past participle of edere (to eat), with ob (over) added to it. The Oxford English Dictionary documents its first usage in 1611 by Randle Cotgrave.
Ancient Greek medicine recognizes obesity as a medical disorder, and records that the Ancient Egyptians saw it in the same way. Hippocrates wrote that "Corpulence is not only a disease itself, but the harbinger of others ''. The Indian surgeon Sushruta (6th century BCE) related obesity to diabetes and heart disorders. He recommended physical work to help cure it and its side effects. For most of human history mankind struggled with food scarcity. Obesity has thus historically been viewed as a sign of wealth and prosperity. It was common among high officials in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance as well as in Ancient East Asian civilizations. In the 17th century, English medical author Tobias Venner is credited with being one of the first to refer to the term as a societal disease in a published English language book.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution it was realized that the military and economic might of nations were dependent on both the body size and strength of their soldiers and workers. Increasing the average body mass index from what is now considered underweight to what is now the normal range played a significant role in the development of industrialized societies. Height and weight thus both increased through the 19th century in the developed world. During the 20th century, as populations reached their genetic potential for height, weight began increasing much more than height, resulting in obesity. In the 1950s increasing wealth in the developed world decreased child mortality, but as body weight increased heart and kidney disease became more common. During this time period, insurance companies realized the connection between weight and life expectancy and increased premiums for the obese.
Many cultures throughout history have viewed obesity as the result of a character flaw. The obesus or fat character in Ancient Greek comedy was a glutton and figure of mockery. During Christian times the food was viewed as a gateway to the sins of sloth and lust. In modern Western culture, excess weight is often regarded as unattractive, and obesity is commonly associated with various negative stereotypes. People of all ages can face social stigmatization, and may be targeted by bullies or shunned by their peers.
Public perceptions in Western society regarding healthy body weight differ from those regarding the weight that is considered ideal -- and both have changed since the beginning of the 20th century. The weight that is viewed as an ideal has become lower since the 1920s. This is illustrated by the fact that the average height of Miss America pageant winners increased by 2 % from 1922 to 1999, while their average weight decreased by 12 %. On the other hand, people 's views concerning healthy weight have changed in the opposite direction. In Britain, the weight at which people considered themselves to be overweight was significantly higher in 2007 than in 1999. These changes are believed to be due to increasing rates of adiposity leading to increased acceptance of extra body fat as being normal.
Obesity is still seen as a sign of wealth and well - being in many parts of Africa. This has become particularly common since the HIV epidemic began.
The first sculptural representations of the human body 20,000 -- 35,000 years ago depict obese females. Some attribute the Venus figurines to the tendency to emphasize fertility while others feel they represent "fatness '' in the people of the time. Corpulence is, however, absent in both Greek and Roman art, probably in keeping with their ideals regarding moderation. This continued through much of Christian European history, with only those of low socioeconomic status being depicted as obese.
During the Renaissance some of the upper class began flaunting their large size, as can be seen in portraits of Henry VIII of England and Alessandro dal Borro. Rubens (1577 -- 1640) regularly depicted full - bodied women in his pictures, from which derives the term Rubenesque. These women, however, still maintained the "hourglass '' shape with its relationship to fertility. During the 19th century, views on obesity changed in the Western world. After centuries of obesity being synonymous with wealth and social status, slimness began to be seen as the desirable standard.
In addition to its health impacts, obesity leads to many problems including disadvantages in employment and increased business costs. These effects are felt by all levels of society from individuals, to corporations, to governments.
In 2005, the medical costs attributable to obesity in the US were an estimated $190.2 billion or 20.6 % of all medical expenditures, while the cost of obesity in Canada was estimated at CA $2 billion in 1997 (2.4 % of total health costs). The total annual direct cost of overweight and obesity in Australia in 2005 was A $21 billion. Overweight and obese Australians also received A $35.6 billion in government subsidies. The estimate range for annual expenditures on diet products is $40 billion to $100 billion in the US alone.
Obesity prevention programs have been found to reduce the cost of treating obesity - related disease. However, the longer people live, the more medical costs they incur. Researchers, therefore, conclude that reducing obesity may improve the public 's health, but it is unlikely to reduce overall health spending.
Obesity can lead to social stigmatization and disadvantages in employment. When compared to their normal weight counterparts, obese workers on average have higher rates of absenteeism from work and take more disability leave, thus increasing costs for employers and decreasing productivity. A study examining Duke University employees found that people with a BMI over 40 kg / m filed twice as many workers ' compensation claims as those whose BMI was 18.5 -- 24.9 kg / m. They also had more than 12 times as many lost work days. The most common injuries in this group were due to falls and lifting, thus affecting the lower extremities, wrists or hands, and backs. The Alabama State Employees ' Insurance Board approved a controversial plan to charge obese workers $25 a month for health insurance that would otherwise be free unless they take steps to lose weight and improve their health. These measures started in January 2010 and apply to those state workers whose BMI exceeds 35 kg / m and who fail to make improvements in their health after one year.
Some research shows that obese people are less likely to be hired for a job and are less likely to be promoted. Obese people are also paid less than their non-obese counterparts for an equivalent job; obese women on average make 6 % less and obese men make 3 % less.
Specific industries, such as the airline, healthcare and food industries, have special concerns. Due to rising rates of obesity, airlines face higher fuel costs and pressures to increase seating width. In 2000, the extra weight of obese passengers cost airlines US $275 million. The healthcare industry has had to invest in special facilities for handling severely obese patients, including special lifting equipment and bariatric ambulances. Costs for restaurants are increased by litigation accusing them of causing obesity. In 2005 the US Congress discussed legislation to prevent civil lawsuits against the food industry in relation to obesity; however, it did not become law.
With the American Medical Association 's 2013 classification of obesity as a chronic disease, it is thought that health insurance companies will more likely pay for obesity treatment, counseling and surgery, and the cost of research and development of fat treatment pills or gene therapy treatments should be more affordable if insurers help to subsidize their cost. The AMA classification is not legally binding, however, so health insurers still have the right to reject coverage for a treatment or procedure.
In 2014, The European Court of Justice ruled that morbid obesity is a disability. The Court said that if an employee 's obesity prevents him from "full and effective participation of that person in professional life on an equal basis with other workers '', then it shall be considered a disability and that firing someone on such grounds is discriminatory.
The principal goal of the fat acceptance movement is to decrease discrimination against people who are overweight and obese. However, some in the movement are also attempting to challenge the established relationship between obesity and negative health outcomes.
A number of organizations exist that promote the acceptance of obesity. They have increased in prominence in the latter half of the 20th century. The US - based National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA) was formed in 1969 and describes itself as a civil rights organization dedicated to ending size discrimination.
The International Size Acceptance Association (ISAA) is a non-governmental organization (NGO) which was founded in 1997. It has more of a global orientation and describes its mission as promoting size acceptance and helping to end weight - based discrimination. These groups often argue for the recognition of obesity as a disability under the US Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). The American legal system, however, has decided that the potential public health costs exceed the benefits of extending this anti-discrimination law to cover obesity.
In 2015 the New York Times published an article on the Global Energy Balance Network, a nonprofit founded in 2014 that advocated for people to focus on increasing exercise rather than reducing calorie intake to avoid obesity and to be healthy. The organization was founded with at least $1.5 M in funding from the Coca - Cola Company, and the company has provided $4 M in research funding to the two founding scientists Gregory A. Hand and Steven N. Blair since 2008.
The healthy BMI range varies with the age and sex of the child. Obesity in children and adolescents is defined as a BMI greater than the 95th percentile. The reference data that these percentiles are based on is from 1963 to 1994 and thus has not been affected by the recent increases in rates of obesity. Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the 21st century, with rising rates in both the developed and the developing world. Rates of obesity in Canadian boys have increased from 11 % in the 1980s to over 30 % in the 1990s, while during this same time period rates increased from 4 to 14 % in Brazilian children.
As with obesity in adults, many factors contribute to the rising rates of childhood obesity. Changing diet and decreasing physical activity are believed to be the two most important causes for the recent increase in the incidence of child obesity. Because childhood obesity often persists into adulthood and is associated with numerous chronic illnesses, children who are obese are often tested for hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and fatty liver. Treatments used in children are primarily lifestyle interventions and behavioral techniques, although efforts to increase activity in children have had little success. In the United States, medications are not FDA approved for use in this age group. Multi-component behaviour change interventions that include changes to dietary and physical activity may reduce BMI in the short term in children aged 6 to 11 years, although the benefits are small and quality of evidence is low.
Obesity in pets is common in many countries. In the United States, 23 -- 41 % of dogs are overweight, and about 5.1 % are obese. The rate of obesity in cats was slightly higher at 6.4 %. In Australia the rate of obesity among dogs in a veterinary setting has been found to be 7.6 %. The risk of obesity in dogs is related to whether or not their owners are obese; however, there is no similar correlation between cats and their owners.
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what is the difference between pluto and hades | Pluto (Mythology) - wikipedia
Pluto (Greek: Πλούτων, Ploutōn) was the ruler of the underworld in classical mythology. The earlier name for the god was Hades, which became more common as the name of the underworld itself. In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pluto represents a more positive concept of the god who presides over the afterlife. Ploutōn was frequently conflated with Ploutos (Πλοῦτος, Plutus), a god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because as a chthonic god Pluto ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest. The name Ploutōn came into widespread usage with the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which Pluto was venerated as a stern ruler but the loving husband of Persephone. The couple received souls in the afterlife, and are invoked together in religious inscriptions. Hades, by contrast, had few temples and religious practices associated with him, and he is portrayed as the dark and violent abductor of Persephone.
Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share two dominant myths. In Greek cosmogony, the god received the rule of the underworld in a three - way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brother Zeus ruling the Sky and his other brother Poseidon sovereign over the Sea. His central narrative is the abduction of Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm. Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in Greek literature of the Classical period, in the works of the Athenian playwrights and of the philosopher Plato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of a quest - object, and especially in the descent of Orpheus or other heroes to the underworld.
Plūtō ((ˈpluːtoː); genitive Plūtōnis) is the Latinized form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto 's Roman equivalent is Dis Pater, whose name is most often taken to mean "Rich Father '' and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman Orcus, like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the dead in Latin literature, leading some mythology handbooks to assert misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades. Pluto (Pluton in French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for the classical ruler of the underworld in subsequent Western literature and other art forms.
The name Plouton does not appear in Greek literature of the Archaic period. In Hesiod 's Theogony, the six children of Cronus and Rhea are Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. The male children divide the world into three realms. Hades takes Persephone by force from her mother Demeter, with the consent of Zeus. Ploutos, "Wealth, '' appears in the Theogony as the child of Demeter and Iasion: "fine Plutus, who goes upon the whole earth and the broad back of the sea, and whoever meets him and comes into his hands, that man he makes rich, and he bestows much wealth upon him. '' The union of Demeter and Iasion, described also in the Odyssey, took place in a fallow field that had been ploughed three times, in what seems to be a reference to a ritual copulation or sympathetic magic to ensure the earth 's fertility. "The resemblance of the name Ploutos to Plouton..., '' it has been noted, "can not be accidental. Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone 's husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility. '' Demeter 's son Plutus merges in the narrative tradition with her son - in - law Pluto, redefining the implacable chariot - driver Hades whose horses trample the flowering earth.
That the underworld god was associated early on with success in agricultural activity is already evident in Hesiod 's Works and Days, line 465 - 469: "Pray to Zeus of the Earth and to pure Demeter to make Demeter 's holy grain sound and heavy, when first you begin ploughing, when you hold in your hand the end of the plough - tail and bring down your stick on the backs of the oxen as they draw on the pole - bar by the yoke - straps. ''
Plouton was one of several euphemistic names for Hades, described in the Iliad as the god most hateful to mortals. Plato says that people prefer the name Plouton, "giver of wealth, '' because the name of Hades is fear - provoking. The name was understood as referring to "the boundless riches of the earth, both the crops on its surface -- he was originally a god of the land -- and the mines hidden within it. '' What is sometimes taken as "confusion '' of the two gods Plouton and Ploutos ("Wealth '') held or acquired a theological significance in antiquity. As a lord of abundance or riches, Pluto expresses the aspect of the underworld god that was positive, symbolized in art by the "horn of plenty '' (cornucopia), by means of which Plouton is distinguished from the gloomier Hades.
The Roman poet Ennius (ca. 239 -- 169 BC), the leading figure in the Hellenization of Latin literature, considered Pluto a Greek god to be explained in terms of the Roman equivalents Dis Pater and Orcus. It is unclear whether Pluto had a literary presence in Rome before Ennius. Some scholars think that rituals and beliefs pertaining to Pluto entered Roman culture with the establishment of the Saecular Games in 249 BC, and that Dis pater was only a translation of Plouton. In the mid-1st century BC, Cicero identifies Pluto with Dis, explaining that "The earth in all its power and plenty is sacred to Father Dis, a name which is the same as Dives, ' The Wealthy One, ' as is the Greek Plouton. This is because everything is born of the earth and returns to it again. ''
During the Roman Imperial era, the Greek geographer Strabo (1st century AD) makes a distinction between Pluto and Hades. In writing of the mineral wealth of ancient Iberia (Roman Spain), he says that among the Turdetani, it is "Pluto, and not Hades, who inhabits the region down below. '' In the discourse On Mourning by the Greek author Lucian (2nd century AD), Pluto 's "wealth '' is the dead he rules over in the abyss (chasma); the name Hades is reserved for the underworld itself.
In Greek religious practice, Pluto is sometimes seen as the "chthonic Zeus '' (Zeus Chthonios or Zeus Catachthonios), or at least as having functions or significance equivalent to those of Zeus but pertaining to the earth or underworld. In ancient Roman and Hellenistic religion, Pluto was identified with a number of other deities, including Summanus, the Roman god of nocturnal thunder; Februus, the Roman god from whose purification rites the month of February takes its name; the syncretic god Serapis, regarded as Pluto 's Egyptian equivalent; and the Semitic god Muth (Μούθ). Muth was described by Philo of Byblos as the equivalent of both Thanatos (Death personified) and Pluto. The ancient Greeks did not regard Pluto as "death '' per se.
The best - known myth involving Pluto or Hades is the abduction of Persephone, also known as Kore ("the Maiden ''). The earliest literary versions of the myth are a brief mention in Hesiod 's Theogony and the extended narrative of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter; in both these works, the ruler of the underworld is named as Hades ("the Hidden One ''). Hades is an unsympathetic figure, and Persephone 's unwillingness is emphasized. Increased usage of the name Plouton in religious inscriptions and literary texts reflects the influence of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which treated Pluto and Persephone as a divine couple who received initiates in the afterlife; as such, Pluto was disassociated from the "violent abductor '' of Kore. Two early works that give the abductor god 's name as Pluto are the Greek mythography traditionally known as the Library of "Apollodorus '' (1st century BC) and the Latin Fables of Hyginus (ca. 64 BC -- AD 17).
The most influential version of the abduction myth is that of Ovid (d. 17 or 18 AD), who tells the story in both the Metamorphoses (Book 5) and the Fasti (Book 4). Another major retelling, also in Latin, is the long unfinished poem De raptu Proserpinae ("On the Abduction of Proserpina '') by Claudian (d. 404 AD). Ovid uses the name Dis, not Pluto in these two passages, and Claudian uses Pluto only once; translators and editors, however, sometimes supply the more familiar "Pluto '' when other epithets appear in the source text. The abduction myth was a popular subject for Greek and Roman art, and recurs throughout Western art and literature, where the name "Pluto '' becomes common (see Pluto in Western art and literature below). Narrative details from Ovid and Claudian influence these later versions in which the abductor is named as Pluto, especially the role of Venus and Cupid in manipulating Pluto with love and desire. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and certainly by the time of Natale Conti 's influential Mythologiae (1567), the traditions pertaining to the various rulers of the classical underworld coalesced into a single mythology that made few if any distinctions among Hades, Pluto, Dis, and Orcus.
Unlike his freely procreating brothers Zeus and Poseidon, Pluto is monogamous, and is rarely said to have children. In Orphic texts, the chthonic nymph Melinoe is the daughter of Persephone by Zeus disguised as Pluto, and the Eumenides ("The Kindly Ones '') are the offspring of Persephone and Zeus Chthonios, often identified as Pluto. The Augustan poet Vergil says that Pluto is the father of Allecto the Fury, whom he hates. The lack of a clear distinction between Pluto and "chthonic Zeus '' confuses the question of whether in some traditions, now obscure, Persephone bore children to her husband. In the late 4th century AD, Claudian 's epic on the abduction motivates Pluto with a desire for children. The poem is unfinished, however, and anything Claudian may have known of these traditions is lost.
Justin Martyr (2nd century AD) alludes to children of Pluto, but neither names nor enumerates them. Hesychius (5th century AD) mentions a "son of Pluto. '' In his 14th - century mythography, Boccaccio records a tradition in which Pluto was the father of the divine personification Veneratio ("Reverence ''), noting that she had no mother because Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) was sterile.
In The Faerie Queene (1590s), Edmund Spenser invents a daughter for Pluto whom he calls Lucifera. The character 's name was taken from the 16th - century mythography of Natale Conti, who used it as the Latin translation of Greek phosphor, "light - bearer, '' a regular epithet of Hecate. Spenser incorporated aspects of the mysteries into The Faerie Queene.
Orpheus was regarded as a founder and prophet of the mysteries called "Orphic, '' "Dionysiac, '' or "Bacchic. '' Mythologized for his ability to entrance even animals and trees with his music, he was also credited in antiquity with the authorship of the lyrics that have survived as the Orphic Hymns, among them a hymn to Pluto. Orpheus 's voice and lyre - playing represented a medium of revelation or higher knowledge for the mystery cults.
In his central myth, Orpheus visits the underworld in the hope of retrieving his bride, Eurydice, relying on the power of his music to charm the king and queen of Hades. Greek narratives of Orpheus 's descent and performance typically name the ruler of the underworld as Plouton, as for instance in the Bibliotheca. The myth demonstrates the importance of Pluto "the Rich '' as the possessor of a quest - object. Orpheus performing before Pluto and Persephone was a common subject of ancient and later Western literature and art, and one of the most significant mythological themes of the classical tradition.
The demonstration of Orpheus 's power depends on the normal obduracy of Pluto; the Augustan poet Horace describes him as incapable of tears. Claudian, however, portrays the steely god as succumbing to Orpheus 's song so that "with iron cloak he wipes his tears '' (ferrugineo lacrimas deterget amictu), an image renewed by Milton in Il Penseroso (106 -- 107): "Such notes... / Drew iron tears down Pluto 's cheek. ''
The Greek writer Lucian (ca. 125 -- after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto 's love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death. In one of Lucian 's Dialogues of the Dead, Pluto questions Protesilaus, the first Greek hero killed in the Trojan War, who wishes to return to the world of the living. "You are then in love with life? '' Pluto asks. "Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain. '' Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even the Lethe 's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and to Alcestis, who took her husband 's place in death and then was permitted at the insistence of Heracles to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.
As Pluto gained importance as an embodiment of agricultural wealth within the Eleusinian Mysteries, from the 5th century BC onward the name Hades was increasingly reserved for the underworld as a place. Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditional Twelve Olympians, and Hades seems to have received limited cult, perhaps only at Elis, where the temple was opened once a year. During the time of Plato, the Athenians periodically honored the god called Plouton with the "strewing of a couch '' (tên klinên strôsai). At Eleusis, Plouton had his own priestess. Pluto was worshipped with Persephone as a divine couple at Knidos, Ephesos, Mytilene, and Sparta as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God (Theos) and Goddess (Thea).
In the ritual texts of the mystery religions preserved by the so - called Orphic or Bacchic gold tablets, from the late 5th century BC onward the name Hades appears more frequently than Plouton, but in reference to the underground place: Plouton is the ruler who presides over it in a harmonious partnership with Persephone. By the end of the 4th century BC, the name Plouton appears in Greek metrical inscriptions. Two fragmentary tablets greet Pluto and Persephone jointly, and the divine couple appear as welcoming figures in a metrical epitaph:
I know that even below the earth, if there is indeed a reward for the worthy ones, the first and foremost honors, nurse, shall be yours, next to Persephone and Pluto.
Hesychius identifies Pluto with Eubouleus, but other ancient sources distinguish between these two underworld deities. In the Mysteries Eubouleus plays the role of a torchbearer, possibly a guide for the initiate 's return. In the view of Lewis Richard Farnell, Eubouleus was originally a title referring to the "good counsel '' the ruler of the underworld was able to give and which was sought at Pluto 's dream oracles; by the 2nd century BC, however, he had acquired a separate identity.
The Orphic Hymn to Pluto addresses the god as "strong - spirited '' and the "All - Receiver '' who commands death and is the master of mortals. His titles are given as Zeus Chthonios and Euboulos ("Good Counsel ''). In the hymn 's topography, Pluto 's dwelling is in Tartarus, simultaneously a "meadow '' and "thick - shaded and dark, '' where the Acheron encircles "the roots of the earth. '' Hades is again the name of the place, here described as "windless, '' and its gates, through which Pluto carried "pure Demeter 's daughter '' as his bride, are located in an Attic cave within the district of Eleusis. The route from Persephone 's meadow to Hades crosses the sea. The hymn concludes:
You alone were born to judge deeds obscure and conspicuous. Holiest and illustrious ruler of all, frenzied god, You delight in the worshiper 's respect and reverence. Come with favor and joy to the initiates. I summon you.
The hymn is one of several examples of Greco - Roman prayer that express a desire for the presence of a deity, and has been compared to a similar epiclesis in the Acts of Thomas.
The names of both Hades and Pluto appear also in the Greek Magical Papyri and curse tablets, with Hades typically referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto regularly invoked as the partner of Persephone. Five Latin curse tablets from Rome, dating to the mid-1st century BC, promise Persephone and Pluto an offering of "dates, figs, and a black pig '' if the curse is fulfilled by the desired deadline. The pig was a characteristic animal sacrifice to chthonic deities, whose victims were almost always black or dark in color.
A set of curse tablets written in Doric Greek and found in a tomb addresses a Pasianax, "Lord to All, '' sometimes taken as a title of Pluto, but more recently thought to be a magical name for the corpse. Pasianax is found elsewhere as an epithet of Zeus, or in the tablets may invoke a daimon like Abrasax.
A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called a ploutonion (Latin plutonium). The complex at Eleusis for the mysteries had a ploutonion regarded as the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos, in another instance of conflation or close association of the two gods. Greek inscriptions record an altar of Pluto, which was to be "plastered '', that is, resurfaced for a new round of sacrifices at Eleusis. One of the known ploutonia was in the sacred grove between Tralleis and Nysa, where a temple of Pluto and Persephone was located. Visitors sought healing and dream oracles. The ploutonion at Hierapolis, Phrygia, was connected to the rites of Cybele, but during the Roman Imperial era was subsumed by the cult of Apollo, as confirmed by archaeological investigations during the 1960s. It too was a dream oracle. The sites often seem to have been chosen because the presence of naturally occurring mephitic vapors was thought to indicate an opening to the underworld. In Italy, Avernus was considered an entrance to the underworld that produced toxic vapors, but Strabo seems not to think that it was a ploutonion.
Kevin Clinton attempted to distinguish the iconography of Hades, Plouton, Ploutos, and the Eleusinian Theos in 5th - century vase painting that depicts scenes from or relating to the mysteries. In Clinton 's schema, Plouton is a mature man, sometimes even white - haired; Hades is also usually bearded and mature, but his darkness is emphasized in literary descriptions, represented in art by dark hair. Plouton 's most common attribute is a sceptre, but he also often holds a full or overflowing cornucopia; Hades sometimes holds a horn, but it is depicted with no contents and should be understood as a drinking horn. Unlike Plouton, Hades never holds agrarian attributes such as stalks of grain. His chest is usually bare or only partly covered, whereas Plouton is fully robed (exceptions, however, are admitted by the author). Plouton stands, often in the company of both Demeter and Kore, or sometimes one of the goddesses, but Hades almost always sits or reclines, usually with Persephone facing him. "Confusion and disagreement '' about the interpretation of these images remain.
Attributes of Pluto mentioned in the Orphic Hymn to Pluto are his scepter, keys, throne, and horses. In the hymn, the keys are connected to his capacity for giving wealth to humanity, specifically the agricultural wealth of "the year 's fruits. ''
Pausanias explains the significance of Pluto 's key in describing a wondrously carved cedar chest at the Temple of Hera in Elis. Numerous deities are depicted, with one panel grouping Dionysus, Persephone, the nymphs and Pluto. Pluto holds a key because "they say that what is called Hades has been locked up by Pluto, and that nobody will return back again therefrom. '' Natale Conti cites Pausanias in noting that keys are an attribute of Pluto as the scepter is of Jove (Greek Zeus) and the trident of Neptune (Poseidon).
A golden key (chrusea klês) was laid on the tongue of initiates by priests at Eleusis and was a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret. A key is among the attributes of other infernal deities such as Hecate, Anubis, and Persephone, and those who act as guardians or timekeepers, such as Janus and Aion. Aeacus (Aiakos), one of the three mortal kings who became judges in the afterlife, is also a kleidouchos (κλειδοῦχος), "holder of the keys, '' and a priestly doorkeeper in the court of Pluto and Persephone.
According to the Stoic philosopher Cornutus (1st century AD), Pluto wore a wreath of phasganion, more often called xiphion, traditionally identified as a type of gladiolus. Dioscorides recorded medical uses for the plant. For extracting stings and thorns, xiphion was mixed with wine and frankincense to make a cataplasm. The plant was also used as an aphrodisiac and contraceptive. It grew in humid places. In an obscure passage, Cornutus seems to connect Pluto 's wearing of phasganion to an etymology for Avernus, which he derives from the word for "air, '' perhaps through some association with the color glaukos, "bluish grey, '' "greenish '' or "sea - colored, '' which might describe the plant 's leaves. Because the color could describe the sky, Cornutus regularly gives it divine connotations. Pluto 's twin sister was named Glauca.
Ambiguity of color is characteristic of Pluto. Although both he and his realm are regularly described as dark, black, or gloomy, the god himself is sometimes seen as pale or having a pallor. Martianus Capella (5th century) describes him as both "growing pale in shadow, a fugitive from light '' and actively "shedding darkness in the gloom of Tartarean night, '' crowned with a wreath made of ebony as suitable for the kingdom he governs. The horses of Pluto are usually black, but Ovid describes them as "sky - colored '' (caeruleus, from caelum, "sky ''), which might be blue, greenish - blue, or dark blue.
The Renaissance mythographer Natale Conti says wreaths of narcissus, maidenhair fern (adianthus), and cypress were given to Pluto. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Gaia (Earth) produced the narcissus at Zeus 's request as a snare for Persephone; when she grasps it, a chasm opens up and the "Host to Many '' (Hades) seizes her. Narcissus wreaths were used in early times to crown Demeter and Persephone, as well as the Furies (Eumenides). The flower was associated with narcotic drugginess (narkê, "torpor ''), erotic fascination, and imminent death; to dream of crowning oneself with narcissus was a bad sign. In the myth of Narcissus, the flower is created when a beautiful, self - absorbed youth rejects sexuality and is condemned to perpetual self - love along the Styx.
Conti 's inclusion of adianthus (Adiantum in modern nomenclature) is less straightforward. The name, meaning "unmoistened '' (Greek adianton), was taken in antiquity to refer to the fern 's ability to repel water. The plant, which grew in wet places, was also called capillus veneris, "hair of Venus, '' divinely dry when she emerged from the sea. Historian of medicine John M. Riddle has suggested that the adianthus was one of the ferns Dioscorides called asplenon and prescribed as a contraceptive (atokios). The associations of Proserpine (Persephone) and the maidenhair are alluded to by Samuel Beckett in a 1946 poem, in which the self is a Platonic cave with capillaires, in French both "maidenhair fern '' and "blood vessels ''.
The cypress (Greek cyparissus, Latin cupressus) has traditional associations with mourning. In ancient Attica, households in mourning were garlanded with cypress, and it was used to fumigate the air during cremations. In the myth of Cyparissus, a youth was transformed into a cypress, consumed by grief over the accidental death of a pet stag. A "white cypress '' is part of the topography of the underworld that recurs in the Orphic gold tablets as a kind of beacon near the entrance, perhaps to be compared with the Tree of Life in various world mythologies. The description of the cypress as "white '' (Greek leukē), since the botanical tree is dark, is symbolic, evoking the white garments worn by initiates or the clothing of a corpse, or the pallor of the dead. In Orphic funeral rites, it was forbidden to make coffins of cypress.
The tradition of the mystery religions favors Pluto as a loving and faithful partner to Persephone, in contrast to the violence of Hades in early myths, but one ancient myth that preserves a lover for him parallels the abduction and also has a vegetative aspect. A Roman source says that Pluto fell in love with Leuca (Greek Leukē, "White ''), the most beautiful of the nymphs, and abducted her to live with him in his realm. After the long span of her life came to its end, he memorialized their love by creating a white tree in the Elysian Fields. The tree was the white poplar (Greek leukē), the leaves of which are white on one side and dark on the other, representing the duality of upper and underworld. A wreath of white poplar leaves was fashioned by Heracles to mark his ascent from the underworld, an aition for why it was worn by initiates and by champion athletes participating in funeral games. Like other plants associated with Pluto, white poplar was regarded as a contraceptive in antiquity. The relation of this tree to the white cypress of the mysteries is debated.
The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus uses the name Plouton instead of Hades in relating the tripartite division of sovereignty, the abduction of Persephone, and the visit of Orpheus to the underworld. This version of the theogony for the most part follows Hesiod (see above), but adds that the three brothers were each given a gift by the Cyclopes to use in their battle against the Titans: Zeus thunder and lightning; Poseidon a trident; and Pluto a helmet (kyneê).
The helmet Pluto receives is presumably the magical Cap of Invisibility (aidos kyneê), but the Bibliotheca is the only ancient source that explicitly says it belonged to Pluto. The verbal play of aidos, "invisible, '' and Hades is thought to account for this attribution of the helmet to the ruler of the underworld, since no ancient narratives record his use or possession of it. Later authors such as Rabelais (16th century) do attribute the helmet to Pluto. Erasmus calls it the "helmet of Orcus '' and gives it as a figure of speech referring to those who conceal their true nature by a cunning device. Francis Bacon notes the proverbial usage: "the helmet of Pluto, which maketh the politic man go invisible, is secrecy in the counsel, and celerity in the execution. ''
No ancient image of the ruler of the underworld can be said with certainty to show him with a bident, though the ornamented tip of his scepter may have been misunderstood at times as a bident. In the Roman world, the bident (from bi -, "two '' + dent -, "teeth '') was an agricultural implement. It may also represent one of the three types of lightning wielded by Jupiter, the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and the Etruscan Tinia. The later notion that the ruler of the underworld wielded a trident or bident can perhaps be traced to a line in Seneca 's Hercules Furens ("Hercules Enraged ''), in which Father Dis, the Roman counterpart of Pluto, uses a three - pronged spear to drive off Hercules as he attempts to invade the underworld. Seneca calls Dis the "Infernal Jove '' or the "dire Jove '' (the Jove who gives dire or ill omens, dirae), just as in the Greek tradition, Plouton is sometimes identified as a "chthonic Zeus. '' That the trident and bident might be somewhat interchangeable is suggested by a Byzantine scholiast, who mentions Poseidon being armed with a bident.
In the Middle Ages, classical underworld figures began to be depicted with a pitchfork. Early Christian writers had identified the classical underworld with Hell, and its denizens as demons or devils. In the Renaissance, the bident became a conventional attribute of Pluto. In an influential ceiling mural depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche, painted by Raphael 's workshop for the Villa Farnesina in 1517, Pluto is shown holding the bident, with Cerberus at his side, while Neptune holds the trident. Perhaps influenced by this work, Agostino Carracci originally depicted Pluto with a bident in a preparatory drawing for his painting Pluto (1592), in which the god ended up holding his characteristic key. In Caravaggio 's Giove, Nettuno e Plutone (ca. 1597), a ceiling mural based on alchemical allegory, it is Neptune who holds the bident.
The name Plouton is first used in Greek literature by Athenian playwrights. In Aristophanes ' comedy The Frogs (Batrachoi, 405 BC), in which "the Eleusinian colouring is in fact so pervasive, '' the ruler of the underworld is one of the characters, under the name of Plouton. The play depicts a mock descent to the underworld by the god Dionysus to bring back one of the dead tragic playwrights in the hope of restoring Athenian theater to its former glory. Pluto is a silent presence onstage for about 600 lines presiding over a contest among the tragedians, then announces that the winner has the privilege of returning to the upper world. The play also draws on beliefs and imagery from Orphic and Dionysiac cult, and rituals pertaining to Ploutos (Plutus, "wealth ''). In a fragment from another play by Aristophanes, a character "is comically singing of the excellent aspects of being dead '', asking in reference to the tripartition of sovereignty over the world:
And where do you think Pluto gets his name (i.e. "rich ''), if not because he took the best portion?... How much better are things below than what Zeus possesses!
To Plato, the god of the underworld was "an agent in (the) beneficent cycle of death and rebirth '' meriting worship under the name of Plouton, a giver of spiritual wealth. In the dialogue Cratylus, Plato has Socrates explain the etymology of Plouton, saying that Pluto gives wealth (ploutos), and his name means "giver of wealth, which comes out of the earth beneath ''. Because the name Hades is taken to mean "the invisible '', people fear what they can not see; although they are in error about the nature of this deity 's power, Socrates says, "the office and name of the God really correspond '':
He is the perfect and accomplished Sophist, and the great benefactor of the inhabitants of the other world; and even to us who are upon earth he sends from below exceeding blessings. For he has much more than he wants down there; wherefore he is called Pluto (or the rich). Note also, that he will have nothing to do with men while they are in the body, but only when the soul is liberated from the desires and evils of the body. Now there is a great deal of philosophy and reflection in that; for in their liberated state he can bind them with the desire of virtue, but while they are flustered and maddened by the body, not even father Cronos himself would suffice to keep them with him in his own far - famed chains.
Since "the union of body and soul is not better than the loosing, '' death is not an evil. Walter Burkert thus sees Pluto as a "god of dissolution. '' Among the titles of Pluto was Isodaitēs, "divider into equal portions, '' a title that connects him to the fate goddesses the Moirai. Isodaitēs was also a cult title for Dionysus and Helios.
In ordering his ideal city, Plato proposed a calendar in which Pluto was honored as a benefactor in the twelfth month, implicitly ranking him as one of the twelve principal deities. In the Attic calendar, the twelfth month, more or less equivalent to June, was Skirophorion; the name may be connected to the rape of Persephone.
In the theogony of Euhemerus (4th century BC), the gods were treated as mortal rulers whose deeds were immortalized by tradition. Ennius translated Euhemerus into Latin about a hundred years later, and a passage from his version was in turn preserved by the early Christian writer Lactantius. Here the union of Saturn (the Roman equivalent of Cronus) and Ops, an Italic goddess of abundance, produces Jupiter (Greek Zeus), Juno (Hera), Neptune, Pluto, and Glauca:
Then Saturn took Ops to wife. Titan, the elder brother, demanded the kingship for himself. Vesta their mother, with their sisters Ceres (Demeter) and Ops, persuaded Saturn not to give way to his brother in the matter. Titan was less good - looking than Saturn; for that reason, and also because he could see his mother and sisters working to have it so, he conceded the kingship to Saturn, and came to terms with him: if Saturn had a male child born to him, it would not be reared. This was done to secure reversion of the kingship to Titan 's children. They then killed the first son that was born to Saturn. Next came twin children, Jupiter and Juno. Juno was given to Saturn to see while Jupiter was secretly removed and given to Vesta to be brought up without Saturn 's knowledge. In the same way without Saturn knowing, Ops bore Neptune and hid him away. In her third labor Ops bore another set of twins, Pluto and Glauce. (Pluto in Latin is Diespiter; some call him Orcus.) Saturn was shown his daughter Glauce but his son Pluto was hidden and removed. Glauce then died young. That is the pedigree, as written, of Jupiter and his brothers; that is how it has been passed down to us in holy scripture.
In this theogony, which Ennius introduced into Latin literature, Saturn, "Titan, '' Vesta, Ceres, and Ops are siblings; Glauca is the twin of Pluto and dies mysteriously young. There are several mythological figures named Glauca; the sister of Pluto may be the Glauca who in Cicero 's account of the three aspects of Diana conceived the third with the equally mysterious Upis. This is the genealogy for Pluto that Boccaccio used in his Genealogia Deorum Gentilium and in his lectures explicating the Divine Comedy of Dante.
In Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles, dating mostly to the 2nd century AD, Rhea gives birth to Pluto as she passes by Dodona, "where the watery paths of the River Europus flowed, and the water ran into the sea, merged with the Peneius. This is also called the Stygian river. ''
The Orphic theogonies are notoriously varied, and Orphic cosmology influenced the varying Gnostic theogonies of late antiquity. Clementine literature (4th century AD) preserves a theogony with explicit Orphic influence that also draws on Hesiod, yielding a distinctive role for Pluto. When the primordial elements came together by orderly cyclonic force, they produced a generative sphere, the "egg '' from which the primeval Orphic entity Phanes is born and the world is formed. The release of Phanes and his ascent to the heavenly top of the world - egg causes the matter left in the sphere to settle in relation to weight, creating the tripartite world of the traditional theogonies:
Its lower part, the heaviest element, sinks downwards, and is called Pluto because of its gravity, weight, and great quantity (plêthos) of matter. After the separation of this heavy element in the middle part of the egg the waters flow together, which they call Poseidon. The purest and noblest element, the fire, is called Zeus, because its nature is glowing (ζέουσα, zeousa). It flies right up into the air, and draws up the spirit, now called Metis, that was left in the underlying moisture. And when this spirit has reached the summit of the ether, it is devoured by Zeus, who in his turn begets the intelligence (σύνεσις, sunesis), also called Pallas. And by this artistic intelligence the etherial artificer creates the whole world. This world is surrounded by the air, which extends from Zeus, the very hot ether, to the earth; this air is called Hera.
This cosmogony interprets Hesiod allegorically, and so the heaviest element is identified not as the Earth, but as the netherworld of Pluto. (In modern geochemistry, plutonium is the heaviest primordial element.) Supposed etymologies are used to make sense of the relation of physical process to divine name; Plouton is here connected to plêthos (abundance).
In the Stoic system, Pluto represented the lower region of the air, where according to Seneca (1st century AD) the soul underwent a kind of purgatory before ascending to the ether. Seneca 's contemporary Cornutus made use of the traditional etymology of Pluto 's name for Stoic theology. The Stoics believed that the form of a word contained the original truth of its meaning, which over time could become corrupted or obscured. Plouton derived from ploutein, "to be wealthy, '' Cornutus said, because "all things are corruptible and therefore are ' ultimately consigned to him as his property. ' ''
Within the Pythagorean and Neoplatonic traditions, Pluto was allegorized as the region where souls are purified, located between the moon (as represented by Persephone) and the sun. Neoplatonists sometimes interpreted the Eleusinian Mysteries as a fabula of celestial phenomena:
Authors tell the fable that Ceres was Proserpina 's mother, and that Proserpina while playing one day was raped by Pluto. Her mother searched for her with lighted torches; and it was decreed by Jupiter that the mother should have her daughter for fifteen days in the month, but Pluto for the rest, the other fifteen. This is nothing but that the name Ceres is used to mean the earth, called Ceres on analogy with crees (' you may create '), for all things are created from her. By Proserpina is meant the moon, and her name is on analogy with prope serpens (' creeping near '), for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets. She is called earth 's daughter, because her substance has more of earth in it than of the other elements. By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon.
A dedicatory inscription from Smyrna describes a 1st -- 2nd century sanctuary to "God Himself '' as the most exalted of a group of six deities, including clothed statues of Plouton Helios and Koure Selene, "Pluto the Sun '' and "Kore the Moon. '' The status of Pluto and Kore as a divine couple is marked by what the text describes as a "linen embroidered bridal curtain. '' The two are placed as bride and groom within an enclosed temple, separately from the other deities cultivated at the sanctuary.
Plouton Helios is mentioned in other literary sources in connection with Koure Selene and Helios Apollon; the sun on its nighttime course was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the underworld on its return to the east. Apuleius describes a rite in which the sun appears at midnight to the initiate at the gates of Proserpina; it has been suggested that this midnight sun could be Plouton Helios.
The Smyrna inscription also records the presence of Helios Apollon at the sanctuary. As two forms of Helios, Apollo and Pluto pose a dichotomy:
It has been argued that the sanctuary was in the keeping of a Pythagorean sodality or "brotherhood ''. The relation of Orphic beliefs to the mystic strand of Pythagoreanism, or of these to Platonism and Neoplatonism, is complex and much debated.
In the Hellenistic era, the title or epithet Plutonius is sometimes affixed to the names of other deities. In the Hermetic Corpus, Jupiter Plutonius "rules over earth and sea, and it is he who nourishes mortal things that have soul and bear fruit. ''
In Ptolemaic Alexandria, at the site of a dream oracle, Serapis was identified with Aion Plutonius. Gilles Quispel conjectured that this figure results from the integration of the Orphic Phanes into Mithraic religion at Alexandria, and that he "assures the eternity of the city, '' where the birth of Aion was celebrated at the sanctuary of Kore on January 6. In Latin, Plutonius can be an adjective that simply means "of or pertaining to Pluto. ''
The Neoplatonist Proclus (5th century AD) considered Pluto the third demiurge, a sublunar demiurge who was also identified variously with Poseidon or Hephaestus. This idea is present in Renaissance Neoplatonism, as for instance in the cosmology of Marsilio Ficino (1433 -- 99), who translated Orphic texts into Latin for his own use. Ficino saw the sublunar demiurge as "a daemonic ' many - headed ' sophist, a magus, an enchanter, a fashioner of images and reflections, a shape - changer of himself and of others, a poet in a way of being and of not - being, a royal Pluto. '' This demiurgic figure identified with Pluto is also "' a purifier of souls ' who presides over the magic of love and generation and who uses a fantastic counter-art to mock, but also... to supplement, the divine icastic or truly imitative art of the sublime translunar Demiurge. ''
Christian writers of late antiquity sought to discredit the competing gods of Roman and Hellenistic religions, often adopting the euhemerizing approach in regarding them not as divinities, but as people glorified through stories and cultic practices and thus not true deities worthy of worship. The infernal gods, however, retained their potency, becoming identified with the Devil and treated as demonic forces by Christian apologists.
One source of Christian revulsion toward the chthonic gods was the arena. Attendants in divine costume, among them a "Pluto '' who escorted corpses out, were part of the ceremonies of the gladiatorial games. Tertullian calls the mallet - wielding figure usually identified as the Etruscan Charun the "brother of Jove, '' that is, Hades / Pluto / Dis, an indication that the distinctions among these denizens of the underworld were becoming blurred in a Christian context. Prudentius, in his poetic polemic against the religious traditionalist Symmachus, describes the arena as a place where savage vows were fulfilled on an altar to Pluto (solvit ad aram / Plutonis fera vota), where fallen gladiators were human sacrifices to Dis and Charon received their souls as his payment, to the delight of the underworld Jove (Iovis infernalis).
Medieval mythographies, written in Latin, continue the conflation of Greek and Roman deities begun by the ancient Roman themselves. Perhaps because the name Pluto was used in both traditions, it appears widely in these Latin sources for the classical ruler of the underworld, who is also seen as the double, ally, or adjunct to the figure in Christian mythology known variously as the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer. The classical underworld deities became casually interchangeable with Satan as an embodiment of Hell. For instance, in the 9th century, Abbo Cernuus, the only witness whose account of the Siege of Paris survives, called the invading Vikings the "spawn of Pluto. ''
In the Little Book on Images of the Gods, Pluto is described as
an intimidating personage sitting on a throne of sulphur, holding the scepter of his realm in his right hand, and with his left strangling a soul. Under his feet three - headed Cerberus held a position, and beside him he had three Harpies. From his golden throne of sulphur flowed four rivers, which were called, as is known, Lethe, Cocytus, Phlegethon and Acheron, tributaries of the Stygian swamp.
This work derives from that of the Third Vatican Mythographer, possibly one Albricus or Alberic, who presents often extensive allegories and devotes his longest chapter, including an excursus on the nature of the soul, to Pluto.
In Dante 's Divine Comedy (written 1308 -- 1321), Pluto presides over the fourth circle of Hell, to which the greedy are condemned. The Italian form of the name is Pluto, taken by some commentators to refer specifically to Plutus as the god of wealth who would preside over the torment of those who hoarded or squandered it in life. Dante 's Pluto is greeted as "the great enemy '' and utters the famously impenetrable line Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe. Much of this Canto is devoted to the power of Fortuna to give and take away. Entrance into the fourth circle has marked a downward turn in the poet 's journey, and the next landmark after he and his guide cross from the circle is the Stygian swamp, through which they pass on their way to the city of Dis (Italian Dite). Dante 's clear distinction between Pluto and Dis suggests that he had Plutus in mind in naming the former. The city of Dis is the "citadel of Lower Hell '' where the walls are garrisoned by fallen angels and Furies. Pluto is treated likewise as a purely Satanic figure by the 16th - century Italian poet Tasso throughout his epic Jerusalem Delivered, in which "great Dis, great Pluto '' is invoked in the company of "all ye devils that lie in deepest hell. ''
Influenced by Ovid and Claudian, Geoffrey Chaucer (1343 -- 1400) developed the myth of Pluto and Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) in English literature. Like earlier medieval writers, Chaucer identifies Pluto 's realm with Hell as a place of condemnation and torment, and describes it as "derk and lowe '' ("dark and low ''). But Pluto 's major appearance in the works of Chaucer comes as a character in "The Merchant 's Tale, '' where Pluto is identified as the "Kyng of Fayerye '' (Fairy King). As in the anonymous romance Sir Orfeo (ca. 1300), Pluto and Proserpina rule over a fantastical world that melds classical myth and fairyland. Chaucer has the couple engage in a comic battle of the sexes that undermines the Christian imagery in the tale, which is Chaucer 's most sexually explicit. The Scottish poet William Dunbar ca. 1503 also described Pluto as a folkloric supernatural being, "the elrich incubus / in cloke of grene '' ("the eldritch incubus in cloak of green ''), who appears among the courtiers of Cupid.
The name Pluto for the classical ruler of the underworld was further established in English literature by Arthur Golding, whose translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses (1565) was of great influence on William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser. Golding translates Ovid 's Dis as Pluto, a practice that prevails among English translators, despite John Milton 's use of the Latin Dis in Paradise Lost. The Christian perception of the classical underworld as Hell influenced Golding 's translation practices; for instance, Ovid 's tenebrosa sede tyrannus / exierat ("the tyrant (Dis) had gone out of his shadowy realm '') becomes "the prince of fiends forsook his darksome hole ''.
Pluto 's court as a literary setting could bring together a motley assortment of characters. In Huon de Méry 's 13th - century poem "The Tournament of the Antichrist '', Pluto rules over a congregation of "classical gods and demigods, biblical devils, and evil Christians. '' In the 15th - century dream allegory The Assembly of Gods, the deities and personifications are "apparelled as medieval nobility '' basking in the "magnyfycence '' of their "lord Pluto, '' who is clad in a "smoky net '' and reeking of sulphur.
Throughout the Renaissance, images and ideas from classical antiquity entered popular culture through the new medium of print and through pageants and other public performances at festivals. The Fête - Dieu at Aix - en - Provence in 1462 featured characters costumed as a number of classical deities, including Pluto, and Pluto was the subject of one of seven pageants presented as part of the 1521 Midsummer Eve festival in London. During the 15th century, no mythological theme was brought to the stage more often than Orpheus 's descent, with the court of Pluto inspiring fantastical stagecraft. Leonardo da Vinci designed a set with a rotating mountain that opened up to reveal Pluto emerging from the underworld; the drawing survives and was the basis for a modern recreation.
The tragic descent of the hero - musician Orpheus to the underworld to retrieve his bride, and his performance at the court of Pluto and Proserpina, offered compelling material for librettists and composers of opera (see List of Orphean operas) and ballet. Pluto also appears in works based on other classical myths of the underworld. As a singing role, Pluto is almost always written for a bass voice, with the low vocal range representing the depths and weight of the underworld, as in Monteverdi and Rinuccini 's L'Orfeo (1607) and Il ballo delle ingrate (1608). In their ballo, a form of ballet with vocal numbers, Cupid invokes Pluto from the underworld to lay claim to "ungrateful '' women who were immune to love. Pluto 's part is considered particularly virtuosic, and a reviewer at the première described the character, who appeared as if from a blazing Inferno, as "formidable and awesome in sight, with garments as given him by poets, but burdened with gold and jewels. ''
The role of Pluto is written for a bass in Peri 's Euridice (1600); Caccini 's Euridice (1602); Rossi 's Orfeo (1647); Cesti 's Il pomo d'oro (1668); Sartoris 's Orfeo (1672); Lully 's Alceste, a tragédie en musique (1674); Charpentier 's chamber opera La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (1686); Telemann 's Orpheus (1726); and Rameau 's Hippolyte et Aricie (1733). Pluto was a baritone in Lully 's Proserpine (1680), which includes a duo dramatizing the conflict between the royal underworld couple that is notable for its early use of musical characterization. Perhaps the most famous of the Orpheus operas is Offenbach 's satiric Orpheus in the Underworld (1858), in which a tenor sings the role of Pluton, disguised in the giddily convoluted plotting as Aristée (Aristaeus), a farmer.
Scenes set in Pluto 's realm were orchestrated with instrumentation that became conventionally "hellish '', established in Monteverdi 's L'Orfeo as two cornets, three trombones, a bassoon, and a régale.
Pluto has also been featured as a role in ballet. In Lully 's "Ballet of Seven Planets ' '' interlude from Cavalli 's opera Ercole amante ("Hercules in Love ''), Louis XIV himself danced as Pluto and other characters; it was a spectacular flop. Pluto appeared in Noverre 's lost La descente d'Orphée aux Enfers (1760s). Gaétan Vestris danced the role of the god in Florian Deller 's Orefeo ed Euridice (1763). The Persephone choreographed by Robert Joffrey (1952) was based on André Gide 's line "king of winters, the infernal Pluto. ''
The abduction of Proserpina by Pluto was the scene from the myth most often depicted by artists, who usually follow Ovid 's version. The influential emblem book Iconologia of Cesare Ripa (1593, second edition 1603) presents the allegorical figure of Rape with a shield on which the abduction is painted. Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg, the first teacher of Rembrandt, echoed Ovid in showing Pluto as the target of Cupid 's arrow while Venus watches her plan carried out (location of painting unknown). The treatment of the scene by Rubens is similar. Rembrandt incorporates Claudian 's more passionate characterizations. The performance of Orpheus in the court of Pluto and Proserpina was also a popular subject.
Major artists who produced works depicting Pluto include:
After the Renaissance, literary interest in the abduction myth waned until the revival of classical myth among the Romantics. The work of mythographers such as J.G. Frazer and Jane Ellen Harrison helped inspire the recasting of myths in modern terms by Victorian and Modernist writers. In Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), Thomas Hardy portrays Alec d'Urberville as "a grotesque parody of Pluto / Dis '' exemplifying the late - Victorian culture of male domination, in which women were consigned to "an endless breaking... on the wheel of biological reproduction. '' A similar figure is found in The Lost Girl (1920) by D.H. Lawrence, where the character Ciccio acts as Pluto to Alvina 's Persephone, "the deathly - lost bride... paradoxically obliterated and vitalised at the same time by contact with Pluto / Dis '' in "a prelude to the grand design of rebirth. '' The darkness of Pluto is both a source of regeneration, and of "merciless annihilation. '' Lawrence takes up the theme elsewhere in his work; in The First Lady Chatterley (1926, an early version of Lady Chatterley 's Lover), Connie Chatterley sees herself as a Persephone and declares "she 'd rather be married to Pluto than Plato, '' casting her earthy gamekeeper lover as the former and her philosophy - spouting husband as the latter.
In Rick Riordan 's young adult fantasy series The Heroes of Olympus, the character Hazel Levesque is the daughter of Pluto, god of riches. She is one of seven characters with a parent from classical mythology. In The Son of Neptune, the second volume in the series, Riordan describes Pluto as "cool... He just got bad luck when the gods were dividing up the world... Jupiter got the sky, Neptune got the sea, and Pluto got the shaft. '' In Riordan 's explanation, Hades "was more of a death god, '' but acquired his identity as a god of wealth among the Romans, along with a new name.
Scientific terms derived from the name of Pluto include:
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when is season 7 of puss in boots coming out | The Adventures of Puss in Boots - Wikipedia
The Adventures of Puss in Boots is an American computer - animated web television series. It stars the character Puss in Boots from the DreamWorks Animation Shrek franchise, voiced by Eric Bauza. The series premiered with its first five episodes on Netflix on January 16, 2015; the sixth and final season was released on January 26, 2018.
The series sees Puss in Boots fight off an endless legion of invaders to protect the previously hidden city of San Lorenzo, after his actions unintentionally broke the spell that protected its legendary mystic treasure from the outside world. So he must find a way to restore the protection spell that will cloak the town once more.
The first season debuted on January 16, 2015 on Netflix, when the first five episodes were released, with further episodes released in May and September 2015. A second season was released on December 11, 2015. The third season was released on July 15, 2016. The fourth season was released on December 16, 2016. The fifth season was released on July 28, 2017. The sixth and final season was released on January 26, 2018.
An interactive special called "Puss in Book: Trapped in an Epic Tale '' was released on June 20, 2017.
The series was announced in March 2014 as part of an agreement between Netflix and DreamWorks Animation, under which the studio will develop more than 300 hours of exclusive programming for the service. In 2015, it was stated that a total of 78 episodes were in production for the series, and they were expected to be released in blocks from 2015 onward in a multi-year deal.
The New York Times gave the first episode a positive review stating that the show "is nicely drawn, and San Lorenzo is populated with some appealingly odd young residents, human and otherwise. '' Moreover, they praised the humour stating that it was "relatively sophisticated (you could write a psychological treatise on Dulcinea, who has modeled her life on a somewhat vacuous book of epigrams), but not so sophisticated that children will be left behind. ''
In 2015, the second episode of the series, "Sphinx '', was nominated at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival. In 2016, the series won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Casting for an Animated Series or Special.
In April 2016, Titan Comics released the first of a two - issue limited series of comic books as a tie - in to the TV show, under the same title of The Adventures of Puss in Boots.
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india do not share its border with which of these countries | List of countries and territories by land borders - wikipedia
This is a list of countries and territories by land borders. The number of unique land borders of each country or territory is indicated as well the names of its neighboring countries and territories. The length of each land border is included, as is the total length of each country 's and territory 's land borders.
Countries or territories that are connected only by bridges or other man - made causeways are not considered to have land borders. However, borders along lakes, rivers, and other internal waters are considered land borders for the purposes of this article. Footnotes are included to provide clarity regarding the status of certain countries and territories.
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diary of a wimpy kid movie full cast | Diary of a Wimpy Kid (film series) - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a series of films based on the series of books, Diary of a Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney. The series consists of four films: Diary of a Wimpy Kid (2010), Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules (2011), Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days (2012) and the latest fourth film Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (2017).
Diary of a Wimpy Kid was released March 19, 2010, as it moved up from a previously scheduled April 2 release date. Principal production began on September 21, 2009 and was completed on October 16, 2009. The film was directed by Thor Freudenthal and starred Zachary Gordon as Greg Heffley, Robert Capron as Rowley Jefferson, Rachael Harris as Susan Heffley, Steve Zahn as Frank Heffley, Devon Bostick as Rodrick Heffley, Connor and Owen Fielding as Manny Heffley, Chloë Grace Moretz as Angie Steadman, Grayson Russell as Fregley, Laine MacNeil as Patty Farrell, and Karan Brar as Chirag Gupta. It is the only film in the series to be directed by Freudenthal. The Original Score for the movie was composed by Theodore Shapiro.
Rodrick Rules is the second film in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series. It was released on March 25, 2011 and is based on the second book, Rodrick Rules with scenes from The Last Straw. Principal photography began on August 23, 2010 and was completed on October 27, 2010, with filming taking place in Vancouver and New Westminster. Rodrick Rules was directed by David Bowers, with Zachary Gordon reprising his role as Greg Heffley. New main characters include Holly Hills (Peyton List), Grandpa (Terence Kelly), and Bill Walter (Fran Kranz). Edward Shearmur composes the original score for the film.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days is the third film in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series. It was released on August 3, 2012 and is based on the third book The Last Straw and the fourth book Dog Days. The film was directed by David Bowers and features the same familiar cast of characters, introducing a few new ones, and also focusing on lesser characters not elaborated on in previous films, including Frank Heffley (Steve Zahn), Mr. Robert Jefferson (Alf Humphreys) and Holly Hills (Peyton List). Dog Days is the first film in the series not to be released in March.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul was released on May 19, 2017, and is the first film to feature an entirely new cast. Jason Drucker and Charlie Wright portray Greg and Rodrick Heffley, and Tom Everett Scott and Alicia Silverstone as their parents, Frank and Susan. The film follows Greg and Rodrick convincing their family to go on a road trip for their grandmother 's 90th birthday, but they actually plan on attending a video game convention.
In December 2012, Jeff Kinney announced that he was working on an animated adaptation of Cabin Fever to air around Christmas 2013. The adaptation would explain how Manny managed to redirect the power for all to his room and no one else 's. In August 2013, Kinney stated it would be a half - hour television special, and would air on Fox in late 2014. The film was teased with the conclusion of the 2012 animated short film Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Class Clown, which ended with a scene adapted from the Cabin Fever book. As of 2018, no updates of the project have been announced since.
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ray charles bring it on home to me | Bring it on Home to Me - wikipedia
"Bring It on Home to Me '' is a song by American soul singer Sam Cooke, released on May 8, 1962 by RCA Victor. Produced by Hugo & Luigi and arranged and conducted by René Hall, the song was the B - side to "Having a Party ''. The song peaked at number two on Billboard 's Hot R&B Sides chart, and also charted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song has become a pop standard, covered by numerous artists of different genres. It is one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
"Bring It on Home to Me '', like its A-side, "Having a Party '', was written while Cooke was on tour for Henry Wynn. The song was initially offered to fellow singer Dee Clark, who turned it down. While in Atlanta, Cooke called co-producer Luigi Creatore and pitched both numbers; he was sold and booked an immediate recording session in Los Angeles scheduled for two weeks later. The session 's mood "matched the title '' of the song, according to biographer Peter Guralnick, as many friends had been invited. "It was a very happy session, '' recalled engineer Al Schmitt. "Everybody was just having a ball. We were getting people out there (on the floor), and some of the outtakes were hilarious, there was so much ad lib that went on. '' René Hall assembled an eighteen - piece backing group, "composed of six violins, two violas, two cellos, and a sax, plus a seven - piece rhythm section that included two percussionists, two bassists, two guitars, and a piano. ''
The song is a significant reworking of Charles Brown 's 1959 single "I Want to Go Home '', and it retains the gospel flavor and call - and - response format; the song differs significantly in that its refrain ("Bring it to me, bring your sweet lovin ', bring it on home to me '') is overtly secular. The song was the first serious nod to his gospel roots ("(He) felt that he needed more weight, that that light shit would n't sustain him, '' said J.W. Alexander). The song was aiming for a sound similar to Cooke 's former group, the Soul Stirrers. The original, unreleased first take includes vocals from Lou Rawls, J.W. Alexander, Fred Smith (former assistant A&R rep at Keen Records), and "probably '' the Sims Twins. A second, final take leaves Lou Rawls as the only echoing voice.
"Bring It On Home to Me '' was recorded on April 26, 1962, at RCA Studio 1 in Hollywood, California. The engineer present was Al Schmitt, and the session was conducted and arranged by René Hall. The musicians also recorded "Having a Party '' the same day. Credits adapted from the liner notes to the 2003 compilation Portrait of a Legend: 1951 -- 1964.
The most significant cover versions of the song include versions by:
The song was featured in the 2017 film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
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where does the water for lake las vegas come from | Lake Las Vegas - wikipedia
Lake Las Vegas in Henderson, Nevada, refers to a 320 - acre (130 ha) artificial lake and the 3,592 - acre (1,454 ha) developed area around the lake. The area is sometimes referred to as the Lake Las Vegas Resort. Lake Las Vegas is being developed by 5 companies including Lake at Las Vegas Joint Venture LLC.
The area includes three resorts including the Aston MonteLago Village Resort, the Westin Lake Las Vegas Resort, and the Hilton Lake Las Vegas.
The dam that creates the lake is "an earthen structure 18 stories high, 4,800 ft (1,500 m) in length and 716 ft (218 m) wide at its base. It contains roughly the same amount of dirt as Hoover Dam does concrete, '' and was completed in 1991. The Las Vegas Wash passes under the lake and dam in pipes that require maintenance every 10 years.
Actor J. Carlton Adair conceived Lake Las Vegas around 1967 as Lake Adair. At the time he purchased the land and water rights. In 1987, Ronald Boeddeker acquired 2,000 acres (810 ha) from the US Government when Adair went bankrupt.
The property was acquired by Transcontinental Properties in 1990. In 1995, Henry Gluck, the former Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Caesars World, became the co-Chairman of Transcontinental Properties. With Sid Bass and Lee Bass, two billionaires from Fort Worth, Texas, he developed the new community. The project cost US $5 billion.
The lake was built on top of the Las Vegas Wash, which continues to flow under the lake in two 96 - inch (2.4 m) diameter pipes. Water diversion to fill the lake began in 1990. The lake was filled with 3 billion US gallons (11,000,000 m) of water.
Lake at Las Vegas Joint Venture, LLC filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on July 17, 2008. Debts were estimated at between $500 million and $1 billion.
Lake Las Vegas emerged from bankruptcy in July 2010 with a plan that took nearly two years to complete. All existing debt was wiped away and the development has $30 million in hand to complete several of the unfinished infrastructure projects. The Lake Las Vegas bankruptcy creditors, not Lake Las Vegas development themselves, have filed a lawsuit against the former insiders (Bass Brothers, TransContinental, etc.). The creditors ' theory is that the $500 million equity loan the former insiders took against the property caused the demise of Lake Las Vegas. The creditors are hoping to recoup money from the former insiders. In a related action, resort property owners are suing lender Credit Suisse as part of a multibillion - dollar lawsuit led by bankrupt Yellowstone Club founder Timothy Blixseth and his son Beau Blixseth who claim the Lake Las Vegas Joint Venture bankruptcy was caused by a "loan to own '' scheme between the bank and resort developers.
The golf course was purchased by Nevada South Shore LLC, a Hawaii - based corporation for $4.5 million on February 17, 2011.
The Ritz Carlton, Lake Las Vegas, closed after 8 years of operation on May 2, 2010. The Ritz Carlton was then reopened by international boutique hotelier Dolce Hotels on February 11, 2011, as the Ravella at Lake Las Vegas. On April 30, 2013, Kam Sang Co. announced that the Ravella would be renamed the Hilton Lake Las Vegas, the name under which the hotel continues to operate. The Hilton opened June 6, 2013.
Lake Las Vegas was the subject of a lawsuit between investment fund Claymore Holdings and Credit Suisse, which was the agent for a syndicate of entities that loaned $540 million to develop the property. Claymore and others accused Credit Suisse of fraudulently inflating the value of the development in order to generate higher fees for itself. The core of the allegations centered on a new appraisal methodology conceived of by Credit Suisse executive David Miller, who in internal emails is referred to as Credit Suisse 's Dr. Frankenstein. In 2015, a Texas judge ordered Credit Suisse to pay $288 million to Highland, Claymore and others. The verdict was partially offset by other payments to Highland, meaning that Claymore received most of the Credit Suisse judgment.
Casino MonteLago was opened on May 8, 2003, having been built by Cook Inlet Region, Inc., an Alaska Native shareholder owned corporation. The casino closed for the first time on March 14, 2010, due to the Great Recession; but on May 26, 2011, after renovation, the casino re-opened to the public. In November 2012, the casino was acquired along with the Ravella at Lake Las Vegas for a total of $47 million by Kam Sang Co., a California - based real estate developer. The casino closed for the second time on October 29, 2013, as a result of a lease dispute between Kam Sang and the casino 's operators. In the beginning of 2016, the facility reopened as the Lake Las Vegas Event Center, hosting special events, exhibits and entertainment. It is attached to the Hilton Lake Las Vegas and accessible from MonteLago Village.
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when did bat out of hell come out | Bat Out of Hell - wikipedia
Bat Out of Hell is the second studio album and the major - label debut by American rock singer Meat Loaf, as well as being his first collaboration with composer Jim Steinman and producer Todd Rundgren, released in September 1977 on Cleveland International / Epic Records. It is one of the best - selling albums of all time, having sold over 43 million copies worldwide. Rolling Stone Magazine ranked it at number 343 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time in 2003.
Its musical style is influenced by Steinman 's appreciation of Richard Wagner, Phil Spector, Bruce Springsteen and The Who. Bat Out of Hell has been certified 14 times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. As of May 2015, it has spent 485 weeks in the UK Charts. The album went on to become one of the most influential and iconic albums of all time and its songs have remained classic rock staples.
This album 's title also became the title for two more Meat Loaf albums. Steinman produced the album Bat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell (1993). Desmond Child produced the album Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose (2006).
A musical based on the album, staged by Jay Scheib, opened at the Manchester Opera House on February 17, 2017 before transferring to the London Coliseum and Toronto, Canada 's Ed Mirvish Theatre in late 2017. Since April 2, 2018 it has been running at the Dominion Theatre, London, with plans to run the show in parallel in Germany and touring the USA in 2019.
The album developed from a musical, Neverland, a futuristic rock version of Peter Pan, which Steinman wrote for a workshop in 1974, and performed at the Kennedy Center Music Theatre Lab in 1977. Steinman and Meat Loaf, who were touring with the National Lampoon show, felt that three songs were "exceptional '' and Steinman began to develop them as part of a seven - song set they wanted to record as an album. The three songs were "Bat Out of Hell '', "Heaven Can Wait '' and "The Formation of the Pack '', which was later retitled "All Revved Up with No Place to Go ''.
Bat Out of Hell is often compared to the music of Bruce Springsteen, particularly the album Born to Run. Steinman says that he finds that "puzzling, musically '', although they share influences; "Springsteen was more an inspiration than an influence. '' A BBC article added "that Max Weinberg and Roy Bittan from Springsteen 's E Street Band played on the album only helped reinforce the comparison. ''
Steinman and Meat Loaf had immense difficulty finding a record company willing to sign them. According to Meat Loaf 's autobiography, the band spent most of 1975 writing and recording material, and two and a half years auditioning the record and being rejected. Manager David Sonenberg jokes that they were creating record companies just so they could be rejected. They performed the album live in 1976, with Steinman on piano, Meat Loaf singing, and sometimes Ellen Foley joining them for "Paradise. '' Steinman says that it was a "medley of the most brutal rejections you could imagine. '' Meat Loaf "almost cracked '' when CBS executive Clive Davis rejected the project. According to Meat Loaf 's autobiography. Davis commented that "actors do n't make records '' and challenged Steinman 's writing abilities and knowledge of rock music:
Do you know how to write a song? Do you know anything about writing? If you 're going to write for records, it goes like this: A, B, C, B, C, C. I do n't know what you 're doing. You 're doing A, D, F, G, B, D, C. You do n't know how to write a song... Have you ever listened to pop music? Have you ever heard any rock - and - roll music... You should go downstairs when you leave here... and buy some rock - and - roll records.
Meat Loaf asserts "Jim, at the time, knew every record ever made. (He) is a walking rock encyclopedia. '' Although Steinman laughed off the insults, the singer screamed "Fuck you, Clive! '' from the street up to his building.
In one 1989 interview with Classic Rock magazine, Steinman labeled him "the only genuine genius I 've ever worked with. '' In a 1989 interview with Redbeard for the In the Studio with Redbeard episode on the making of the album, Meat Loaf revealed that Jimmy Iovine and Andy Johns were potential candidates for producing Bat Out of Hell before being rejected by the singer and Steinman in favor of Todd Rundgren, whom Meat Loaf initially found cocky but grew to like. Rundgren found the album hilarious, thinking that it was a parody of Springsteen. The singer quotes him as saying: "I 've ' got ' to do this album. It 's just so ' out ' there. '' They told the producer that they had previously been signed to RCA.
Recording started in late 1975 in Bearsville Studios, Woodstock, New York. Roy Bittan and Max Weinberg, the pianist and drummer from Bruce Springsteen 's E Street Band played on the album, in addition to members of Rundgren 's group Utopia: Kasim Sulton, Roger Powell and John "Willie '' Wilcox. Edgar Winter played the saxophone on "All Revved Up ''. Rundgren himself played guitar, including the "motorcycle solo '' on "Bat Out of Hell. '' Both Steinman and Rundgren were influenced by Phil Spector and his "wall of sound. '' According to Meat Loaf, Rundgren put all the arrangements together because although "Jim could hear all the instruments '' in his head, Steinman hummed rather than orchestrating.
When Rundgren discovered that the deal with RCA did not actually exist, Albert Grossman, who had been Bob Dylan 's manager, offered to put it on his Bearsville label but needed more money. Rundgren had essentially paid for the album himself. Mo Ostin at Warner Bros. was impressed, but other senior people rejected them after they performed live. Steinman had offended them a few years earlier by auditioning with a song named "Who Needs the Young, '' which contains the lyric "Is there anyone left who can fuck? Screw ' em! ''
Another E Street Band member, Steve Van Zandt, and Sonenberg arranged to contact Cleveland International Records, a subsidiary of Epic Records. After listening to the spoken word intro to "You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth '' ("Hot Summer Night ''), founder Steve Popovich accepted the album for Cleveland.
Rundgren mixed the record in one night. However, the mixes were not suitable to the extent that Meat Loaf did not want "Paradise by the Dashboard Light '' on the album. Jimmy Iovine, who had mixed Springsteen 's Born to Run, remixed some of the tracks. After several attempts by several people, John Jansen mixed the version of "Paradise by the Dashboard Light '' that is on the album. According to Meat Loaf, he, Jansen and Steinman mixed the title track.
Phil Rizzuto 's baseball play - by - play call for "Paradise by the Dashboard Light '' was recorded in 1976 at The Hit Factory in New York City by Rundgren, Meat Loaf and Steinman. As an Italian Catholic, Rizzuto publicly maintained he was unaware that his contribution would be equated with sex in the finished song. However, Meat Loaf asserts that Rizzuto only claimed ignorance to stifle criticism and was fully aware of the context of what he was recording.
Todd Rundgren acknowledges that Steinman was highly influenced by the "rural suburban teenage angst '' of Bruce Springsteen. According to manager David Sonenberg, "Jim would always come up with these great titles and then he would write a song that would try to justify the greatness of the title. ''
Since 1968, Jim Steinman had been working on a magnum opus, which finally opened in 2017 in the form of Bat Out Of Hell The Musical. The first incarnation of his work was a musical called The Dream Engine when he was in college at Amherst. The qualities of teenage rebellion and a girl joining a "tribe '' led by a charismatic leader are present in all versions of Steinman 's work. The Dream Engine is where the spoken word piece "Hot Summer Night '' originates, and is the earliest work that appears on the Meat Loaf album, where it is performed by Jim Steinman and actress Marcia McClain.
The next incarnation of Steinman 's magnum opus, during the 1970s, was a musical called "Neverland, '' which contained many of the same scenes and themes as The Dream Engine but was now largely depoliticized and contained many Peter Pan references. Some scenes in "Neverland, '' such as the parents feeding their imprisoned daughter "dream suppressant '' drugs, are still present in Bat Out Of Hell The Musical, but overall Neverland was of a much darker tone. This musical contained the songs Heaven Can Wait, Bat Out Of Hell, and All Revved Up With No Place To Go. On the 25th anniversary version of the album Bat Out Of Hell, one of the bonus live tracks, "Great Boleros Of Fire, '' is an instrumental version of another song from Neverland titled "Gods. '' (Meat Loaf finally recorded and released this song under the title "Godz '' on his 2016 album Braver Than We Are).
When staged in 1977, the cast of "Neverland '' included Ellen Foley as Wendy - who performs the lead female vocal on Paradise By The Dashboard Light on the album. The music for "Neverland '' was performed by Orchestra Luna, and one of their members at the time was Karla DeVito. Ellen Foley was not available when it came time to go on tour for the album Bat Out Of Hell, so Karla DeVito took her place. In the various promotional music videos for the songs on the album Bat Out Of Hell Karla DeVito 's lips are synced to Ellen Foley 's album vocals.
The opening track "Bat Out of Hell '' is the result of Steinman 's desire to write the "most extreme crash song of all time. ''
"You Took The Words Right Out Of My Mouth '' is musically inspired by the rock chords of The Who 's Baba O'Riley with a Phil Spector style melody on top. In Jim Steinman 's "Neverland '' and "Bat Out Of Hell The Musical, '' the spoken word "Hot Summer Night '' and this song are used as an exchange of wedding vows, and to celebrate a wedding.
The song "Two Out of Three Ai n't Bad '' was written in direct response to actress Mimi Kennedy asking Jim Steinman whether he could write a simple song like Elvis Presley 's "I want you, I need you, I love you ''. Todd Rundgren identifies how the song was influenced by the Eagles, who were successful at the time. The producer also highlights the "underlying humor in the lyrics, '' citing the line "There ai n't no Coupe de Ville hiding at the bottom of a Cracker Jack box. '' He says you could only "get away '' with that lyric "in a Meat Loaf song. ''
Ellen Foley, who appears on "Paradise by the Dashboard Light '', first met Meat Loaf and Jim Steinman while they were all working together on the National Lampoon Road Tour, so they had a history of performing over-the - top musical comedy sketches together. The baseball commentary make - out section performed by New York Yankees announcer Phil Rizzuto was written with the announcer in mind, using phrases he would actually say during commentary.
"For Crying Out Loud '' was originally written for the 1975 New York Shakespeare Festival musical Kid Champion, and a recording by an unknown artist is in the New York Public Library archives.. Jim Steinman considers the line "And ca n't you see my faded Levi 's bursting apart '' his most daring lyric on the entire album.
Comparing the album to Steinman 's late - 1960s musical "The Dream Engine, '' Classic Rock magazine says that Steinman 's imagery is "revved up and testosterone - fueled. Songs like "Paradise by the Dashboard Light, '' "Two Out of Three Ai n't Bad '' and "For Crying Out Loud '' echoed the textbook teenage view of sex and life: irrepressible physical urges and unrealistic romantic longing. ''
Steinman 's songs for "Bat Out of Hell '' are personal but not autobiographical:
I never thought of them as personal songs in terms of my own life but they were personality songs. They were all about my obsessions and images. None of them takes place in a normal world. They all take place in an extreme world. Very operatic... they were all heightened. They do n't take place in normal reality.
For example, citing the narrative of "Paradise, '' Rundgren jokes that he ca n't imagine Steinman being at a lakeside with the most beautiful girl in school, but he can imagine Steinman "imagining '' it.
Steinman is credited with the album cover concept, which was illustrated by Richard Corben. The cover depicts a motorcycle, ridden by a long - haired man, bursting out of the ground in a graveyard. In the background, a large bat perches atop a mausoleum that towers above the rest of the tombstones. In 2001, Q magazine listed the cover as number 71 in its list of "The Hundred Best Record Covers of All Time. ''
Steinman had wanted equal billing with Meat Loaf on the album 's title; he wanted it to be called "Jim Steinman presents... '' or "Jim and Meat, '' or vice versa. For marketing reasons, the record company wished to make ' Meat Loaf ' the recognizable name. As a compromise, the words "Songs by Jim Steinman '' appear relatively prominently on the cover. The singer believes that this was probably the beginning of their "ambivalent relationship. ''
The phrase "Bat Out of Hell '' can be traced back to the Greek playwright Aristophanes ' 414 B.C. work titled The Birds. In it is what is believed to be the first reference to a bat out of Hell:
Near by the land of the Sciapodes there is a marsh, from the borders whereof the unwashed Socrates evokes the souls of men. Pisander came one day to see his soul, which he had left there when still alive. He offered a little victim, a camel, slit his throat and, following the example of Odysseus, stepped one pace backwards. Then that bat of a Chaerephon came up from hell to drink the camel 's blood.
Steinman registered "Bat Out of Hell '' as a trademark in 1995, and sought to prevent Meat Loaf from using the title. In 2006, however, the singer sought to cancel Steinman 's trademark and use the title for Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose.
"Bat Out of Hell '' was released by Cleveland International Records in September 1977. However, at Cleveland International Records ' parent label, Epic Records, almost everyone hated it. Steve Popovich, the head of Cleveland International Records, was relentless in his efforts to get Epic and all of CBS Records and radio on board. In 1993, Steinman reflected that the album was "timeless in that it did n't fit into any trend. It 's never been a part of what 's going on. You could release that record at any time and it would be out of place. ''
Response to the album was slow. Steinman asserts that it was "underpromoted, '' having a reputation of being "damaged goods because it had been walked around to so many places. '' Due to the enthusiastic response to the music videos from the record, Australia and England were the first to develop interest. The BBC television program The Old Grey Whistle Test aired a clip of the live band performing the nine - minute title track. According to "Classic Rock, '' the response was so overwhelming, that they screened it again the following week. They later invited the band to perform "Paradise '' live. "As a result, in the UK ' Bat ' became an unfashionable, uncool, non-radio record that became a ' must - have ' for everyone who heard it, whether they ' got ' Steinman 's unique perspective or not. ''
Meanwhile, according to Billboard Magazine in North America, Steve Popovich and his partners began promoting the album aggressively, first getting radio play in Omaha, Cleveland, and New York. By the year 's end, the album had sold a respectable 140,000 copies by Popovich 's account, but the promotion people at Epic were still unmoved. Popovich, in a letter to his former boss Alexenburg, complained, "Some of your guys have given up. '' But not in Canada. Graham Powers, CBS Canada 's Director of Marketing introduced himself to CHUM - FM 's new Program Director Warren Cosford. Cosford 's background was as the Production Manager of Radio Documentaries on The Beatles, Elvis Presley and the 64 - hour Evolution of Rock, which were in syndication throughout North America. Powers had heard that Warren was a fan of ' Wall of Sound ' Production and suggested that he listen to Bat Out of Hell over the Christmas and New Year 's holiday. Cosford loved it. The first day after New Year 's he called a Music Meeting. Everyone agreed they should not only ' add ' Bat Out of Hell, but put it in ' Heavy Rotation ' for a week to gauge audience response. The telephones lit up.
As their Parent Company in New York had earlier turned the record down and were merely distributing it, CBS Canada was surprised but jumped on board. Later, as Graham Powers said, "Tackling the Meatloaf campaign was different from handling most other CBS international acts in that there was no prior stateside success to refer to. The album was doing virtually nothing in the U.S. and subsequently had to be approached as a totally new project in Canada with a Marketing Campaign developed from scratch. '' Publicity Manager Liz Braun added: "After Meat Loaf had played at the El Mocambo where he caused a riot, all the press in town wanted to talk to him and did. Suddenly he had a hardcore following in Toronto and he was asked to perform at the CBS Convention in New Orleans. '' Meat Loaf ' Live ' at The El Mocambo was immediately pressed to disc and distributed to stations throughout North America. On the Canadian charts, the album reached number 5 (for 2 weeks after 27 weeks on the chart) having been number 6 for 7 weeks.
Despite the album 's success in Canada, it was not an immediate hit in the U.S. Bat Out of Hell still sells about 200,000 copies per year and has sold an estimated 43 million copies worldwide, including 14 million in the United States and over 1.7 million albums in Australia, where it is the best - selling album in the country and even re-entered the ARIA Charts in June 2007, at number 34. It stayed on the United Kingdom charts for 485 weeks, a feat surpassed only by the 522 weeks of Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours. In 1989, Kerrang! magazine listed the album at No. 38 among the "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time. '' In 2003, the album was ranked number 343 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In 2005, "Bat Out of Hell '' was ranked number 301 in "Rock Hard '' magazine 's book of "The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. '' In 2006 it was voted number nine in a poll conducted by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation to discover Australia 's most popular album. In November 2007, Meat Loaf was awarded the Classic Album award in Classic Rock 's Classic Rock Roll Of Honour. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Reviews were initially mixed, but have since become much more positive. At first "Rolling Stone '' called the songs "swell, but... entirely mannered and derivative '' and noted that the arrangements "are n't bad, '' although the musicians were commended. The review ended with the assertion that the "principals have some growing to do. '' Modern reviews are more positive, however. Allmusic declares "this is Grand Guignol pop -- epic, gothic, operatic, and silly, and it 's appealing because of all of this. '' They acknowledge that Steinman is "a composer without peer, simply because nobody else wanted to make mini-epics like this. '' Rundgren 's production is applauded, as is the wit in the music and lyrics. "It may elevate adolescent passion to operatic dimensions, and that 's certainly silly, but it 's hard not to marvel at the skill behind this grandly silly, irresistible album. ''
Also, Meat Loaf revealed on In the Studio with Redbeard that he was not well received early on in the tour when he was opening for Cheap Trick. In the same interview, Meat Loaf revealed that when he played at a CBS Records convention in 1978, record executives and superstar Billy Joel (who was in the audience) gave Meat Loaf a standing ovation for his performance after a haunting rendition of the closing track "For Crying Out Loud '', and credits this as the turning point in the album 's success in the United States.
In 1995, Cleveland International sued Sony Music Entertainment for unpaid royalties from sales of "Bat out of Hell. '' Under the terms of the 1998 settlement agreement ending the suit, Sony agreed to pay US $6.7 million and include the Cleveland International logo on all future releases of the album. In 2002, Steve Popovich, founder of Cleveland International, sued Sony alleging that Sony had failed to include the logo on the album as agreed. In 2005, the federal district court in Cleveland, Ohio entered judgment against Sony pursuant to a jury verdict in favor of Popovich and awarded Popovich US $5,700,000 in damages for Sony 's breach of the 1998 settlement agreement. Sony appealed the verdict but in 2007 the federal appellate court in Cincinnati, Ohio affirmed the judgment of the trial court. In 2012, Sony reached a final out - of - court settlement with Popovich 's estate over more unpaid royalties revealed in an audit performed prior to Popovich 's death in 2011.
All tracks written by Jim Steinman.
The album also exists in numerous other formats and re-releases, including a Super Audio CD version, a 25th anniversary edition (2001 -- Epic / Legacy # 62171) with two bonus tracks ("Great Boléros of Fire (live intro) '' (3: 54) and "Bat Out of Hell (live) '' (11: 10), and a "Bat Out of Hell: Re-Vamped '' release (1991) containing the bonus song "Dead Ringer for Love. ''
A new hybrid SACD version was released in late 2016 by Analog Spark, an audiophile imprint of the Razor & Tie label, mastered from the original tapes by Ryan Smith at Sterling Sound. (Early copies erroneously name Kevin Gray as the mastering engineer; Analog Spark issued a statement that this intended arrangement did not happen because of a "miscommunication. '')
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where did the oklahoma sooners get their name | Sooners - wikipedia
Sooners is the name given to settlers who entered the Unassigned Lands in what is now the state of Oklahoma before the official start of the Land Rush of 1889. President Benjamin Harrison officially proclaimed the Unassigned Lands open to settlement on April 22, 1889. As people lined up around the borders of the Oklahoma District, they waited for the official opening. It was not until noon that it officially was opened to settlement. The name derived from the "sooner clause '' of the act, which stated that anyone who entered and occupied the land prior to the opening time would be denied the right to claim land.
According to the Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, the designation "Sooner '' initially had a very negative connotation. However, the negative connotation began to change by the time of statehood, and is no longer considered negative by most residents. In 1908, University of Oklahoma football team adopted the nickname "Sooners ''. The U.S. state of Oklahoma has been popularly nicknamed the "Sooner State '' since the 1920s.
Sooners were often deputy marshals, land surveyors, railroad employees, and others who were able to legally enter the territory early. Sooners who crossed into the territory illegally at night were originally called "moonshiners '' because they had entered "by the light of the moon. '' These Sooners would hide in ditches at night and suddenly appear to stake their claim after the land run started, hours ahead of legal settlers.
The term Boomer relating to Oklahoma refers to participants in the "Boomer Movement, '' white settlers who believed the Unassigned Lands were public property and open to anyone for settlement, not just Native American tribes. Their reasoning came from a clause in the Homestead Act of 1862, which said that any settler could claim 160 acres (0.65 km) of public land. Some Boomers entered and were removed more than once by the United States Army.
Those who actually observed the official start of the land run and began the race for free land often found choice sections of land already occupied by Sooners or, in some cases, by Boomers. Problems with Sooners continued with each successive land run; in an 1895 land run as much as half of the available land was taken by Sooners. Litigation between legitimate land - run participants and Sooners continued well into the 20th century, and eventually the United States Department of the Interior was given ultimate authority to settle the disputes.
In 1908, the University of Oklahoma adopted "Sooners '' as the nickname of its football team, after having first tried "Rough Riders '' and "Boomers ''. Eventually, Oklahoma became known as "The Sooner State. '' The school fight song is titled "Boomer Sooner. '' The school "mascot '' is a replica of a 19th - century covered wagon, called the "Sooner Schooner. ''
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when was the bible put into chapters and verses | Chapters and verses of the Bible - wikipedia
The Bible is a compilation of many shorter books written at different times by a variety of authors, and later assembled into the biblical canon. Since the early 13th century, most copies and editions of the Bible present all but the shortest of these books with divisions into chapters, generally a page or so in length. Since the mid-16th century editors have further subdivided each chapter into verses - each consisting of a few short lines or sentences. Sometimes a sentence spans more than one verse, as in the case of Ephesians 2: 8 -- 9, and sometimes there is more than one sentence in a single verse, as in the case of Genesis 1: 2.
As the chapter and verse divisions did not appear in the original texts, they form part of the paratext of the Bible.
The Jewish divisions of the Hebrew text differ at various points from those used by Christians. For instance, in Jewish tradition, the ascriptions to many Psalms are regarded as independent verses or parts of the subsequent verses, making 116 more verses, whereas established Christian practice treats each Psalm ascription as independent and unnumbered. Some chapter divisions also occur in different places, e.g. Hebrew Bibles have 1 Chronicles 5: 27 -- 41 where Christian translations have 1 Chronicles 6: 1 -- 15.
The original manuscripts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh פ indicated an "open '' paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a "closed '' paragraph that began on the same line after a small space. These two letters begin the Hebrew words open (patuach) and closed (sagoor), and are, themselves, open פ and closed ס. The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions. (This is different from the use of consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet to structure certain poetic compositions, known as acrostics, such as several of the Psalms and most of the Book of Lamentations.)
The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections. In Israel the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha - Shavua) so it could be read through in one year. The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions. (See fuller discussions below.)
Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th century Tours manuscript, Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so - called Bible of Rorigo.
Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based.
While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke 's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707), Alexander Campbell 's The Sacred Writings (1826), Daniel Berkeley Updike 's fourteen - volume The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Richard Moulton 's The Modern Reader 's Bible (1907), Ernest Sutherland Bates 's The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936), The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), Adam Lewis Greene 's five - volume Bibliotheca (2014), and the six - volume ESV Reader 's Bible (2016) from Crossway Books.
Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a full stop or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Bible into English, Old Testament versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew full stops, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus 's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440.
The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini (1470 -- 1541), but his system was never widely adopted. His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today. Robert Estienne created an alternate numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne 's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins.
The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524 -- 1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages. (Nevertheless, some Bibles have removed the verse numbering, including the ones noted above that also removed chapter numbers; a recent example of an edition that removed only verses, not chapters, is The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language by Eugene H. Peterson.)
The Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books:
Most important are the verse endings. According to the Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin. In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop ''). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq.
The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashot, which are usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed '' section) or a new line beginning (an "open '' section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles.
In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open '' section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed '' section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open '' and "closed '' sections is that "open '' sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed '' sections never start at the beginning of a new line.
Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel.
The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading). This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next. For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle. Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book 's main body, they would be marked only with arrow - shaped or asterisk - like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself.
The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture -- well before the ruler 's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well - known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions.
Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).
The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.
Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader 's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV. Projects such as Icthus also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations.
The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included. Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66 - book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books.
26. Bible verses at TheSocialSwag.com
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where do the particles in jupiter's rings come from | Rings of Jupiter - wikipedia
The planet Jupiter has a system of rings known as the rings of Jupiter or the Jovian ring system. It was the third ring system to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. It was first observed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe and thoroughly investigated in the 1990s by the Galileo orbiter. It has also been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope and from Earth for several years. Ground - based observations of the rings require the largest available telescopes.
The Jovian ring system is faint and consists mainly of dust. It has four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the "halo ring ''; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin "main ring ''; and two wide, thick and faint outer "gossamer rings '', named for the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe.
The main and halo rings consist of dust ejected from the moons Metis, Adrastea, and other unobserved parent bodies as the result of high - velocity impacts. High - resolution images obtained in February and March 2007 by the New Horizons spacecraft revealed a rich fine structure in the main ring.
In visible and near - infrared light, the rings have a reddish color, except the halo ring, which is neutral or blue in color. The size of the dust in the rings varies, but the cross-sectional area is greatest for nonspherical particles of radius about 15 μm in all rings except the halo. The halo ring is probably dominated by submicrometre dust. The total mass of the ring system (including unresolved parent bodies) is poorly known, but is probably in the range of 10 to 10 kg. The age of the ring system is not known, but it may have existed since the formation of Jupiter.
A ring could possibly exist in Himalia 's orbit. One possible explanation is that a small moon had crashed into Himalia and the force of the impact caused material to blast off Himalia.
Jupiter 's ring system was the third to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. It was first observed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe. It is composed of four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the "halo ring ''; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin "main ring ''; and two wide, thick and faint outer "gossamer rings '', named after the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe. The principal attributes of the known Jovian Rings are listed in the table.
The narrow and relatively thin main ring is the brightest part of Jupiter 's ring system. Its outer edge is located at a radius of about 7008129000000000000 ♠ 129 000 km (1.806 R; R = equatorial radius of Jupiter or 7007713980000000000 ♠ 71 398 km) and coincides with the orbit of Jupiter 's smallest inner satellite, Adrastea. Its inner edge is not marked by any satellite and is located at about 7008122500000000000 ♠ 122 500 km (1.72 R).
Thus the width of the main ring is around 7006650000000000000 ♠ 6500 km. The appearance of the main ring depends on the viewing geometry. In forward - scattered light the brightness of the main ring begins to decrease steeply at 7008128600000000000 ♠ 128 600 km (just inward of the Adrastean orbit) and reaches the background level at 7008129300000000000 ♠ 129 300 km -- just outward of the Adrastean orbit. Therefore, Adrastea at 7008129000000000000 ♠ 129 000 km clearly shepherds the ring. The brightness continues to increase in the direction of Jupiter and has a maximum near the ring 's center at 7008126000000000000 ♠ 126 000 km, although there is a pronounced gap (notch) near the Metidian orbit at 7008128000000000000 ♠ 128 000 km. The inner boundary of the main ring, in contrast, appears to fade off slowly from 7005124000000000000 ♠ 124 000 to 7008120000000000000 ♠ 120 000 km, merging into the halo ring. In forward - scattered light all Jovian rings are especially bright.
In back - scattered light the situation is different. The outer boundary of the main ring, located at 7008129100000000000 ♠ 129 100 km, or slightly beyond the orbit of Adrastea, is very steep. The orbit of the moon is marked by a gap in the ring so there is a thin ringlet just outside its orbit. There is another ringlet just inside Adrastean orbit followed by a gap of unknown origin located at about 7008128500000000000 ♠ 128 500 km. The third ringlet is found inward of the central gap, outside the orbit of Metis. The ring 's brightness drops sharply just outward of the Metidian orbit, forming the Metis notch. Inward of the orbit of Metis, the brightness of the ring rises much less than in forward - scattered light. So in the back - scattered geometry the main ring appears to consist of two different parts: a narrow outer part extending from 7005128000000000000 ♠ 128 000 to 7008129000000000000 ♠ 129 000 km, which itself includes three narrow ringlets separated by notches, and a fainter inner part from 7005122500000000000 ♠ 122 500 to 7008128000000000000 ♠ 128 000 km, which lacks any visible structure like in the forward - scattering geometry. The Metis notch serves as their boundary. The fine structure of the main ring was discovered in data from the Galileo orbiter and is clearly visible in back - scattered images obtained from New Horizons in February -- March 2007. The early observations by Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Keck and the Cassini spacecraft failed to detect it, probably due to insufficient spatial resolution. However the fine structure was observed by the Keck telescope using adaptive optics in 2002 -- 2003.
Observed in back - scattered light the main ring appears to be razor thin, extending in the vertical direction no more than 30 km. In the side scatter geometry the ring thickness is 80 -- 160 km, increasing somewhat in the direction of Jupiter. The ring appears to be much thicker in the forward - scattered light -- about 300 km. One of the discoveries of the Galileo orbiter was the bloom of the main ring -- a faint, relatively thick (about 600 km) cloud of material which surrounds its inner part. The bloom grows in thickness towards the inner boundary of the main ring, where it transitions into the halo.
Detailed analysis of the Galileo images revealed longitudinal variations of the main ring 's brightness unconnected with the viewing geometry. The Galileo images also showed some patchiness in the ring on the scales 500 -- 1000 km.
In February -- March 2007 New Horizons spacecraft conducted a deep search for new small moons inside the main ring. While no satellites larger than 0.5 km were found, the cameras of the spacecraft detected seven small clumps of ring particles. They orbit just inside the orbit of Adrastea inside a dense ringlet. The conclusion, that they are clumps and not small moons, is based on their azimuthally extended appearance. They subtend 0.1 -- 0.3 ° along the ring, which correspond to 1000 -- 3000 km. The clumps are divided into two groups of five and two members, respectively. The nature of the clumps is not clear, but their orbits are close to 115: 116 and 114: 115 resonances with Metis. They may be wavelike structures excited by this interaction.
Spectra of the main ring obtained by the HST, Keck, Galileo and Cassini have shown that particles forming it are red, i.e. their albedo is higher at longer wavelengths. The existing spectra span the range 0.5 -- 2.5 μm. No spectral features have been found so far which can be attributed to particular chemical compounds, although the Cassini observations yielded evidence for absorption bands near 0.8 μm and 2.2 μm. The spectra of the main ring are very similar to Adrastea and Amalthea.
The properties of the main ring can be explained by the hypothesis that it contains significant amounts of dust with 0.1 -- 10 μm particle sizes. This explains the stronger forward - scattering of light as compared to back - scattering. However, larger bodies are required to explain the strong back - scattering and fine structure in the bright outer part of the main ring.
Analysis of available phase and spectral data leads to a conclusion that the size distribution of small particles in the main ring obeys a power law
where n (r) dr is a number of particles with radii between r and r + dr and A (\ displaystyle A) is a normalizing parameter chosen to match the known total light flux from the ring. The parameter q is 2.0 ± 0.2 for particles with r < 15 ± 0.3 μm and q = 5 ± 1 for those with r > 15 ± 0.3 μm. The distribution of large bodies in the mm -- km size range is undetermined presently. The light scattering in this model is dominated by particles with r around 15 μm.
The power law mentioned above allows estimation of the optical depth τ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ tau) of the main ring: τ l = 4.7 × 10 − 6 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ tau _ (l) \, = \, 4.7 \ times 10 ^ (- 6)) for the large bodies and τ s = 1.3 × 10 − 6 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ tau _ (s) = 1.3 \ times 10 ^ (- 6)) for the dust. This optical depth means that the total cross section of all particles inside the ring is about 5000 km2. The particles in the main ring are expected to have aspherical shapes. The total mass of the dust is estimated to be 10 − 10 kg. The mass of large bodies, excluding Metis and Adrastea, is 10 − 10 kg. It depends on their maximum size -- the upper value corresponds to about 1 km maximum diameter. These masses can be compared with masses of Adrastea, which is about 2 × 10 kg, Amalthea, about 2 × 10 kg, and Earth 's Moon, 7.4 × 10 kg.
The presence of two populations of particles in the main ring explains why its appearance depends on the viewing geometry. The dust scatters light preferably in the forward direction and forms a relatively thick homogenous ring bounded by the orbit of Adrastea. In contrast, large particles, which scatter in the back direction, are confined in a number of ringlets between the Metidian and Adrastean orbits.
The dust is constantly being removed from the main ring by a combination of Poynting -- Robertson drag and electromagnetic forces from the Jovian magnetosphere. Volatile materials, for example ices, evaporate quickly. The lifetime of dust particles in the ring is from 100 to 1000 years, so the dust must be continuously replenished in the collisions between large bodies with sizes from 1 cm to 0.5 km and between the same large bodies and high velocity particles coming from outside the Jovian system. This parent body population is confined to the narrow -- about 1000 km -- and bright outer part of the main ring, and includes Metis and Adrastea. The largest parent bodies must be less than 0.5 km in size. The upper limit on their size was obtained by New Horizons spacecraft. The previous upper limit, obtained from HST and Cassini observations, was near 4 km. The dust produced in collisions retains approximately the same orbital elements as the parent bodies and slowly spirals in the direction of Jupiter forming the faint (in back - scattered light) innermost part of the main ring and halo ring. The age of the main ring is currently unknown, but it may be the last remnant of a past population of small bodies near Jupiter.
Images from the Galileo and New Horizons space probes show the presence of two sets of spiraling vertical corrugations in the main ring. These waves became more tightly wound over time at the rate expected for differential nodal regression in Jupiter 's gravity field. Extrapolating backwards, the more prominent of the two sets of waves appears to have been excited in 1995, around the time of the impact of Comet Shoemaker - Levy 9 with Jupiter, while the smaller set appears to date to the first half of 1990. Galileo 's November 1996 observations are consistent with wavelengths of 1920 ± 150 and 630 ± 20 km, and vertical amplitudes of 2.4 ± 0.7 and 0.6 ± 0.2 km, for the larger and smaller sets of waves, respectively. The formation of the larger set of waves can be explained if the ring was impacted by a cloud of particles released by the comet with a total mass on the order of 2 -- 5 × 10 kg, which would have tilted the ring out of the equatorial plane by 2 km. A similar spiraling wave pattern that tightens over time has been observed by Cassini in Saturns 's C and D rings.
The halo ring is the innermost and the vertically thickest Jovian ring. Its outer edge coincides with the inner boundary of the main ring approximately at the radius 7008122500000000000 ♠ 122 500 km (1.72 R). From this radius the ring becomes rapidly thicker towards Jupiter. The true vertical extent of the halo is not known but the presence of its material was detected as high as 7007100000000000000 ♠ 10 000 km over the ring plane. The inner boundary of the halo is relatively sharp and located at the radius 7008100000000000000 ♠ 100 000 km (1.4 R), but some material is present further inward to approximately 7007920000000000000 ♠ 92 000 km. Thus the width of the halo ring is about 7007300000000000000 ♠ 30 000 km. Its shape resembles a thick torus without clear internal structure. In contrast to the main ring, the halo 's appearance depends only slightly on the viewing geometry.
The halo ring appears brightest in forward - scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by Galileo. While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than 7007200000000000000 ♠ 20 000 km, the halo 's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form z to z, where z is altitude over the ring plane. The halo 's appearance in the back - scattered light, as observed by Keck and HST, is the same. However its total photon flux is several times lower than that of the main ring and is more strongly concentrated near the ring plane than in the forward - scattered light.
The spectral properties of the halo ring are different from the main ring. The flux distribution in the range 0.5 -- 2.5 μm is flatter than in the main ring; the halo is not red and may even be blue.
The optical properties of the halo ring can be explained by the hypothesis that it comprises only dust with particle sizes less than 15 μm. Parts of the halo located far from the ring plane may consist of submicrometre dust. This dusty composition explains the much stronger forward - scattering, bluer colors and lack of visible structure in the halo. The dust probably originates in the main ring, a claim supported by the fact that the halo 's optical depth τ s ∼ 10 − 6 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ tau _ (s) \, \ sim \, 10 ^ (- 6)) is comparable with that of the dust in the main ring. The large thickness of the halo can be attributed to the excitation of orbital inclinations and eccentricities of dust particles by the electromagnetic forces in the Jovian magnetosphere. The outer boundary of the halo ring coincides with location of a strong 3: 2 Lorentz resonance. As Poynting -- Robertson drag causes particles to slowly drift towards Jupiter, their orbital inclinations are excited while passing through it. The bloom of the main ring may be a beginning of the halo. The halo ring 's inner boundary is not far from the strongest 2: 1 Lorentz resonance. In this resonance the excitation is probably very significant, forcing particles to plunge into the Jovian atmosphere thus defining a sharp inner boundary. Being derived from the main ring, the halo has the same age.
The Amalthea gossamer ring is a very faint structure with a rectangular cross section, stretching from the orbit of Amalthea at 7008182000000000000 ♠ 182 000 km (2.54 RJ) to about 7008129000000000000 ♠ 129 000 km (1.80 R). Its inner boundary is not clearly defined because of the presence of the much brighter main ring and halo. The thickness of the ring is approximately 2300 km near the orbit of Amalthea and slightly decreases in the direction of Jupiter. The Amalthea gossamer ring is actually the brightest near its top and bottom edges and becomes gradually brighter towards Jupiter; one of the edges is often brighter than another. The outer boundary of the ring is relatively steep; the ring 's brightness drops abruptly just inward of the orbit of Amalthea, although it may have a small extension beyond the orbit of the satellite ending near 4: 3 resonance with Thebe. In forward - scattered light the ring appears to be about 30 times fainter than the main ring. In back - scattered light it has been detected only by the Keck telescope and the ACS (Advanced Camera for Surveys) on HST. Back - scattering images show additional structure in the ring: a peak in the brightness just inside the Amalthean orbit and confined to the top or bottom edge of the ring.
In 2002 -- 2003 Galileo spacecraft had two passes through the gossamer rings. During them its dust counter detected dust particles in the size range 0.2 -- 5 μm. In addition, the Galileo spacecraft 's star scanner detected small, discrete bodies (< 1 km) near Amalthea. These may represent collisional debris generated from impacts with this satellite.
The detection of the Amalthea gossamer ring from the ground, in Galileo images and the direct dust measurements have allowed the determination of the particle size distribution, which appears to follow the same power law as the dust in the main ring with q = 2 ± 0.5. The optical depth of this ring is about 10, which is an order of magnitude lower than that of the main ring, but the total mass of the dust (10 -- 10 kg) is comparable.
The Thebe gossamer ring is the faintest Jovian ring. It appears as a very faint structure with a rectangular cross section, stretching from the Thebean orbit at 7008226000000000000 ♠ 226 000 km (3.11 R) to about 7008129000000000000 ♠ 129 000 km (1.80 R;). Its inner boundary is not clearly defined because of the presence of the much brighter main ring and halo. The thickness of the ring is approximately 8400 km near the orbit of Thebe and slightly decreases in the direction of the planet. The Thebe gossamer ring is brightest near its top and bottom edges and gradually becomes brighter towards Jupiter -- much like the Amalthea ring. The outer boundary of the ring is not especially steep, stretching over 7007150000000000000 ♠ 15 000 km. There is a barely visible continuation of the ring beyond the orbit of Thebe, extending up to 7008280000000000000 ♠ 280 000 km (3.75 R) and called the Thebe Extension. In forward - scattered light the ring appears to be about 3 times fainter than the Amalthea gossamer ring. In back - scattered light it has been detected only by the Keck telescope. Back - scattering images show a peak of brightness just inside the orbit of Thebe. In 2002 -- 2003 the dust counter of the Galileo spacecraft detected dust particles in the size range 0.2 -- 5 μm -- similar to those in the Amalthea ring -- and confirmed the results obtained from imaging.
The optical depth of the Thebe gossamer ring is about 3 × 10, which is three times lower than the Amalthea gossamer ring, but the total mass of the dust is the same -- about 10 -- 10 kg. However the particle size distribution of the dust is somewhat shallower than in the Amalthea ring. It follows a power law with q < 2. In the Thebe extension the parameter q may be even smaller.
The dust in the gossamer rings originates in essentially the same way as that in the main ring and halo. Its sources are the inner Jovian moons Amalthea and Thebe respectively. High velocity impacts by projectiles coming from outside the Jovian system eject dust particles from their surfaces. These particles initially retain the same orbits as their moons but then gradually spiral inward by Poynting -- Robertson drag. The thickness of the gossamer rings is determined by vertical excursions of the moons due to their nonzero orbital inclinations. This hypothesis naturally explains almost all observable properties of the rings: rectangular cross-section, decrease of thickness in the direction of Jupiter and brightening of the top and bottom edges of the rings.
However some properties have so far gone unexplained, like the Thebe Extension, which may be due to unseen bodies outside Thebe 's orbit, and structures visible in the back - scattered light. One possible explanation of the Thebe Extension is influence of the electromagnetic forces from the Jovian magnetosphere. When the dust enters the shadow behind Jupiter, it loses its electrical charge fairly quickly. Since the small dust particles partially corotate with the planet, they will move outward during the shadow pass creating an outward extension of the Thebe gossamer ring. The same forces can explain a dip in the particle distribution and ring 's brightness, which occurs between the orbits of Amalthea and Thebe.
The peak in the brightness just inside of the Amalthea 's orbit and, therefore, the vertical asymmetry the Amalthea gossamer ring may be due to the dust particles trapped at the leading (L) and trailing (L) Lagrange points of this moon. The particles may also follow horseshoe orbits between the Lagrangian points. The dust may be present at the leading and trailing Lagrange points of Thebe as well. This discovery implies that there are two particle populations in the gossamer rings: one slowly drifts in the direction of Jupiter as described above, while another remains near a source moon trapped in 1: 1 resonance with it.
The small moon Dia, 4 kilometres in diameter, had gone missing since its discovery in 2000. One theory was that it had crashed into the much larger moon Himalia, 170 kilometres in diameter, creating a faint ring. This possible ring appears as a faint streak near Himalia in images from NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto. This suggests that Jupiter sometimes gains and loses small moons through collisions. However, the recovery of Dia in 2010 and 2011 disproves the link between Dia and the Himalia ring, although it is still possible that a different moon may have been involved.
The existence of the Jovian rings was inferred from observations of the planetary radiation belts by Pioneer 11 spacecraft in 1975. In 1979 the Voyager 1 spacecraft obtained a single overexposed image of the ring system. More extensive imaging was conducted by Voyager 2 in the same year, which allowed rough determination of the ring 's structure. The superior quality of the images obtained by the Galileo orbiter between 1995 and 2003 greatly extended the existing knowledge about the Jovian rings. Ground - based observation of the rings by the Keck telescope in 1997 and 2002 and the HST in 1999 revealed the rich structure visible in back - scattered light. Images transmitted by the New Horizons spacecraft in February -- March 2007 allowed observation of the fine structure in the main ring for the first time. In 2000, the Cassini spacecraft en route to Saturn conducted extensive observations of the Jovian ring system. Future missions to the Jovian system will provide additional information about the rings.
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new jersey borough where the new york jets play home games | New York Jets - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Green, White
League championships (1) †
Division championships (4)
The New York Jets are a professional American football team located in the New York metropolitan area. The Jets compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Florham Park, New Jersey. In a unique arrangement for the league, the Jets share MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey with the New York Giants. The franchise is legally and corporately registered as New York Jets, LLC.
The team was founded in 1959 as the Titans of New York, an original member of the American Football League (AFL); later, the franchise joined the NFL in the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970. The team began to play in 1960 at the Polo Grounds. Under new ownership, the current name was adopted in 1963 and the franchise moved to Shea Stadium in 1964 and then to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in 1984. The Jets advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 1968 and went on to compete in Super Bowl III where they defeated the Baltimore Colts, becoming the first AFL team to defeat an NFL club in an AFL -- NFL World Championship Game. Since 1968, the Jets have appeared in the playoffs 13 times, and in the AFC Championship Game four times, most recently losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010. However, the Jets have never returned to the Super Bowl, making them one of three NFL teams to win their lone Super Bowl appearance, along with the New Orleans Saints and Tampa Bay Buccaneers.
The team 's training facility, Atlantic Health Jets Training Center, which opened in 2008, is located in Florham Park. The team currently holds their annual training camp sessions in Florham Park, New Jersey.
The first organizational meeting of the American Football League took place on August 14, 1959. Harry Wismer, representing the city of New York at the meeting, proclaimed the state was ready for another professional football team and that he was more than capable of running the daily operations.
Wismer was granted the charter franchise later dubbed the Titans of New York as Wismer explained, "Titans are bigger and stronger than Giants. '' He secured the Titans ' home field at the decrepit Polo Grounds, where the team struggled financially and on the field during its first three years. By 1962, the debt continued to mount for Wismer, forcing the AFL to assume the costs of the team until season 's end.
A five - man syndicate, headed by Sonny Werblin, saved the team from certain bankruptcy, purchasing the lowly Titans for $1 million. Werblin renamed the team the New York Jets since the team would play in Shea Stadium near LaGuardia Airport. The new name was intended to reflect the modern approach of his team. The Jets ' owners hired Weeb Ewbank as the general manager and head coach. Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath led the Jets to prominence in 1969, when New York defeated the heavily favored Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III and solidified the AFL 's position in the world of professional football.
When the AFL and NFL merged, the team fell into a state of mediocrity along with their star quarterback, Namath, who only had three successful post-merger seasons after injuries hampered much of his career. The Jets continued to spiral downward before enjoying a string of successes in the 1980s, which included an appearance in the 1982 AFC Championship Game, and the emergence of the popular New York Sack Exchange.
The early 1990s saw New York struggling. After firing coach Bruce Coslet, owner Leon Hess hired Pete Carroll who struggled to a 6 -- 10 record and was promptly fired at the end of the season. Thereafter, Rich Kotite was selected to lead the team to victory; instead he led the Jets to a 4 -- 28 record over the next two years. Kotite stepped down at the end of his second season forcing the Jets to search for a new head coach.
Hess lured then - disgruntled New England Patriots head coach Bill Parcells to New York in 1997. Parcells led the team back to relevance and coached them to the AFC Championship Game in 1998. Hess died in 1999 while the team, plagued by injuries, produced an eight win record, falling short of a playoff berth. At the end of the season, Parcells stepped down as head coach deferring control to his assistant, Bill Belichick; Belichick resigned the very next day (leaving a napkin at the stage for his introduction, on which he had written "I resign as HC of the NYJ '') and went on to accept the head coaching position with the Patriots.
The franchise obtained a new owner in Woody Johnson in 2000. Additionally, through the 2000s the Jets visited the playoffs five times, a franchise record, under the direction of three different coaches. Rex Ryan was hired in January 2009. Ryan led the team to back - to - back AFC Championship appearances during his first two years but the team never made the playoffs again during his tenure.
Harry Wismer, a businessman, had been interested in sports for much of his life when he was granted a charter franchise in the American Football League. A three - sport letterman, football, particularly, stuck with Wismer who went on to play for the University of Florida and Michigan State before a knee injury ended his playing career. Undeterred, Wismer began his career as a broadcaster originally with Michigan State and became a pioneer of the industry. Later, as the Titans owner, Wismer formulated a league - wide policy which allowed broadcasting rights to be shared equally among the teams.
Wismer, who had previously had a 25 % stake in the Washington Redskins, was interested in the American Football League and was given a franchise to develop in New York. Wismer, whose philosophy was who you knew mattered most, tried to make the team and the league a success. His efforts began to accrue debt as the Titans ' first two seasons were mediocre with attendance dropping in the team 's second year. The franchise was sold for $1 million to a five - man syndicate headed by Sonny Werblin of the Gotham Football Club, Inc., in February 1963.
Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University and was employed by the Music Corporation of America, eventually becoming president of the company 's television division. With a vast knowledge of media, Werblin was determined to put the spotlight on the team. His first order of business, after changing the team 's name and jerseys, was to sign Joe Namath to an unprecedented contract. Werblin 's gamble would later pay off as Namath, who became a public star, led the Jets on to victory in Super Bowl III, though by then Werblin had sold his stake in the team.
Werblin 's partners, Townsend B. Martin, Leon Hess, Donald C. Lillis, and Philip H. Iselin, had a falling out with Werblin over the way the team was run -- though the franchise had begun to make a profit, Werblin was making all the policies and decisions himself with little or no input from his partners, much to their dismay. Though Werblin initially resisted their ultimatum to dissolve the partnership, Werblin agreed to be bought out in 1968. Werblin remained involved in the sports community and became the first chairman and CEO of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority where he helped to create the Meadowlands Sports Complex, including Giants Stadium.
Leon Hess became well known for his Hess Corporation gas stations; however, he also played an instrumental part in the development of the Jets during his tenure as co-owner and eventual sole owner. Hess had often fought for improvements while the team was a tenant at Shea Stadium but generally stayed away from football operations, allowing his coaches and general manager to make football - related decisions.
Becoming the team 's majority stockholder in 1973, Hess bought Philip H. Iselin 's share upon his death in 1976 after which only two of Hess ' partners remained, Townsend Martin and Helen Dillon, who had inherited the stake from her father Donald Lillis, upon his death. Hess began to buy out the remaining partners in 1981 when he bought Martin 's 25 % stake for $5 million. Hess bought Dillon 's stake three years later for another $5 million, acquiring sole control of the team.
Hess had a passion for his team and took losses hard. In 1995, following a mediocre 6 -- 10 season under Pete Carroll, despite generally shying away from football operations, Hess announced "I 'm 80 years old, I want results now '' during a conference in which Rich Kotite was introduced as the team 's new coach. After two unsuccessful years with Kotite, Hess heavily involved himself in hiring Bill Parcells in hopes to see his team again reach the Super Bowl. He did not live to see his dream realized, dying on May 7, 1999.
With the team for sale, two potential buyers were found in Cablevision and philanthropist Woody Johnson whose grandfather, Robert Wood Johnson II, expanded Johnson & Johnson. Johnson was unknown among the other NFL owners at the time of his $635 million purchase of the franchise. However, Johnson had a passion for sports according to former Knicks general manager Ernie Grunfeld and desired to own his own team. Johnson has been considered to be an enabler who wants the best from his employees.
Much like Hess, Johnson left many of the football related decisions up to his management team and tended to avoid the spotlight. However, upon hiring head coach Rex Ryan, Johnson had an increased presence as he molded the Jets into his team.
Owner Harry Wismer sought out a place for the team to play their home games but was only able to secure the dilapidated Polo Grounds, which had not had a major tenant since the baseball New York Giants vacated the stadium in 1957. The Titans played their first four seasons at the stadium -- in the final season they were renamed the Jets. The Titans shared the stadium with baseball 's new expansion team, the New York Mets, for two years before both teams moved to the Shea Stadium in Queens in 1964. The Jets hold the distinction of being the final team to host a game at the Polo Grounds, a 19 -- 10 loss to the Buffalo Bills on December 14, 1963.
Wismer hoped the Titans could play in what would become known as Shea Stadium beginning in 1961. However, funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction of the stadium. Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 to secure the Titans ' new home. That memorandum recognized that the Mets would have exclusive use of the stadium until they had completed their season. As the team moved to Shea under new ownership, they were, in most years, required to open the season with several road games, a problem made worse in 1969 and 1973 when the Mets had long playoff runs.
Feeling that this arrangement put the Jets at a disadvantage, the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year during the month of September at the Giants ' new home in New Jersey, Giants Stadium. Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue, and in the lawsuit 's settlement, the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets ' lease. In 1977, the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea.
In spite of these issues, majority owner Leon Hess was interested in renewing the team 's lease at Shea, which was due to expire in 1983. Hess negotiated with New York mayor Ed Koch. Hess wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity. He also hoped to renegotiate other aspects of the lease -- the Jets received no money from ticketholders parking at Shea. Hess 's proposals met resistance from Koch. When negotiations reached an impasse, the Jets announced their intention to depart for New Jersey. On December 10, 1983 the Jets played their final game at Shea and lost to the Steelers 34 -- 7. As fans pillaged the stadium for mementos, the scoreboard read "N.J. Jets '' in reference to the Jets ' departure to the Meadowlands.
When the Jets joined the Giants at the stadium, many Jets fans hoped the name, Giants Stadium, would be changed. However, the Giants, who had the authority to approve the change, refused. In an effort to conceal the fact that they played in a stadium built and decorated for another team, the stadium grounds crew was assigned to make the stadium more Jet - friendly during Jets games by putting up green banners and placing the Jets ' logo over the Giants '. No change could be made to the blue and red seating bowl. The Jets were featured in the first NFL playoff game in the stadium 's history, falling to the Patriots on December 28, 1985.
As the Jets sought to become a stronger franchise and remove themselves from their counterparts ' shadow, the team entered into negotiations with the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in an attempt to build a stadium on the west side of Manhattan, entering a bidding war with TransGas Energy Systems and Cablevision for the rights to the West Side Yard property -- Hess, prior to his death, had been approached by former mayor Rudy Giuliani about bringing the team to the West Side when their lease at Giants Stadium expired in 2008. Cablevision was fixated against the Jets owning the land as Madison Square Garden, located only a few blocks away, would be forced to compete with the stadium. Team owners had voted, 31 -- 1, with the Buffalo Bills the only objectors, to award the 2010 Super Bowl to New York contingent on the Jets winning the bid and completing construction of the stadium prior to 2010.
The MTA unanimously voted to sell the land to the Jets for approximately $210 million as the committee agreed that having the stadium would be beneficial in the long run. An angry Cablevision, community groups and transportation advocates were determined to derail the Jets ' attempts at building the stadium and two lawsuits challenging the construction of the stadium on environmental grounds were filed.
Although confident they could secure the stadium, their hopes were dashed when Sheldon Silver and Joseph L. Bruno, both of whom held veto power over the stadium construction, refused to support the project, alleging it would hurt rather than help the development of the West Side.
Defeated, the Jets agreed to enter a 50 -- 50 partnership with their rival, the Giants, to build a new stadium effectively agreeing to a 99 - year lease, which the Giants had signed earlier in the year, to remain in New Jersey. The stadium, known as MetLife Stadium, became the first in the history of the NFL to be jointly built by two franchises. The stadium, which is illuminated in different colors depending on which team is hosting a game, opened in April 2010 and saw the Jets and Giants open the stadium together in a preseason exhibition game. The Jets ' first regular season home game at the new stadium was held on September 13, 2010 and was shown nationwide on Monday Night Football. New York lost to the Ravens 10 -- 9. Team owners voted to have the stadium host Super Bowl XLVIII, held in 2014.
Since the inception of the American Football League, the Jets have maintained what is considered to be a marquee rivalry with the New England Patriots. The rivalry was relatively docile in its early years until 1966 when the Jets removed the Patriots, who had hopes of appearing in Super Bowl I, from playoff contention with a 38 -- 28 defeat at Shea Stadium. The Patriots returned the favor in 1985 when the Jets lost to New England 26 -- 14 in the wild card round; the Patriots went on to Super Bowl XX where they were defeated by the Bears.
The rivalry began to escalate and receive increased media attention in 1997 when a disgruntled Bill Parcells vacated his head coaching position with New England to accept the same position with New York. The following year, the Jets signed Pro Bowl running back Curtis Martin from the Patriots. After the Jets declined during Parcells ' third year, Parcells decided to resign as head coach. His assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned suddenly the next day to become the head coach of the Patriots instead.
A critical turning point of the rivalry took place on September 23, 2001 when Jets linebacker Mo Lewis tackled Drew Bledsoe, leaving the veteran with internal bleeding. This provided an opportunity for Tom Brady to take over as the starting quarterback and during his tenure, Brady successfully guided New England to five Super Bowl titles. In 2006, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, left New England to join the Jets as their head coach. Under Mangini, the famous Spygate incident took place, further escalating tensions between both clubs. When Rex Ryan was hired as the team 's head coach, the rivalry further escalated due to an increased war of words between both teams. In January 2011, the two met in a Divisional Round playoff game. The visiting Jets pulled a 28 -- 21 upset to advance to the AFC Championship Game, which they ultimately lost one week later to the Pittsburgh Steelers.
The Jets and the Bills represent the same state (New York), and this rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Western New York, where the Bills play. The teams are both charter members of the American Football League and have generally stayed in the same division since, even after the NFL and AFL merged. Aside from a few notable moments, such as a playoff game in 1981, ex-Jets coach Rex Ryan coaching the Bills for two years, O.J. Simpson breaking an NFL rushing record against the Jets, and notable mishaps by quarterbacks Mark Sanchez and J.P. Losman, this has been an otherwise mellow rivalry.
New York has maintained a rivalry with the Miami Dolphins since the Dolphins ' inception in 1966. One of the most famous games in Jets history took place in 1994 when the Dolphins ran the Fake Spike play, giving them an improbable victory and halting the Jets ' momentum that season, serving as a precursor to the Jets ' next two unsuccessful years under Rich Kotite. The Jets went on to complete an improbable victory of their own on October 23, 2000 in what is known as The Monday Night Miracle. The Jets, trailing the Dolphins 30 -- 7 at the end of the third quarter, rallied in the fourth quarter scoring 23 unanswered points, eventually winning in overtime with a 40 - yard John Hall kick.
When Rex Ryan became New York 's head coach, there was an increased war of words between the clubs culminating with Ryan flashing an obscene gesture to heckling Dolphins fans in January 2010. The rivalry continued between both teams when Sal Alosi, then the strength and conditioning coach of the Jets, tripped Dolphins cornerback Nolan Carroll. Carroll was not seriously injured and Alosi resigned nearly two months later.
The New York Jets previously maintained a high tension rivalry against their in - town counterparts, the New York Giants, that has since diminished due to the infrequency with which the teams meet in the regular season. The pinnacle of the rivalry came on August 17, 1969 when both the Jets and Giants met for the first time, in a preseason game which was viewed as a "turf war '' by both opponents. The Giants, considered a mediocre team at the time, were regarded as underdogs and were under much scrutiny by the media and their fans. Ultimately, the Jets bested their rival 37 -- 14; this would result in the firing of Giants coach Allie Sherman.
The Jets met the Giants in 1988 during the final game of the regular season. The Jets, with a 7 -- 7 -- 1 record, had little to lose as their hopes for playoff contention had vanished. The Giants, however, were contending for a playoff spot and a victory would have secured their spot and their division title. Although the six point favorites, the Giants were unable to overcome the Jets defense which saw the Jets sack quarterback Phil Simms eight times. With the Jets ' victory and victories by the Rams and Eagles, the Giants were eliminated from playoff contention and the Jets gained respect in the eyes of many.
In spite of the big sibling rivalry that has resulted in trash talk between the players, both teams have formed an unexpected and consequently strong partnership sharing Giants Stadium for 26 years and MetLife Stadium, a venture in which both teams own a 50 % share of the stadium. The rivalry regained much of its tension in the 2011 NFL season when the Jets and Giants met in Week 16. Both teams needed a victory to keep their playoffs hope alive and there was significant trash talk between Rex Ryan and his players and many of the Giants in the weeks leading up to the game. Ryan and Giants running back Brandon Jacobs reportedly came close to blows after the game, a 29 -- 14 win by the Giants. The two teams met again on December 6, 2015, with the Jets winning 23 -- 20 in overtime.
The Jets ' colors are hunter green and white. The team 's current uniform and primary logo, in use since 1998, are modernized versions of the design used from 1965 to 1977. The helmet is white with two parallel green stripes down the center, and a green facemask. The primary logo, which appears on each side of the helmet and on the jersey front by the player 's left shoulder, is a green oval with the word "JETS '' in thick white sans - serif italics over "NY '' in outline serif lettering, and a white miniature football graphic at bottom center. The jerseys have standard one - color block numerals and serif lettering, alternating stripes on the shoulders, and opposite - colored sleeves and TV numerals. The team uses both white pants with two parallel green stripes from hip to knee on each side, and green pants with white stripes.
The team 's original uniforms, as the Titans of New York in 1960, were navy blue with old gold numerals, gold pants with two parallel blue stripes on each side, and navy blue helmets with a single gold stripe down the center and no logo decals. The white jerseys had navy blue numerals. In 1961, the Titans added UCLA - style shoulder stripes (gold and white on the blue jerseys, gold and navy blue on the white jerseys), changed the pants striping to a blue stripe flanked by white stripes, and employed a somewhat brighter shade of gold.
When the Titans became the Jets in 1963, navy and gold were abandoned in favor of kelly green and white. The jerseys had opposite - colored sleeves with thick stripes on the shoulders and cuffs, above and below the TV numerals. The pants were white with two parallel green stripes on each side. The new helmets were white with a single green stripe down the center; the logo on each side was a silhouette of a jet airplane in green, with the word "JETS '' in thick white sans - serif italics along the fuselage. In 1964, the single green stripe became two parallel stripes, and the jet - plane decal was replaced with a white football shape outlined in green, with the word "JETS '' in thick green sans - serif italics in front of "NY '' in green outline serif lettering, and a miniature football at bottom center. The decals were difficult to see from a distance (or on television), so the colors were reversed in 1965.
This design remained largely unchanged through 1977, apart from some variations to the numeral and lettering typefaces, the angle of the helmet decals, and adjustments to the shoulder and sleeve striping due to changes in NFL jersey tailoring and materials.
The Jets ' first major design change was made for the 1978 season. The kelly green and white color scheme was retained; the new helmets were solid green with white facemasks, and a stylized "JETS '' wordmark in white on each side. The mark featured angular lettering and a silhouette of a modern jet airplane extending horizontally to the right from the top of the "J '' above the "ETS ''. The jerseys featured large TV numerals on the shoulders and two thick parallel stripes on the sleeves, while the pants had a single green stripe from hip to knee on each side. In 1990, the Jets modified this design by adding thin black outlines to the numerals, lettering, stripes and helmet decals, changing the facemasks from white to black, and adding a set of green pants to be worn with the white jerseys.
The Jets adopted their current uniform and logo design in 1998. Green pants were added in 2002, and have been worn with both the white and green jerseys.
The Jets were the first NFL team to wear a "throwback '' uniform, in 1993 for a home game against the Cincinnati Bengals celebrating the 25th anniversary of the 1968 championship team. The jersey and pants mimicked the 1963 -- 77 design, although the team wore its regular green helmets with a white - outlined version of the 1965 -- 77 logo decal. In 1994, as part of the NFL 's 75th Anniversary celebration, the Jets wore both home and road versions of this uniform in select games, again using their regular green helmets with the 1965 -- 77 logo but with two parallel white stripes down the center.
In 2007, the team introduced a new "throwback '' uniform, evoking the original Titans of New York and combining elements of the 1960 and 1961 -- 62 uniforms, with navy blue helmets and jerseys, old gold numerals and helmet stripes, gold and white shoulder stripes, and gold pants with blue and white stripes on each side. These uniforms appeared again in 2008, 2009 and 2011, with a white jersey variation also appearing in 2009 as part of the NFL 's celebration of the American Football League 's 50th anniversary.
The team originally named the Jets Flag Crew was established in 2006. In 2007, the group underwent an expansion and was appropriately renamed the Jets Flight Crew. The squad regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests. Auditions have been held annually since their inception to attract new members.
The Jets Junior Flight Crew was established in 2010 offering children the opportunity to train with the Flight Crew while improving their "talent and abilities in a non-competitive environment. ''
The Jets ' current flagship radio station is WEPN 98.7 ESPN with Bob Wischusen, as the play - by - play announcer and former Jet Marty Lyons of the Sack Exchange, as the color analyst.
Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS - TV. SportsNet New York, which serves as the official home of the Jets, airs over 250 hours of "exclusive, in depth '' material on the team in high definition.
Monday Night Football games are televised in a simulcast with ESPN by either sister station WABC - TV, or WPIX - TV if WABC chooses to waive the game to another station to carry regularly scheduled programming. Thursday Night Football carriage of a Jets game is incumbent on the producing network for that game (either WCBS or WNBC), which is also simulcast by NFL Network.
This is a partial list of the Jets ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of New York Jets seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated September 21, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 11 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Ewbank, Martin, Maynard, and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets. Ewbank is also recognized based upon his achievements with the Baltimore Colts, coaching them to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959. Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins (1976 -- 1979, 1981 -- 1985), as is Monk (1980 -- 1993), who won three Super Bowl championships with Washington. Lott is in the Hall of Fame primarily for his exploits as a member of the San Francisco 49ers. Baugh and Turner are recognized based upon their achievements as players with other teams, rather than their head coaching stints with the Jets. While Parcells reversed the fortunes of the Jets, he had major impact for the New York Giants, coaching them to two Super Bowl victories. Wolf only had a brief stint with the Jets between 1990 and 1991, while most of his major contributions occurred as an executive and player personnel director with the Oakland Raiders (1963 -- 1974, 1979 -- 1989), and later as General Manager of the Green Bay Packers (1991 -- 2001). Favre only played one season as a member of the Jets in 2008, between most of his career with the Packers (1992 -- 2007) and his last two NFL seasons with the Minnesota Vikings (2009 -- 2010).
The Jets established a Ring of Honor on July 20, 2010, to commemorate former alumni. Each season, players will be nominated by an internal committee and then inducted into the Ring. There is no specific amount of honorees to be selected each year.
The following Titans / Jets were selected to the American Football League All - Time Team on January 14, 1970. The first and second teams were determined by a panel of members of the AFL 's Hall of Fame Board of Selectors:
New York announced their official All - Time Four Decade team in 2003 which, was determined by the fans of the team.
Perhaps the most famous of the Jets ' first round picks came in 1965 when they selected Alabama quarterback Joe Namath who boosted the Jets into the national spotlight with his boisterous personality and lifestyle. His physical talents on the field helped improve the Jets ' fortunes, leading them to victory over the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. Though injuries hampered the latter part of Namath 's career, he is best remembered, according to former teammate John Dockery, as "a guy that came along and broke a lot of the conventions. '' Namath was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1985.
Perhaps one of the most disappointing players in Jets history was running back Blair Thomas. Thomas, who averaged 5.4 yards per carry at Penn State, was an intriguing prospect the Jets were interested in utilizing to help their cumbersome offense. Confident in their decision, the Jets drafted Thomas with the second overall pick in 1990, expecting him to be a solid player for years to come. Thomas ran for only 620 yards in 1990, and failed to meet the high expectations. By the time Thomas left the team as an unrestricted free agent in 1993, he had rushed for 2,009 yards and only five touchdowns. The 2008 first round pick, defensive lineman Vernon Gholston, followed a similar path, failing to record a sack during his three - year tenure with the team.
An infamous pick was Kyle Brady in 1995, who was drafted ahead of Warren Sapp, one of many disappointments during Rich Kotite 's tenure as coach. However, in the same draft, the Jets did better with Hugh Douglas.
In the 2013 and 2014 seasons, one of the Jets ' strongest units has been their defensive line, manned by 1st Round selections Muhammad Wilkerson (2011) and Sheldon Richardson (2013). In 2013, Wilkerson ended the season with 10.5 sacks, matching the last Jets player to have more than 10 sacks in a single season, John Abraham in 2005. Also that year, Richardson was honored with an award from the AP for Defensive Rookie of the Year. The Jets ' run defense was stout with all three in the line up, finishing fifth as a team in rushing yards allowed in 2014.
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Notes
Bibliography
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current problems of iron and steel industry in india | Iron and steel industry in India - wikipedia
The iron and steel industry is one of the most important industries in India. During 2014 through 2015, India was the third largest producer of raw steel and the largest producer of sponge iron in the world. The industry produced 91.46 million tons of total finished steel and 9.7 million tons of pig iron. Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore. The Indian Ministry of Steel is concerned with: the coordination and planning of the growth and development of the iron and steel industry in the country, both in the public and private sectors; formulation of policies with respect to production, pricing, distribution, import and export of iron and steel, ferro alloys and refractories; and the development of input industries relating to iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore and refractories etc., required mainly by the steel industry.
Most of the public sector undertakings market their steel through the Steel Authority of India (SAIL).
There are two types of steel plants - mini steel plants and integrated steel plants.
Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric furnaces, used steel scrap and sponge iron. They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce and introduction. Carbon steel mild and Alloy steel of certain specifications. There are around 650 mini steel plants in India.
Integrated steel plants are large, handle everything in one complex - from putting together raw material to steel making, rolling and shaping. Iron ore, coke, and flux are fed into the blast furnace and heated. The coke reduces the iron oxide in the ore to metallic iron, and the molten mass separates into slag and iron. Some of the iron from the blast furnace is cooled, and marketed as pig iron; the rest flows into basic oxygen furnaces, where it is converted into steel. Iron and steel scrap may be added to both to the blast furnace and to the basic iron furnace. There are about five integrated SAIL plants in India.
There are more than 50 iron and steel industries in India. Their locations are given below in the following table:
The iron and steel industry in India is organised into three categories: main producers, other major producers, and secondary producers. In 2004 - 05, the main producers i.e. SAIL, TISCO and RINL had a combined capacity of around 50 % of India 's total steel production capacity and production. The other major producers -- ESSAR, ISPAT and JVSL -- account for around 20 % of the total steel production capacity.
National steel policy -- 2005 has the long - term goal of having a modern and efficient steel industry of world standards in India. The focus is to achieve global competitiveness not only in terms of cost, quality, and product - mix but also in terms of global benchmarks of efficiency and productivity. The Policy aims to achieve over 100 million metric tonnes of steel per year by 2019 - 20 from the 2004 - 05 level of 38 mt. This implies an annual growth of around 7.3 % per year from 2004 - 5 onward.
The strategic goal above is justified because steel consumption in the world, around 1000 million metric tonnes in 2004, is expected to grow at 3.0 % per annum to reach 1,395 million metric tonnes in 2015, compared to 2 % per annum in the past fifteen years. China will continue to have a dominant share of the demand for world steel. Domestically, the growth rate of steel production over the past fifteen years was 7.0 % per annum. The projected growth rate of 7.3 % per annum in India compares well with the projected national income growth rate of 7 - 8 % per annum, given an income elasticity of steel consumption of around 1.
Subsequent steel policies have been drafted each year. The Indian Ministry of Steel has released draft National Steel Policy (NSP), 2017. The problems identified in this sector include:
a matter of concern for domestic producers.
The aim of the draft NSP is to develop a self - sufficient steel industry that is globally competitive. The policy proposes setting up Greenfield Steel Plants along the Indian coastline under the Sagarmala Project. This has been proposed in order to tap cheap imported raw materials such as coking coal and export the output without incurring huge cost burden. The policy has also proposed the idea of gas - based steel plants and use of electric furnaces in order to bring down the use of coking coal in blast furnaces. The policy targets to achieve production of 300 million tonnes by 2030 - 31.
The steel industry in India was delicensed and decontrolled in the years 1991 and 1992 respectively. In 2014 - 15, production for sale of total finished steel (alloy + non-alloy) was 91.46 Million Tonnes, a growth of 4.3 % over 2013 - 14. Production for sale of Pig Iron in 2014 - 15 was 9.7 million tonnes, a growth of 22 % over 2013 - 14. India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world with the coal - based route accounting for 90 % of total sponge iron production in the country. Data on production for the sale of pig iron, sponge iron and total finished steel (alloy + non-alloy) are given below for last five years.
Price regulation of iron and steel was abolished on 16 January 1992. Since then steel prices have been determined by an interplay of market forces. Domestic steel prices are influenced by trends in raw material prices, demand, supply conditions in the market, and international price trends among others. An Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG) is functioning in the Ministry of Steel, under the chairmanship of the secretary (Steel) to monitor and coordinate major steel investments in the country. As a facilitator, the government monitors the steel market conditions and adopts fiscal and other policy measures based on its assessment. Currently, basic excise duty for steel is set at 12.5 % and there is no export duty on steel items. The government has also imposed an export duty of 30 % on all forms of iron ore except low grades, which carry a duty of 10 %, while iron ore pellets have an export duty of 5 % to control ad - hoc exports of the items and to conserve them for the long - term requirements of the domestic steel industry. It has also raised the import duty on most steel imports by 2.5 %, taking the import duty on carbon steel, flat products to 10 % and that on long products to 7.5 %.
Iron and steel are freely importable as per the extant policy. There has been a steady increase in the amount of steel imported into the country to meet demands.
Imports (in Million Tonnes)
Iron and steel are freely exportable. In the years 2010 - 11, India exported about 3.64 million tonnes of steel; further, in 2011 - 12 it rose to 4.59 million tonnes. 2012 - 13 and 2013 - 14 did not see a sharp rise with exports of 5.37 and 5.98 million tonnes respectively. The exports declined in the year 2014 - 15, falling to 5.59 million tonnes.
Exports (in Million Tonnes)
Recent excavations in the Middle Ganges Valley conducted by archaeologist Rakesh Reddy with the advice of wife Aditi Venugopal show iron working in India may have begun as early as 1800 BCE. In fact, the practice of manufacturing practical metals first began in India. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, and Lahuradewa in the state of Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE - 1200 BCE. Sahi (1979: 366) concluded that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was definitely practiced on a larger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology 's early period may well be placed as early as the 16th century BCE.
Some of the early iron objects found in India are dated to 1400 BCE by employing radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow - heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE -- 200 BCE have been discovered at several archaeological sites. In southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as the 12th or 11th century BCE. These developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.
The beginning of the 1st millennium BCE saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. The years between 322 -- 185 BCE saw several advancements made to the technology involved in metallurgy during the politically stable Maurya period (322 -- 185 BCE). Greek historian Herodotus (431 -- 425 BCE) wrote the first western account of the use of iron in India.
Perhaps as early as 300 BCE -- although certainly by 200 CE -- high quality steel was being produced in southern India by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. Using this system, high - purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era. Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, and the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in south India well before the Christian era.
The world 's first iron pillar was the Iron Pillar of Delhi erected during the time of Chandragupta Vikramaditya (375 -- 413). The swords manufactured in Indian workshops are mentioned in the written works of Muhammad al - Idrisi (flourished 1154). Indian Blades made of Damascus steel found their way into Persia. During the 14th century, European scholars studied Indian casting and metallurgy technology.
Indian metallurgy under the Mughal emperor Akbar (reign: 1556 - 1605) produced excellent small firearms. Gommans (2002) holds that Mughal handguns were stronger and more accurate than their European counterparts.
In The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India, scholar David Arnold examines the effect of the British Raj in Indian mining and metallurgy:
With the partial exception of coal, foreign competition, aided by the absence of tariff barriers and lack of technological innovation, held back the development of mining and metal - working technology in India until the early 20th century. The relatively crude, labour - intensive nature of surviving mining techniques contributed to the false impression that India was poorly endowed with mineral resources or that they were inaccessible or otherwise difficult and unremunerative to work. But the fate of mining and metallurgy was affected by political as well as by economic and technological considerations.
The British were aware of the historical role metal - working had played in supporting indigenous powers through the production of arms and ammunition. This resulted in the introduction of then Arms Act in 1878 which restricted access to firearms. They also sought to limit India 's ability to mine and work metals for use in future wars and rebellions in areas like metal - rich Rajasthan. India 's skill in casting brass cannon had made Indian artillery a formidable adversary from the reign of Akbar to the Maratha and Sikh wars 300 years later. By the early 19th century most of the mines in Rajasthan were abandoned and the mining caste was ' extinct '.
During the Company period, military opponents were eliminated and princely states extinguished, and the capacity to mine and work metals declined, largely due to British tariffs. As late as the Rebellion of 1857, because the mining of lead for ammunition at Ajmer was perceived as a threat, the British closed mines.
Modern steel making in India began with the setting of first blast furnace of India at Kulti in 1870 and production began in 1874, which was set up by Bengal Iron Works. Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was established by Dorabji Tata in 1907, as part of his father 's conglomerate. By 1939 it operated the largest steel plant in the British Empire. The company launched a major modernisation and expansion program in 1951.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, a believer in socialism, decided that the technological revolution in India needed maximisation of steel production. He, therefore, formed a government owned company, Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) and set up three steel plants in the 1950s.
The Indian steel industry began expanding into Europe in the 21st century. In January 2007 India 's Tata Steel made a successful $11.3 billion offer to buy European steel maker Corus Group. In 2006 Mittal Steel Company (based in London but with Indian management) acquired Arcelor for $34.3 billion to become the world 's biggest steel maker, ArcelorMittal, with 10 % of the world 's output.
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the term coccus describes a bacterial shape that is | Coccus - wikipedia
A coccus (plural cocci) is any bacterium that has a spherical, ovoid, or generally round shape. It is one of the three distinct bacterial shapes, the other two being bacillus (rod - shaped) and spiral - shaped cells.
Cocci is an English loanword of a modern or neo-Latin noun, which in turn stems from the Greek masculine noun kokkos (κόκκος) meaning "berry ''.
Cocci may occur as single cells or remain attached following cell division. Those that remain attached can be classified based on cellular arrangement:
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who played jack's dad in this is us | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television drama series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. The program details the lives and families of two parents, and their three children born on the same day as their father 's birthday.
The series has received positive reviews since its premiere, and has been nominated for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. Sterling K. Brown has received an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a Critics ' Choice Award, and an NAACP Image Award for his acting in the series. Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows siblings Kevin, Kate, and Randall (known as the "Big Three '') as their lives intertwine, and their parents Jack and Rebecca Pearson. It is shown in both present day and in flashbacks.
Kevin and Kate are the two surviving members of a triplet pregnancy, conceived after Super Bowl XIV at "Froggy 's '' in Pittsburgh. Their due date is October 12, 1980, but they are born six weeks early on August 31 (Jack 's birthday); their biological brother is stillborn. After losing their third baby, Jack and Rebecca decide to adopt Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandons him at a fire station.
Episodes weave through the stories of the past and present of the characters, with most scenes taking place in four periods: c. 1980 -- 1981, c. 1988 -- 1990, c. 1995 -- 1998, and the present day (2016 -- 2018). Most flashback scenes occur in Pittsburgh, where the "Big Three '' are born and raised. Current scenes are typically split among Los Angeles, New Jersey, and New York City. In each episode, most flashback scenes, relate to current scenes, shows Jack, who dies when the "Big Three '' are 17 -- and Rebecca when they are either babies, ages 8 -- 10, or ages 15 -- 17.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.72 / 10 based on 63 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 17 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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who sang the original version of stormy weather | Stormy Weather (song) - wikipedia
"Stormy Weather '' is a 1933 torch song written by Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler. Ethel Waters first sang it at The Cotton Club night club in Harlem in 1933 and recorded it that year, and in the same year it was sung in London by Elisabeth Welch and recorded by Frances Langford. Also 1933, for the first time in history the entire floor revue from Harlem 's Cotton Club went on tour, playing theatres in principal cities. The revue was originally called The Cotton Club Parade of 1933 but for the road tour it was changed to the Stormy Weather Revue and as the name implies, the show contained the hit song "Stormy Weather '' which was sung by Adelaide Hall.
The song has since been performed by artists as diverse as Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Etta James, Dinah Washington, Clodagh Rodgers, and Reigning Sound and most famously by Lena Horne and Billie Holiday. Leo Reisman 's orchestra version had the biggest hit on records (with Arlen himself as vocalist), although Ethel Waters 's recorded version also sold well. "Stormy Weather '' was featured in the 1943 movie of the same name.
The song tells of disappointment, as the lyrics, "Do n't know why there 's no sun up in the sky '', show someone pining for her man to return. The weather is a metaphor for the feelings of the singer: "stormy weather since my man and I ai n't together, keeps raining all the time. ''
The original handwritten lyrics, along with a painting by Ted Koehler, were featured on the (US) Antiques Roadshow on January 24, 2011, where they were appraised for between $50,000 and $100,000. The lyrics show a number of crossings out and corrections.
Ethel Waters 's recording of the song in 1933 was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2003, and the Library of Congress honored the song by adding it to the National Recording Registry in 2004. Also in 2004, Horne 's version finished at number 30 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
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explain the phenomenon of nondisjunction that may occur during gamete meiosis | Nondisjunction - wikipedia
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. There are three forms of nondisjunction: failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I, failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
Calvin Bridges and Thomas Hunt Morgan are credited with discovering nondisjunction in Drosophila melanogaster sex chromosomes in the spring of 1910, while working in the Zoological Laboratory of Columbia University.
In general, nondisjunction can occur in any form of cell division that involves ordered distribution of chromosomal material. Higher animals have three distinct forms of such cell divisions: Meiosis I and meiosis II are specialized forms of cell division occurring during generation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction, mitosis is the form of cell division used by all other cells of the body.
Ovulated eggs become arrested in metaphase II until fertilization triggers the second meiotic division. Similar to the segregation events of mitosis, the pairs of sister chromatids resulting from the separation of bivalents in meiosis I are further separated in anaphase of meiosis II. In oocytes, one sister chromatid is segregated into the second polar body, while the other stays inside the egg. During spermatogenesis, each meiotic division is symmetric such that each primary spermatocyte gives rise to 2 secondary spermatocytes after meiosis I, and eventually 4 spermatids after meiosis II. Meiosis II - nondisjunction may also result in aneuploidy syndromes, but only to a much smaller extent than do segregation failures in meiosis I.
Division of somatic cells through mitosis is preceded by replication of the genetic material in S phase. As a result, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids held together at the centromere. In the anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite cell poles before the cell divides. Nondisjunction during mitosis leads to one daughter receiving both sister chromatids of the affected chromosome while the other gets none. This is known as a chromatin bridge or an anaphase bridge. Mitotic nondisjunction results in somatic mosaicism, since only daughter cells originating from the cell where the nondisjunction event has occurred will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. Nondisjunction during mitosis can contribute to the development of some forms of cancer, e.g. retinoblastoma (see below). Chromosome nondisjunction in mitosis can be atrributed to the inactivation of topoisomerase II, condensin, or separase. Meiotic nondisjunction has been well studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast undergoes mitosis similarly to other eukaryotes. Chromosome bridges occur when sister chromatids are held together post replication by DNA - DNA topological entanglement and the cohesion complex. During anaphase, cohesin is cleaved by separase. Topoisomerase II and condensin are responsible for removing catenations.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a molecular safe - guarding mechanism that governs proper chromosome segregation in eukaryotic cells. SAC inhibits progression into anaphase until all homologous chromosomes (bivalents, or tetrads) are properly aligned to the spindle apparatus. Only then, SAC releases its inhibition of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), which in turn irreversibly triggers progression through anaphase.
Surveys of cases of human aneuploidy syndromes have shown that most of them are maternally derived. This raises the question: Why is female meiosis more error prone? The most obvious difference between female oogenesis and male spermatogenesis is the prolonged arrest of oocytes in late stages of prophase I for many years up to several decades. Male gametes on the other hand quickly go through all stages of meiosis I and II. Another important difference between male and female meiosis concerns the frequency of recombination between homologous chromosomes: In the male, almost all chromosome pairs are joined by at least one crossover, while more than 10 % of human oocytes contain at least one bivalent without any crossover event. Failures of recombination or inappropriately located crossovers have been well documented as contributors to the occurrence of nondisjunction in humans.
Due to the prolonged arrest of human oocytes, weakening of cohesive ties holding together chromosomes and reduced activity of the SAC may contribute to maternal age - related errors in segregation control. The cohesin complex is responsible for keeping together sister chromatids and provides binding sites for spindle attachment. Cohesin is loaded onto newly replicated chromosomes in oogonia during fetal development. Mature oocytes have only limited capacity for reloading cohesin after completion of S phase. The prolonged arrest of human oocytes prior to completion of meiosis I may therefore result in considerable loss of cohesin over time. Loss of cohesin is assumed to contribute to incorrect microtubule - kinetochore attachment and chromosome segregation errors during meiotic divisions.
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n - 1), in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy. Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected individual is monosomic for the X chromosome (see below). Other monosomies are usually lethal during early fetal development, and survival is only possible if not all the cells of the body are affected in case of a mosaicism (see below), or if the normal number of chromosomes is restored via duplication of the single monosomic chromosome ("chromosome rescue '').
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of Turner syndrome. The importance of both X chromosomes during embryonic development is underscored by the observation that the overwhelming majority (> 99 %) of fetuses with only one X chromosome (karyotype 45, X0) are spontaneously aborted.
The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.
Down syndrome, a trisomy of chromosome 21, is the most common anomaly of chromosome number in humans. The majority of cases results from nondisjunction during maternal meiosis I. Trisomy occurs in at least 0.3 % of newborns and in nearly 25 % of spontaneous abortions. It is the leading cause of pregnancy wastage and is the most common known cause of mental retardation. It is well documented that advanced maternal age is associated with greater risk of meiotic nondisjunction leading to Down syndrome. This may be associated with the prolonged meiotic arrest of human oocytes potentially lasting for more than four decades.
Human trisomies compatible with live birth, other than Down syndrome (trisomy 21), are Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13). Complete trisomies of other chromosomes are usually not viable and represent a relatively frequent cause of miscarriage. Only in rare cases of a mosaicism, the presence of a normal cell line, in addition to the trisomic cell line, may support the development of a viable trisomy of the other chromosomes.
The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex chromosomes, i.e. other than XX (female) or XY (male). Formally, X chromosome monosomy (Turner syndrome, see above) can also be classified as a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy.
Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans. It represents the most frequent cause of hypogonadism and infertility in men. Most cases are caused by nondisjunction errors in paternal meiosis I. About eighty percent of individuals with this syndrome have one extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY. The remaining cases have either multiple additional sex chromosomes (48, XXXY; 48, XXYY; 49, XXXXY), mosaicism (46, XY / 47, XXY), or structural chromosome abnormalities.
The incidence of XYY syndrome is approximately 1 in 800 - 1000 male births. Many cases remain undiagnosed because of their normal appearance and fertility, and the absence of severe symptoms. The extra Y chromosome is usually a result of nondisjunction during paternal meiosis II.
Trisomy X is a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy where females have three instead of two X chromosomes. Most patients are only mildly affected by neuropsychological and physical symptoms. Studies examining the origin of the extra X chromosome observed that about 58 - 63 % of cases were caused by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis I, 16 - 18 % by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis II, and the remaining cases by post-zygotic, i.e. mitotic, nondisjunction.
Uniparental disomy denotes the situation where both chromosomes of a chromosome pair are inherited from the same parent and are therefore identical. This phenomenon most likely is the result of a pregnancy that started as a trisomy due to nondisjunction. Since most trisomies are lethal, the fetus only survives because it loses one of the three chromosomes and becomes disomic. Uniparental disomy of chromosome 15 is, for example, seen in some cases of Prader - Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.
Mosaicism syndromes can be caused by mitotic nondisjunction in early fetal development. As a consequence, the organism evolves as a mixture of cell lines with differing ploidy (number of chromosomes). Mosaicism may be present in some tissues, but not in others. Affected individuals may have a patchy or assymmetric appearance. Examples of mosaicism syndromes include Pallister - Killian syndrome and Hypomelanosis of Ito.
Development of cancer often involves multiple alterations of the cellular genome (Knudson hypothesis). Human retinoblastoma is a well studied example of a cancer type where mitotic nondisjunction can contribute to malignant transformation: Mutations of the RB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 13 and encodes the tumor suppressor retinoblastoma protein, can be detected by cytogenetic analysis in many cases of retinoblastoma. Mutations of the RB1 locus in one copy of chromosome 13 are sometimes accompanied by loss of the other wild - type chromosome 13 through mitotic nondisjunction. By this combination of lesions, affected cells completely lose expression of functioning tumor suppressor protein.
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) is a technique used to identify genetically normal embryos and is useful for couples who have a family history of genetic disorders. This is an option for people choosing to procreate through IVF. PGD is considered difficult due to it being both time consuming and having success rates only comparable to routine IVF.
Karyotyping involves performing an amniocentesis in order to study the cells of an unborn fetus during metophase 1. Light microscopy can be used to visually determine if aneuploidy is an issue.
Polar body diagnosis (PBD) can be use to detect maternally derived chromosomal aneuploidies as well as translocations in oocytes. The advantage of PBD over PGD is that it can be accomplished in a short amount of time. This is accomplished through zona drilling or laser drilling.
Blastomere biopsy is a technique in which blastomeres are removed from the zona pellucida. It is commonly used to detect aneuploidy. Genetic analysis is conducted once the procedure is complete. Additional studies are needed to assess the risk associated with the procedure.
Exposure of spermatozoa to lifestyle, environmental and / or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploidy. Cigarette smoke is a known aneugen (aneuploidy inducing agent). It is associated with increases in aneuploidy ranging from 1.5 to 3.0-fold. Other studies indicate factors such as alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to benzene, and exposure to the insecticides fenvalerate and carbaryl also increase aneuploidy.
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who was commissioned to paint the scrovegni (arena) chapel | Scrovegni chapel - wikipedia
The Scrovegni Chapel (Italian: ' ' Cappella degli Scrovegni ' ', also known as the Arena Chapel), is a church in Padua, Veneto, Italy. It contains a fresco cycle by Giotto, completed about 1305 and considered to be an important masterpiece of Western art. The nave is 20.88 metres long, 8.41 metres wide, and 12.65 metres high. The apse area is composed of a square area (4.49 meters deep and 4.31 meters wide) and a pentagonal area (2.57 meters deep).
Giotto and his team covered all the internal surfaces of chapel with frescos, including the walls and the ceiling. The largest element is extensive cycles showing the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin. The wall at the rear of the church, through which the chapel is entered, has a large Last Judgement. There are also panels in grisaille (monochrome) showing the Vices and Virtues.
The church was dedicated to Santa Maria della Carità at the Feast of the Annunciation, 1303, and consecrated in 1305. Giotto 's fresco cycle focuses on the life of the Virgin Mary and celebrates her role in human salvation. A motet by Marchetto da Padova appears to have been composed for the dedication on 25 March 1305. The chapel is also known as the Arena Chapel because it was built on land purchased by Enrico Scrovegni that abutted the site of a Roman arena. The space was where an open - air procession and sacred representation of the Annunciation to the Virgin had been played out for a generation before the chapel was built.
The Arena Chapel was commissioned from Giotto by the affluent Paduan banker, Enrico Scrovegni. In the early 1300s Enrico purchased from Manfredo Dalesmanini the area on which the Roman arena had stood. Here he had his luxurious palace built, as well as a chapel annexed to it. The chapel 's project was twofold: to serve as the family 's private oratory and as a funerary monument for himself and his wife. Enrico commissioned Giotto, the famous Florentine painter, to decorate his chapel. Giotto had previously worked for the Franciscan friars in Assisi and Rimini, and had been in Padua for some time, working for the Basilica of Saint Anthony in the Sala del Capitolo and in the Blessings 's Chapel.
A number of 14th - century sources (Riccobaldo Ferrarese, Francesco da Barberino, 1312 - 1313) testify to Giotto 's presence at the Arena Chapel 's site. The fresco cycle can be dated with a good approximation to a series of documentary testimonies: the purchase of the land took place on 6 February 1300; the bishop of Padua, Ottobono dei Razzi, authorised the building some time prior to 1302 (the date of his transferral to the Patriarcato of Aquileia); the chapel was first consecrated on 25 March 1303, the feast day of the Annunciation; on 1 March 1304 Pope Benedict XI granted an indulgence to whoever visited the chapel; one year later on 25 March 1305 the chapel received its definitive consecration. Giotto 's work thus falls in the period from 25 March 1303 to 25 March 1305.
Giotto, who was born around 1267, was 36 -- 38 years old when he worked at Enrico Scrovegni 's chapel. He had a team of about 40 collaborators, and they calculated that 625 work days (giornati) were necessary to paint the chapel. A "work day '' meant that portion of each fresco that could be painted before the plaster dried and was no longer "fresh '' (fresco in Italian).
In January 1305, friars from the nearby Church of the Eremitani filed a complaint to the bishop, protesting that Scrovegni had not respected the original agreement. Scrovegni was transforming his private oratory into a church with a bell tower, thus producing unfair competition with the Eremitani 's activities. We do not know what happened next, but it is likely that, as a consequence of this complaint, the monumental apse and the wide transept were demolished. Both are visible on a model of the church painted by Giotto on the counter-facade (the Last Judgement). The apse was the section where Enrico Scrovegni had meant to have his tomb. The presence of frescoes dating to after 1320 supports the demolition hypothesis proposed by Giuliano Pisani. The apse, the most significant area in all churches, is where Enrico and his wife, Lacopina d'Este, were buried.
This apse presents a narrowing of the space which gives a sense of its being incomplete and inharmonious. When one observes the lower frame of the triumphal arch, right above Saint Catherine of Alexandria 's small altar piece, Giotto 's perfect symmetry is altered by a fresco decoration representing two medallions with busts of female saints, a lunette with Christ in glory, and two episodes from the Passion (the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane and the Flagellation of Christ, which together give an overall sense of disharmony. The artist who painted these scenes also painted the greater part of the apse, an unknown artist called "The Master of the Scrovegni Choir '' who worked at the Chapel about twenty years after Giotto 's work was completed. The main focus of the unknown artist 's work is constituted by six monumental scenes on the side walls of the chancel that depict the last period of Mary 's earthly life. This choice is in tune with the iconographic program inspired by Alberto da Padova and painted by Giotto.
The chapel was originally connected with the Scrovegni palace, which was built on what remained of the foundations of the elliptical ancient Roman arena. The palace was demolished in 1827 in order to sell the precious materials it contained and to erect two condominiums in its place. The chapel was purchased by the Municipality of the City of Padua in 1881, a year after the City Council 's deliberation of 10 May 1880 leading to a decision to demolish the condominiums and restore the chapel.
In June 2001, following a preparation study lasting over 20 years, the Istituto Centrale per il Restauro (Central Institute for Restoration) of the Ministry for Cultural Activities, in collaboration with Padua 's Town Hall in its capacity of owner of the Arena Chapel, started a full - scale restoration of Giotto 's frescoes under the late Giuseppe Basile 's technical direction. In 2000 the consolidation and restoration of the external surfaces had been completed and the adjacent "Corpo Tecnologico Attrezzato '' (CTA) had been installed. In this "equipped technological chamber '' visitors wait for fifteen minutes to allow their body humidity to be lowered and any accompanying smog dust to be filtered out. In March 2002 the chapel was reopened to the public in its original splendor. A few problems remain unsolved, such as flooding in the crypt under the nave due to the presence of an underlying aquifer, and the negative effect on the building 's stability of the cement inserts that replaced the original wooden ones in the 1960s.
Giuliano Pisani 's studies argued that a number of commonly held beliefs concerning the chapel are groundless, among them, the notion that Dante inspired Giotto. Another claim was that the theological program followed by Giotto is based on St Thomas Aquinas, whereas Pisani claims it to be wholly Augustinian. Pisani also argued against the conjecture that the Frati Gaudenti fraternity, of which Enrico Scrovegni was a member, influenced the content of Giotto 's fresco cycle. He also argued against the belief that Enrico Scrovegni required that the iconography program have no emphasis placed on the sin of usury. Giuliano Pisani pointed out that Dante 's condemnation of Scrovegni 's father, Reginaldo, as a usurer in Canto 17 of the Inferno dates to a few years after Giotto 's completion of the chapel, so it can not be regarded as a motive behind any theological anxieties on the part of Enrico Scrovegni. It must be noted that Pisani 's arguments have not yet been widely embraced by the scholarly community, and that debates persist regarding the impetus for the chapel 's creation and the reasons behind its design.
According to Pisani, Giotto painted the chapel 's inner surface following a comprehensive iconographic and decorative project devised by the Augustinian theologian, Friar Alberto da Padova. Among the sources utilized by Giotto following Friar Alberto 's advice are the Apocryphal Gospels of Pseudo-Matthew and Nicodemus, the Golden Legend (Legenda aurea) by Jacopo da Varazze (Jacobus a Varagine) and, for a few minute iconographic details, Pseudo-Bonaventure 's Meditations on the Life of Jesus Christ, as well as a number of Augustinian texts, such as De doctrina Christiana, De libero arbitrio, De Genesi contra Manicheos, De quantitate animae, and other texts from the Medieval Christian tradition, among which is the Phisiologus.
Most Giotto scholarship believes that Giotto had made a number of theological mistakes. For instance, Giotto placed Hope after Charity in the Virtues series, and did not include Avarice in the Vices series, due to the usual representation of Enrico Scrovegni as a usurer. Giuliano Pisani asserts that Giotto followed a careful and deliberate theological programme based on Saint Augustine and devised by Friar Alberto da Padova. Avarice, far from being "absent '' in Giotto 's cycle, is portrayed with Envy, forming with it a fundamental component of a more comprehensive sin. For this reason Envy is placed facing the virtue of Charity, to indicate that Charity is the exact opposite of Envy, and that in order to cure oneself of the sin of Envy one needs to learn from Charity. Charity crushes Envy 's money bag under her feet, while on the opposite wall red flames burn under Envy 's feet.
Giotto frescoed the chapel 's whole surface, including the walls and the ceiling. The fresco cycle is organised along four tiers, each of which contains episodes from the stories of the various protagonists of the Sacred History. Each tier is divided into frames, each forming a scene. The chapel is asymmetrical in shape, with six windows on the longer south wall, and this shape determined the layout of the decoration. The first step was choosing to place two frames between each double window set on the south wall; secondly, the width and height of the tiers was fixed in order to calculate the same space on the opposite north wall.
Cycles of scenes showing the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin were the grandest form of religious art in the period, and Giotto 's cycle is unusually large and comprehensive, showing the ambition of the commission. Allowing for this, the selection and iconography of the scenes is broadly comparable to other contemporary cycles; Giotto 's innovation lies in the monumentality of his forms and the clarity of his compositions.
The cycle recounts the story of salvation. It starts from high up on the lunette of the triumphal arch, with the uncommon scene of God the Father instructing the Archangel Gabriel to perform the Annunciation to Mary. The narrative continues with the stories of Joachim and Anne (first tier from the top, south wall) and the stories of Mary (first tier from the top, north wall). After a return to the triumphal arch, the scenes of the Annunciation and the Visitation follow. The stories of Christ were placed on the middle tier of the south and north walls. The scene of Judas receiving the money to betray Jesus is on the triumphal arch. The lower tier of the south and north walls shows the Passion and Resurrection; the last frame on the north wall shows the Pentecost. The fourth tier begins at ground level with the monochromes of the Vices (north wall) and the Virtues (south wall). The west wall (counter-façade) presents the Last Judgment.
The scenes depicted are as follows:
Sacred stories:
Triumphal arch (lunette):
Upper tier, south wall:
Upper tier, north wall:
Triumphal arch:
Middle tier, south wall:
Middle tier, north wall:
Triumphal arch:
Lower tier, south wall:
Lower tier, north wall;
Bottom tier, north wall: Vices:
Bottom tier, south wall: Virtues:
Counter-façade:
The vault presents the eighth day, the time of eternity, God 's time, with eight planets (the tondos which enclose the seven great prophets of the Old Testament plus John the Baptist) and two suns (which show God and the Madonna and Child), while the blue sky is studded with eight - point stars (8, sideways, symbolises infinity).
The bottom tiers of the longer walls feature 14 allegories, in monochrome, symbolising Vices on the north wall and Virtues on the south wall. The Vices are Stultitia, Inconstantia, Ira, Iniusticia, Infidelitas, Invidia, and Desperatio. The Virtues are grouped as follows: the four cardinal virtues: Prudentia, Iustitia, Temperantia, Fortitudo, followed by the three theological ones: Fides, Karitas, Spes. Each virtue and vice is embedded within a mirror - like marble frame. The name of the vice or the virtue is written in Latin on top of each figure, indicating what these figures represent, namely, the seventh day (the time between Jesus 's birth and the Final Judgement).
According to the controversial theory of Giuliano Pisani, the Vices and Virtues read starting from the altar 's side, going towards the counter-façade (Final Judgement), and the sequence is not "Vices first, then Virtues '' as was long believed. It rather proceeds from Vice 1 (Stultitia) (north wall, right hand side) to Virtue 1 (Prudencia) (south wall, left hand side), to Vice 2 (Inconstantia) (north wall) to Virtue 2 (Fortitudo) (south side), and so on. Vices and Virtues symbolise humanity 's progress toward bliss (heavenly happiness). With the aid of Virtues, humanity can overcome obstacles (Vices). This is the philosophical - theological itinerary designed by Giotto 's theologian, a learned theologian who drew his inspiration from Saint Augustin. The Vice-Virtue section of the Arena Chapel illustrates the philosophical - theological message underlying the overall project and is key to clarifying several points previously considered to be either obscure or the result of Giotto 's only approximate theological knowledge. For instance, in the Arena Chapel the vices are not the traditional capital vices or deadly sins (Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth, Greed, Gluttony and Lust), just like the "corresponding '' virtues do not reflect the traditional order, consisting in four "cardinal virtues '' (Prudence, Justice, Fortitude and Temperance) and three "theological virtues '' (Faith, Hope and Charity).
A twofold therapeutic path leading to salvation is presented. The first, composed of four virtues, brings a cure by means of the opposing force provided by the cardinal virtues. The arrival point in this first part of the itinerary is Justice, Iusticia, who makes peace possible and therefore ensures Paradise on earth and earthly happiness. The first Vice in this first section is Stultitia, namely the incapacity to distinguish good and evil. Its cure (opposite wall) is Prudencia, Prudence, which in classical and theological terms is not "cautiousness '' but "moral intelligence '' or the capacity to distinguish good and evil. The viewer is in the sphere of Knowledge. Next comes the pair Inconstantia, Inconstancy, (north wall) and Fortitudo, Fortitude, (south wall). Fortitude (moral and mental strength) triumphs over Inconstancy 's lewd oscillations by means of will. "Inconstancy '' is literally "the lack of a stable seat ''; it is a mix of light - headedness, volubility, and inconsistency. "Inconstancy '' is portrayed as a young woman rolling over a ball, ready to fall, on a motley marble floor signifying the lack of "unity '' ("constancy '') which characterises an inconstant mind. Here is the sphere of Will. Wrath, the third vice, is "tempered '' by Temperantia, Temperance. According to Saint Augustine, Temperantia is the inner balance which ensures the will 's stable dominion over instincts and keeps human desires within the boundaries of honesty. It is the therapy necessary to prevail over passions, which are symbolised by Wrath, because Wrath is the most perilous of all the passions: it is sudden and destructive, even against own 's dearest ones, and is therefore the passion that human beings first need to learn how to control. This notion is a tenet of ancient Greek and (in its footprints) Roman philosophy, which Saint Augustin made his own and Giotto 's theologian transmitted to him, fusing together a number of Saint Augustin 's writings.
Prudence, Fortitude and Temperance pertain to each individual 's ethical sphere of action and have as their goal the cure of each individual "self ''. Ethical virtue takes form in practical application, through action and behaviour that pertain both to the personal and the social sphere and affect human relations. The notions of Justice and Injustice, the central "pair '' in Giotto 's Arena Chapel, emanate from this notion. Justice ' perfect centrality is visually emphasized by an architectural "die '', a small cube that runs above each of the various personifications in a slightly slanted way, pointing either toward the apse or the counter-façade, everywhere but above the head of Justice (south wall) and Injustice (north wall), where the small die falls in a perpendicular line, marking at the same time the exact physical half of the chapel as well as Justice 's curing function from a theological - philosophical viewpoint, without forgetting that Justice is what cures the soul of the sickening effects of Injustice (on the chapel 's other side).
Those who have successfully progressed in their therapeutic path have attained Justice. Those who have not, have attained Injustice. Those who have attained Justice have practiced a soul 's therapy that can be defined as "human '' and that led them to earthly happiness. They used as their therapy the "medicina animi '', the "soul 's medicine '' provided by the cardinal virtues (in the sequence Prudence - Fortitude - Temperance - Justice), namely the moral and intellectual virtues with whose "medicine '' human beings can be cured of, and are able to prevail over, the opposing vices.
Next come the theological virtues. In order to be able to aspire to heavenly Paradise one needs divine teaching, the revelation of truth, with which one overcomes and transcends human reason, and to practice the theological virtues. The "divine therapy '' begins with the rejection of false beliefs (Infidelitas) through Faith in God (Fides). Only with the "medicine '' of Charity (Karitas) can man overcome Selfishness and Envy (Invidia), which lead him to look with malevolent eyes (Latin in - vidēre) at his neighbour, who is also made by God in His likeness. Finally, with the aid (the medicine), Hope (Spes) can be contrasted with Lack of Hope, or Desperation (Desperatio). Hope is an attitude consisting in actively waiting for God 's future blessings which descend from trust in God and in His word, and also consisting in love, through the love of God, of the whole of humankind.
The sources of this extraordinary program were identified by Pisani in a number of passages of Saint Augustine 's works. Everything finds a perfect correspondence with something else. It is the theme of the "therapy of opposites '', the sequential order of the cardinal and theological virtues, and the centrality of Justice.
Coordinates: 45 ° 24 ′ 42 '' N 11 ° 52 ′ 46 '' E / 45.41167 ° N 11.87944 ° E / 45.41167; 11.87944
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what are the functions of parenchyma collenchyma and sclerenchyma | Ground tissue - wikipedia
The ground tissue of plants includes all tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular. It can be divided into three classes based on the nature of the cell walls. Parenchyma cells have thin primary walls and usually remain alive after they become mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler '' tissue in the soft parts of plants. usually present in cortex, pericycle, pith, and medullary rays in primary stem and root. Collenchyma cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening. Collenchyma provides extra structural support, particularly in regions of new growth. Sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature. Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to a plant.
Parenchyma (/ pəˈrɛŋkɪmə /; from Greek παρέγχυμα parenkhyma, "visceral flesh '' from παρεγχεῖν parenkhein, "to pour in '' from παρα - para -, "beside '', ἐν en -, "in '' and χεῖν khein, "to pour '') is a versatile ground tissue that generally constitutes the "filler '' tissue in soft parts of plants. It forms, among other things, the cortex and pith of stems, the cortex of roots, the mesophyll of leaves, the pulp of fruits, and the endosperm of seeds. Parenchyma cells are living cells and may remain meristematic at maturity -- meaning that they are capable of cell division if stimulated. They have thin but flexible cellulose cell walls, and are generally polyhedral when close - packed, but can be roughly spherical when isolated from their neighbours. They have large central vacuoles, which allow the cells to store and regulate ions, waste products, and water. Tissue specialised for food storage is commonly formed of parenchyma cells.
Parenchyma cells have a variety of functions:
The shape of parenchyma cells varies with their function. In the spongy mesophyll of a leaf, parenchyma cells range from near - spherical and loosely arranged with large intercellular spaces, to branched or stellate, mutually interconnected with their neighbours at the ends of their arms to form a three - dimensional network, like in the red kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris and other mesophytes. These cells, along with the epidermal guard cells of the stoma, form a system of air spaces and chambers that regulate the exchange of gases. In some works the cells of the leaf epidermis are regarded as specialised parenchymal cells, but the modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as plant dermal tissue, and parenchyma as ground tissue. shapes of parenchyma 1 = polyhedral (these cells are most poly hedral shape) 2 = stellate (found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them) 3 = elongated (are found in pallisade tissue of leaf) 4 = lobed (are found inspongy and pallisade mesophyyll tissue of some plants)
The first use of "collenchyma '' (/ kəˈlɛŋkɪmə, kɒ - /) was by Link (1837) who used it to describe the sticky substance on Bletia (Orchidaceae) pollen. Complaining about Link 's excessive nomenclature, Schleiden (1839) stated mockingly that the term "collenchyma '' could have more easily been used to describe elongated sub-epidermal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls.
Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated cells with irregularly thickened walls. They provide structural support, particularly in growing shoots and leaves. Collenchyma tissue makes up things such as the resilient strands in stalks of celery. Collenchyma cells are usually living, and have only a thick primary cell wall made up of cellulose and pectin. Cell wall thickness is strongly affected by mechanical stress upon the plant. The walls of collenchyma in shaken plants (to mimic the effects of wind etc.), may be 40 -- 100 % thicker than those not shaken.
There are four main types of collenchyma:
Collenchyma cells are most often found adjacent to outer growing tissues such as the vascular cambium and are known for increasing structural support and integrity.
Sclerenchyma is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. Sclerenchyma is the supporting tissue in plants. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibers and sclereids. Their cell walls consist of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Sclerenchyma cells are the principal supporting cells in plant tissues that have ceased elongation. Sclerenchyma fibers are of great economic importance, since they constitute the source material for many fabrics (e.g. flax, hemp, jute, and ramie).
Unlike the collenchyma, mature sclerenchyma is composed of dead cells with extremely thick cell walls (secondary walls) that make up to 90 % of the whole cell volume. The term sclerenchyma is derived from the Greek σκληρός (sklērós), meaning "hard. '' It is the hard, thick walls that make sclerenchyma cells important strengthening and supporting elements in plant parts that have ceased elongation. The difference between fibers and sclereids is not always clear: transitions do exist, sometimes even within the same plant.
Fibers or bast are generally long, slender, so - called prosenchymatous cells, usually occurring in strands or bundles. Such bundles or the totality of a stem 's bundles are colloquially called fibers. Their high load - bearing capacity and the ease with which they can be processed has since antiquity made them the source material for a number of things, like ropes, fabrics and mattresses. The fibers of flax (Linum usitatissimum) have been known in Europe and Egypt for more than 3,000 years, those of hemp (Cannabis sativa) in China for just as long. These fibers, and those of jute (Corchorus capsularis) and ramie (Boehmeria nivea, a nettle), are extremely soft and elastic and are especially well suited for the processing to textiles. Their principal cell wall material is cellulose.
Contrasting are hard fibers that are mostly found in monocots. Typical examples are the fiber of many grasses, agaves (sisal: Agave sisalana), lilies (Yucca or Phormium tenax), Musa textilis and others. Their cell walls contain, besides cellulose, a high proportion of lignin. The load - bearing capacity of Phormium tenax is as high as 20 -- 25 kg / mm2, the same as that of good steel wire (25 kg / mm2), but the fibre tears as soon as too great a strain is placed upon it, while the wire distorts and does not tear before a strain of 80 kg / mm2. The thickening of a cell wall has been studied in Linum. Starting at the centre of the fiber, the thickening layers of the secondary wall are deposited one after the other. Growth at both tips of the cell leads to simultaneous elongation. During development the layers of secondary material seem like tubes, of which the outer one is always longer and older than the next. After completion of growth, the missing parts are supplemented, so that the wall is evenly thickened up to the tips of the fibers.
Fibers usually originate from meristematic tissues. Cambium and procambium are their main centers of production. They are usually associated with the xylem and phloem of the vascular bundles. The fibers of the xylem are always lignified, while those of the phloem are cellulosic. Reliable evidence for the fibre cells ' evolutionary origin from tracheids exists. During evolution the strength of the tracheid cell walls was enhanced, the ability to conduct water was lost and the size of the pits was reduced. Fibers that do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside the ring of cambium) and such fibers that are arranged in characteristic patterns at different sites of the shoot.
Sclereids are a reduced form of sclerenchyma cells with highly thickened, lignified walls. These have a shape of a star.
They are small bundles of sclerenchyma tissue in plants that form durable layers, such as the cores of apples and the gritty texture of pears (Pyrus communis). Sclereids are variable in shape. The cells can be isodiametric, prosenchymatic, forked or elaborately branched. They can be grouped into bundles, can form complete tubes located at the periphery or can occur as single cells or small groups of cells within parenchyma tissues. But compared with most fibres, sclereids are relatively short. Characteristic examples are brachysclereids or the stone cells (called stone cells because of their hardness) of pears and quinces (Cydonia oblonga) and those of the shoot of the wax plant (Hoya carnosa). The cell walls fill nearly all the cell 's volume. A layering of the walls and the existence of branched pits is clearly visible. Branched pits such as these are called ramiform pits. The shell of many seeds like those of nuts as well as the stones of drupes like cherries and plums are made up from sclereids.
These structures are used to protect other cells.
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when did the first cd player come out | CD player - wikipedia
A CD player is an electronic device that plays audio compact discs, which are a digital optical disc data storage format. CD players were first sold to consumers in 1982. CDs typically contain recordings of audio material such as music. CD players are often a part of home stereo systems, car audio systems, and personal computers. With the exception of CD boomboxes, most CD players do not produce sound by themselves. Most CD players only produce an output signal via a headphone jack and / or RCA jacks. To listen to music using a CD player with a headphone output jack, the user plugs headphones or earphones into the headphone jack. To use a CD player in a home stereo system, the user connects an RCA cable to the RCA jacks or other outputs and connects it to a hi - fi (or other amplifier) and loudspeakers for listening to music. They are also manufactured as portable devices, which are battery powered and typically used with headphones.
Modern units can play other formats in addition to PCM audio coding used in CDs, such as MP3, AAC and WMA. DJs playing dance music at clubs often use specialized players with an adjustable playback speed to alter the pitch and tempo of the music. Audio engineers using CD players to play music for an event through a sound reinforcement system use professional audio - grade CD players. CD playback functionality is also valuable on CD - ROM / DVD - ROM drive equipped computers as well as on DVD players and CD - ROM / DVD - ROM based game consoles.
American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record digital information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high - power halogen lamp. Russell 's patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970. Following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russell 's patents (then held by a Canadian company, Optical Recording Corp.) in the 1980s.
The Compact Disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a focused laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high - quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD - DA standard was published in 1980. After their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984. The success of the compact disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the compact disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company, and allowed the CD to dominate the at - home music market unchallenged.
The Sony CDP - 101, released in 1982, was the world 's first commercially released compact disc player.
In 1974, L. Ottens, director of the audio division of Philips, started a small group with the aim to develop an analog optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm and a sound quality superior to that of the vinyl record. However, due to the unsatisfactory performance of the analog format, two Philips research engineers recommended a digital format in March 1974. In 1977, Philips then established a laboratory with the mission of creating a digital audio disc. The diameter of Philips 's prototype compact disc was set at 11.5 cm, the diagonal of an audio cassette.
Heitaro Nakajima, who developed an early digital audio recorder within Japan 's national public broadcasting organization NHK in 1970, became general manager of Sony 's audio department in 1971. His team developed a digital PCM adaptor audio tape recorder using a Betamax video recorder in 1973. After this, in 1974 the leap to storing digital audio on an optical disc was easily made. Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. A year later, in September 1977, Sony showed the press a 30 cm disc that could play 60 minutes of digital audio (44,100 Hz sampling rate and 16 - bit resolution) using MFM modulation. In September 1978, the company demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 - minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16 - bit linear resolution, and cross-interleaved error correction code -- specifications similar to those later settled upon for the standard Compact Disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony 's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd AES Convention, held on 13 -- 16 March 1979, in Brussels. Sony 's AES technical paper was published on 1 March 1979. A week later, on 8 March, Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc '' in Eindhoven, Netherlands.
Sony executive Norio Ohga, later CEO and chairman of Sony, and Heitaro Nakajima were convinced of the format 's commercial potential and pushed further development despite widespread skepticism. As a result, in 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. Led by engineers Kees Schouhamer Immink and Toshitada Doi, the research pushed forward laser and optical disc technology. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the task force produced the Red Book CD - DA standard. First published in 1980, the standard was formally adopted by the IEC as an international standard in 1987, with various amendments becoming part of the standard in 1996.
Philips coined the term compact disc in line with another audio product, the Compact Cassette, and contributed the general manufacturing process, based on video LaserDisc technology. Philips also contributed eight - to - fourteen modulation (EFM), which offers a certain resilience to defects such as scratches and fingerprints, while Sony contributed the error - correction method, CIRC. The Compact Disc Story, told by a former member of the task force, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter. The task force consisted of around four to eight persons, though according to Philips, the Compact Disc was "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team. ''
Red Book was the first standard in the Rainbow Books range.
Philips established the Polydor Pressing Operations plant in Langenhagen near Hannover, Germany, and quickly passed a series of milestones.
The Japanese launch was followed in March 1983 by the introduction of CD players and discs to Europe and North America (where CBS Records released sixteen titles). This event is often seen as the "Big Bang '' of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early - adopting classical music and audiophile communities, and its handling quality received particular praise. As the price of players gradually came down, and with the introduction of the portable Walkman the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with their 1985 album Brothers in Arms. The first major artist to have his entire catalogue converted to CD was David Bowie, whose 15 studio albums were made available by RCA Records in February 1985, along with four greatest hits albums. In 1988, 400 million CDs were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world.
The CD was planned to be the successor of the gramophone record for playing music, rather than primarily as a data storage medium. From its origins as a musical format, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In 1983, following the CD 's introduction, Immink and Braat presented the first experiments with erasable compact discs during the 73rd AES Convention. In June 1985, the computer - readable CD - ROM (read - only memory) and, in 1990, CD - Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips. Recordable CDs were a new alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods. Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blu - ray use the same physical geometry as CD, and most DVD and Blu - ray players are backward compatible with audio CD.
By the early 2000s, the CD player had largely replaced the audio cassette player as standard equipment in new automobiles, with 2010 being the final model year for any car in the US to have a factory - equipped cassette player. Currently, with the increasing popularity of portable digital audio players, such as mobile phones, and solid state music storage, CD players are being phased out of automobiles in favor of minijack auxiliary inputs and connections to USB devices.
Meanwhile, with the advent and popularity of Internet - based distribution of files in lossily - compressed audio formats such as MP3, sales of CDs began to decline in the 2000s. For example, between 2000 -- 2008, despite overall growth in music sales and one anomalous year of increase, major - label CD sales declined overall by 20 %, although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according to figures released 30 March 2009, and CDs still continue to sell greatly. As of 2012, CDs and DVDs made up only 34 percent of music sales in the United States. In Japan, however, over 80 percent of music was bought on CDs and other physical formats as of 2015.
The process of playing an audio CD, touted as a digital audio storage medium, starts with the plastic polycarbonate compact disc, an analogue medium that contains the digitally encoded data. The disc is placed in a tray which either opens up (as with portable CD players) or slides out (the norm with in - home CD players, computer disc drives and game consoles). In some systems, the user slides the disc into a slot (e.g., car stereo CD players). Once the disc is loaded into the tray, the data is read out by a mechanism that scans the spiral data track using a laser beam. An electric motor spins the disc. The tracking control is done by analogue servoamplifiers and then the high frequency analogue signal read from the disc is digitized, processed and decoded into analogue audio and digital control data which is used by the player to position the playback mechanism on the correct track, do the skip and seek functions and display track, time, index and, on newer players in the 2010s, display title and artist information on a display placed in the front panel.
To read the data from the disc, a laser beam shines on the surface of the disc. Differences on the particular disc being played and in the loading mechanism makes the need of using a movable lens with a very close focal length to focus the light on the disc. A low mass lens coupled to an electromagnetic coil is in charge of keeping focused the beam on the 600 nm wide data track.
When the player tries to read from a stop, it does a focus seek program that moves the lens up and down from the surface of the disc until a reflection is detected; when there is a reflection, the servo electronics lock in place keeping the lens in perfect focus while the disc rotates and changes its relative height from the optical block. Different brands and models of optical assemblies use different methods of focus detection. On most players, the focus position detection is made using the difference in the current output of a block of four photodiodes. The photodiode block and the optics are arranged in such a way that a perfect focus projects a circular pattern on the block while a far or near focus projects an ellipse differing in the position of the long edge in north - south or west - southwest. That difference is the information that the servoamplifier uses to keep the lens at the proper reading distance during the playback operation, even if the disc is warped. Another servo mechanism in the player is in charge of keeping the focused beam centered on the data track. Two optical pick - up designs exists, the original CDM series from Philips use a magnetic actuator mounted on a swing - arm to do coarse and fine tracking. Using only one laser beam and the 4 photodiode block, the servo knows if the track is centred by measuring side - by - side movement of the light of beam hitting on the block and corrects to keep the light on the centre.
The other design by Sony uses a diffraction grating to part the laser light into one main beam and two sub-beams. When focused, the two peripheral beams cover the border of the adjacent tracks a few micrometers apart from the main beam and reflect back on two photodiodes separated from the main block of four. The servo detects the RF signal being received on the peripheral receivers and the difference in output between these two diodes conform the tracking error signal that the system uses to keep the optics in the proper track. The tracking signal is fed to two systems, one integrated in the focus lens assembly can do fine tracking correction and the other system can move the entire optical assembly side by side to do coarse track jumps.
The sum of the output from the four photodiodes makes the RF or high frequency signal which is an electronic mirror of the pits and lands recorded on the disc. The RF signal, when observed on an oscilloscope, has a characteristic "fish - eye '' pattern and its usefulness in servicing the machine is paramount for detecting and diagnosing problems, and calibrating CD players for operation.
The first stage in the processing chain for the analog RF signal is digitizing it. Using various circuits like a simple comparator or a data slicer, the analog signal becomes a chain of two binary digital values, 1 and 0. This signal carries all the information in a CD and is modulated using a system called EFM (Eight - to - fourteen modulation). The second stage is demodulating the EFM signal into a data frame that contains the audio samples, error correction parity bits, according with the CIRC error correction code, and control data for the player display and micro-computer. The EFM demodulator also decodes part of the CD signal and routes it to the proper circuits, separating audio, parity and control (subcode) data.
After demodulating, a CIRC error corrector takes each audio data frame, stores it in a SRAM memory and verifies that it has been read correctly, if it is not, it takes the parity and correction bits and fixes the data, then it moves it out to a DAC to be converted to an analog audio signal. If the data missing is enough to make recovery impossible, the correction is made by interpolating the data from subsequent frames so the missing part is not noticed. Each player has a different interpolation ability so if enough data frames are missing or unrecoverable, it may be impossible to fix by interpolation so an audio mute flag is raised to mute the DAC to avoid invalid data to be played back. The Redbook standard dictates that, if there is invalid, erroneous or missing audio data, it can not be output to the speakers as digital noise, it has to be muted.
The Audio CD format requires every player to have enough processing power to decode the CD data, this is made normally by application specific integrated circuits but they can not work by themselves, they require a main microcomputer or microcontroller to orchestrate the entire machine.
Sony released its CDP - 101 CD player in 1982 with a slide - out tray design for the CD. As it was easy to manufacture and to use, most CD player manufacturers stayed with the tray style ever since. However, there have been some notable exceptions.
During the launch of the first prototype "Goronta '' CD player by Sony at the Japanese Audio Fair in 1982, Sony showcased the vertical loading design. Although the Sony prototype design was never put into volume production, the concept was for a time adopted for production by a number of early Japanese CD player manufacturers, including Alpine / Luxman, Matsushita under the Technics brand, Kenwood and Toshiba / Aurex. For the early vertical loading players, Alpine sourced their AD - 7100 player designs for Luxman, Kenwood and Toshiba (using their Aurex brand). Kenwood added their "Sigma Drive '' outputs to this design as a modification. A picture of this early design can be seen on the Panasonic Web site. The vertical loading is similar the one common in cassette decks, where the holder opens, and disc is dropped to it. The holder is closed manually by hand, by motor after pressing a button, or completely automatically. Some CD players combine vertical loading with slot loading due the disc being drawn further into the disc holder as it closes.
In 1983 Philips, at the US and European launch of the CD format, showcased the first top loading CD tray designs with their CD100 CD player. (Philips audio products were sold as Magnavox in the US at the time.) The design had a clamp on the lid which meant the user had to close this over the CD when it was placed inside the machine. Later, Meridian introduced their MCD "high end '' CD player, with Meridian electronics in the Philips CD100 chassis.
Top - loading was adopted on various equipment designs such as mini systems and portable CD players, but among stereo component CD players, only a handful of top - loading models have been made. Examples include Luxman 's D - 500 and D - 500X series players and Denon 's DP - S1, both launched in 1993. Top - loading is also common in players intended for broadcast and live sound "DJ '' use, such as Technics ' SL - P50 (1984 - 1985) and Technics SL - P1200 (1986 - 1992). They more closely mimic the physical arrangement and ergonomics of record turntables used in those applications.
The Philips CD303 of 1983 - 1984 was the first player to adopt tray loading with a sliding play mechanism. Basically as the tray came out to collect the CD, the entire player 's transport system also came out as one unit. The Meridians 200 and 203 players were of this type. They were also the first to use a design in which the audio electronics were in a separate enclosure from the CD drive and pickup mechanism.
Slot loading is the preferred loading mechanism for car audio players. There is no tray that pops out, and a motor is used to assist disc insertion and removal. Some slot - loading mechanisms and changers can load and play back Mini-CDs without the need of an adapter but they may work with limited functionality (A disc changer will refuse to operate the changer until the Mini CD is removed for example). non-circular CDs can not be used on such loaders because they can not handle non-circular discs. When inserted, such discs may become stuck and damage the mechanism.
Two types of optical tracking mechanisms exist:
The swing - arm mechanism has a distinctive advantage over the other in that it does not "skip '' when the rail becomes dirty. The swing arm mechanisms tend to have a much longer life than their radial counterparts. The main difference between the two mechanisms is the way they read the data from the disc. The swing - arm mechanism uses a magnetic coil wound over a permanent magnet to provide the tracking movement to the laser assembly in a similar way a hard drive moves its head across the data tracks. It also uses another magnetic movement mechanism attached to the focusing lens to focus the laser beam on the disc surface. By operating the tracking or the focus actuators, the laser beam can be positioned on any part of the disc. This mechanism employs a single laser beam and a set of four photodiodes to read, focus and keep track of the data coming from the disc.
The linear tracking mechanism uses a motor and reduction gears to move the laser assembly radially across the tracks of the disc and it also has a set of six coils mounted in the focusing lens over a permanent magnetic field. One set of two coils moves the lens closer to the disc surface, providing the focusing motion, and the other set of coils moves the lens radially, providing a finer tracking motion. This mechanism uses the three - beam tracking method in which a main laser beam is used to read and focus the data track of the disc using three or four photodiodes, depending on the focus method, and two smaller beams read the adjacent tracks at each side to help the servo keep the tracking using two more "helper '' photodiodes.
A CD player has three major mechanical components: a drive motor, a lens system, and a tracking mechanism. The drive motor (also called spindle) spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2 -- 1.4 m / s (constant linear velocity) -- equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge. (A disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback.) The tracking mechanism moves the lens system along the spiral tracks in which information is encoded, and the lens assembly reads the information using a laser beam, typically produced by a laser diode. The laser reads information by focusing a beam on the CD, which is reflected off the disc 's mirrored surface back to a photodiode array sensor. The sensor detects changes in the beam, and a digital processing chain interprets these changes as binary data. The data are processed, and eventually converted to sound using a digital - to - analog converter (DAC).
A TOC or Table of Contents is located after the "lead - in '' area of the disc, which is located in an inner ring of the disc, and contains roughly five kilobytes of available space. It is the first information that the player reads when the disc is loaded in the player and contains information on the total number of audio tracks, the running time on the CD, the running time of each track, and other information such as ISRC and the format structure of the disc. The TOC is of such vital importance for the disc that if it is not read correctly by the player, the CD could not be played back. That is why it is repeated 3 times before the first music program starts. The "lead out '' area in the end (the outer peripheral) of the disc tells the player that disc has come to an end.
CD players can employ a number of ways to improve performance, or reduce component count or price. Features such as oversampling, one - bit DACs, dual DACs, interpolation (error correction), anti-skip buffering, digital and optical outputs are, or were, likely to be found. Other features improve functionality, such as track programming, random play and repeat, or direct track access. Yet others are related to the CD player 's intended target, such as anti-skip for car and portable CD players, pitch control and queuing for a DJ 's CD player, remote and system integration for household players. Description of some features follows:
A portable CD player is a portable audio player used to play compact discs. Portable CD players are powered by batteries and they have a 1 / 8 '' headphone jack into which the user plugs a pair of headphones. The first portable CD player released was the D - 50 by Sony. The D - 50 was made available on the market in 1984, and adopted for Sony 's entire portable CD player line.
A 2005 book stated that after Apple Computers entered the music industry, within ten years it became the dominant seller of portable digital audio music players (its iPod line), "... while former giant Sony (maker of the (portable) Walkman and (CD) Discman (was) struggling. '' This market change was initiated in 1998, when the first portable digital audio player, the Rio personal digital music player, was introduced. Portable MP3 players like the Rio competed with portable CD players. The 64 MB version of the Rio MP3 player enabled users to store about 20 songs on the player. One of the benefits of the Rio over portable CD players was that since the Rio had no moving parts, it offered skip - free playback. Since 1998, the price of portable digital audio players has dropped and the storage capacity has increased significantly. In the 2000s, users can "carry (their) entire music collection in a (digital audio) player the size of a cigarette package. '' The 4 GB iPod, for example, holds over 1,000 songs.
A boombox is a common term for a portable cassette and AM / FM radio that consists of an amplifier, two or more loudspeakers and a carrying handle. Beginning in the 1990s, boomboxes typically included a CD player. The boombox CD player is the only type of CD player which produces sound audible by the listener independently, without the need for headphones or an additional amplifier or speaker system. Designed for portability, boomboxes can be powered by batteries as well as by line current. The boombox was introduced to the American market during the mid-1970s. The desire for louder and heavier bass led to bigger and heavier boxes; by the 1980s, some boomboxes had reached the size of a suitcase. Most boomboxes were battery - operated, leading to extremely heavy, bulky boxes.
Most boomboxes from the 2010s typically include a CD player compatible with CD - R and CD - RW, which allows the user to carry their own music compilations on a higher fidelity medium. Many also permit iPod and similar devices to be plugged into them through one or more auxiliary ports. Some also support formats such as MP3 and WMA. Another modern variant is a DVD player / boombox with a top - loading CD / DVD drive and an LCD video screen in the position once occupied by a cassette deck. Many models of this type of boombox include inputs for external video (such as television broadcasts) and outputs to connect the DVD player to a full - sized television.
Disc jockeys (DJs) who are playing a mix of songs at a dance club, rave, or nightclub create their dance mixes by having songs playing on two or more sound sources and using a DJ mixer to transition seamlessly between songs. In the 1970s disco era, DJs typically used two record players. From the 1980s to the 1990s, two compact cassette players became a popular sound source for DJs. In subsequent decades, DJs shifted to CDs and then to digital audio players. DJs who use CDs and CD players typically use specialized DJ CD players that have features not available on regular CD players.
DJs who are performing "scratching '' -- the creation of rhythmic sounds and sound effects from sound recordings -- traditionally used vinyl records and turntables. In the 2010s, some specialized DJ CD players can be used to create the same "scratching '' effects using songs on CDs.
A CD changer holds multiple Compact Discs, usually in a cartridge, revolving tray or carousel, and allows the user to access (or play) any of them, one at a time. CD changers are commonly found in home cinema systems, Home CD players, in cars and, less frequently, in computer equipment.
External cartridge CD changers have one or more cartridges that the user loads with up to twelve different CDs (depending on manufacturer) and then inserts into the CD changer. The CD changer can then remove one CD at a time for playing. This type of player is commonly found in vehicles because the user can switch easily between large amounts of media contained in different cartridges. However, more recent model years have phased out this feature in favor of flash media that can store more music on a lot less physical space, even CD players in general are being phased out from OEMs on newer model cars.
External, modular CD changer cartridges, over the years have been repurposed for some more passive uses, such as being a more rugged alternative to standard jewel cases for storing CD audio discs and DVD movies in.
Internal cartridge CD changers work on the same basic principle as external cartridge players, except the cartridge never leaves the CD player. This type of CD player accepts multiple CDs through a single slot and stores them internally.
A carousel - type CD changer consists of a circular platter that holds three or more CDs. Traditional carousel CD players hold three, five, or seven discs on a flat carousel tray. The carousel ejects to allow access to the CDs. Once back inside, the CD changer can rotate the carousel to access all of the CDs. Such carousel CD changers often allow the user to rotate the carousel while open, and change all CDs if no CDs are currently playing, or to eject the carousel while one CD is playing to change any CDs accessible from that position. Another type of carousel CD player is the mega-disc or "jukebox '' CD players as they are also known. They usually hold anywhere from 25 to 400 discs. The mega-disc CD player holds its discs in a vertical position in slots that are located 360 degrees around the carousel. When a disc is selected to be played, the carousel rotates so that the disc can be picked up by a pickup mechanism and placed in CD playback unit. Mega-disc CD players generally have a means of entering in titles of the CDs stored inside them, such as telephone style letter input system found on the remote control, a full letter keypad on the unit, or by use of an external keyboard attached to the unit. Many units can also automatically obtain the title of a CDs if it contains CD - Text info stored on it.
CD - ROM changers existed in the early 1990s as expensive internal or external drives, often connecting through SCSI interfaces. There were internal changers the size of a standard 5.25 '' drive that carried as few as 6 discs and external changers with capacity ranging from 50 discs to 200. The high capacity changers used robotics to load and unload discs from big magazines into one of four built - in drives inside the machine. Two manufacturers of changers were NSM and Pioneer.
Changers were in a period when the mean hard drive capacity was measured in hundreds of megabytes. After exponential growth of hard drive storage density, a single inexpensive hard disk drive has many times the capacity of a CD, and changers have fallen out of use. Even flash memory can hold as many as more than 10 ISO images of CDs, and even as many as 5 ISO images of DVDs can be stored onto larger thumb drives.
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roles and responsibilities of health and safety executive | Health and Safety Executive - wikipedia
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is the body responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into occupational risks in Great Britain. It is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom with its headquarters in Bootle, England. In Northern Ireland, these duties lie with the Health and Safety Executive for Northern Ireland. The HSE was created by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, and has since absorbed earlier regulatory bodies such as the Factory Inspectorate and the Railway Inspectorate though the Railway Inspectorate was transferred to the Office of Rail and Road in April 2006. The HSE is sponsored by the Department for Work and Pensions. As part of its work, HSE investigates industrial accidents, small and large, including major incidents such as the explosion and fire at Buncefield in 2005. Though it formerly reported to the Health and Safety Commission, on 1 April 2008, the two bodies merged.
The Executive 's duties are to:
The Executive is further obliged to keep the Secretary of State informed of its plans and ensure alignment with the policies of the Secretary of State, giving effect to any directions given to it. The Secretary of State can give directions to the Executive.
On 1 April 2006, the Executive ceased to have responsibility for railway safety.
The Executive is responsible for the Employment Medical Advisory Service, which operates as part of its Field Operations Directorate.
Local authorities are responsible for the enforcement of health and safety legislation in shops, offices, and other parts of the service sector.
Agencies belonging to the HSE include
Based in Buxton, Derbyshire, the Health and Safety Executive Science Division (HSL - Health & Safety Laboratory) employs over 350 people including scientists, engineers, psychologists, social scientists, health professionals, and technical specialists.
It was established in 1921 under the Safety in Mines Research Board to carry out large - scale tests related to mining hazards. Following the formation of the HSE, in 1975 the facilities became a Safety Engineering Laboratory and an Explosion and Flame Research Laboratory, operating as part of the Research Laboratories Service Division of the HSE. In 1995 the HSL was formed, including the Buxton site and laboratories in Sheffield. In 2004 the Sheffield activities moved to Buxton, and the University of Sheffield took over the Sheffield laboratory site.
It now operates as an agency carrying out scientific research and investigations (e.g. on the Buncefield fire) for the HSE, other government agencies and the private sector.
HM Inspectorate of Mines is responsible for the correct implementation and inspection of safe working procedures within all UK mine workings. It is based in Sheffield, South Yorkshire.
The Offshore Safety Division (OSD) was established as a division within HSE in April 1991. This was in response to recommendations of the Cullen Inquiry into the Piper Alpha disaster on 6 July 1988. At the time of the disaster, the Department of Energy (DEn) was responsible for both production and offshore safety; this was perceived as entailing a conflict of interests. Dr Tony Barrell, Director of HSE 's Technology and Air Pollution Division was appointed Chief Executive of OSD, having previously been seconded to the DEn to lead the transfer of responsibilities. At the same time, Ministerial oversight was transferred from the DEn to the Department of Employment. The Offshore Safety Act 1992 made the Mineral Workings (Offshore Installations) Act 1971 and its subsidiary Regulations relevant statutory provisions of the Health and Safety at work etc, Act 1974. The OSD 's initial responsibilities included the establishment of the Safety Case Regulations; a thorough review of existing safety legislation and the move towards a goal setting regulatory regime. OSD became part of the HSE 's new Hazardous Installations Directorate in 1999; it became part of the new Energy Division in 2013.
The HSE currently administrates the Occupational Safety & Health Consultants Register (OSHCR), a central register of registered safety consultants within the United Kingdom. The intention of the HSE is to pass responsibility of operating the register to the relevant trade & professional bodies once the register is up and running.
List of Directors General:
The HSE and the Health and Safety Commission merged on 1 April 2008.
The HSE and the Health and Safety Commission merged on 1 April 2008.
Chairs:
Chief Executives:
Some of the criticism of HSE has been that its procedures are inadequate to protect safety. For example, the public enquiry by Lord Gill into the Stockline Plastics factory explosion criticised the HSE for "inadequate appreciation of the risks associated with buried LPG pipework... and a failure properly to carry out check visits ''. However, most criticism of the HSE is that their regulations are over-broad, suffocating, and part of a nanny state. The Daily Telegraph has claimed that the HSE is part of a "compensation culture, '' that it is undemocratic and unaccountable, and that its rules are costing jobs.
However, the HSE denies this, saying that much of the criticism is misplaced because it relates to matters outside the HSE 's remit. The HSE also responded to criticism by publishing a "Myth of the Month '' section on its website between 2007 and 2010, which it described as "exposing the various myths about ' health and safety ' ''. This has become a political issue in the UK. The Lord Young report, published in October 2010, recommended various reforms aiming "to free businesses from unnecessary bureaucratic burdens and the fear of having to pay out unjustified damages claims and legal fees. ''
The HSE focuses regulation of health and safety in the following sectors of industry:
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are college and mlb fields the same size | Baseball field - wikipedia
A baseball field, also called a ball field or a baseball diamond, is the field upon which the game of baseball is played. The term can also be used as a metonym for a baseball park.
The starting point for much of the action on the field is home plate, which is a five - sided slab of whitened rubber, 17 inches (43.2 cm) square with two of the corners removed so that one edge is 17 inches (43.2 cm) long, two adjacent sides are 8.5 inches (21.6 cm) and the remaining two sides are 12 inches (30.5 cm) and set at an angle to make a point. Adjacent to each of the two parallel 8.5 - inch (21.6 cm) sides is a batter 's box. The point of home plate where the two 12 - inch (30.5 cm) sides meet at right angles is at one corner of a ninety - foot (27.5 m) square. The other three corners of the square, in counterclockwise order from home plate, are called first base, second base, and third base. Three canvas bags fifteen inches (38 cm) square mark the three bases. These three bags along with home plate form the four points at the corners of the infield.
All the bases, including home plate, lie entirely within fair territory. Thus, any batted ball that touches those bases must necessarily be in fair territory. While the first and third base bags are placed so that they lie inside the 90 - foot (27.5 m) square formed by the bases, the second base bag is placed so that its center (unlike first, third and home) coincides exactly with the "point '' of the ninety - foot (27.5 m) infield square. Thus, although the "points '' of the bases are 90 feet (27.5 m) apart, the physical distance between each successive pair of base markers is closer to 88 feet (26.8 m).
The lines from home plate to first and third bases extend to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction and are called the foul lines. The portion of the playing field between (and including) the foul lines is fair territory; the rest is "foul territory. '' The area in the vicinity of the square formed by the bases is called the infield; fair territory outside the infield is known as the outfield. Most baseball fields are enclosed with a fence that marks the outer edge of the outfield. The fence is usually set at a distance ranging from 300 to 420 feet (91 to 128 m) from home plate. Most professional and college baseball fields have a right and left foul pole. These poles are at the intersection of the foul lines and the respective ends of the outfield fence and, unless otherwise specified within the ground rules, lie in fair territory. Thus, a batted ball that passes over the outfield wall in flight and touches the foul pole is a fair ball and the batter is awarded a home run.
First base is the first of four bases that must be touched by a player on the batting team in order to score a run. Unlike when an offensive player reaches second or third base, it is permissible for a batter - runner to overrun first base without being in jeopardy of being put out. After contact is made with the base, the batter - runner may slow down and return to first base at his leisure, so long as he makes no move or attempt to advance to second base. The runner can not be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
The first baseman is the defensive player responsible for the area near first base. A professional first baseman is often a slow runner and tall. A tall first baseman presents a large target to which other fielders can throw, and his height gives him a larger range in reaching and catching errant throws. Players who are left - handed are marginally preferable for first base because: first, it is easier for a left - handed fielder to catch a pick - off throw from the pitcher and tag the baserunner; and, second, it is easier for a left handed thrower to make the throw to second base to start a 3 - 6 - 3, 3 - 6 - 4, or a 3 - 6 - 1 double play. Also, a right - handed first baseman must, when setting himself up to receive a throw from an infielder, execute a half - pivot near the base; this is a move that a left - hander need not make (this advantage is very marginal, however). There are three infield positions that can only effectively be occupied by right - handed players: 2nd base, 3rd base, and shortstop. This is because of the time it takes to pivot and set to throw. It takes a left - handed thrower more time to make that pivot and in the fast - paced major league game, that time is critical. As a result, there are fewer positions a left - handed player can occupy, and if that player is not fast, the outfield may not be a good fit.
In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the first baseman is assigned the number ' 3 '.
Second base is the second of four stations on a baseball diamond which must be touched in succession by a base runner in order to score a run for that player 's team. Second base is typically defended by the second baseman and the shortstop. Second base is also known as the keystone sack. A runner on second base is said to be in "scoring position '', owing to the high likelihood of reaching home plate and scoring a run from second base on most base hits. Since second is the farthest base from home plate, it is the most common target of base stealing. The runner can not be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
Ideally, the second baseman and shortstop possess quick hands and feet and the ability to release the ball rapidly and with accuracy. One will usually cover second base when the other attempts to field the ball. Both players must communicate well to be able to make a double play. Particular agility is required of the second baseman in double play situations, which usually forces the player to throw towards first while his momentum carries him in the opposite direction. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the second baseman is assigned the number 4, and the shortstop 6.
Third base is the third of four bases a base runner must touch in a counterclockwise succession in order to score a run. Many batted balls that result in the batter being put out (such as a sacrifice fly) may nevertheless allow a runner to reach home plate and score a run from third base, provided that the third and final out is not recorded before he can do so. A runner on third base is therefore particularly valuable to the batting team when fewer than two outs have been recorded. The runner can not be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
The third baseman is the defensive player whose responsibility is to defend the area nearest to third base. A third baseman ideally possesses quick reaction to batted balls and a strong arm to make the long throw to first base. The distance from 3rd to 1st is about 127 feet. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the third baseman is assigned the number 5.
Home plate, formally designated home base in the rules, is the final base that a player must touch to score. Unlike the other bases, home plate is a five - sided slab of whitened rubber that is set at ground level. The use of rubber was developed by Robert Keating, who pitched one game for the 1887 Baltimore Orioles. Previously -- and more dangerously -- the plate was made of stone, iron, or wood.
The dimensions of home plate are 17 inches (43.2 cm) across the front, 8.5 inches (21.6 cm) down each side, with a triangular rear of two sides of 12 inches (30.5 cm). The rear edges are at 45 degrees to the sides, making a point at the back. The plate is white and surrounded by a black strip 3 / 4 inches (1.9 cm) in width. The plate sits entirely in "fair '' territory, with the two rear edges aligned with the right and left field foul lines. The length and angle requirements for home plate mandate that it is not a regular pentagon; it is a 17 inches by 8.5 inches (43.2 x 21.6 cm) rectangle with an isosceles triangle of base 17 inches (43.2 cm) and equal sides of 12 inches (30.5 cm) attached to the back.
50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 meters) behind home plate is the backstop, which is a wall / fence that will stop wild pitches, passed balls, and foul balls. In enclosed stadiums, the backstop is often composed of a lower part, which is like any other part of the wall, and an upper netting to protect spectators seated behind it; in recreational baseball fields, there is usually a tall chain - link fence, including an angled top section, composing the entire backstop.
The batter 's box is the place where the batter stands when ready to receive a pitch from the pitcher. It is usually drawn in chalk on the dirt surrounding home plate, and the insides of the boxes are watered down before each game.
The chalk lines delineating the two Foul Lines are rarely extended through the batter 's boxes. However, those lines exist conceptually for the purpose of judging a batted ball fair or foul. In addition, inside edges of the Batter 's Boxes are often not laid - in with chalk. Similarly, though not marked, those lines continue to exist for the purpose of the rules pertaining to the batter 's box and the batter 's position relative thereto.
There are two batter 's boxes, one on each side of home plate. The batter 's boxes are 4 feet wide (1.2 m) and 6 feet long (1.8 m). The batter 's boxes are centered lengthwise at the center of home plate with the inside line of each batter 's box 6 inches (15.24 cm) from the near edge of home plate. A right - handed batter would stand in the batter 's box on the left side of home plate from the perspective of the catcher and umpire. A left - handed batter would stand in the batter 's box to their right. A batter may only occupy one batter 's box at a time and may not legally leave the batter 's box after the pitcher has come set or has started his windup. Should the batter wish to leave the batter 's box once the pitcher has engaged the rubber, he must first ask the umpire for time - out. Time will not be granted if the pitcher has already started his pitching motion. For playing rules relating to the batter 's box, see Rules 6.05 and 6.06 of the Official Baseball Rules.
Foul poles, if present, help umpires judge whether a fly ball hit above the fence line is foul (out of play) or fair (a home run). The poles are a vertical extension of the foul lines at the edge of the field of play. The outer edge of the foul lines and foul poles define foul territory. Both the lines and the poles are in fair territory, in contrast to football and basketball, where the lines marking the playing boundaries are out of bounds.
Before 1920, the foul lines extended indefinitely; a batter was awarded a home run only if a fly ball out of the field was fair where it landed, or "when last seen '' by the umpire. Now, a batted ball that leaves the field in flight is judged fair or foul at the point it leaves the field. Thus, such a fly ball passing on the fair side of a foul pole, or hitting a foul pole, is a home run regardless of where the ball goes thereafter.
Foul poles are typically much higher than the top of the outfield fence or wall, and often have a narrow screen running along the fair side of the pole. This further aids the umpires ' judgment, as a ball that bounces off this screen is a home run. It can still be a difficult call, especially in ballparks with no outfield stands behind the poles to provide perspective. Wrigley Field is notorious for arguments over long, curving flies down a foul line (most notably in left field) that sail higher than the foul pole.
At Major League Baseball fields, foul poles are usually yellow. Those at Citi Field are orange. At the Rogers Centre, there are no foul poles, but large nets suspended from the roof that serve the same purpose. At Petco Park, there is no foul pole in left field; the pole 's function is served by a yellow metal strip along the corner of the Western Metal Supply Co. building.
In roughly the middle of the square, equidistant between first and third base, and a few feet closer to home plate than to second base, is a low artificial hill called the pitcher 's mound. This is where the pitcher stands when throwing the pitch. Atop the mound is a white rubber slab, called the pitcher 's plate or pitcher 's rubber. It measures 6 inches (15 cm) front - to - back and 2 feet (61 cm) across, the front of which is exactly 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. This peculiar distance was set by the rule makers in 1893, not due to a clerical or surveying error as popular myth has it, but intentionally (further details in History section).
In Major League Baseball, a regulation mound is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the center 59 feet (18 m) from the rear point of home plate, on the line between home plate and second base. The front edge of the pitcher 's plate or rubber is 18 inches (46 cm) behind the center of the mound, making the front edge 's midpoint 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. Six inches (15.2 cm) in front of the pitcher 's rubber the mound begins to slope downward. The top of the rubber is to be no higher than ten inches (25.4 cm) above home plate. From 1903 through 1968, this height limit was set at 15 inches (38.1 cm), but was often slightly higher, sometimes as high as 20 inches (51 cm), especially for teams that emphasized pitching, such as the Los Angeles Dodgers, who were reputed to have the highest mound in the majors.
A pitcher will push off the rubber with his foot in order to gain velocity toward home plate when pitching. In addition, a higher mound generally favors the pitcher. With the height advantage, the pitcher gains more leverage and can put more downward velocity on the ball, making it more difficult for the batter to strike the ball squarely with the bat. The lowering of the mound in 1969 was intended to "increase the batting '' once again, as pitching had become increasingly dominant, reaching its peak the prior year; 1968 is known among baseball historians as "The Year of the Pitcher ''. This restrictive rule apparently did its job, contributing to the hitting surge of modern baseball.
A pitcher 's mound is difficult for groundskeepers to maintain. Usually before every game it is watered down to keep the dust from spreading. On youth and amateur baseball fields, the mound may be much different from the rule book definition due to erosion and repair attempts. Even in the major leagues, each mound gains its own character, as pitchers are allowed to kick away pieces of dirt in their way, thereby sculpting the mound a bit to their preference.
The pitcher may keep a rosin bag on the rear of the mound to dry off his hands. Major League Baseball teams are also permitted cleat cleaners on the back of the mound. This may be a flat grate - style plate, or simply a hand tool such as a piece of wood used to remove mud and dirt from cleats. These items are allowed to remain on the backside of the mound at the discretion of the umpire, thus reducing the probability that they will affect a live play.
A baseline is the straight line between two adjacent bases. Baselines are not drawn on the field, although the foul lines serve to mark the baseline between home plate and first base, and between third base and home.
Generally, base runners are not required to follow the baseline. A base runner seeking to advance more than one base typically "rounds '' the base, following a more circular path. However, a base runner 's left - right motion is constrained when the defense tries to tag him. At the moment the defense begins the attempt, the baserunner 's running baseline is established as a direct line from his current position to the base he is trying for. A runner straying more than three feet (0.9 m) away from this baseline to avoid a tag may be called out.
Beginning halfway between home and first base, and ending at first base, there is a second chalk line to the right of the foul line. This second line and the part of the foul line it runs parallel to, form the running lane that defines the path in which a batter must run as he is advancing to first base. Rule 6.05 (k) of the Official Baseball Rules states that, if a batter running to first base runs outside the running lane, and "in doing so '' interferes with the fielder taking the throw at first, then the batter is automatically out. First base itself is not located in the running lane, but Rule 6.05 lets the runner leave the running lane "by means of a step, stride or slide in the immediate vicinity of first base '' to step on first base.
The grass line, where the dirt of the infield ends and the grass of the outfield begins, has no special significance to the rules of the game, but it can influence the outcome of a game. Dirt running paths between the bases (and, at one time and still in some parks, between the pitcher and the catcher) have existed since the beginning of the game, although they were not mentioned in the rule books until around 1950, and their specifications are flexible. In addition to providing a running path, the grass lines act as a visual aid so that players, umpires and fans may better judge distance from the center of the diamond. Occasionally the ball may take a tricky bounce off the dirt area or the edge between the dirt and the grass. Multiple World Series championships (including 1924, 1960 and 1986) have been decided or heavily influenced by erratic hops of ground balls.
In artificial turf stadiums, infield dirt was originally only placed around the bases and around the pitcher 's and batting areas, which are referred to as "sliding pits. '' In this configuration, the "grass line '' is usually designated with a white arc. Among Major League Baseball fields, Rogers Centre was the last stadium to maintain this type of configuration and is reconfigured with a full dirt infield starting in the 2016 MLB season.
In some college baseball parks with artificial turf fields, the entire field (along with possibly the pitcher 's mound) is made up of turf, with parts of the field mainly containing dirt instead merely being clay - colored turf.
The outfield is made from thick grass or artificial turf. It is where the outfielders play. The positions to play in the outfield are right, center, and left field (named in relation to the batter 's position; thus left field is beyond third base and right field is beyond first base). Outfields vary in size and shape depending on the overall size and shape of the playing field. The outfield stretches from the infield to the outfield wall and it contains the warning track. Outfields especially vary from Little League to Major League fields. Little League outfields vary more in size than Major League outfields. Typically one would see Little League outfields made of grass while most Major League outfields are made of an artificial turf. This goes for some High School and College outfields as well. With the outfield being mostly grass, rainouts are more likely to occur than on fields where the outfield is turf.
The warning track is the strip of dirt at the edges of the baseball field (especially in front of the home run fence and along the left and right sides of a field). Because the warning track 's color and feel differ from the grass field, a fielder can remain focused on a fly ball near the fence and measure his proximity to the fence while attempting to catch the ball safely.
A warning track 's width is not specified in the rules. It is generally designed to give about three steps of warning to the highest - level players using the field. Typical widths run from about six feet for Little League fields to about 10 -- 15 feet (3 - 4.5 m) for college - or professional - level play. A warning track this wide also lets groundskeepers avoid driving maintenance vehicles on the grass.
The track can be composed of finely ground rock particles such as cinders, which is why announcer Bob Wolff called it the "cinder path '' rather than the "warning track ''.
The idea of a warning track originated in Yankee Stadium, where an actual running track was built for use in track and field events. When ballpark designers saw how the track helped fielders, it soon became a feature of every ballpark.
Single - minded fielders often crash into a wall trying to make a catch despite the warning track. For this reason, outfield walls are typically padded for extra safety. Wrigley Field 's brick wall is covered only by ivy, which is not especially soft. However, there are pads on the walls of the tight left and right field corners in foul ground.
Warning - track power is a derogatory term for a batter who seems to have just enough power to hit the ball to the warning track for an out, but not enough to hit a home run. The term more generally refers to someone or something that is almost but not quite good enough for something.
The outfield wall or outfield fence is the wall or fence that marks the outer boundary of the outfield. A ball passing over the wall is dead; if it passes over the wall in fair territory while in flight, it is a home run. The official rules do not specify the shape, height, or composition of the wall, or a specific mandatory distance from home plate (though Major League Baseball mandates a minimum distance of 250 feet (76 m) and recommends a minimum distance of 320 feet (98 m) at the foul poles and 400 feet (120 m) at center field). As a result, baseball fields can vary greatly along those lines. The wall has numbers affixed or painted on it that denote the distance in feet from that point on the wall to home plate. In most modern major league ballparks, the wall is made of some hard material (e.g., concrete) with padding on the field side to protect players who may collide with the wall at high speed while trying to make a play. Chain link fencing may also be incorporated into the wall in areas where the wall needs to be transparent, e.g., an outfield bullpen, a spectator area behind the wall, or to protect a scoreboard incorporated into the wall. Many ballparks feature a yellow line denoting the top of the wall to aid umpires in judging whether the ball passed over the wall or if the ball is fair or foul.
The bullpen (sometimes referred to as simply "the pen '') is the area where pitchers warm up before entering a game. Depending on the ballpark, it may be situated in foul territory along the baselines or just beyond the outfield fence. Relief pitchers usually wait in the bullpen when they have yet to play in a game, rather than in the dugout with the rest of the team. The starting pitcher also makes his final pregame warmups in the bullpen. Managers can call coaches in the bullpen on an in - house telephone from the dugout to tell a certain pitcher to begin his warmup tosses. "Bullpen '' is also used metonymically to describe a team 's collection of relief pitchers.
There are two on - deck circles in the field, one for each team, positioned in foul ground between home plate and the respective teams ' benches. They are technically known as next - batter 's boxes. The on - deck circle is where the next scheduled batter, or "on - deck '' batter, warms up while waiting for the current batter to finish his turn. The on - deck circle is either an area composed of bare dirt; a plain circle painted onto artificial turf; or often, especially at the professional level, a mat made from artificial material, with the team or league logo painted onto it.
The coach 's boxes, located behind first and third base, are where the first and third base coaches are supposed to stand, although coaches often stand outside the box. This is permissible as long as the coach does not interfere with play and the opposing team does not object (in which case the umpire shall ensure that all coaches on both teams must abide by the boundaries of the coach 's boxes). The coach 's boxes are marked with chalk or paint. In the early days of baseball, the term "coacher 's box '' was used, as "coach '' was taken to be a verb. As the term "coach '' evolved into a noun, the name of the box also changed.
The basic layout of the diamond has been little changed since the original Knickerbocker Rules of the 1840s. The distance between bases was already established as 90 feet (27.5 m), which it remains to this day. Through trial and error, 90 feet (27.5 m) had been settled upon as the optimal distance. 100 feet (30.5 m) would have given too much advantage to the defense, and 80 feet too much to the offense.
The original Knickerbocker Rules did not specify the pitching distance explicitly. By the time major league baseball began in the 1870s, the pitcher was compelled to pitch from within a "box '' whose front edge was 45 feet (13.7 m) from the "point '' of home plate. Although he had to release the ball before crossing the line, as with bowlers in cricket, he also had to start his delivery from within the box; he could not run in from the field as bowlers do. Furthermore, the pitcher had to throw underhand. By the 1880s, pitchers had mastered the underhand delivery -- in fact, in 1880, there were two perfect games within a week of each other.
In an attempt to "increase the batting '', the front edge of the pitcher 's box was moved back 5 feet (1.5 m) in 1881, to 50 feet (15 m) from home plate. The size of the box was altered over the following few years. Pitchers were allowed to throw overhand starting in 1884, and that tilted the balance of power again. In 1887, the box was set at 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 5.5 feet (1.7 m) deep, with the front edge still 50 feet (15 m) from the plate. However, the pitcher was compelled to deliver the ball with his back foot at the 55.5 foot (16.9 m) line of the box, thus somewhat restricting his ability to "power '' the ball with his overhand delivery.
In 1893, the box was replaced by the pitcher 's plate, although "the box '' is still used today as a slang term for the pitcher 's location on the field. Exactly 5 feet (1.5 m) was added to the point the pitcher had to toe, again "to increase the batting '' (and hopefully to increase attendance, as fan interest had flagged somewhat), resulting in the seemingly peculiar pitching distance of 60.5 feet (18.4 m).
Many sources suggest that the pitching distance evolved from 45 to 50 to 60.5 feet. However, the first two were the "release point '' and the third is the "pushoff point '', so the 1893 increase was not quite as dramatic as is often implied; that is, the 1893 rule change added only 5 feet to the release point, not 10.5 feet (3.2 m).
Originally the pitcher threw from flat ground, but over time the raised mound was developed, somewhat returning the advantage to the pitchers. Before the mid-20th century, it was common for baseball fields to include a dirt pathway between the pitcher 's mound and home plate. This feature is sometimes known as the "keyhole '' due to the shape that it makes together with the mound. The keyhole was once as wide as the pitcher 's box and resembled the "pitch '' area used in the game of cricket. Sometimes this path extended through the batting area and all the way to the backstop. Once the rounded pitcher 's mound was developed, the path became more ornamental than practical, and was gradually thinned before being largely abandoned by the 1950s. In recent years some ballparks, such as Comerica Park and Chase Field in the major leagues, have revived the feature for nostalgic reasons.
The Sports Turf Managers Association (STMA) presents various awards each year. Starting in 2001, its Sports Turf Manager of the Year Awards have been presented annually in the Triple - A, Double - A, Class A, and Short - Season / Rookie divisions of Minor League Baseball and are chosen from the 16 league winners. STMA also presents the Baseball Field of the Year Award, which includes Schools and Parks, College / University and Professional categories.
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how long is stage 1 of the tour de france | Tour de France - Wikipedia
Jacques Anquetil (FRA) Eddy Merckx (BEL) Bernard Hinault (FRA) Miguel Indurain (ESP)
The Tour de France (French pronunciation: (tuʁ də fʁɑ̃s)) is an annual multiple stage bicycle race primarily held in France, while also occasionally making passes through nearby countries. Like the other Grand Tours (the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España), it consists of 21 stages over a little more than 3 weeks.
The race was first organized in 1903 to increase sales for the newspaper L'Auto; which is currently run by the Amaury Sport Organisation. The race has been held annually since its first edition in 1903 except when it was stopped for the two World Wars. As the Tour gained prominence and popularity, the race was lengthened and its reach began to extend around the globe. Participation expanded from a primarily French field, as riders from all over the world began to participate in the race each year. The Tour is a UCI World Tour event, which means that the teams that compete in the race are mostly UCI WorldTeams, with the exception of the teams that the organizers invite.
Traditionally, the race is held primarily in the month of July. While the route changes each year, the format of the race stays the same with the appearance of time trials, the passage through the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and the Alps, and the finish on the Champs - Élysées in Paris. The modern editions of the Tour de France consist of 21 day - long segments (stages) over a 23 - day period and cover around 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi). The race alternates between clockwise and counterclockwise circuits of France.
There are usually between 20 and 22 teams, with nine riders in each. All of the stages are timed to the finish; the riders ' times are compounded with their previous stage times. The rider with the lowest cumulative finishing times is the leader of the race and wears the maillot jaune or yellow jersey. While the general classification garners the most attention, there are other contests held within the Tour: the points classification for the sprinters, the mountains classification for the climbers, young rider classification for riders under the age of 26, and the team classification for the fastest teams. Achieving a stage win also provides prestige, often accomplished by a team 's cycling sprinter specialist.
The Tour de France was created in 1903. The roots of the Tour de France trace back to the emergence of two rival sports newspapers in the country. On one hand was Le Vélo, the first and the largest daily sports newspaper in France which sold 80,000 copies a day. On the other was L'Auto, which had been set - up by journalists and business - people including Comte Jules - Albert de Dion, Adolphe Clément and Édouard Michelin in 1899. The rival paper emerged following disagreements over the Dreyfus Affair, a cause célèbre (in which de Dion was implicated) that divided France at the end of the 19th century over the innocence of Alfred Dreyfus, a French army officer convicted -- though later exonerated -- of selling military secrets to the Germans. The new newspaper appointed Henri Desgrange as the editor. He was a prominent cyclist and owner with Victor Goddet of the velodrome at the Parc des Princes. De Dion knew him through his cycling reputation, through the books and cycling articles that he had written, and through press articles he had written for the Clément tyre company.
L'Auto was not the success its backers wanted. Stagnating sales lower than the rival it was intended to surpass led to a crisis meeting on 20 November 1902 on the middle floor of L'Auto 's office at 10 Rue du Faubourg Montmartre, Paris. The last to speak was the most junior there, the chief cycling journalist, a 26 - year - old named Géo Lefèvre. Desgrange had poached him from Giffard 's paper. Lefèvre suggested a six - day race of the sort popular on the track but all around France. Long - distance cycle races were a popular means to sell more newspapers, but nothing of the length that Lefèvre suggested had been attempted. If it succeeded, it would help L'Auto match its rival and perhaps put it out of business. It could, as Desgrange said, "nail Giffard 's beak shut. '' Desgrange and Lefèvre discussed it after lunch. Desgrange was doubtful but the paper 's financial director, Victor Goddet, was enthusiastic. He handed Desgrange the keys to the company safe and said: "Take whatever you need. '' L'Auto announced the race on 19 January 1903.
The first Tour de France was staged in 1903. The plan was a five - stage race from 31 May to 5 July, starting in Paris and stopping in Lyon, Marseille, Bordeaux and Nantes before returning to Paris. Toulouse was added later to break the long haul across southern France from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Stages would go through the night and finish next afternoon, with rest days before riders set off again. But this proved too daunting and the costs too great for most and only 15 competitors had entered. Desgrange had never been wholly convinced and he came close to dropping the idea. Instead, he cut the length to 19 days, changed the dates to 1 to 19 July, and offered a daily allowance to those who averaged at least 20 km / h on all the stages, equivalent to what a rider would have expected to earn each day had he worked in a factory. He also cut the entry fee from 20 to 10 francs and set the first prize at 12,000 francs and the prize for each day 's winner at 3,000 francs. The winner would thereby win six times what most workers earned in a year. That attracted between 60 and 80 entrants -- the higher number may have included serious inquiries and some who dropped out -- among them not just professionals but amateurs, some unemployed, some simply adventurous.
Desgrange seems not to have forgotten the Dreyfus Affair that launched his race and raised the passions of his backers. He announced his new race on 1 July 1903 by citing the writer Émile Zola, whose open letter in which every paragraph started '' J'accuse... '' led to Dreyfus 's acquittal, establishing the florid style he used henceforth.
The first Tour de France started almost outside the Café Reveil - Matin at the junction of the Melun and Corbeil roads in the village of Montgeron. It was waved away by the starter, Georges Abran, at 3: 16 p.m. on 1 July 1903. L'Auto had n't featured the race on its front page that morning.
Among the competitors were the eventual winner, Maurice Garin, his well - built rival Hippolyte Aucouturier, the German favourite Josef Fischer, and a collection of adventurers including one competing as "Samson ''.
Many riders dropped out of the race after completing the initial stages as the physical effort the tour required was just too much. Only a mere 24 entrants remained at the end of the fourth stage. The race finished on the edge of Paris at Ville d'Avray, outside the Restaurant du Père Auto, before a ceremonial ride into Paris and several laps of the Parc des Princes. Garin dominated the race, winning the first and last two stages, at 25.68 km / h. The last rider, Millocheau, finished 64h 47m 22s behind him.
L'Auto 's mission was accomplished as throughout the race circulation of the publication doubled, making the race something much larger than Desgrange had ever hoped for.
Such was the passion that the first Tour created in spectators and riders that Desgrange said the 1904 Tour de France would be the last. Cheating was rife and riders were beaten up by rival fans as they neared the top of the col de la République, sometimes called the col du Grand Bois, outside St - Étienne. The leading riders, including the winner Maurice Garin, were disqualified, though it took the Union Vélocipèdique de France until 30 November to make the decision. McGann says the UVF waited so long "... well aware of the passions aroused by the race. '' Desgrange 's opinion of the fighting and cheating showed in the headline of his reaction in L'Auto: THE END. Desgrange 's despair did not last. By the following spring he was planning another Tour, longer at 11 stages rather than 6 -- and this time all in daylight to make any cheating more obvious. Stages in 1905 began between 3 am and 7: 30 am. The race captured the imagination. L'Auto's circulation rose from 25,000 to 65,000; by 1908 it was a quarter of a million. The Tour returned after its suspension during World War One and continued to grow, with circulation of L'Auto reaching 500,000 by 1923. The record claimed by Desgrange was 854,000 during the 1933 Tour. Le Vélo, meanwhile, went out of business in 1904.
Desgrange and his Tour invented bicycle stage racing. Desgrange experimented with different ways of judging the winner. Initially he used total accumulated time (as used in the modern Tour de France) but from 1906 to 1912 by points for placings each day. Desgrange saw problems in judging both by time and by points. By time, a rider coping with a mechanical problem -- which the rules insisted he repair alone -- could lose so much time that it cost him the race. Equally, riders could finish so separated that time gained or lost on one or two days could decide the whole race. Judging the race by points removed over-influential time differences but discouraged competitors from riding hard. It made no difference whether they finished fast or slow or separated by seconds or hours, so they were inclined to ride together at a relaxed pace until close to the line, only then disputing the final placings that would give them points.
The format changed over time. The Tour originally ran around the perimeter of France. Cycling was an endurance sport and the organisers realised the sales they would achieve by creating supermen of the competitors. Night riding was dropped after the second Tour in 1904, when there had been persistent cheating when judges could not see riders. That reduced the daily and overall distance but the emphasis remained on endurance. Desgrange said his ideal race would be so hard that only one rider would make it to Paris. The first mountain stages (in the Pyrenees) appeared in 1910. Early tours had long multi-day stages, with the format settling on 15 stages from 1910 until 1924. After this stages were gradually shortened, such that by 1936 there were as many as three stages in a single day. Desgrange initially preferred to see the Tour as a race of individuals. The first Tours were open to whoever wanted to compete. Most riders were in teams that looked after them. The private entrants were called touriste - routiers -- tourists of the road -- from 1923 and were allowed to take part provided they make no demands on the organisers. Some of the Tour 's most colourful characters have been touriste - routiers. One finished each day 's race and then performed acrobatic tricks in the street to raise the price of a hotel. Until 1925 Desgrange forbade team members from pacing each other. The 1927 and 1928 Tours, however, consisted mainly of team time - trials, an unsuccessful experiment which sought to avoid a proliferation of sprint finishes on flat stages. Desgrange was a traditionalist with equipment. Until 1930 he demanded that riders mend their bicycles without help and that they use the same bicycle from start to end. Exchanging a damaged bicycle for another was allowed only in 1923. Desgrange stood against the use of multiple gears and for many years insisted riders use wooden rims, fearing the heat of braking while coming down mountains would melt the glue that held the tires on metal rims (they were finally allowed in 1937).
By the end of the 1920s, Desgrange believed he could not beat what he believed were the underhand tactics of bike factories. When the Alcyon team contrived to get Maurice De Waele to win even though he was sick, he said "My race has been won by a corpse ''. In 1930 Desgrange again attempted to take control of the Tour from teams, insisting competitors enter in national teams rather than trade teams and that competitors ride plain yellow bicycles that he would provide, without a maker 's name. There was no place for individuals in the post-1930s teams and so Desgrange created regional teams, generally from France, to take in riders who would not otherwise have qualified. The original touriste - routiers mostly disappeared but some were absorbed into regional teams. In 1936 Desgrange had a prostate operation. At the time, two operations were needed; the Tour de France was due to fall between them. Desgrange persuaded his surgeon to let him follow the race. The second day proved too much and, in a fever at Charleville, he retired to his château at Beauvallon. Desgrange died at home on the Mediterranean coast on 16 August 1940. The race was taken over by his deputy, Jacques Goddet. The Tour was again disrupted by War after 1939, and did not return until 1947.
In 1944, L'Auto was closed -- its doors nailed shut -- and its belongings, including the Tour, sequestrated by the state for publishing articles too close to the Germans. Rights to the Tour were therefore owned by the government. Jacques Goddet was allowed to publish another daily sports paper, L'Équipe, but there was a rival candidate to run the Tour: a consortium of Sports and Miroir Sprint. Each organised a candidate race. L'Équipe and Le Parisien Libéré had La Course du Tour de France and Sports and Miroir Sprint had La Ronde de France. Both were five stages, the longest the government would allow because of shortages. L'Équipe's race was better organised and appealed more to the public because it featured national teams that had been successful before the war, when French cycling was at a high. L'Équipe was given the right to organise the 1947 Tour de France. However, L'Équipe 's finances were never sound and Goddet accepted an advance by Émilion Amaury, who had supported his bid to run the post-war Tour. Amaury was a newspaper magnate whose condition was that his sports editor, Félix Lévitan should join Goddet for the Tour. The two worked together, Goddet running the sporting side and Lévitan the financial.
On the Tour 's return, the format of the race settled on between 20 - 25 stages. Most stages would last one day but the scheduling of ' split ' stages continued well in to the 1980s. 1953 saw the introduction of the Green Jersey ' Points ' competition. National teams contested the Tour until 1961. The teams were of different sizes. Some nations had more than one team and some were mixed in with others to make up the number. National teams caught the public imagination but had a snag: that riders might normally have been in rival trade teams the rest of the season. The loyalty of riders was sometimes questionable, within and between teams. Sponsors were always unhappy about releasing their riders into anonymity for the biggest race of the year, as riders in national teams wore the colours of their country and a small cloth panel on their chest that named the team for which they normally rode. The situation became critical at the start of the 1960s. Sales of bicycles had fallen and bicycle factories were closing. There was a risk, the trade said, that the industry would die if factories were not allowed the publicity of the Tour de France. The Tour returned to trade teams in 1962. In the same year, Émilion Amaury, owner of le Parisien Libéré, became financially involved in the Tour. He made Félix Lévitan co-organizer of the Tour, and it was decided that Levitan would focus on the financial issues, and Jacques Goddet on the sporting issues. The Tour de France was meant for professional cyclists, but in 1961 the organisation started the Tour de l'Avenir the amateur version.
Doping had become a problem culminating in the death of Tom Simpson in 1967, after which riders went on strike, though the organisers suspected sponsors provoked them. The Union Cycliste Internationale introduced limits to daily and overall distances, imposed rest days and tests were introduced for riders. It was then impossible to follow the frontiers, and the Tour increasingly zig - zagged across the country, sometimes with unconnected days ' races linked by train, while still maintaining some sort of loop. The Tour returned to national teams for 1967 and 1968 as "an experiment ''. The Tour returned to trade teams in 1969 with a suggestion that national teams could come back every few years, but this has not happened since.
In the early 1970s the race was dominated by Eddy Merckx, who won the General Classification five times, the Mountains Classification twice, the Points Classification three times and a record 34 stages.
During this era race director Felix Lévitan brought in a new commercial era of the Tour, beginning to recruit sponsors, sometimes accepting prizes in kind if he could not get cash. He introduced the finish of the Tour at the Avenue des Champs - Élysées in 1975, the same year the polka - dot jersey (in the colors of a sponsoring chocolate company) was introduced for the winner of the Mountains Classification. He helped drive an internationalization of the Tour de France, and cycling in general. In 1982 Sean Kelly of Ireland (points) and Phil Anderson of Australia (young rider) became the first winners of any Tour classifications from outside cycling 's Continental Europe heartlands, while Lévitan was influential in facilitating the participation in the 1983 Tour by amateur riders from the Eastern Bloc and Colombia. In 1984, for the first time, the Société du Tour de France organized the Tour de France Féminin, a version for women. It was run in the same weeks as the male version, and won by Marianne Martin. Greg LeMond of the US became the first non-European winner in the 1986 race.
While the global awareness and popularity of the Tour grew during this time, its finances became stretched. Goddet and Lévitan continued to clash over the running of the race. Lévitan launched the Tour of America, as a precursor to his plans to take the Tour de France to the US. The Tour of America lost a lot of money, and it appeared to have been cross-financed by the Tour de France. In the years before 1987, Lévitan 's position had always been protected by Émilien Amaury, the then owner of ASO, but recently, Émilien Amaury had retired and his son Philippe Amaury was now responsible. When Lévitan arrived at his office on 17 March 1987, he found that his doors were locked and he was fired. The organisation of the 1987 Tour de France was taken over by Jean - François Naquet - Radiguet. He was not successful in acquiring more funds, and was fired within one year.
Months before the start of the 1988 Tour, director Jean - François Naquet - Radiguet was replaced by Xavier Louy. In 1988 the Tour was organised by Jean - Pierre Courcol, the director of L'Équipe, then in 1989 by Jean - Pierre Carenso and then by Jean - Marie Leblanc, who in 1989 had been race director. The former television presenter Christian Prudhomme -- he commentated on the Tour among other events -- replaced Leblanc in 2007, having been assistant director for three years. In 1993 ownership of L'Équipe moved to the Amaury Group, which formed Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO) to oversee its sports operations, although the Tour itself is operated by its subsidiary the Société du Tour de France. ASO employs around 70 people full - time, in an office facing but not connected to L'Équipe in the Issy - les - Moulineaux area of outer western Paris. That number expands to about 220 during the race itself, not including 500 contractors employed to move barriers, erect stages, signpost the route and other work. ASO now also operate several other major bike races throughout the year.
The oldest and main competition in the Tour de France is known as the "general classification '', for which the yellow jersey is awarded: the winner of this is said to have won the race. A few riders from each team aim to win overall but there are three further competitions to draw riders of all specialties: points, mountains, and a classification for young riders with general classification aspirations. The leader of each of the aforementioned classifications wears a distinctive jersey, with riders leading multiple classifications wearing the jersey of the most prestigious that he leads. In addition to these four classifications, there are several minor and discontinued classifications that are competed for during the race.
The oldest and most sought after classification in the Tour de France is the general classification. All of the stages are timed to the finish. The riders ' times are compounded with their previous stage times; so the rider with the lowest aggregate time is the leader of the race. The leader is determined after each stage 's conclusion: he gains the privilege to wear the yellow jersey "maillot jaune '', presented on a podium in the stage 's finishing town, for the next stage. If a rider is leading more than one classification that awards a jersey, he wears the yellow one, since the general classification is the most important one in the race. Between 1905 and 1912 inclusive, in response to concerns about rider cheating in the 1904 race, the general classification was awarded according to a point - based system based on their placings in each stage, and the rider with the lowest total of points after the Tour 's conclusion was the winner.
The leader in the first Tour de France was awarded a yellow armband. The color yellow was chosen as the magazine that created the Tour, L'Auto, printed its newspapers on yellow paper. The yellow jersey was added to the race in the 1919 edition and it has since become a symbol of the Tour de France. The first rider to wear the yellow jersey was Eugène Christophe. Each team brings multiple yellow jerseys in advance of the Tour in case one of their riders becomes the overall leader of the race. Riders usually try to make the extra effort to keep the jersey for as long as possible in order to get more publicity for the team and its sponsors. Eddy Merckx has worn the yellow jersey for 96 stages, which is more than any other rider in the history of the Tour de France. Four riders have won the general classification five times in their career: Jacques Anquetil, Eddy Merckx, Bernard Hinault, and Miguel Indurain.
The mountains classification is the second oldest jersey awarding classification in the Tour de France. The mountains classification was added to the Tour de France in the 1933 edition and was first won by Vicente Trueba. Prizes for the classification were first awarded in 1934. During stages of the race containing climbs, points are awarded to the first riders to reach the top of each categorized climb, with points available for up to the first 10 riders, depending on the classification of the climb. Climbs are classified according to the steepness and length of that particular hill, with more points available for harder climbs. The classification was preceded by the meilleur grimpeur (English: best climber) which was awarded by the organising newspaper l'Auto to a cyclist who completed each race.
The classification awarded no jersey to the leader until the 1975 Tour de France, when the organizers decided to award a distinctive white jersey with red dots to the leader. The climbers ' jersey is worn by the rider who, at the start of each stage, has the largest amount of climbing points. If a rider leads two or more of classifications, the climbers ' jersey is worn by the rider in second, or third, place in that contest. At the end of the Tour, the rider holding the most climbing points wins the classification. Some riders may race with the aim of winning this particular competition, while others who gain points early on may shift their focus to the classification during the race. The Tour has five categories for ranking the mountains the race covers. The scale ranges from category 4, the easiest, to hors catégorie, the hardest. During his career Richard Virenque won the mountains classification a record seven times.
The point distribution for the mountains is as follows:
The points classification is the third oldest of the currently awarded jersey classifications. It was introduced in the 1953 Tour de France and was first won by Fritz Schär. The classification was added to draw the participation of the sprinters as well as celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Tour. Points are given to the first 15 riders to finish a stage, with an additional set of points given to the first 15 riders to cross a pre-determined ' sprint ' point during the route of each stage. The point classification leader green jersey is worn by the rider who at the start of each stage, has the greatest number of points.
In the first years, the cyclist received penalty points for not finishing with a high place, so the cyclist with the fewest points was awarded the green jersey. From 1959 on, the system was changed so the cyclists were awarded points for high place finishes (with first place getting the most points, and lower placings getting successively fewer points), so the cyclist with the most points was awarded the green jersey. The amount of points awarded varies depending on the type of stage, with flat stages awarding the most points at the finish and time trials and high mountain stages awarding the least amount of points at the finish. This increases the likelihood of a sprinter winning the points classification, though other riders can be competitive for the classification if they have a sufficient number of high - place finishes.
The winner of the classification is the rider with the most points at the end of the Tour. In case of a tie, the leader is determined by the number of stage wins, then the number of intermediate sprint victories, and finally, the rider 's standing in the general classification. The classification has been won a record six times by Erik Zabel. The most recent winner, Peter Sagan, won it in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016.
The first year the points classification was used it was sponsored by La Belle Jardinière, a lawn mower producer, and the jersey was made green. In 1968 the jersey was changed to red to please the sponsor. However, the color was changed back the following year. For almost 25 years the classification was sponsored by Pari Mutuel Urbain, a state betting company. However they announced in November 2014 that they would not be continuing their sponsorship, and in March 2015 it was revealed that the green jersey would now be sponsored by Czech car manufacturer Škoda.
As of 2015, the points awarded stands as:
The leader of the classification is determined the same way as the general classification, with the riders ' times being added up after each stage and the eligible rider with lowest aggregate time is dubbed the leader. The Young rider classification is restricted to the riders that are under the age of 26. Originally the classification was restricted to neo-professionals -- riders that are in their first three years of professional racing -- until 1983. In 1983, the organizers made it so that only first time riders were eligible for the classification. In 1987, the organizers changed the rules of the classification to what they are today.
This classification was added to the Tour de France in the 1975 edition, with Francesco Moser being the first to win the classification after placing seventh overall. The Tour de France awards a white jersey to the leader of the classification, although this was not done between 1989 and 2000. Four riders have won both the young rider classification and the general classification in the same year: Laurent Fignon (1983), Jan Ullrich (1997), Alberto Contador (2007), and Andy Schleck (2010). Two riders have won the young rider classification three times in their respective careers: Jan Ullrich and Andy Schleck.
As of 2015 Jersey sponsor is Optician company Krys, replacing Škoda who moved to the Green Jersey.
The prix de la combativité goes to the rider who most animates the day, usually by trying to break clear of the field. The most combative rider wears a number printed white - on - red instead of black - on - white next day. An award goes to the most aggressive rider throughout the Tour. Already in 1908 a sort of combativity award was offered, when Sports Populaires and L'Education Physique created Le Prix du Courage, 100 francs and a silver gilt medal for "the rider having finished the course, even if unplaced, who is particularly distinguished for the energy he has used. '' The modern competition started in 1958. In 1959, a Super Combativity award for the most combative cyclist of the Tour was awarded. It was initially not awarded every year, but since 1981 it has been given annually. Eddy Merckx has the most wins (4) for the overall award.
The team classification is assessed by adding the time of each team 's best three riders each day. The competition does not have its own jersey but since 2006 the leading team has worn numbers printed black - on - yellow. Until 1990, the leading team would wear yellow caps. As of 2012, the riders of the leading team wear yellow helmets. During the era of national teams, France and Belgium won 10 times each. From 1973 up to 1988, there was also a team classification based on points (stage classification); members of the leading team would wear green caps.
There has been an intermediate sprints classification, which from 1984 awarded a red jersey for points awarded to the first three to pass intermediate points during the stage. These sprints also scored points towards the points classification and bonuses towards the general classification. The intermediate sprints classification with its red jersey was abolished in 1989, but the intermediate sprints have remained, offering points for the points classification and, until 2007, time bonuses for the general classification.
From 1968 there was a combination classification, scored on a points system based on standings in the general, points and mountains classifications. The design was originally white, then a patchwork with areas resembling each individual jersey design. This was also abolished in 1989.
The rider who has taken most time is called the lanterne rouge (red lantern, as in the red light at the back of a vehicle so it can be seen in the dark) and in past years sometimes carried a small red light beneath his saddle. Such was sympathy that he could command higher fees in the races that previously followed the Tour. In 1939 and 1948 the organisers excluded the last rider every day, to encourage more competitive racing.
Prize money has always been awarded. From 20,000 old francs the first year, prize money has increased each year, although from 1976 to 1987 the first prize was an apartment offered by a race sponsor. The first prize in 1988 was a car, a studio - apartment, a work of art and 500,000 francs in cash. Prizes only in cash returned in 1990.
Prizes and bonuses are awarded for daily placings and final placings at the end of the race. In 2009, the winner received € 450,000, while each of the 21 stage winners won € 8,000 (€ 10,000 for the team time - trial stage). The winners of the points classification and mountains classification each win € 25,000, the young rider competition and the combativity prize € 20,000, and € 50,000 for the winner of the team classification (calculated by adding the cumulative times of the best three riders in each team).
The Souvenir Henri Desgrange, in memory of the founder of the Tour, is awarded to the first rider over the Col du Galibier where his monument stands, or to the first rider over the highest col in the Tour. A similar award, the Souvenir Jacques Goddet, is made at the summit of the Col du Tourmalet, at the memorial to Jacques Goddet, Desgrange 's successor.
The modern tour typically has 21 stages, one per day.
Riders in most stages start together. The first kilometres, the départ fictif, are a rolling start without racing. The real start, the départ réel is announced by the Tour director waving a white flag. Riders are permitted to touch, but not push or nudge, each other. The first to cross the stage finish line wins the stage. Riders are given a time based on the group that they finish in. All riders in a group finish in the same time as the lead rider. This avoids dangerous mass sprints. It is not unusual for the entire field to finish in a group, taking time to cross the line but being credited with the same time. Since 2005, when riders fall or crash within the final 3 kilometres of a stage with a flat finish, they are awarded the same time as the group they were in. This change encourages riders to sprint to the finish for points awards without fear of losing time to the group. The final kilometre has been indicated since 1906 by a red triangle -- the flamme rouge -- above the road. The first photo - finish was in 1955.
The Tour directors categorise mass - stage starts into ' flat ', ' hilly ' or ' mountain '. This affects the points awarded in the sprint classification, whether the 3 kilometer rule is operational, and the permitted disqualification time in which riders must finish (which is the winners ' time plus a pre-determined percentage of that time). Time bonuses of 10, 6 and 4 seconds are awarded to the first three finishers, though this was not done from 2008 to 2014. Bonuses were previously also awarded to winners of intermediate sprints.
On flat stages, most riders can stay in the peloton to the finish, and sprint finishes are common. Crosswinds, the difficulty of long cobbled sections or crashes are often the major challenges of these stages. On hilly and particularly mountain stages, there can be major shifts in the general classification, particularly where stages finish at the tops of climbs. It is not uncommon for riders to lose 30 minutes or to be eliminated after finishing outside the time limit.
Riders in a time trial compete individually against the clock, each starting at a different time. The first time trial was between La Roche - sur - Yon and Nantes (80 km) in 1934. The first stage in modern Tours is often a short trial, a prologue, to decide who wears yellow on the opening day. The first prologue was in 1967. The 1988 event, at La Baule, was called "la préface ''. There are usually two or three time trials. The final time trial has sometimes been the final stage, more recently often the penultimate stage. The launch ramp, a sloping start pad for riders, was first used in 1965, at Cologne.
A team time trial (TTT) is a race against the clock in which each team rides alone. The time is that of the fifth rider of each team: riders more than a bike - length behind their team 's fifth rider are awarded their own times. The TTT has been criticised for favouring strong teams and handicapping strong riders in weak teams. The prologue stage in 1971 was a team time trial.
Riders completing a stage may be eliminated if their time exceeds the time limit for the stage. The limit is defined as the winner 's time plus a percentage, which depends on the type of stage and the winner 's average speed. The time limit can be extended or the elimination can be waived if more than 20 % of riders exceed the limit or for other reasons such as collisions or foul weather. For example, for a stage classed as "Coefficient 1: Stages with no particular difficulty '', the time limit is the winner 's time plus 3 % for an average speed of up to 36 km / h, increasing in 8 steps to 11 % for a speed of over 50 km / h, while on a "Coefficient 5: Very difficult short stages '' it varies from 11 % (up to 30 km / h) to 22 % (over 40 km / h).
The race has finished since 1975 with laps of the Champs - Élysées. This stage rarely challenges the leader because it is flat and the leader usually has too much time in hand to be denied. But in 1987, Pedro Delgado broke away on the Champs to challenge the 40 - second lead held by Stephen Roche. He and Roche finished in the peloton and Roche won the Tour. In modern times, there tends to be a gentlemen 's agreement: while the points classification is still contended if possible, the overall classification is not fought over; because of this, it is not uncommon for the de facto winner of the overall classification to ride into Paris holding a glass of champagne.
In 1989 the last stage was a time trial. Greg LeMond overtook Laurent Fignon to win by eight seconds, the closest margin in the Tour 's history.
The climb of Alpe d'Huez has become one of the more noted mountain stages. During the 2004 Tour de France it was the scene of a 15.5 km mountain time trial on the 16th stage. Riders complained of abusive spectators who threatened their progress up the climb. Mont Ventoux is often claimed to be the hardest in the Tour because of the harsh conditions. Another notable mountain stage frequently featured climbs the Col du Tourmalet, the most visited mountain in the history of the Tour. Col du Galibier is the most visited mountain in the Alps. The 2011 Tour de France stage to Galibier marked the 100th anniversary of the mountain in the Tour and also boasted the highest finish altitude ever: 2,645 m. Some mountain stages have become memorable because of the weather. An example is a stage in 1996 Tour de France from Val - d'Isère to Sestriere. A snowstorm at the start area led to a shortening of the stage from 190 to just 46 km.
To host a stage start or finish brings prestige and business to a town. The prologue and first stage (Grand Départ) are particularly prestigious. The race may start with a prologue (too short to go between towns) in which case the start of the next day 's racing, which would be considered stage 1, would usually be in the same town. In 2007 director Christian Prudhomme said that "in general, for a period of five years we have the Tour start outside France three times and within France twice. ''
When switching to the use of national teams in 1930, the costs of accommodating riders fell to the organizers instead of the sponsors and Henri Desgrange raised the money by allowing advertisers to precede the race. The procession of often colourfully decorated trucks and cars became known as the publicity caravan. It formalised an existing situation, companies having started to follow the race. The first to sign to precede the Tour was the chocolate company, Menier, one of those who had followed the race. Its head of publicity, Paul Thévenin, had first put the idea to Desgrange. It paid 50,000 old francs. Preceding the race was more attractive to advertisers because spectators gathered by the road long before the race or could be attracted from their houses. Advertisers following the race found that many who had watched the race had already gone home. Menier handed out tons of chocolate in that first year of preceding the race, as well as 500,000 policemen 's hats printed with the company 's name. The success led to the caravan 's existence being formalised the following year.
The caravan was at its height between 1930 and the mid-1960s, before television and especially television advertising was established in France. Advertisers competed to attract public attention. Motorcycle acrobats performed for the Cinzano apéritif company and a toothpaste maker, and an accordionist, Yvette Horner, became one of the most popular sights as she performed on the roof of a Citroën Traction Avant. The modern Tour restricts the excesses to which advertisers are allowed to go but at first anything was allowed. The writer Pierre Bost lamented: "This caravan of 60 gaudy trucks singing across the countryside the virtues of an apéritif, a make of underpants or a dustbin is a shameful spectacle. It bellows, it plays ugly music, it 's sad, it 's ugly, it smells of vulgarity and money. ''
Advertisers pay the Société du Tour de France approximately € 150,000 to place three vehicles in the caravan. Some have more. On top of that come the more considerable costs of the commercial samples that are thrown to the crowd and the cost of accommodating the drivers and the staff -- frequently students -- who throw them. The number of items has been estimated at 11 million, each person in the procession giving out 3,000 to 5,000 items a day. A bank, GAN, gave out 170,000 caps, 80,000 badges, 60,000 plastic bags and 535,000 copies of its race newspaper in 1994. Together, they weighed 32 tons. The vehicles also have to be decorated on the morning of each stage and, because they must return to ordinary highway standards, disassembled after each stage. Numbers vary but there are normally around 250 vehicles each year. Their order on the road is established by contract, the leading vehicles belonging to the largest sponsors.
The procession sets off two hours before the start and then regroups to precede the riders by an hour and a half. It spreads 20 -- 25 km and takes 40 minutes to pass at between 20 and 60 km / h. Vehicles travel in groups of five. Their position is logged by GPS and from an aircraft and organised on the road by the caravan director -- Jean - Pierre Lachaud -- an assistant, three motorcyclists, two radio technicians and a breakdown and medical crew. Six motorcyclists from the Garde Républicaine, the élite of the gendarmerie, ride with them.
The first three Tours stayed within France. The 1906 race went into Alsace - Lorraine, territory annexed by the German Empire in 1871 after the Franco - Prussian War. Passage was secured through a meeting at Metz between Desgrange 's collaborator, Alphonse Steinès, and the German governor.
No teams from Italy, Germany or Spain rode in 1939 because of tensions preceding the Second World War (after German assistance to Franco in the Spanish Civil War it was widely expected Spain would join Germany in a European war, though this did not come to pass). Henri Desgrange planned a Tour for 1940, after war had started but before France had been invaded. The route, approved by military authorities, included a route along the Maginot Line. Teams would have been drawn from military units in France, including the British, who would have been organised by a journalist, Bill Mills. Then the Germans invaded and the race was not held again until 1947 (see Tour de France during the Second World War). The first German team after the war was in 1960, although individual Germans had ridden in mixed teams. The Tour has since started in Germany four times: in Cologne in 1965, in Frankfurt in 1980, in West Berlin on the city 's 750th anniversary in 1987 and in Düsseldorf in 2017. Plans to enter East Germany in 1987 were abandoned.
Prior to 2013, the Tour de France had visited every region of Metropolitan France except Corsica. Jean - Marie Leblanc, when he was organiser, said the island had never asked for a stage start there. It would be difficult to find accommodation for 4,000 people, he said. The spokesman of the Corsican nationalist party Party of the Corsican Nation, François Alfonsi, said: "The organisers must be afraid of terrorist attacks. If they are really thinking of a possible terrorist action, they are wrong. Our movement, which is nationalist and in favour of self - government, would be delighted if the Tour came to Corsica. '' The opening three stages of the 2013 Tour de France were held on Corsica as part of the celebrations for the 100th edition of the race.
Most stages are in mainland France, although since the 1960s it has become common to visit nearby countries: Andorra, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom have all hosted stages or part of a stage. Since 1975 the finish has been on the Champs - Élysées in Paris; from 1903 to 1967 the race finished at the Parc des Princes stadium in western Paris and from 1968 to 1974 at the Piste Municipale south of the capital. Feliz Levitan, race organizer in the 1980s, was keen to host stages in the United States, but these proposals have never been developed.
The following editions of the Tour started, or are planned to start, outside France:
The Tour was first followed only by journalists from L'Auto, the organisers. The race was founded to increase sales of a floundering newspaper and its editor, Desgrange, saw no reason to allow rival publications to profit. The first time papers other than L'Auto were allowed was 1921, when 15 press cars were allowed for regional and foreign reporters.
The Tour was shown first on cinema newsreels a day or more after the event. The first live radio broadcast was in 1929, when Jean Antoine and Alex Virot of the newspaper L'Intransigeant broadcast for Radio Cité. They used telephone lines. In 1932 they broadcast the sound of riders crossing the col d'Aubisque in the Pyrenees on 12 July, using a recording machine and transmitting the sound later.
The first television pictures were shown a day after a stage. The national TV channel used two 16mm cameras, a Jeep and a motorbike. Film was flown or taken by train to Paris. It was edited there and shown the following day.
The first live broadcast, and the second of any sport in France, was the finish at the Parc des Princes in Paris on 25 July 1948. Rik Van Steenbergen of Belgium led in the bunch after a stage of 340 km from Nancy. The first live coverage from the side of the road was from the Aubisque on 8 July 1958. Proposals to cover the whole race were abandoned in 1962 after objections from regional newspapers whose editors feared the competition. The dispute was settled but not in time and the first complete coverage was the following year. In 1958 the first mountain climbs were broadcast live on television for the first time, and in 1959 helicopters were first used for the television coverage.
The leading television commentator in France was a former rider, Robert Chapatte. At first he was the only commentator. He was joined in following seasons by an analyst for the mountain stages and by a commentator following the competitors by motorcycle.
Broadcasting in France was largely a state monopoly until 1982, when the socialist president François Mitterrand allowed private broadcasters and privatised the leading television channel. Competition between channels raised the broadcasting fees paid to the organisers from 1.5 per cent of the race budget in 1960 to more than a third by the end of the century. Broadcasting time also increased as channels competed to secure the rights. The two largest channels to stay in public ownership, Antenne 2 and FR3, combined to offer more coverage than its private rival, TF1. The two stations, renamed France 2 and France 3, still hold the domestic rights and provide pictures for broadcasters around the world.
The stations use a staff of 300 with four helicopters, two aircraft, two motorcycles, 35 other vehicles including trucks, and 20 podium cameras.
Domestic television covers the most important stages of the Tour, such as those in the mountains, from mid-morning until early evening. Coverage typically starts with a survey of the day 's route, interviews along the road, discussions of the difficulties and tactics ahead, and a 30 - minute archive feature. The biggest stages are shown live from start to end, followed by interviews with riders and others and features such an edited version of the stage seen from beside a team manager following and advising riders from his car. Radio covers the race in updates throughout the day, particularly on the national news channel, France Info, and some stations provide continuous commentary on long wave. The 1979 Tour was the first to be broadcast in the United States.
The combination of unprecedented rigorous doping controls and almost no positive tests helped restore fans ' confidence in the 2009 Tour de France. This led directly to an increase in global popularity of the event. The most watched stage of 2009 was stage 20, from Montélimar to Mont Ventoux in Provence, with a global total audience of 44 million, making it the 12th most watched sporting event in the world in 2009.
The Tour is important for fans in Europe. Millions line the route, some having camped for a week to get the best view. Crowds flanking the course are reminiscent of the community festivals that are part of another form of cycle racing in a different country -- the Isle of Man TT.
The Tour de France appealed from the start not just for the distance and its demands but because it played to a wish for national unity, a call to what Maurice Barrès called the France "of earth and deaths '' or what Georges Vigarello called "the image of a France united by its earth. ''
The image had been started by the 1877 travel / school book Le Tour de la France par deux enfants. It told of two boys, André and Julien, who "in a thick September fog left the town of Phalsbourg in Lorraine to see France at a time when few people had gone far beyond their nearest town. ''
The book sold six million copies by the time of the first Tour de France, the biggest selling book of 19th - century France (other than the Bible). It stimulated a national interest in France, making it "visible and alive '', as its preface said. There had already been a car race called the Tour de France but it was the publicity behind the cycling race, and Desgrange 's drive to educate and improve the population, that inspired the French to know more of their country.
The academic historians Jean - Luc Boeuf and Yves Léonard say most people in France had little idea of the shape of their country until L'Auto began publishing maps of the race.
The Tour has inspired several popular songs in France, notably P'tit gars du Tour (1932), Les Tours de France (1936) and Faire le Tour de France (1950). Kraftwerk had a hit with "Tour de France '' in 1983 -- described as a minimalistic "melding of man and machine '' -- and produced an album, Tour de France Soundtracks in 2003, the centenary of the Tour.
The Tour and its first Italian winner, Ottavio Bottecchia, are mentioned at the end of Ernest Hemingway 's The Sun Also Rises.
In films, the Tour was background for Five Red Tulips (1949) by Jean Stelli, in which five riders are murdered. A burlesque in 1967, Les Cracks by Alex Joffé, with Bourvil et Monique Tarbès, also featured him. Patrick Le Gall made Chacun son Tour (1996). The comedy, Le Vélo de Ghislain Lambert (2001), featured the Tour of 1974.
In 2005, three films chronicled a team. The German Höllentour, translated as Hell on Wheels, recorded 2003 from the perspective of Team Telekom. The film was directed by Pepe Danquart, who won an Academy Award for live - action short film in 1993 for Black Rider (Schwarzfahrer). The Danish film Overcoming by Tómas Gislason recorded the 2004 Tour from the perspective of Team CSC.
Wired to Win chronicles Française des Jeux riders Baden Cooke and Jimmy Caspar in 2003. By following their quest for the points classification, won by Cooke, the film looks at the working of the brain. The film, made for IMAX theaters, appeared in December 2005. It was directed by Bayley Silleck, who was nominated for an Academy Award for documentary short subject in 1996 for Cosmic Voyage.
A fan, Scott Coady, followed the 2000 Tour with a handheld video camera to make The Tour Baby!, which raised $160,000 to benefit the Lance Armstrong Foundation, and made a 2005 sequel, Tour Baby Deux!.
Vive Le Tour by Louis Malle is an 18 - minute short of 1962. The 1965 Tour was filmed by Claude Lelouch in Pour un Maillot Jaune. This 30 - minute documentary has no narration and relies on sights and sounds of the Tour.
In fiction, the 2003 animated feature Les Triplettes de Belleville (The Triplets of Belleville) ties into the Tour de France.
After the Tour de France there are criteria in the Netherlands and Belgium. These races are public spectacles where thousands of people can see their heroes, from the Tour de France, race. The budget of a criterium is over 100,000 Euro, with most of the money going to the riders. Jersey winners or big - name riders earn between 20 and 60 thousand euros per race in start money.
Allegations of doping have plagued the Tour almost since 1903. Early riders consumed alcohol and used ether, to dull the pain. Over the years they began to increase performance and the Union Cycliste Internationale and governments enacted policies to combat the practice.
In 1924, Henri Pélissier and his brother Charles told the journalist Albert Londres they used strychnine, cocaine, chloroform, aspirin, "horse ointment '' and other drugs. The story was published in Le Petit Parisien under the title Les Forçats de la Route (' The Convicts of the Road ')
On 13 July 1967, British cyclist Tom Simpson died climbing Mont Ventoux after taking amphetamine.
In 1998, the "Tour of Shame '', Willy Voet, soigneur for the Festina team, was arrested with erythropoietin (EPO), growth hormones, testosterone and amphetamine. Police raided team hotels and found products in the possession of the cycling team TVM. Riders went on strike. After mediation by director Jean - Marie Leblanc, police limited their tactics and riders continued. Some riders had dropped out and only 96 finished the race. It became clear in a trial that management and health officials of the Festina team had organised the doping.
Further measures were introduced by race organisers and the UCI, including more frequent testing and tests for blood doping (transfusions and EPO use). This would lead the UCI to becoming a particularly interested party in an International Olympic Committee initiative, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), created in 1999. In 2002, the wife of Raimondas Rumšas, third in the 2002 Tour de France, was arrested after EPO and anabolic steroids were found in her car. Rumšas, who had not failed a test, was not penalised. In 2004, Philippe Gaumont said doping was endemic to his Cofidis team. Fellow Cofidis rider David Millar confessed to EPO after his home was raided. In the same year, Jesus Manzano, a rider with the Kelme team, alleged he had been forced by his team to use banned substances.
Doping controversy has surrounded Lance Armstrong. In August 2005, one month after Armstrong 's seventh consecutive victory, L'Équipe published documents it said showed Armstrong had used EPO in the 1999 race. At the same Tour, Armstrong 's urine showed traces of a glucocorticosteroid hormone, although below the positive threshold. He said he had used skin cream containing triamcinolone to treat saddle sores. Armstrong said he had received permission from the UCI to use this cream. Further allegations ultimately culminated in the United States Anti Doping Agency (USADA) disqualifying him from all his victories since 1 August 1998, including his seven consecutive Tour de France victories, and a lifetime ban from competing in professional sports. He chose not to appeal the decision and in January 2013 he admitted doping in a television interview conducted by Oprah Winfrey, despite having made repeated denials throughout his career. On 1 August 2013, Jan Ullrich -- arguably Armstrong 's biggest Tour de France rival -- reportedly said that Armstrong should have his seven stripped wins reinstated, due to the prevalence of doping at the time. Ullrich had won the 1997 Tour and finished second to Armstrong three times -- in 2000, 2001 and 2003 -- but declined to stake a claim for his rival 's stripped titles.
The 2006 Tour had been plagued by the Operación Puerto doping case before it began. Favourites such as Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso were banned by their teams a day before the start. Seventeen riders were implicated. American rider Floyd Landis, who finished the Tour as holder of the overall lead, had tested positive for testosterone after he won stage 17, but this was not confirmed until some two weeks after the race finished. On 30 June 2008 Landis lost his appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, and Óscar Pereiro was named as winner.
On 24 May 2007, Erik Zabel admitted using EPO during the first week of the 1996 Tour, when he won the points classification. Following his plea that other cyclists admit to drugs, former winner Bjarne Riis admitted in Copenhagen on 25 May 2007 that he used EPO regularly from 1993 to 1998, including when he won the 1996 Tour. His admission meant the top three in 1996 were all linked to doping, two admitting cheating. On 24 July 2007 Alexander Vinokourov tested positive for a blood transfusion (blood doping) after winning a time trial, prompting his Astana team to pull out and police to raid the team 's hotel. The next day Cristian Moreni tested positive for testosterone. His Cofidis team pulled out.
The same day, leader Michael Rasmussen was removed for "violating internal team rules '' by missing random tests on 9 May and 28 June. Rasmussen claimed to have been in Mexico. The Italian journalist Davide Cassani told Danish television he had seen Rasmussen in Italy. The alleged lying prompted Rasmussen 's firing by Rabobank.
On 11 July 2008 Manuel Beltrán tested positive for EPO after the first stage. On 17 July 2008, Riccardo Riccò tested positive for continuous erythropoiesis receptor activator, a variant of EPO, after the fourth stage. In October 2008, it was revealed that Riccò 's teammate and Stage 10 winner Leonardo Piepoli, as well as Stefan Schumacher -- who won both time trials -- and Bernhard Kohl -- third on general classification and King of the Mountains -- had tested positive.
After winning the 2010 Tour de France, it was announced that Alberto Contador had tested positive for low levels of clenbuterol on 21 July rest day. On 26 January 2011, the Spanish Cycling Federation proposed a 1 - year ban but reversed its ruling on 15 February and cleared Contador to race. Despite a pending appeal by the UCI, Contador finished 5th overall in the 2011 Tour de France, but in February 2012, Contador was suspended and stripped of his 2010 victory.
During the 2012 Tour, the 3rd placed rider from 2011, Fränk Schleck tested positive for the banned diuretic Xipamide and was immediately disqualified from the Tour.
In October 2012, the United States Anti-Doping Agency released a report on doping by the U.S. Postal Service cycling team, implicating, amongst others, Armstrong. The report contained affidavits from riders including Frankie Andreu, Tyler Hamilton, George Hincapie, Floyd Landis, Levi Leipheimer, and others describing widespread use of Erythropoietin (EPO), blood transfusion, testosterone, and other banned practices in several Tours. In October 2012 the UCI acted upon this report, formally stripping Armstrong of all titles since 1 August 1998, including all seven Tour victories, and announced that his Tour wins would not be reallocated to other riders.
Cyclists who have died during the Tour de France:
Another seven fatal accidents have occurred:
One rider has been King of the Mountains, won the combination classification, combativity award, the points competition, and the Tour in the same year -- Eddy Merckx in 1969, which was also the first year he participated.
Twice the Tour was won by a racer who never wore the yellow jersey until the race was over. In 1947, Jean Robic overturned a three - minute deficit on a 257 km final stage into Paris. In 1968, Jan Janssen of the Netherlands secured his win in the individual time trial on the last day.
The Tour has been won three times by racers who led the general classification on the first stage and holding the lead all the way to Paris. Maurice Garin did it during the Tour 's very first edition, 1903; he repeated the feat the next year, but the results were nullified by the officials as a response to widespread cheating. Ottavio Bottecchia completed a GC start - to - finish sweep in 1924. And in 1928, Nicolas Frantz held the GC for the entire race, and at the end, the podium consisted solely of members of his racing team. While no one has equalled this feat since ' 28, four times a racer has taken over the GC lead on the second stage and carried that lead all the way to Paris. It is worth noting that Jacques Anquetil predicted he would hold the maillot jaune from start to finish in 1961, which he did. That year, the first day had two stages, 1.01 Rouen to Versailles and 1.02 Versailles to Versailles. No maillot jaune was awarded after stage 1.01 and at the end of the day Anquetil was in yellow.
The most appearances have been by George Hincapie with 17. In light of Hincapie 's suspension for use of performance - enhancing drugs, before which he held the mark for most consecutive finishes with sixteen, having completed all but his very first, Joop Zoetemelk holds the record for the most finishes, having completed all 16 of the Tours that he started.
In the early years of the Tour, cyclists rode individually, and were sometimes forbidden to ride together. This led to large gaps between the winner and the number two. Since the cyclists now tend to stay together in a peloton, the margins of the winner have become smaller, as the difference usually originates from time trials, breakaways or on mountain top finishes, or from being left behind the peloton. The smallest margins between the winner and the second placed cyclists at the end of the Tour is 8s between winner Greg LeMond and Laurent Fignon in 1989. The largest margin, by comparison, remains that of the first Tour in 1903: 2h 49m 45s between Maurice Garin and Lucien Pothier.
Three riders have won 8 stages in a single year: Charles Pélissier (1930), Eddy Merckx (1970, 1974), Freddy Maertens (1976). Mark Cavendish has the most mass finish stage wins with 30 as of stage 14 in 2016, ahead of André Darrigade and André Leducq with 22, François Faber with 19 and Eddy Merckx with 18. The youngest Tour de France stage winner is Fabio Battesini, who was 19 when he won one stage in the 1931 Tour de France.
The fastest massed - start stage was in 1999 from Laval to Blois (194.5 km), won by Mario Cipollini at 50.4 km / h. The fastest time - trial is Rohan Dennis ' stage 1 of the 2015 Tour de France in Utrecht, won at an average of 55.446 km / h (34.5 mph). The fastest stage win was by the 2013 Orica GreenEDGE team in a team time - trial. It completed the 25 km in Nice (stage 5) at 57.8 km / h.
The longest successful post-war breakaway by a single rider was by Albert Bourlon in the 1947 Tour de France. In the stage Carcassone - Luchon, he stayed away for 253 km. It was one of seven breakaways longer than 200 km, the last being Thierry Marie 's 234 km escape in 1991. Bourlon finished 16 m 30s ahead. This is one of the biggest time gaps but not the greatest. That record belongs to José - Luis Viejo, who beat the peloton by 22 m 50s in the 1976 stage Montgenèvre - Manosque. He was the fourth and most recent rider to win a stage by more than 20 minutes.
The only rider to win the Tour de France and an Olympic gold medal in the same year was Bradley Wiggins in 2012. Wiggins also has the record of being the only Tour de France champion to win an Olympic gold medal in the velodrome.
Four riders have won five times: Jacques Anquetil (FRA), Eddy Merckx (BEL), Bernard Hinault (FRA) and Miguel Indurain (ESP). Indurain achieved the mark with a record five consecutive wins.
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describe the sequence of events that led to the montreal protocol | Montreal Protocol - Wikipedia
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali, adopted, but not in force). As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol ''. In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.
The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.
These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy - making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 & 1987).
The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone - depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone - depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:
For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be shot out and eventually eliminated.
The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states
"Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge ''
"Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries ''
shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:
There was a faster phase - out of halon - 1211, - 2402, - 1301, There was a slower phase - out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.) and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1, 1, 1 - trichloroethane). The phasing - out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing - out is achieved by 2030.
There were a few exceptions for "essential uses '', where no acceptable substitutes were initially found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were exempt) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).
The substances in Group I of Annex A are:
The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision - making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled Scientific assessment of ozone depletion.
Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements
Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53 / 37 and ExCom 54 / 39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013 - 2015.
The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of ozone depletion potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 -- 1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01 -- 0.5). In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 -- 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 -- 2,270).
Produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine. They are however greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.
At 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Kigali amendment was adopted to eliminate planet - warming HFC gases, They also figure in the basket of six greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol report their HFC emission data to the UNFCCC;.
The amendment to the legally - binding Montreal Protocol will ensure that the rich and industrialised countries bring down their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent compared to their annual average values in the period 2011 - 2013. A group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020 - 22 by the year 2045. India and some other developing countries -- Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait -- will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024 - 26 by the year 2047.
In 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth 's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50 -- 100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem.
The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet - B (UV - B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV - B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.
But the Rowland - Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale... a load of rubbish... utter nonsense ''. Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland 's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)
After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.
Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor ' ozone hole ', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal to take the issue seriously.
Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone - depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.
But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation. '' And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change... ''
The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).
It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.
The Fund is managed by an Executive Committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the Executive Committee:
Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities.
The fund is replenished on a three - year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US $3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.
As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and the supranational European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below), South Sudan being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments.
Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because for many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone. In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years, however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size. The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone - depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery. ''
The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States.
However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule - for - molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase - out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate.
Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, the Montreal Protocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicize its considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future. Among its accomplishments are: The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge; the first to embrace the "precautionary principle '' in its design for science - based policymaking; the first treaty where independent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reported directly to Parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect; the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing a multilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemical phase - out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and, the first treaty with a financial mechanism managed democratically by an Executive Board with equal representation by developed and developing countries.
Within 25 years of signing, parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones. Significantly, the world has phased - out 98 % of the Ozone - Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide; every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first global regime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013. UNEP received accolades for achieving global consensus that "demonstrates the world 's commitment to ozone protection, and more broadly, to global environmental protection ''.
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition ''. (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)
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why do they call it the daniel fast | Daniel Fast - wikipedia
The Daniel Fast is a spiritually motivated diet based on the Biblical Book of Daniel, and commonly refers to a 10 - or 21 - day abstinence from foods declared unclean by God in the Laws of Moses. The passage in Chapter 10: 2 - 3 may refer to a classical three week fast during a period of mourning; therefore, the modern Daniel Fast is most often followed for 21 days.
According to those who encourage this form of fasting, the aim is to refrain from eating what are described in Daniel as "royal foods '' including meats, leavened and sweet bread, and wine. Instead, the diet consists only of "pulses '' and water. "Pulses '' in this context is often taken as "food grown from seed '', including fruit, vegetables or lentils. "Vegetables '' is used instead of "pulses '' in some translations. However, it is not explicitly stated that the refraining from these foods by Daniel was a fast.
The Biblical narrative is set in Babylon, where Daniel, three friends, and fellow captives have been brought for education and military training. King Nebuchadnezzar II honors them by offering luxurious royal food, hoping to encourage their development. Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king 's delicacies, which used meat ritually sacrificed to Babylonian gods. Daniel refuses to eat foods forbidden by God, and instead asks for pulses and water. The guard charged with their care expresses concern for their health, so Daniel requests a short test of the diet. For 10 days, they are permitted to eat just vegetables, and at the end, the guard is surprised at their good personal appearance and physical and mental health, compared to those who had indulged in the royal foods. Therefore, Daniel and his friends are permitted to eat whole plant foods for the duration of their training.
After continuing with the diet during three years of training, they are judged by the king to be mentally superior. "And in all matters of wisdom and understanding, that the king enquired of them, he found them ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers that were in all his realm. '' Although, the issue of fast is debatable. Daniel remained a vegetarian in Persia and Babylon as the meat were not slaughtered according to Mosaic Law and that royal officials were not familiar with Jewish dietary law.
In modern versions of the Daniel Fast, food choices may be limited to whole grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, seeds and oil. The Daniel Fast prescribes the vegan diet in that it excludes the consumption of animal products. The diet also excludes processed foods, additives, preservatives, flavorings, sweeteners, caffeine, alcohol, and products made with white flours. Ellen G. White states that the example of Daniel demonstrates that "a strict compliance with the requirements of God is beneficial to the health of body and mind. ''
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did thomas jefferson wrote the declaration of independence when he was president | Thomas Jefferson - wikipedia
Thomas Jefferson (April 13 (O.S. April 2) 1743 -- July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, serving under John Adams from 1797 to 1801. A proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights motivating American colonists to break from Great Britain and form a new nation, he produced formative documents and decisions at both the state and national level. He was a land owner and farmer.
Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law, at times defending slaves seeking their freedom. During the American Revolution, he represented Virginia in the Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration, drafted the law for religious freedom as a Virginia legislator, and he served as a wartime governor (1779 -- 1781). He became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nation 's first Secretary of State in 1790 -- 1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic - Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System. With Madison, he anonymously wrote the controversial Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 -- 1799, which sought to embolden states ' rights in opposition to the national government by nullifying the Alien and Sedition Acts.
As President, Jefferson pursued the nation 's shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the country 's territory. As a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. He was reelected in 1804. Jefferson 's second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr. American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U.S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a controversial process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory, and he signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807.
Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and mechanics. He was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jefferson 's keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society. He shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages. He founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a prolific letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full - length book is Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), considered among the most important American books published before 1800.
Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. After the death of his wife Martha in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Historians have lauded Jefferson 's public life, noting his primary authorship of the Declaration of Independence during the Revolutionary War, his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia, and the Louisiana Purchase while he was president. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jefferson 's private life, often pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his liberal political principles. Presidential scholars consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents.
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743 Old Style, Julian calendar), at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject. His father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen; his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of William Randolph, the plantation 's owner and Jefferson 's friend, who in his will had named him guardian of his children. The Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757; his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres (2,000 ha; 7.8 sq mi) of land, including Monticello. He assumed full authority over his property at age 21.
Jefferson began his childhood education beside the Randolph children with tutors at Tuckahoe. In 1752, he began attending a local school run by a Scottish Presbyterian minister. At age nine, he started studying the natural world as well as three languages: Latin, Greek, and French. By this time he also learned to ride horses. He was taught from 1758 to 1760 by Reverend James Maury near Gordonsville, Virginia, where he studied history, science, and the classics while boarding with Maury 's family.
Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, at age 16 and studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under Professor William Small. Small introduced him to the British Empiricists including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton. Jefferson improved his French and Greek and his skill at the violin. He graduated two years after starting in 1762. He read the law under Professor George Wythe 's tutelage to obtain his law license, while working as a law clerk in Wythe 's office. He also read a wide variety of English classics and political works.
Jefferson treasured his books. In 1770, his Shadwell home was destroyed by fire, including a library of 200 volumes inherited from his father. Nevertheless, he had replenished his library with 1,250 titles by 1773, and his collection grew to almost 6,500 volumes in 1814. The British burned the Library of Congress that year; he then sold more than 6,000 books to the Library for $23,950. He had intended to pay off some of his large debt, but he resumed collecting for his personal library, writing to John Adams, "I can not live without books. ''
Jefferson was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1767 and then lived with his mother at Shadwell. In addition to practicing law, Jefferson represented Albemarle County as a delegate in the Virginia House of Burgesses from 1769 until 1775. He pursued reforms to slavery. He introduced legislation in 1769 allowing masters to take control over the emancipation of slaves, taking discretion away from the royal Governor and General Court. He persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation 's passage, but reaction was strongly negative.
Jefferson took seven cases for freedom - seeking slaves and waived his fee for one client, who claimed that he should be freed before the statutory age of thirty - one required for emancipation in cases with inter-racial grandparents. He invoked Natural Law to argue, "everyone comes into the world with a right to his own person and using it at his own will... This is what is called personal liberty, and is given him by the author of nature, because it is necessary for his own sustenance. '' The judge cut him off and ruled against his client. As a consolation, Jefferson gave his client some money, conceivably used to aid his escape shortly thereafter. He later incorporated this sentiment into the Declaration of Independence. He also took on 68 cases for the General Court of Virginia in 1767, in addition to three notable cases: Howell v. Netherland (1770), Bolling v. Bolling (1771), and Blair v. Blair (1772).
The British Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts in 1774, and Jefferson wrote a resolution calling for a "Day of Fasting and Prayer '' in protest, as well as a boycott of all British goods. His resolution was later expanded into A Summary View of the Rights of British America, in which he argued that people have the right to govern themselves.
In 1768, Jefferson began constructing his primary residence Monticello (Italian for "Little Mountain '') on a hilltop overlooking his 5,000 - acre plantation. Construction was done mostly by local masons and carpenters, assisted by Jefferson 's slaves.
He moved into the South Pavilion in 1770. Turning Monticello into a neoclassical masterpiece in the Palladian style was his perennial project. On January 1, 1772, Jefferson married his third cousin Martha Wayles Skelton, the 23 - year - old widow of Bathurst Skelton, and she moved into the South Pavilion. She was a frequent hostess for Jefferson and managed the large household. Biographer Dumas Malone described the marriage as the happiest period of Jefferson 's life. Martha read widely, did fine needlework, and was a skilled pianist; Jefferson often accompanied her on the violin or cello. During their ten years of marriage, Martha bore six children: Martha "Patsy '' (1772 -- 1836); Jane (1774 -- 1775); a son who lived for only a few weeks in 1777; Mary Wayles "Polly '' (1778 -- 1804); Lucy Elizabeth (1780 -- 1781); and another Lucy Elizabeth (1782 -- 1785). Only Martha and Mary survived more than a few years.
Martha 's father John Wayles died in 1773, and the couple inherited 135 slaves, 11,000 acres (4,500 ha; 17 sq mi), and the estate 's debts. The debts took Jefferson years to satisfy, contributing to his financial problems.
Martha later suffered from ill health, including diabetes, and frequent childbirth further weakened her. Her mother had died young, and Martha lived with two stepmothers as a girl. A few months after the birth of her last child, she died on September 6, 1782, at the age of 33 with Jefferson at her bedside. Shortly before her death, Martha made Jefferson promise never to marry again, telling him that she could not bear to have another mother raise her children. Jefferson was grief - stricken by her death, relentlessly pacing back and forth, nearly to the point of exhaustion. He emerged after three weeks, taking long rambling rides on secluded roads with his daughter Martha, by her description "a solitary witness to many a violent burst of grief ''.
After working as Secretary of State (1790 -- 93), he returned to Monticello and initiated a remodeling based on the architectural concepts which he had acquired in Europe. The work continued throughout most of his presidency, being finished in 1809.
Jefferson was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. At age 33, he was one of the youngest delegates to the Second Continental Congress beginning in 1775 at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, where a formal declaration of independence from Britain was overwhelmingly favored. Jefferson chose his words for the Declaration in June 1775, shortly after the war had begun, where the idea of Independence from Britain had long since become popular among the colonies. He was inspired by the Enlightenment ideals of the sanctity of the individual, as well as by the writings of Locke and Montesquieu.
He sought out John Adams, an emerging leader of the Congress. They became close friends and Adams supported Jefferson 's appointment to the Committee of Five formed to draft a declaration of independence in furtherance of the Lee Resolution passed by the Congress, which declared the United Colonies independent. The committee initially thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson.
Jefferson consulted with other committee members over the next seventeen days, and drew on his own proposed draft of the Virginia Constitution, George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and other sources. The other committee members made some changes, and a final draft was presented to the Congress on June 28, 1776.
The declaration was introduced on Friday, June 28, and congress began debate over its contents on Monday, July 1, resulting in the omission of a fourth of the text, including a passage critical of King George III and the slave trade. Jefferson resented the changes, but he did not speak publicly about the revisions. On July 4, 1776, the Congress ratified the Declaration, and delegates signed it on August 2; in doing so, they were committing an act of treason against the Crown. Jefferson 's preamble is regarded as an enduring statement of human rights, and the phrase "all men are created equal '' has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '' containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''.
At the start of the Revolution, Jefferson was a Colonel and was named commander of the Albemarle County Militia on September 26, 1775. He was then elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for Albemarle County in September 1776, when finalizing a state constitution was a priority. For nearly three years, he assisted with the constitution and was especially proud of his Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, which forbade state support of religious institutions or enforcement of religious doctrine. The bill failed to pass, as did his legislation to disestablish the Anglican church, but both were later revived by James Madison.
In 1778, Jefferson was given the task of revising the state 's laws. He drafted 126 bills in three years, including laws to streamline the judicial system. Jefferson 's proposed statutes provided for general education, which he considered the basis of "republican government ''. He had become alarmed that Virginia 's powerful landed gentry were becoming a hereditary aristocracy. He took the lead in abolishing what he called "feudal and unnatural distinctions. '' He targeted laws such as entail and primogeniture by which the oldest son inherited all the land. The entail laws made it perpetual: the one who inherited the land could not sell it, but had to bequeath it to his oldest son. As a result, increasingly large plantations, worked by white tenant farmers and by black slaves, gained in size and wealth and political power in the eastern ("Tidewater '') tobacco areas. During the Revolutionary era, all such laws were repealed by the states that had them.
Jefferson was elected governor for one - year terms in 1779 and 1780. He transferred the state capital from Williamsburg to Richmond, and introduced measures for public education, religious freedom, and revision of inheritance laws.
During General Benedict Arnold 's 1781 invasion of Virginia, Jefferson escaped Richmond just ahead of the British forces, and the city was burned to the ground. General Charles Cornwallis that spring dispatched a cavalry force led by Banastre Tarleton to capture Jefferson and members of the Assembly at Monticello, but Jack Jouett of the Virginia militia thwarted the British plan. Jefferson escaped to Poplar Forest, his plantation to the west. When the General Assembly reconvened in June 1781, it conducted an inquiry into Jefferson 's actions which eventually concluded that Jefferson had acted with honor -- but he was not re-elected.
In April of the same year, his daughter Lucy died at age one. A second daughter of that name was born the following year, but she died at age three.
Jefferson received a letter of inquiry in 1780 about the geography, history, and government of Virginia from French diplomat François Barbé - Marbois, who was gathering data on the United States. Jefferson included his written responses in a book, Notes on the State of Virginia (1785). He compiled the book over five years, including reviews of scientific knowledge, Virginia 's history, politics, laws, culture, and geography. The book explores what constitutes a good society, using Virginia as an exemplar. Jefferson included extensive data about the state 's natural resources and economy, and wrote at length about slavery, miscegenation, and his belief that blacks and whites could not live together as free people in one society because of justified resentments of the enslaved. He also wrote of his views on the American Indian and considered them as equals in body and mind to European settlers.
Notes was first published in 1785 in French and appeared in English in 1787. Biographer George Tucker considered the work "surprising in the extent of the information which a single individual had been thus able to acquire, as to the physical features of the state '', and Merrill D. Peterson described it as an accomplishment for which all Americans should be grateful.
The United States formed a Congress of the Confederation following victory in the Revolutionary War and a peace treaty with Great Britain in 1783, to which Jefferson was appointed as a Virginia delegate. He was a member of the committee setting foreign exchange rates and recommended an American currency based on the decimal system which was adopted. He advised formation of the Committee of the States to fill the power vacuum when Congress was in recess. The Committee met when Congress adjourned, but disagreements rendered it dysfunctional.
In the Congress 's 1783 -- 84 session, Jefferson acted as chairman of committees to establish a viable system of government for the new Republic and to propose a policy for the settlement of the western territories. Jefferson was the principal author of the Land Ordinance of 1784, whereby Virginia ceded to the national government the vast area that it claimed northwest of the Ohio River. He insisted that this territory should not be used as colonial territory by any of the thirteen states, but that it should be divided into sections which could become states. He plotted borders for nine new states in their initial stages and wrote an ordinance banning slavery in all the nation 's territories. Congress made extensive revisions, including rejection of the ban on slavery. The provisions banning slavery were known later as the "Jefferson Proviso; '' they were modified and implemented three years later in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and became the law for the entire Northwest.
Jefferson was sent by the Congress of the Confederation to join Benjamin Franklin and John Adams as ministers in Europe for negotiation of trade agreements with England, Spain, and France. Some believed that the recently widowed Jefferson was depressed and that the assignment would distract him from his wife 's death. With his young daughter Patsy and two servants, he departed in July 1784, arriving in Paris the next month. French foreign minister Count de Vergennes commented, "You replace Monsieur Franklin, I hear. '' Jefferson replied, "I succeed. No man can replace him. '' Franklin resigned as minister in March 1785 and departed in July.
Jefferson had Patsy educated at the Pentemont Abbey. In 1786, he met and fell in love with Maria Cosway, an accomplished -- and married -- Italian - English musician of 27. They saw each other frequently over a period of six weeks. She returned to Great Britain, but they maintained a lifelong correspondence.
Jefferson sent for his youngest surviving child, nine - year - old Polly, in June 1787. He also brought some of his slaves with him to Paris, including James Hemings, whom he had trained in French cuisine, and James 's younger sister Sally Hemings. According to Sally 's son, Madison Hemings, the 16 - year - old Sally and Jefferson began a sexual relationship in Paris, where she became pregnant. According to this story, Hemings agreed to return to the United States only after Jefferson promised to free her children when they came of age.
While in France, he became a regular companion of the Marquis de Lafayette, a French hero of the American Revolutionary War, and Jefferson used his influence to procure trade agreements with France. As the French Revolution began, Jefferson allowed his Paris residence, the Hôtel de Langeac, to be used for meetings by Lafayette and other republicans. He was in Paris during the storming of the Bastille and consulted with Lafayette while the latter drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Jefferson often found his mail opened by postmasters, so he invented his own enciphering device, the "Wheel Cipher ''; he wrote important communications in code for the rest of his career. Jefferson left Paris in September 1789, intending to return soon; however, President George Washington appointed him the country 's first Secretary of State, forcing him to remain. Jefferson remained a firm supporter of the French Revolution, while opposing its more violent elements.
Soon after returning from France, Jefferson accepted Washington 's invitation to serve as Secretary of State. Jefferson had initially expected to return to France, but Washington insisted that he be on his new Cabinet. Pressing issues at this time were the national debt and the permanent location of the capital. Jefferson opposed a national debt, preferring that each state retire its own, in contrast to Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who desired consolidation of various states ' debts by the federal government. Hamilton also had bold plans to establish the national credit and a national bank, but Jefferson strenuously opposed this and attempted to undermine his agenda, which nearly led Washington to dismiss him from his cabinet. Jefferson later left the cabinet voluntarily; Washington never forgave him, and never spoke to him again.
The second major issue was the capital 's permanent location. Hamilton favored a capital close to the major commercial centers of the Northeast, while Washington, Jefferson, and other agrarians wanted it located to the south. After lengthy deadlock, the Compromise of 1790 was struck, permanently locating the capital on the Potomac River, and the federal government assumed the war debts of all thirteen states.
In the Spring of 1791, Jefferson and Congressman James Madison took a vacation to Vermont. Jefferson had been suffering from migraines and he was tired of Hamilton in - fighting. In May 1792, Jefferson was alarmed at the political rivalries taking shape; he wrote to Washington, urging him to run for re-election that year as a unifying influence. He urged the president to rally the citizenry to a party that would defend democracy against the corrupting influence of banks and monied interests, as espoused by the Federalists. Historians recognize this letter as the earliest delineation of Democratic - Republican Party principles. Jefferson, Madison, and other Democratic - Republican organizers favored states ' rights and local control and opposed federal concentration of power, whereas Hamilton sought more power for the federal government.
Jefferson supported France against Britain when the two nations fought in 1793, though his arguments in the Cabinet were undercut by French Revolutionary envoy Edmond - Charles Genêt 's open scorn for President Washington. In his discussions with British Minister George Hammond, Jefferson tried unsuccessfully to persuade the British to acknowledge their violation of the Treaty of Paris, to vacate their posts in the Northwest, and to compensate the U.S. for slaves whom the British had freed at the end of the war. Seeking a return to private life, Jefferson resigned the cabinet position in December 1793, perhaps to bolster his political influence from outside the administration.
After the Washington administration negotiated the Jay Treaty with Great Britain (1794), Jefferson saw a cause around which to rally his party and organized a national opposition from Monticello. The treaty, designed by Hamilton, aimed to reduce tensions and increase trade. Jefferson warned that it would increase British influence and subvert republicanism, calling it "the boldest act (Hamilton and Jay) ever ventured on to undermine the government ''. The Treaty passed, but it expired in 1805 during Jefferson 's administration and was not renewed. Jefferson continued his pro-French stance; during the violence of the Reign of Terror, he declined to disavow the revolution: "To back away from France would be to undermine the cause of republicanism in America. ''
In the presidential campaign of 1796, Jefferson lost the electoral college vote to Federalist John Adams by 71 -- 68 and was elected vice president because of a mistake in voting for Adams ' running mate. As presiding officer of the Senate, he assumed a more passive role than his predecessor John Adams. He allowed the Senate to freely conduct debates and confined his participation to procedural issues, which he called an "honorable and easy '' role. Jefferson had previously studied parliamentary law and procedure for forty years, making him unusually well qualified to serve as presiding officer. In 1800, he published his assembled notes on Senate procedure as A Manual of Parliamentary Practice.
Jefferson held four confidential talks with French consul Joseph Létombe in the spring of 1797 where he attacked Adams, predicting that his rival would serve only one term. He also encouraged France to invade England, and advised Létombe to stall any American envoys sent to Paris by instructing him to "listen to them and then drag out the negotiations at length and mollify them by the urbanity of the proceedings. '' This toughened the tone that the French government adopted toward the Adams administration. After Adams ' initial peace envoys were rebuffed, Jefferson and his supporters lobbied for the release of papers related to the incident, called the XYZ Affair after the letters used to disguise the identities of the French officials involved. However, the tactic backfired when it was revealed that French officials had demanded bribes, rallying public support against France. The U.S. began an undeclared naval war with France known as the Quasi-War.
During the Adams presidency, the Federalists rebuilt the military, levied new taxes, and enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson believed that these laws were intended to suppress Democratic - Republicans, rather than prosecute enemy aliens, and considered them unconstitutional. To rally opposition, he and James Madison anonymously wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, declaring that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it by the states. The resolutions followed the "interposition '' approach of Madison, in which states may shield their citizens from federal laws that they deem unconstitutional. Jefferson advocated nullification, allowing states to invalidate federal laws altogether. Jefferson warned that, "unless arrested at the threshold '', the Alien and Sedition Acts would "necessarily drive these states into revolution and blood ''.
Historian Ron Chernow claims that "the theoretical damage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions was deep and lasting, and was a recipe for disunion '', contributing to the American Civil War as well as later events. Washington was so appalled by the resolutions that he told Patrick Henry that, if "systematically and pertinaciously pursued '', the resolutions would "dissolve the union or produce coercion. ''
Jefferson and Madison moved to Philadelphia and founded the National Gazette in 1791, along with poet and writer Phillip Freneau, in an effort to counter Hamilton 's Federalist policies, which Hamilton was promoting through the influential Federalist newspaper the Gazette of the United States. The National Gazette made particular criticism of the policies promoted by Alexander Hamilton, often through anonymous essays signed by the pen name Brutus at Jefferson 's urging, which were actually written by Madison.
Jefferson had always admired Washington 's leadership skills but felt that his Federalist party was leading the country in the wrong direction. Jefferson thought it wise not to attend his funeral in 1799 because of acute differences with Washington while serving as Secretary of State, and remained at Monticello.
In the 1800 presidential election, Jefferson contended once more against Federalist John Adams. Adams ' campaign was weakened by unpopular taxes and vicious Federalist infighting over his actions in the Quasi-War. Republicans pointed to the Alien and Sedition Acts and accused the Federalists of being secret monarchists, while Federalists charged that Jefferson was a godless libertine in thrall to the French. Historian Joyce Appleby said the election was "one of the most acrimonious in the annals of American history ''.
Republicans ultimately won more electoral college votes, but Jefferson and his vice presidential candidate Aaron Burr unexpectedly received an equal total. Due to the tie, the election was decided by the Federalist - dominated House of Representatives. Hamilton lobbied Federalist representatives on Jefferson 's behalf, believing him a lesser political evil than Burr. On February 17, 1801, after thirty - six ballots, the House elected Jefferson president and Burr vice president.
The win was marked by Republican celebrations throughout the country. Some of Jefferson 's opponents argued that he owed his victory over Adams to the South 's inflated number of electors, due to counting slaves as partial population under the Three - Fifths Compromise. '' Others alleged that Jefferson secured James Asheton Bayard 's tie - breaking electoral vote by guaranteeing the retention of various Federalist posts in the government. Jefferson disputed the allegation, and the historical record is inconclusive.
The transition proceeded smoothly, marking a watershed in American history. As historian Gordon S. Wood writes, "it was one of the first popular elections in modern history that resulted in the peaceful transfer of power from one ' party ' to another. ''
Jefferson was sworn in by Chief Justice John Marshall at the new Capitol in Washington, D.C. on March 4, 1801. In contrast to his predecessors, Jefferson exhibited a dislike of formal etiquette; he arrived alone on horseback without escort, dressed plainly and, after dismounting, retired his own horse to the nearby stable. His inaugural address struck a note of reconciliation, declaring, "We have been called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists. '' Ideologically, Jefferson stressed "equal and exact justice to all men '', minority rights, and freedom of speech, religion, and press. He said that a free and democratic government was "the strongest government on earth. '' He nominated moderate Republicans to his cabinet: James Madison as Secretary of State, Henry Dearborn as Secretary of War, Levi Lincoln as Attorney General, and Robert Smith as Secretary of the Navy.
Upon assuming office, he first confronted an $83 million national debt. He began dismantling Hamilton 's Federalist fiscal system with help from Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin. Jefferson 's administration eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes after closing "unnecessary offices '' and cutting "useless establishments and expenses ''. They attempted to disassemble the national bank and its effect of increasing national debt, but were dissuaded by Gallatin. Jefferson shrank the Navy, deeming it unnecessary in peacetime. Instead, he incorporated a fleet of inexpensive gunboats used only for defense with the idea that they would not provoke foreign hostilities. After two terms, he had lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million.
Jefferson pardoned several of those imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts. Congressional Republicans repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which removed nearly all of Adams ' "midnight judges '' from office. A subsequent appointment battle led to the Supreme Court 's landmark decision in Marbury v. Madison, asserting judicial review over executive branch actions. Jefferson appointed three Supreme Court justices: William Johnson (1804), Henry Brockholst Livingston (1807), and Thomas Todd (1807).
Jefferson strongly felt the need for a national military university, producing an officer engineering corps for a national defense based on the advancement of the sciences, rather than having to rely on foreign sources for top grade engineers with questionable loyalty. He signed the Military Peace Establishment Act on March 16, 1802, thus founding the United States Military Academy at West Point. The Act documented in 29 sections a new set of laws and limits for the military. Jefferson was also hoping to bring reform to the Executive branch, replacing Federalists and active opponents throughout the officer corps to promote Republican values.
American merchant ships had been protected from Barbary Coast pirates by the Royal Navy when the states were British colonies. After independence, however, pirates often captured U.S. merchant ships, pillaged cargoes, and enslaved or held crew members for ransom. Jefferson had opposed paying tribute to the Barbary States since 1785. In March 1786, he and John Adams went to London to negotiate with Tripoli 's envoy, ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman (or Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja). In 1801, he authorized a U.S. Navy fleet under Commodore Richard Dale to make a show of force in the Mediterranean, the first American naval squadron to cross the Atlantic. Following the fleet 's first engagement, he successfully asked Congress for a declaration of war. The subsequent "First Barbary War '' was the first foreign war fought by the U.S.
Pasha of Tripoli Yusuf Karamanli captured the USS Philadelphia, so Jefferson authorized William Eaton, the U.S. Consul to Tunis, to lead a force to restore the pasha 's older brother to the throne. The American navy forced Tunis and Algiers into breaking their alliance with Tripoli. Jefferson ordered five separate naval bombardments of Tripoli, leading the pasha to sign a treaty that restored peace in the Mediterranean. This victory proved only temporary, but according to Wood, "many Americans celebrated it as a vindication of their policy of spreading free trade around the world and as a great victory for liberty over tyranny. ''
Spain ceded ownership of the Louisiana territory in 1800 to the more predominant France. Jefferson was greatly concerned that Napoleon 's broad interests in the vast territory would threaten the security of the continent and Mississippi River shipping. He wrote that the cession "works most sorely on the U.S. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. '' In 1802, he instructed James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston to negotiate with Napoleon to purchase New Orleans and adjacent coastal areas from France. In early 1803, Jefferson offered Napoleon nearly $10 million for 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometers) of tropical territory.
Napoleon realized that French military control was impractical over such a vast remote territory, and he was in dire need of funds for his wars on the home front. In early April 1803, he unexpectedly made negotiators a counter-offer to sell 827,987 square miles (2,144,480 square kilometers) of French territory for $15 million, doubling the size of the United States. U.S. negotiators seized this unique opportunity and accepted the offer and signed the treaty on April 30, 1803. Word of the unexpected purchase did n't reach Jefferson until July 3, 1803. He unknowingly acquired the most fertile tract of land of its size on Earth, making the new country self - sufficient in food and other resources. The sale also significantly curtailed British and French imperial ambitions in North America, removing obstacles to U.S. westward expansion.
Most thought that this was an exceptional opportunity, despite Republican reservations about the Constitutional authority of the federal government to acquire land. Jefferson initially thought that a Constitutional amendment was necessary to purchase and govern the new territory; but he later changed his mind, fearing that this would give cause to oppose the purchase, and he therefore urged a speedy debate and ratification. On October 20, 1803, the Senate ratified the purchase treaty by a vote of 24 -- 7.
After the purchase, Jefferson preserved the region 's Spanish legal code and instituted a gradual approach for integrating settlers into American democracy. He believed that a period of federal rule would be necessary while Louisianians adjusted to their new nation. Historians have differed in their assessments regarding the constitutional implications of the sale, but they typically hail the Louisiana acquisition as a major accomplishment. Frederick Jackson Turner called the purchase the most formative event in American history.
Jefferson anticipated further westward settlements due to the Louisiana Purchase and arranged for the exploration and mapping of the uncharted territory. He sought to establish a U.S. claim ahead of competing European interests and to find the rumored Northwest Passage. Jefferson and others were influenced by exploration accounts of Le Page du Pratz in Louisiana (1763) and Captain James Cook in the Pacific (1784), and they persuaded Congress in 1804 to fund an expedition to explore and map the newly acquired territory to the Pacific Ocean.
Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to be leaders of the Corps of Discovery (1803 -- 1806). In the months leading up to the expedition, Jefferson tutored Lewis in the sciences of mapping, botany, natural history, mineralogy, and astronomy and navigation, giving him unlimited access to his library at Monticello, which included the largest collection of books in the world on the subject of the geography and natural history of the North American continent, along with an impressive collection of maps.
The expedition lasted from May 1804 to September 1806 (see Timeline) and obtained a wealth of scientific and geographic knowledge, including knowledge of many Indian tribes.
In addition to the Corps of Discovery, Jefferson organized three other western expeditions: the William Dunbar and George Hunter expedition on the Ouachita River (1804 -- 1805), the Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis expedition (1806) on the Red River, and the Zebulon Pike expedition (1806 -- 1807) into the Rocky Mountains and the Southwest. All three produced valuable information about the American frontier.
Jefferson 's experiences with the American Indians began during his boyhood in Virginia and extended through his political career and into his retirement. He refuted the contemporary notion that Indians were an inferior people and maintained that they were equal in body and mind to people of European descent.
As governor of Virginia during the Revolutionary War, Jefferson recommended moving the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes, who had allied with the British, to west of the Mississippi River. But when he took office as President, he quickly took measures to avert another major conflict, as American and Indian societies were in collision and the British were inciting Indian tribes from Canada. In Georgia, he stipulated that the state would release its legal claims for lands to its west in exchange for military support in expelling the Cherokee from Georgia. This facilitated his policy of western expansion, to "advance compactly as we multiply ''.
In keeping with his Enlightenment thinking, President Jefferson adopted an assimilation policy towards American Indians known as his "civilization program '' which included securing peaceful U.S. -- Indian treaty alliances and encouraging agriculture. Jefferson advocated that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit holding their lands as collateral for repayment. Various tribes accepted Jefferson 's policies, including the Shawnees led by Black Hoof, the Creek, and the Cherokees. However, some Shawnees broke off from Black Hoof, led by Tecumseh, and opposed Jefferson 's assimilation policies.
Historian Bernard Sheehan argues that Jefferson believed that assimilation was best for American Indians; second best was removal to the west. He felt that the worst outcome of the cultural and resources conflict between American citizens and American Indians would be their attacking the whites. Jefferson told Secretary of War General Henry Dearborn (Indian affairs were then under the War Department), "If we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated or driven beyond the Mississippi. '' Miller agrees that Jefferson believed that Indians should assimilate to American customs and agriculture. Historians such as Peter S. Onuf and Merrill D. Peterson argue that Jefferson 's actual Indian policies did little to promote assimilation and were a pretext to seize lands.
Jefferson 's successful first term occasioned his re-nomination for president by the Republican party, with George Clinton replacing Burr as his running mate. The Federalist party ran Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, John Adams ' vice presidential candidate in the 1800 election. The Jefferson - Clinton ticket won overwhelmingly in the electoral college vote, by 162 to 14, promoting their achievement of a strong economy, lower taxes, and the Louisiana Purchase.
In March 1806, a split developed in the Republican party, led by fellow Virginian and former Republican ally John Randolph who viciously accused President Jefferson on the floor of the House of moving too far in the Federalist direction. In so doing, Randolph permanently set himself apart politically from Jefferson. Jefferson and Madison had backed resolutions to limit or ban British imports in retaliation for British actions against American shipping. Also, in 1808, Jefferson was the first president to propose a broad Federal plan to build roads and canals across several states, asking for $20 million, further alarming Randolph and believers of limited government.
Jefferson 's popularity further suffered in his second term due to his response to wars in Europe. Positive relations with Great Britain had diminished, due partly to the antipathy between Jefferson and British diplomat Anthony Merry. After Napoleon 's decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Napoleon became more aggressive in his negotiations over trading rights, which American efforts failed to counter. Jefferson then led the enactment of the Embargo Act of 1807, directed at both France and Great Britain. This triggered economic chaos in the U.S. and was strongly criticized at the time, resulting in Jefferson having to abandon the policy a year later.
During the revolutionary era, the states abolished the international slave trade, but South Carolina reopened it. In his annual message of December 1806, Jefferson denounced the "violations of human rights '' attending the international slave trade, calling on the newly elected Congress to criminalize it immediately. In 1807, Congress passed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, which Jefferson signed. The act established severe punishment against the international slave trade, although it did not address the issue domestically.
In the wake of the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson sought to annex Florida from Spain, as brokered by Napoleon. Congress agreed to the President 's request to secretly appropriate purchase money in the "$2,000,000 Bill ''. The Congressional funding drew criticism from Randolph, who believed that the money would wind up in the coffers of Napoleon. The bill was signed into law; however, negotiations for the project failed. Jefferson lost clout among fellow Republicans, and his use of unofficial Congressional channels was sharply criticized. In Haiti, Jefferson 's neutrality had allowed arms to enable the slave independence movement during its Revolution, and blocked attempts to assist Napoleon, who was defeated there in 1803. But he refused official recognition of the country during his second term, in deference to southern complaints about the racial violence against slave - holders; it was eventually extended to Haiti in 1862. Domestically, Jefferson 's grandson James Madison Randolph became the first child born in the White House in 1806.
Following the 1801 electoral deadlock, Jefferson 's relationship rapidly eroded with his Vice President, former New York Senator Aaron Burr. Jefferson suspected Burr of seeking the presidency for himself, while Burr was angered by Jefferson 's refusal to appoint some of his supporters to federal office. Burr was dropped from the Republican ticket in 1804.
The same year, Burr was soundly defeated in his bid to be elected New York governor. During the campaign, Alexander Hamilton publicly made callous remarks regarding Burr 's moral character. Subsequently, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, mortally wounding and killing Hamilton on July 11, 1804. Burr was indicted for Hamilton 's murder in New York and New Jersey, causing him to flee to Georgia, although he remained President of the Senate during Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase 's impeachment trial. Both indictments quietly died and Burr was not prosecuted. Also during the election, certain New England separatists approached Burr, desiring a New England federation and intimating that he would be their leader. However, nothing came of the plot, since Burr had lost the election and his reputation was ruined after killing Hamilton. In August 1804, Burr contacted British Minister Anthony Merry offering to capture U.S. western territory in return for money and British ships.
After leaving office in April 1805, Burr traveled west and conspired with Louisiana Territory governor James Wilkinson, beginning a large - scale recruitment for a military expedition. Other plotters included Ohio Senator John Smith and an Irishman named Harmon Blennerhassett. Burr discussed a number of plots -- seizing control of Mexico or Spanish Florida, or forming a secessionist state in New Orleans or the Western U.S. Historians remain unclear as to his true goal.
In the fall of 1806, Burr launched a military flotilla carrying about 60 men down the Ohio River. Wilkinson renounced the plot, apparently from self - interested motives; he reported Burr 's expedition to Jefferson, who immediately ordered Burr 's arrest. On February 13, 1807, Burr was captured in Louisiana 's Bayou Pierre wilderness and sent to Virginia to be tried for treason.
Burr 's 1807 conspiracy trial became a national issue. Jefferson attempted to preemptively influence the verdict by telling Congress that Burr 's guilt was "beyond question '', but the case came before his longtime political foe John Marshall, who dismissed the treason charge. Burr 's legal team at one stage subpoenaed Jefferson, but Jefferson refused to testify, making the first argument for executive privilege. Instead, Jefferson provided relevant legal documents. After a three - month trial, the jury found Burr not guilty, while Jefferson denounced his acquittal. Jefferson subsequently removed Wilkinson as territorial governor but retained him in the U.S. military. Historian James N. Banner criticized Jefferson for continuing to trust Wilkinson, a "faithless plotter ''.
The British conducted raids on American shipping and kidnapped seamen in 1806 -- 07; thousands of Americans were thus impressed into the British naval service. In 1806, Jefferson issued a call for a boycott of British goods; on April 18, Congress passed the Non-Importation Acts, but they were never enforced. Later that year, Jefferson asked James Monroe and William Pinkney to negotiate with Great Britain to end the harassment of American shipping, though Britain showed no signs of improving relations. The Monroe -- Pinkney Treaty was finalized but lacked any provisions to end impressment, and Jefferson refused to submit it to the Senate for ratification.
The British ship HMS Leopard fired upon the USS Chesapeake off the Virginia coast in June 1807, and Jefferson prepared for war. He issued a proclamation banning armed British ships from U.S. waters. He presumed unilateral authority to call on the states to prepare 100,000 militia and ordered the purchase of arms, ammunition, and supplies, writing, "The laws of necessity, of self - preservation, of saving our country when in danger, are of higher obligation (than strict observance of written laws) ''. The USS Revenge was dispatched to demand an explanation from the British government; it also was fired upon. Jefferson called for a special session of Congress in October to enact an embargo or alternatively to consider war.
In December, news arrived that Napoleon had extended the Berlin Decree, globally banning British imports. In Britain, King George III ordered redoubling efforts at impressment, including American sailors. But the war fever of the summer faded; Congress had no appetite to prepare the U.S. for war. Jefferson asked for and received the Embargo Act, an alternative that allowed the U.S. more time to build up defensive works, militias, and naval forces. Later historians have seen irony in Jefferson 's assertion of such federal power. Meacham claims that the Embargo Act was a projection of power which surpassed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and R.B. Bernstein writes that Jefferson "was pursuing policies resembling those he had cited in 1776 as grounds for independence and revolution ''.
Secretary of State James Madison supported the embargo with equal vigor to Jefferson, while Treasury Secretary Gallatin opposed it, due to its indefinite time frame and the risk that it posed to the policy of American neutrality. The U.S. economy suffered, criticism grew, and opponents began evading the embargo. Instead of retreating, Jefferson sent federal agents to secretly track down smugglers and violators. Three acts were passed in Congress during 1807 and 1808, called the Supplementary, the Additional, and the Enforcement acts. The government could not prevent American vessels from trading with the European belligerents once they had left American ports, although the embargo triggered a devastating decline in exports.
Most historians consider Jefferson 's embargo to have been ineffective and harmful to American interests. Appleby describes the strategy as Jefferson 's "least effective policy '', and Joseph Ellis calls it "an unadulterated calamity ''. Others, however, portray it as an innovative, nonviolent measure which aided France in its war with Britain while preserving American neutrality. Jefferson believed that the failure of the embargo was due to selfish traders and merchants showing a lack of "republican virtue. '' He maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided war in 1812.
In December 1807, Jefferson announced his intention not to seek a third term. He turned his attention increasingly to Monticello during the last year of his presidency, giving Madison and Gallatin almost total control of affairs. Shortly before leaving office in March 1809, Jefferson signed the repeal of the Embargo. In its place, the Non-Intercourse Act was passed, but it proved no more effective. The day before Madison was inaugurated as his successor, Jefferson said that he felt like "a prisoner, released from his chains ''.
Following his retirement from the presidency, Jefferson continued his pursuit of educational interests; he sold his vast collection of books to the Library of Congress, and founded and built the University of Virginia. Jefferson continued to correspond with many of the country 's leaders, and the Monroe Doctrine bears a strong resemblance to solicited advice that Jefferson gave to Monroe in 1823. As he settled into private life at Monticello, Jefferson developed a daily routine of rising early. He would spend several hours writing letters, with which he was often deluged. In the midday, he would often inspect the plantation on horseback. In the evenings, his family enjoyed leisure time in the gardens; late at night, Jefferson would retire to bed with a book. However, his routine was often interrupted by uninvited visitors and tourists eager to see the icon in his final days, turning Monticello into "a virtual hotel ''.
Jefferson envisioned a university free of church influences where students could specialize in many new areas not offered at other colleges. He believed that education engendered a stable society, which should provide publicly funded schools accessible to students from all social strata, based solely on ability. He initially proposed his University in a letter to Joseph Priestley in 1800 and, in 1819, the 76 - year - old Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. He organized the state legislative campaign for its charter and, with the assistance of Edmund Bacon, purchased the location. He was the principal designer of the buildings, planned the university 's curriculum, and served as the first rector upon its opening in 1825.
Jefferson was a strong disciple of Greek and Roman architectural styles, which he believed to be most representative of American democracy. Each academic unit, called a pavilion, was designed with a two - story temple front, while the library "Rotunda '' was modeled on the Roman Pantheon. Jefferson referred to the university 's grounds as the "Academical Village, '' and he reflected his educational ideas in its layout. The ten pavilions included classrooms and faculty residences; they formed a quadrangle and were connected by colonnades, behind which stood the students ' rows of rooms. Gardens and vegetable plots were placed behind the pavilions and were surrounded by serpentine walls, affirming the importance of the agrarian lifestyle. The university had a library rather than a church at its center, emphasizing its secular nature -- a controversial aspect at the time.
When Jefferson died in 1826, James Madison replaced him as rector. Jefferson bequeathed most of his library to the university.
Jefferson and John Adams had been good friends in the first decades of their political careers, serving together in the Continental Congress in the 1770s and in Europe in the 1780s. The Federalist / Republican split of the 1790s divided them, however, and Adams felt betrayed by Jefferson 's sponsorship of partisan attacks, such as those of James Callender. Jefferson, on the other hand, was angered at Adams for his appointment of "midnight judges ''. The two men did not communicate directly for more than a decade after Jefferson succeeded Adams as president. A brief correspondence took place between Abigail Adams and Jefferson after Jefferson 's daughter "Polly '' died in 1804, in an attempt at reconciliation unknown to Adams. However, an exchange of letters resumed open hostilities between Adams and Jefferson.
As early as 1809, Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence, desired that Jefferson and Adams reconcile and began to prod the two through correspondence to re-establish contact. In 1812, Adams wrote a short New Year 's greeting to Jefferson, prompted earlier by Rush, to which Jefferson warmly responded. Thus began what historian David McCullough calls "one of the most extraordinary correspondences in American history ''. Over the next fourteen years, the former presidents exchanged 158 letters discussing their political differences, justifying their respective roles in events, and debating the revolution 's import to the world. When Adams died, his last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives '', unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before.
In 1821, at the age of 77 Jefferson began writing his autobiography, in order to "state some recollections of dates and facts concerning myself ''. He focused on the struggles and achievements he experienced until July 29, 1790, where the narrative stopped short. * He excluded his youth, emphasizing the revolutionary era. He related that his ancestors came from Wales to America in the early 17th century and settled in the western frontier of the Virginia colony, which influenced his zeal for individual and state rights. Jefferson described his father as uneducated, but with a "strong mind and sound judgement ''. His enrollment in the College of William and Mary and election to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775 were included.
He also expressed opposition to the idea of a privileged aristocracy made up of large land owning families partial to the King, and instead promoted "the aristocracy of virtue and talent, which nature has wisely provided for the direction of the interests of society, & scattered with equal hand through all it 's conditions, was deemed essential to a well ordered republic ''.
Jefferson gave his insight about people, politics, and events. The work is primarily concerned with the Declaration and reforming the government of Virginia. He used notes, letters, and documents to tell many of the stories within the autobiography. He suggested that this history was so rich that his personal affairs were better overlooked, but he incorporated a self - analysis using the Declaration and other patriotism.
In the summer of 1824, the Marquis de Lafayette accepted an invitation from President James Monroe to visit the country. Jefferson and Lafayette had not seen each other since 1789. After visits to New York, New England, and Washington, Lafayette arrived at Monticello on November 4.
Jefferson 's grandson Randolph was present and recorded the reunion: "As they approached each other, their uncertain gait quickened itself into a shuffling run, and exclaiming, ' Ah Jefferson! ' ' Ah Lafayette! ', they burst into tears as they fell into each other 's arms. '' Jefferson and Lafayette then retired to the house to reminisce. The next morning Jefferson, Lafayette, and James Madison attended a tour and banquet at the University of Virginia. Jefferson had someone else read a speech he had prepared for Lafayette, as his voice was weak and could not carry. This was his last public presentation. After an 11 - day visit, Lafayette bid Jefferson goodbye and departed Monticello.
Jefferson 's approximately $100,000 of debt weighed heavily on his mind in his final months, as it became increasingly clear that he would have little to leave to his heirs. In February 1826, he successfully applied to the General Assembly to hold a public lottery as a fund raiser. His health began to deteriorate in July 1825, due to a combination of rheumatism from arm and wrist injuries, as well as intestinal and urinary disorders and, by June 1826, he was confined to bed. On July 3, Jefferson was overcome by fever and declined an invitation to Washington to attend an anniversary celebration of the Declaration.
During the last hours of his life, he was accompanied by family members and friends. On July 4 at 12: 50 p.m., Jefferson died at age 83 on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and just a few hours before the death of John Adams. When Adams died, his last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives '', though Adams was unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before. The sitting president was Adams ' son John Quincy, and he called the coincidence of their deaths on the nation 's anniversary "visible and palpable remarks of Divine Favor ''.
Shortly after Jefferson had died, attendants found a gold locket on a chain around his neck, where it had rested for more than forty years, containing a small faded blue ribbon which tied a lock of his wife Martha 's brown hair.
Jefferson 's remains were buried at Monticello, under a self - written epitaph:
HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON, AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA.
Jefferson died deeply in debt, unable to pass on his estate freely to his heirs. He gave instructions in his will for disposal of his assets, including the freeing of Sally Hemings ' children; but his estate, possessions, and slaves were sold at public auctions starting in 1827. In 1831, Monticello was sold by Martha Jefferson Randolph and the other heirs.
Jefferson subscribed to the political ideals expounded by John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. He was also influenced by the writings of Gibbon, Hume, Robertson, Bolingbroke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire. Jefferson thought that the independent yeoman and agrarian life were ideals of republican virtues. He distrusted cities and financiers, favored decentralized government power, and believed that the tyranny that had plagued the common man in Europe was due to corrupt political establishments and monarchies. He supported efforts to disestablish the Church of England wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, and he pressed for a wall of separation between church and state. The Republicans under Jefferson were strongly influenced by the 18th - century British Whig Party, who believed in limited government. His Democratic - Republican Party became dominant in early American politics, and his views became known as Jeffersonian democracy.
According to Jefferson 's philosophy, citizens have "certain inalienable rights '' and "rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will, within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others ''. A staunch advocate of the jury system to protect people 's liberties, he proclaimed in 1801, "I consider (trial by jury) as the only anchor yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution. '' Jeffersonian government not only prohibited individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of others, but also restrained itself from diminishing individual liberty as a protection against tyranny from the majority. Initially, Jefferson favored restricted voting to those who could actually have free exercise of their reason by escaping any corrupting dependence on others. He advocated enfranchising a majority of Virginians, seeking to expand suffrage to include "yeoman farmers '' who owned their own land while excluding tenant farmers, city day laborers, vagrants, most Amerindians, and women.
He was convinced that individual liberties were the fruit of political equality, which were threatened by arbitrary government. Excesses of democracy in his view were caused by institutional corruptions rather than human nature. He was less suspicious of a working democracy than many contemporaries. As president, Jefferson feared that the Federalist system enacted by Washington and Adams had encouraged corrupting patronage and dependence. He tried to restore a balance between the state and federal governments more nearly reflecting the Articles of Confederation, seeking to reinforce state prerogatives where his party was in a majority.
Jefferson was steeped in the British Whig tradition of the oppressed majority set against a repeatedly unresponsive court party in the Parliament. He justified small outbreaks of rebellion as necessary to get monarchial regimes to amend oppressive measures compromising popular liberties. In a republican regime ruled by the majority, he acknowledged "it will often be exercised when wrong ''. But "the remedy is to set them right as to facts, pardon and pacify them ''. As Jefferson saw his party triumph in two terms of his presidency and launch into a third term under James Madison, his view of the U.S. as a continental republic and an "empire of liberty '' grew more upbeat. On departing the presidency in 1809, he described America as "trusted with the destines of this solitary republic of the world, the only monument of human rights, and the sole depository of the sacred fire of freedom and self - government ''.
Jefferson considered democracy to be the expression of society, and promoted national self - determination, cultural uniformity, and education of all males of the commonwealth. He supported public education and a free press as essential components of a democratic nation.
After resigning as secretary of state in 1795, Jefferson focused on the electoral bases of the Republicans and Federalists. The "Republican '' classification for which he advocated included "the entire body of landholders '' everywhere and "the body of laborers '' without land. Republicans united behind Jefferson as vice president, with the election of 1796 expanding democracy nationwide at grassroots levels. Jefferson promoted Republican candidates for local offices.
Beginning with Jefferson 's electioneering for the "revolution of 1800 '', his political efforts were based on egalitarian appeals. In his later years, he referred to the 1800 election "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of ' 76 was in its form '', one "not effected indeed by the sword... but by the... suffrage of the people. '' Voter participation grew during Jefferson 's presidency, increasing to "unimaginable levels '' compared to the Federalist Era, with turnout of about 67,000 in 1800 rising to about 143,000 in 1804.
At the onset of the Revolution, Jefferson accepted William Blackstone 's argument that property ownership would sufficiently empower voters ' independent judgement, but he sought to further expand suffrage by land distribution to the poor. In the heat of the Revolutionary Era and afterward, several states expanded voter eligibility from landed gentry to all propertied male, tax - paying citizens with Jefferson 's support. In retirement, he gradually became critical of his home state for violating "the principle of equal political rights '' -- the social right of universal male suffrage. He sought a "general suffrage '' of all taxpayers and militia - men, and equal representation by population in the General Assembly to correct preferential treatment of the slave - holding regions.
Baptized in his youth, Jefferson became a governing member of his local Episcopal Church in Charlottesville, which he later attended with his daughters. Influenced by Deist authors during his college years Jefferson abandoned "orthodox '' Christianity after his review of New Testament teachings. In 1803 he asserted, "I am Christian, in the only sense in which (Jesus) wished any one to be. '' Jefferson later defined being a Christian as one who followed the simple teachings of Jesus. Jefferson compiled Jesus ' biblical teachings, omitting miraculous or supernatural references. He titled the work The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth, known today as the Jefferson Bible. Peterson states Jefferson was a theist "whose God was the Creator of the universe... all the evidences of nature testified to His perfection; and man could rely on the harmony and beneficence of His work. ''
Jefferson was firmly anticlerical, writing in "every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty... they have perverted the purest religion ever preached to man into mystery and jargon. '' The full letter to Horatio Spatford can be read at the National Archives. Jefferson once supported banning clergy from public office but later relented. In 1777, he drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Ratified in 1786, it made compelling attendance or contributions to any state - sanctioned religious establishment illegal and declared that men "shall be free to profess... their opinions in matters of religion. '' The Statute is one of only three accomplishments he chose to have inscribed in the epitaph on his gravestone. Early in 1802, Jefferson wrote to the Danbury Connecticut Baptist Association, "that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man and his God. '' He interpreted the First Amendment as having built "a wall of separation between Church and State. '' The phrase ' Separation of Church and State ' has been cited several times by the Supreme Court in its interpretation of the Establishment Clause.
Jefferson donated to the American Bible Society, saying the Four Evangelists delivered a "pure and sublime system of morality '' to humanity. He thought Americans would rationally create "Apiarian '' religion, extracting the best traditions of every denomination. And he contributed generously to several local denominations nearby Monticello. Acknowledging organized religion would always be factored into political life for good or ill, he encouraged reason over supernatural revelation to make inquiries into religion. He believed in a creator god, an afterlife, and the sum of religion as loving God and neighbors. But he also controversially renounced the conventional Christian Trinity, denying Jesus ' divinity as the Son of God.
Jefferson 's unorthodox religious beliefs became an important issue in the 1800 presidential election. Federalists attacked him as an atheist. As president, Jefferson countered the accusations by praising religion in his inaugural address and attending services at the Capitol.
Jefferson distrusted government banks and opposed public borrowing, which he thought created long - term debt, bred monopolies, and invited dangerous speculation as opposed to productive labor. In one letter to Madison, he argued each generation should curtail all debt within 19 years, and not impose a long - term debt on subsequent generations.
In 1791, President Washington asked Jefferson, then Secretary of State, and Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, if the Congress had the authority to create a national bank. While Hamilton believed Congress had the authority, Jefferson and Madison thought a national bank would ignore the needs of individuals and farmers, and would violate the Tenth Amendment by assuming powers not granted to the federal government by the states.
Jefferson used agrarian resistance to banks and speculators as the first defining principle of an opposition party, recruiting candidates for Congress on the issue as early as 1792. As president, Jefferson was persuaded by Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin to leave the bank intact, but sought to restrain its influence.
Jefferson lived in a planter economy largely dependent upon slavery, and as a wealthy landholder, used slave labor for his household, plantation, and workshops. He first recorded his slaveholding in 1774, when he counted 41. Over his lifetime he owned about 600 slaves; he inherited about 175 while most of the remainder were born on his plantations. Jefferson purchased slaves in order to unite their families, and he sold about 110 for economic reasons, primarily slaves from his outlying farms. Many historians have described Jefferson as a benevolent slaveowner who did n't overwork his slaves by the conventions of his time, and provided them log cabins with fireplaces, food, clothing and some household provisions, though slaves often had to make many of their own provisions. Additionally, Jefferson gave his slaves financial and other incentives while also allowing them to grow gardens and raise their own chickens. The whip was employed only in rare and extreme cases of fighting and stealing.
Jefferson once said, "My first wish is that the labourers may be well treated ''. Jefferson did not work his slaves on Sundays and Christmas and he allowed them more personal time during the winter months. Some scholars doubt Jefferson 's benevolence, however, noting cases of excessive slave whippings in his absence. His nail factory was only staffed by child slaves, but many of those boys became tradesmen. Burwell Colbert, who started his working life as a child in Monticello 's Nailery, was later promoted to the supervisory position of butler.
Jefferson felt slavery was harmful to both slave and master, but had reservations about releasing unprepared slaves into freedom and advocated gradual emancipation. In 1779, he proposed gradual voluntary training and resettlement to the Virginia legislature, and three years later drafted legislation allowing owners to free their own slaves. In his draft of the Declaration of Independence, he included a section, stricken by other Southern delegates, criticizing King George III 's role in promoting slavery in the colonies. In 1784, Jefferson proposed the abolition of slavery in all western U.S. territories, limiting slave importation to 15 years. Congress, however, failed to pass his proposal by one vote. In 1787, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, a partial victory for Jefferson that terminated slavery in the Northwest Territory. Jefferson freed his slave Robert Hemings in 1794 and he freed his cook slave James Hemings in 1796. During his presidency Jefferson allowed the diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory hoping to prevent slave uprisings in Virginia and to prevent South Carolina secession. In 1804, in a compromise on the slavery issue, Jefferson and Congress banned domestic slave trafficking for one year into the Louisiana Territory. In 1806 he officially called for anti-slavery legislation terminating the import or export of slaves. Congress passed the law in 1807, taking effect in 1818. In 1819, he strongly opposed a Missouri statehood application amendment that banned domestic slave importation and freed slaves at the age of 25 on grounds it would destroy the union. Jefferson freed his runaway slave Harriet Hemings in 1822. Upon his death in 1826, Jefferson freed five male Hemings slaves in his will.
Jefferson shared the common belief of his day that blacks were mentally and physically inferior, but argued they nonetheless had innate human rights. In Notes on the State of Virginia, he created controversy by calling slavery a moral evil for which the nation would ultimately have to account to God. He therefore supported colonization plans that would transport freed slaves to another country, such as Liberia or Sierra Leone, though he recognized the impracticability of such proposals.
During his presidency Jefferson was for the most part publicly silent on the issue of slavery and emancipation, as the Congressional debate over slavery and its extension caused a dangerous north - south rift among the states, with talk of a northern confederacy in New England. The violent attacks on white slave owners during the Haitian Revolution due to injustices under slavery supported Jefferson 's fears of a race war, increasing his reservations about promoting emancipation at that time. After numerous attempts and failures to bring about emancipation, Jefferson wrote privately in an 1805 letter to William A. Burwell, "I have long since given up the expectation of any early provision for the extinguishment of slavery among us. '' That same year he also related this idea to George Logan, writing, "I have most carefully avoided every public act or manifestation on that subject. ''
Scholars remain divided on whether Jefferson truly condemned slavery and how he changed. Francis D. Cogliano traces the development of competing emancipationist then revisionist and finally contextualist interpretations from the 1960s to the present. The emancipationist view, held by the various scholars at the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, Douglas L. Wilson, and others maintains Jefferson was an opponent of slavery all his life, noting that he did what he could within the limited range of options available to him to undermine it, his many attempts at abolition legislation, the manner in which he provided for slaves, and his advocacy of their more humane treatment. The revisionist view, advanced by Paul Finkelman and others criticizes Jefferson for racism, for holding slaves, and for acting contrary to his words, as Jefferson never freed most of his slaves, and he remained silent on the issue while he was President. Contextualists such as Joseph J. Ellis emphasize a change in Jefferson 's thinking from emancipationist before 1783, noting a shift toward public passivity and procrastination on policy issues related to slavery. Jefferson seemed to yield to public opinion by 1794 as he laid the groundwork for his first presidential campaign against Adams in 1796.
Claims that Jefferson fathered Sally Hemings ' children have been debated since 1802. That year James T. Callender, after being denied a position as postmaster, alleged Jefferson had taken Hemings as a concubine and fathered several children with her. In 1998, a panel of researchers conducted a Y - DNA study of living descendants of Jefferson 's uncle, Field, and of a descendant of Hemings ' son, Eston Hemings. The results, published in the journal Nature, showed a match with the male Jefferson line. According to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, since the results of the DNA tests were made public, most historians believe Jefferson had a relationship with Hemings. In 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF) assembled a team of historians whose report concluded that "the DNA study... indicates a high probability that Thomas Jefferson fathered Eston Hemings ''. Other scholars maintain the evidence is insufficient to prove Jefferson 's paternity conclusively. They note the possibility that additional Jefferson males, including his brother Randolph Jefferson and Randolph 's five sons, could have fathered Eston Hemings or Sally Hemings ' other children. After Thomas Jefferson 's death, although not formally manumitted, Sally Hemings was allowed by Jefferson 's daughter Martha to live in Charlottesville as a free woman until her death in 1835.
Jefferson was a farmer, obsessed with new crops, soil conditions, garden designs, and scientific agricultural techniques. His main cash crop was tobacco, but its price was usually low and it was rarely profitable. He tried to achieve self - sufficiency with wheat, vegetables, flax, corn, hogs, sheep, poultry, and cattle to supply his family, slaves, and employees, but he had cash flow problems and was always in debt.
In the field of architecture, Jefferson helped popularize the Neo-Palladian style in the United States utilizing designs for the Virginia State Capitol, the University of Virginia, Monticello, and others. Jefferson mastered architecture through self - study, using various books and classical architectural designs of the day. His primary authority was Andrea Palladio 's The Four Books of Architecture, which outlines the principles of classical design.
He was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet; he was also a prolific writer and linguist, and spoke several languages. As a naturalist, he was fascinated by the Natural Bridge geological formation, and in 1774 successfully acquired the Bridge by grant from George III.
Jefferson was a member of the American Philosophical Society for 35 years, beginning in 1780. Through the Society he advanced the sciences and Enlightenment ideals, emphasizing that knowledge of science reinforced and extended freedom. His Notes on the State of Virginia was written in part as a contribution to the Society. He became the Society 's third president on March 3, 1797, a few months after he was elected Vice President of the United States. In accepting, Jefferson stated: "I feel no qualification for this distinguished post but a sincere zeal for all the objects of our institution and an ardent desire to see knowledge so disseminated through the mass of mankind that it may at length reach even the extremes of society, beggars and kings. ''
Jefferson served as APS President for the next eighteen years, including through both terms of his presidency. He introduced Meriwether Lewis to the Society, where various scientists tutored him in preparation for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He resigned on January 20, 1815, but remained active through correspondence.
Jefferson had a lifelong interest in linguistics, could speak, read and write in a number of languages, including French, Greek, Italian, and German. In his early years he excelled in classical language while at boarding school where he received a classical education in Greek and Latin. Jefferson later came to regard the Greek language as the "perfect language '' as expressed in its laws and philosophy. While attending the College of William & Mary, he taught himself Italian. Here Jefferson first became familiar with the Anglo - Saxon language, especially as it was associated with English Common law and system of government and studied the language in a linguistic and philosophical capacity. He owned 17 volumes of Anglo - Saxon texts and grammar and later wrote an essay on the Anglo - Saxon language.
Jefferson claimed to have taught himself Spanish during his nineteen - day journey to France, using only a grammar guide and a copy of Don Quixote. Linguistics played a significant role in how Jefferson modeled and expressed political and philosophical ideas. He believed that the study of ancient languages was essential in understanding the roots of modern language. He collected and understood a number of American Indian vocabularies and instructed Lewis and Clark to record and collect various Indian languages during their Expedition. When Jefferson removed from Washington after his presidency, he packed 50 Native American vocabulary lists in a chest and transported them on a river boat back to Monticello along with the rest of his possessions. Somewhere along the journey, a thief stole the heavy chest, thinking it was full of valuables, but its contents were dumped into the James River when the thief discovered it was only filled with papers. Subsequently, 30 years of collecting were lost, with only a few fragments rescued from the muddy banks of the river.
Jefferson was not an outstanding orator and preferred to communicate through writing or remain silent if possible. Instead of delivering his State of the Union addresses himself, Jefferson wrote the annual messages and sent a representative to read them aloud in Congress. This started a tradition which continued until 1913, when President Woodrow Wilson (1913 -- 1921) chose to deliver his own State of the Union address.
Jefferson invented many small practical devices and improved contemporary inventions, including a revolving book - stand and a "Great Clock '' powered by the gravitational pull on cannonballs. He improved the pedometer, the polygraph (a device for duplicating writing), and the moldboard plow, an idea he never patented and gave to posterity. Jefferson can also be credited as the creator of the swivel chair, the first of which he created and used to write much of the Declaration of Independence.
As Minister to France, Jefferson was impressed by the military standardization program known as the Système Gribeauval, and initiated a program as president to develop interchangeable parts for firearms. For his inventiveness and ingenuity, he received several honorary Doctor of Law degrees.
Jefferson is an icon of individual liberty, democracy, and republicanism, hailed as the author of the Declaration of Independence, an architect of the American Revolution, and a renaissance man who promoted science and scholarship. The participatory democracy and expanded suffrage he championed defined his era and became a standard for later generations. Meacham opined, he was the most influential figure of the democratic republic in its first half century, succeeded by presidential adherents James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren. Jefferson is recognized for having written more than 18,000 letters of political and philosophical substance during his life, which Francis D. Cogliano describes as "a documentary legacy... unprecedented in American history in its size and breadth. ''
Jefferson 's reputation declined during the Civil War due to his support of states ' rights. In the late 19th century, his legacy was widely criticized; conservatives felt his democratic philosophy had led to that era 's populist movement, while Progressives sought a more activist federal government than Jefferson 's philosophy allowed. Both groups saw Hamilton as vindicated by history, rather than Jefferson, and President Woodrow Wilson even described Jefferson as "though a great man, not a great American ''.
In the 1930s, Jefferson was held in higher esteem; President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 45) and New Deal Democrats celebrated his struggles for "the common man '' and reclaimed him as their party 's founder. Jefferson became a symbol of American democracy in the incipient Cold War, and the 1940s and ' 50s saw the zenith of his popular reputation. Following the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and ' 60s, Jefferson 's slaveholding came under new scrutiny, particularly after DNA testing in the late 1990s supported allegations he had a relationship with Sally Hemings.
Noting the huge output of scholarly books on Jefferson in recent years, historian Gordon Wood summarizes the raging debates about Jefferson 's stature: "Although many historians and others are embarrassed about his contradictions and have sought to knock him off the democratic pedestal... his position, though shaky, still seems secure. ''
The Siena Research Institute poll of presidential scholars, begun in 1982, has consistently ranked Jefferson as one of the five best U.S. presidents, and a 2015 Brookings Institution poll of American Political Science Association members ranked him as the fifth greatest president.
Jefferson has been memorialized with buildings, sculptures, postage, and currency. In the 1920s, Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, was chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.
The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C. in 1943, on the 200th anniversary of Jefferson 's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19 - foot (6 m) statue of Jefferson and engravings of passages from his writings. Most prominent are the words inscribed around the monument near the roof: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man. ''
Thomas Jefferson Foundation (Main page and site - search)
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last time fresno state won a bowl game | List of Fresno State Bulldogs bowl games - wikipedia
The Fresno State Bulldogs college football team competes as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), representing California State University, Fresno in the Mountain West Conference (MWC). Since the establishment of the team in 1921, Fresno State has appeared in 27 bowl games. The latest bowl occurred on December 24, 2017, when Fresno State won over Houston 33 -- 27 in the Hawai ʻi Bowl. The win in that game brought the Bulldogs ' overall bowl record to thirteen wins and fourteen losses (13 -- 14).
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where do pear trees grow in the united states | Pear - Wikipedia
About 30 species; see text.
The pear is any of several tree and shrub species of genus Pyrus / ˈpaɪrəs /, in the family Rosaceae.
It is also the name of the pomaceous fruit of the trees. Several species of pear are valued for their edible fruit and juices, while others are cultivated as trees.
The word "pear '' is probably from Germanic pera as a loanword of Vulgar Latin pira, the plural of pirum, akin to Greek apios (from Mycenaean ápisos), of Semitic origin ("pirâ ''), meaning "fruit ''. The term "pyriform '' is used to describe something pear - shaped.
The pear is native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the Old World, from western Europe and north Africa east right across Asia. It is a medium - sized tree, reaching 10 -- 17 metres (33 -- 56 ft) tall, often with a tall, narrow crown; a few species are shrubby.
The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, 2 -- 12 centimetres (0.79 -- 4.72 in) long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery - hairy in some others; leaf shape varies from broad oval to narrow lanceolate. Most pears are deciduous, but one or two species in southeast Asia are evergreen. Most are cold - hardy, withstanding temperatures between − 25 ° C (− 13 ° F) and − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F) in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about − 15 ° C (5 ° F).
The flowers are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2 -- 4 centimetres (0.79 -- 1.57 in) diameter, and have five petals. Like that of the related apple, the pear fruit is a pome, in most wild species 1 -- 4 centimetres (0.39 -- 1.57 in) diameter, but in some cultivated forms up to 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long and 8 centimetres (3.1 in) broad; the shape varies in most species from oblate or globose, to the classic pyriform ' pear - shape ' of the European pear with an elongated basal portion and a bulbous end.
The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower - stalk (the so - called calyx tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five cartilaginous carpels, known colloquially as the "core ''. From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, and the very numerous stamens.
Pears and apples can not always be distinguished by the form of the fruit; some pears look very much like some apples, e.g. the nashi pear. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains stone cells (also called "grit '').
Pear cultivation in cool temperate climates extends to the remotest antiquity, and there is evidence of its use as a food since prehistoric times. Many traces of it have been found in prehistoric pile dwellings around Lake Zurich. The word "pear '', or its equivalent, occurs in all the Celtic languages, while in Slavic and other dialects, differing appellations, still referring to the same thing, are found -- a diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic.
The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples. Pliny 's Natural History recommended stewing them with honey and noted three dozen varieties. The Roman cookbook De re coquinaria has a recipe for a spiced, stewed - pear patina, or soufflé.
A certain race of pears, with white down on the undersurface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of perry (see also cider). Other small - fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple - like fruit, may be referred to as P. cordata, a species found wild in western France and southwestern England. Pears have been cultivated in China for approximately 3000 years.
The genus is thought to have originated in present - day Western China in the foothills of the Tian Shan, a mountain range of Central Asia, and to have spread to the north and south along mountain chains, evolving into a diverse group of over 20 widely recognized primary species. The enormous number of varieties of the cultivated European pear (Pyrus communis subsp. communis), are without doubt derived from one or two wild subspecies (P. communis subsp. pyraster and P. communis subsp. caucasica), widely distributed throughout Europe, and sometimes forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from La Rochelle - Normande and presented to the King by the Sheriffs of the City of London. The French names of pears grown in English medieval gardens suggest that their reputation, at the least, was French; a favored variety in the accounts was named for Saint Rule or Regul ', Bishop of Senlis.
Asian species with medium to large edible fruit include P. pyrifolia, P. ussuriensis, P. × bretschneideri, P. × sinkiangensis, and P. pashia. Other small - fruited species are frequently used as rootstocks for the cultivated forms.
According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide. The pear is normally propagated by grafting a selected variety onto a rootstock, which may be of a pear variety or quince. Quince rootstocks produce smaller trees, which is often desirable in commercial orchards or domestic gardens. For new varieties the flowers can be cross-bred to preserve or combine desirable traits. The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots more than one year old.
Three species account for the vast majority of edible fruit production, the European pear Pyrus communis subsp. communis cultivated mainly in Europe and North America, the Chinese white pear (bai li) Pyrus × bretschneideri, and the Nashi pear Pyrus pyrifolia (also known as Asian pear or apple pear), both grown mainly in eastern Asia. There are thousands of cultivars of these three species. A species grown in western China, P. sinkiangensis, and P. pashia, grown in southern China and south Asia, are also produced to a lesser degree.
Other species are used as rootstocks for European and Asian pears and as ornamental trees. Pear wood is close - grained and at least in the past was used as a specialized timber for fine furniture and making the blocks for woodcuts. The Manchurian or Ussurian Pear, Pyrus ussuriensis (which produces unpalatable fruit) has been crossed with Pyrus communis to breed hardier pear cultivars. The Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana ' Bradford ') in particular has become widespread in North America, and is used only as an ornamental tree, as well as a blight - resistant rootstock for Pyrus communis fruit orchards. The Willow - leaved pear (Pyrus salicifolia) is grown for its attractive, slender, densely silvery - hairy leaves.
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit: -
Summer and autumn cultivars of Pyrus communis, being climacteric fruits, are gathered before they are fully ripe, while they are still green, but snap off when lifted. In the case of the ' Passe Crassane ', long the favored winter pear in France, the crop is traditionally gathered at three different times: the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating last, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged.
Nashi pears are allowed to ripen on the tree.
In 2014, world production of pears was 25.8 million tonnes, led by China with 70 % of the total (table). Other significant producers included Argentina, the United States, and Italy, whose combined production was only 9 % of the world total (table).
Pears may be stored at room temperature until ripe. Pears are ripe when the flesh around the stem gives to gentle pressure. Ripe pears are optimally stored refrigerated, uncovered in a single layer, where they have a shelf life of 2 to 3 days.
Pears are consumed fresh, canned, as juice, and dried. The juice can also be used in jellies and jams, usually in combination with other fruits, including berries. Fermented pear juice is called perry or pear cider and is made in a way that is similar to how cider is made from apples.
Pears ripen at room temperature. They will ripen faster if placed next to bananas in a fruit bowl. Refrigeration will slow further ripening. Pear Bureau Northwest offers tips on ripening and judging ripeness: Although the skin on Bartlett pears changes from green to yellow as they ripen, most varieties show little color change as they ripen. Because pears ripen from the inside out, the best way to judge ripeness is to "Check the Neck '': apply gentle thumb pressure to the neck or stem end of the pear. If it yields to gentle pressure, then the pear is ripe, sweet, and juicy. If it is firm, leave the pear at room temperature and check the neck daily for ripeness.
The culinary or cooking pear is green but dry and hard, and only edible after several hours of cooking. Two Dutch cultivars are "Gieser Wildeman (nl) '' (a sweet variety) and "Saint Remy (pear) (nl) '' (slightly sour).
Pear wood is one of the preferred materials in the manufacture of high - quality woodwind instruments and furniture, and was used for making the carved blocks for woodcuts. It is also used for wood carving, and as a firewood to produce aromatic smoke for smoking meat or tobacco. Pear wood is valued for kitchen spoons, scoops and stirrers, as it does not contaminate food with color, flavor or smell, and resists warping and splintering despite repeated soaking and drying cycles. Lincoln describes it as "a fairly tough, very stable wood... (used for) carving... brushbacks, umbrella handles, measuring instruments such as set squares and T - squares... recorders... violin and guitar fingerboards and piano keys... decorative veneering. '' Pearwood is the favored wood for architect 's rulers because it does not warp. It is similar to the wood of its relative, the apple tree (Malus domestica) and used for many of the same purposes.
Raw pear is 84 % water, 15 % carbohydrates and contains negligible protein and fat (table). A pear in a 100 g serving (small pear) supplies carbohydrates and 57 Calories, and is a good source of dietary fiber, but otherwise provides no essential nutrients in significant amounts (table, USDA National Nutrient Database).
Pears grow in the sublime orchard of Alcinous, in Odyssey vii: "Therein grow trees, tall and luxuriant, pears and pomegranates and apple - trees with their bright fruit, and sweet figs, and luxuriant olives. Of these the fruit perishes not nor fails in winter or in summer, but lasts throughout the year. ''
' A Partridge in a Pear Tree ' is the first gift in "The Twelve Days of Christmas '' cumulative song, this verse is repeated twelve times in the song.
The pear tree was an object of particular veneration (as was the Walnut) in the Tree worship of the Nakh peoples of the North Caucasus -- see Vainakh mythology and see also Ingushetia -- the best - known of the Vainakh peoples today being the Chechens of Chechnya in the Russian Federation. Pear and walnut trees were held to be the sacred abodes of beneficent spirits in pre-Islamic Chechen religion and, for this reason, it was forbidden to fell them.
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why is the long run philips curve vertical | Phillips curve - wikipedia
The Phillips curve is a single - equation empirical model, named after William Phillips, describing a historical inverse relationship between rates of unemployment and corresponding rates of inflation that result within an economy. Stated simply, decreased unemployment, (i.e., increased levels of employment) in an economy will correlate with higher rates of inflation.
While there is a short run tradeoff between unemployment and inflation, it has not been observed in the long run. In 1968, Milton Friedman asserted that the Phillips curve was only applicable in the short - run and that in the long - run, inflationary policies will not decrease unemployment. Friedman then correctly predicted that in the 1973 -- 75 recession, both inflation and unemployment would increase. The long - run Phillips curve is now seen as a vertical line at the natural rate of unemployment, where the rate of inflation has no effect on unemployment. Accordingly, the Phillips curve is now seen as too simplistic, with the unemployment rate supplanted by more accurate predictors of inflation based on velocity of money supply measures such as the MZM ("money zero maturity '') velocity, which is affected by unemployment in the short but not the long term.
William Phillips, a New Zealand born economist, wrote a paper in 1958 titled The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom, 1861 - 1957, which was published in the quarterly journal Economica. In the paper Phillips describes how he observed an inverse relationship between money wage changes and unemployment in the British economy over the period examined. Similar patterns were found in other countries and in 1960 Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow took Phillips ' work and made explicit the link between inflation and unemployment: when inflation was high, unemployment was low, and vice versa.
In the 1920s, an American economist Irving Fisher noted this kind of Phillips curve relationship. However, Phillips ' original curve described the behavior of money wages.
In the years following Phillips ' 1958 paper, many economists in the advanced industrial countries believed that his results showed that there was a permanently stable relationship between inflation and unemployment. One implication of this for government policy was that governments could control unemployment and inflation with a Keynesian policy. They could tolerate a reasonably high rate of inflation as this would lead to lower unemployment -- there would be a trade - off between inflation and unemployment. For example, monetary policy and / or fiscal policy could be used to stimulate the economy, raising gross domestic product and lowering the unemployment rate. Moving along the Phillips curve, this would lead to a higher inflation rate, the cost of enjoying lower unemployment rates. Economist James Forder argues that this view is historically false and that neither economists nor governments took that view and that the ' Phillips curve myth ' was an invention of the 1970s.
Since 1974, seven Nobel Prizes have been given to economists for, among other things, work critical of some variations of the Phillips curve. Some of this criticism is based on the United States ' experience during the 1970s, which had periods of high unemployment and high inflation at the same time. The authors receiving those prizes include Thomas Sargent, Christopher Sims, Edmund Phelps, Edward Prescott, Robert A. Mundell, Robert E. Lucas, Milton Friedman, and F.A. Hayek.
In the 1970s, many countries experienced high levels of both inflation and unemployment also known as stagflation. Theories based on the Phillips curve suggested that this could not happen, and the curve came under a concerted attack from a group of economists headed by Milton Friedman. Friedman argued that the Phillips curve relationship was only a short - run phenomenon. In this he followed eight years after Samuelson and Solow (1960) who wrote "All of our discussion has been phrased in short - run terms, dealing with what might happen in the next few years. It would be wrong, though, to think that our Figure 2 menu that related obtainable price and unemployment behavior will maintain its same shape in the longer run. What we do in a policy way during the next few years might cause it to shift in a definite way. '' As Samuelson and Solow had argued 8 years earlier, he argued that in the long run, workers and employers will take inflation into account, resulting in employment contracts that increase pay at rates near anticipated inflation. Unemployment would then begin to rise back to its previous level, but now with higher inflation rates. This result implies that over the longer - run there is no trade - off between inflation and unemployment. This implication is significant for practical reasons because it implies that central banks should not set unemployment targets below the natural rate.
More recent research has shown that there is a moderate trade - off between low - levels of inflation and unemployment. Work by George Akerlof, William Dickens, and George Perry, implies that if inflation is reduced from two to zero percent, unemployment will be permanently increased by 1.5 percent. This is because workers generally have a higher tolerance for real wage cuts than nominal ones. For example, a worker will more likely accept a wage increase of two percent when inflation is three percent, than a wage cut of one percent when the inflation rate is zero.
Most economists no longer use the Phillips curve in its original form because it was shown to be too simplistic. This can be seen in a cursory analysis of US inflation and unemployment data from 1953 -- 92. There is no single curve that will fit the data, but there are three rough aggregations -- 1955 -- 71, 1974 -- 84, and 1985 -- 92 -- each of which shows a general, downwards slope, but at three very different levels with the shifts occurring abruptly. The data for 1953 -- 54 and 1972 -- 73 do not group easily, and a more formal analysis posits up to five groups / curves over the period.
But still today, modified forms of the Phillips Curve that take inflationary expectations into account remain influential. The theory goes under several names, with some variation in its details, but all modern versions distinguish between short - run and long - run effects on unemployment. Modern Phillips curve models include both a short - run Phillips Curve and a long - run Phillips Curve. This is because in the short run, there is generally an inverse relationship between inflation and the unemployment rate; as illustrated in the downward sloping short - run Phillips curve. In the long run, that relationship breaks down and the economy eventually returns to the natural rate of unemployment regardless of the inflation rate.
The "short - run Phillips curve '' is also called the "expectations - augmented Phillips curve '', since it shifts up when inflationary expectations rise, Edmund Phelps and Milton Friedman argued. In the long run, this implies that monetary policy can not affect unemployment, which adjusts back to its "natural rate '', also called the "NAIRU '' or "long - run Phillips curve ''. However, this long - run "neutrality '' of monetary policy does allow for short run fluctuations and the ability of the monetary authority to temporarily decrease unemployment by increasing permanent inflation, and vice versa. The popular textbook of Blanchard gives a textbook presentation of the expectations - augmented Phillips curve.
An equation like the expectations - augmented Phillips curve also appears in many recent New Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models. In these macroeconomic models with sticky prices, there is a positive relation between the rate of inflation and the level of demand, and therefore a negative relation between the rate of inflation and the rate of unemployment. This relationship is often called the "New Keynesian Phillips curve ''. Like the expectations - augmented Phillips curve, the New Keynesian Phillips curve implies that increased inflation can lower unemployment temporarily, but can not lower it permanently. Two influential papers that incorporate a New Keynesian Phillips curve are Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (1999), and Blanchard and Galí (2007).
There are at least two different mathematical derivations of the Phillips curve. First, there is the traditional or Keynesian version. Then, there is the new Classical version associated with Robert E. Lucas, Jr.
The original Phillips curve literature was not based on the unaided application of economic theory. Instead, it was based on empirical generalizations. After that, economists tried to develop theories that fit the data.
The traditional Phillips curve story starts with a wage Phillips Curve, of the sort described by Phillips himself. This describes the rate of growth of money wages (gW). Here and below, the operator g is the equivalent of "the percentage rate of growth of '' the variable that follows.
The "money wage rate '' (W) is shorthand for total money wage costs per production employee, including benefits and payroll taxes. The focus is on only production workers ' money wages, because (as discussed below) these costs are crucial to pricing decisions by the firms.
This equation tells us that the growth of money wages rises with the trend rate of growth of money wages (indicated by the superscript "T '') and falls with the unemployment rate (U). The function f () is assumed to be monotonically increasing with U so that the dampening of money - wage increases by unemployment is shown by the negative sign in the equation above.
There are several possible stories behind this equation. A major one is that money wages are set by bilateral negotiations under partial bilateral monopoly: as the unemployment rate rises, all else constant worker bargaining power falls, so that workers are less able to increase their wages in the face of employer resistance.
During the 1970s, this story had to be modified, because (as the late Abba Lerner had suggested in the 1940s) workers try to keep up with inflation. Since the 1970s, the equation has been changed to introduce the role of inflationary expectations (or the expected inflation rate, gP). This produces the expectations - augmented wage Phillips curve:
The introduction of inflationary expectations into the equation implies that actual inflation can feed back into inflationary expectations and thus cause further inflation. The late economist James Tobin dubbed the last term "inflationary inertia, '' because in the current period, inflation exists which represents an inflationary impulse left over from the past.
It also involved much more than expectations, including the price - wage spiral. In this spiral, employers try to protect profits by raising their prices and employees try to keep up with inflation to protect their real wages. This process can feed on itself, becoming a self - fulfilling prophecy.
The parameter λ (which is presumed constant during any time period) represents the degree to which employees can gain money wage increases to keep up with expected inflation, preventing a fall in expected real wages. It is usually assumed that this parameter equals unity in the long run.
In addition, the function f () was modified to introduce the idea of the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU) or what 's sometimes called the "natural '' rate of unemployment or the inflation - threshold unemployment rate:
Here, U * is the NAIRU. As discussed below, if U < U *, inflation tends to accelerate. Similarly, if U > U *, inflation tends to slow. It is assumed that f (0) = 0, so that when U = U *, the f term drops out of the equation.
In equation (1), the roles of gW and gP seem to be redundant, playing much the same role. However, assuming that λ is equal to unity, it can be seen that they are not. If the trend rate of growth of money wages equals zero, then the case where U equals U * implies that gW equals expected inflation. That is, expected real wages are constant.
In any reasonable economy, however, having constant expected real wages could only be consistent with actual real wages that are constant over the long haul. This does not fit with economic experience in the U.S. or any other major industrial country. Even though real wages have not risen much in recent years, there have been important increases over the decades.
An alternative is to assume that the trend rate of growth of money wages equals the trend rate of growth of average labor productivity (Z). That is:
Under assumption (2), when U equals U * and λ equals unity, expected real wages would increase with labor productivity. This would be consistent with an economy in which actual real wages increase with labor productivity. Deviations of real - wage trends from those of labor productivity might be explained by reference to other variables in the model.
Next, there is price behavior. The standard assumption is that markets are imperfectly competitive, where most businesses have some power to set prices. So the model assumes that the average business sets a unit price (P) as a mark - up (M) over the unit labor cost in production measured at a standard rate of capacity utilization (say, at 90 percent use of plant and equipment) and then adds in the unit materials cost.
The standardization involves later ignoring deviations from the trend in labor productivity. For example, assume that the growth of labor productivity is the same as that in the trend and that current productivity equals its trend value:
The markup reflects both the firm 's degree of market power and the extent to which overhead costs have to be paid. Put another way, all else equal, M rises with the firm 's power to set prices or with a rise of overhead costs relative to total costs.
So pricing follows this equation:
UMC is unit raw materials cost (total raw materials costs divided by total output). So the equation can be restated as:
This equation can again be stated as:
Now, assume that both the average price / cost mark - up (M) and UMC are constant. On the other hand, labor productivity grows, as before. Thus, an equation determining the price inflation rate (gP) is:
Then, combined with the wage Phillips curve (equation 1) and the assumption made above about the trend behavior of money wages (equation 2), this price - inflation equation gives us a simple expectations - augmented price Phillips curve:
Some assume that we can simply add in gUMC, the rate of growth of UMC, in order to represent the role of supply shocks (of the sort that plagued the U.S. during the 1970s). This produces a standard short - term Phillips curve:
Economist Robert J. Gordon has called this the "Triangle Model '' because it explains short - run inflationary behavior by three factors: demand inflation (due to low unemployment), supply - shock inflation (gUMC), and inflationary expectations or inertial inflation.
In the long run, it is assumed, inflationary expectations catch up with and equal actual inflation so that gP = gP. This represents the long - term equilibrium of expectations adjustment. Part of this adjustment may involve the adaptation of expectations to the experience with actual inflation. Another might involve guesses made by people in the economy based on other evidence. (The latter idea gave us the notion of so - called rational expectations.)
Expectational equilibrium gives us the long - term Phillips curve. First, with λ less than unity:
This is nothing but a steeper version of the short - run Phillips curve above. Inflation rises as unemployment falls, while this connection is stronger. That is, a low unemployment rate (less than U *) will be associated with a higher inflation rate in the long run than in the short run. This occurs because the actual higher - inflation situation seen in the short run feeds back to raise inflationary expectations, which in turn raises the inflation rate further. Similarly, at high unemployment rates (greater than U *) lead to low inflation rates. These in turn encourage lower inflationary expectations, so that inflation itself drops again.
This logic goes further if λ is equal to unity, i.e., if workers are able to protect their wages completely from expected inflation, even in the short run. Now, the Triangle Model equation becomes:
If we further assume (as seems reasonable) that there are no long - term supply shocks, this can be simplified to become:
All of the assumptions imply that in the long run, there is only one possible unemployment rate, U * at any one time. This uniqueness explains why some call this unemployment rate "natural. ''
To truly understand and criticize the uniqueness of U *, a more sophisticated and realistic model is needed. For example, we might introduce the idea that workers in different sectors push for money wage increases that are similar to those in other sectors. Or we might make the model even more realistic. One important place to look is at the determination of the mark - up, M.
The Phillips curve equation can be derived from the (short - run) Lucas aggregate supply function. The Lucas approach is very different from that the traditional view. Instead of starting with empirical data, he started with a classical economic model following very simple economic principles.
Start with the aggregate supply function:
where Y is log value of the actual output, Y is log value of the "natural '' level of output, a is a positive constant, P is log value of the actual price level, and P is log value of the expected price level. Lucas assumes that Y has a unique value.
Note that this equation indicates that when expectations of future inflation (or, more correctly, the future price level) are totally accurate, the last term drops out, so that actual output equals the so - called "natural '' level of real GDP. This means that in the Lucas aggregate supply curve, the only reason why actual real GDP should deviate from potential -- and the actual unemployment rate should deviate from the "natural '' rate -- is because of incorrect expectations of what is going to happen with prices in the future. (The idea has been expressed first by Keynes, General Theory, Chapter 20 section III paragraph 4).
This differs from other views of the Phillips curve, in which the failure to attain the "natural '' level of output can be due to the imperfection or incompleteness of markets, the stickiness of prices, and the like. In the non-Lucas view, incorrect expectations can contribute to aggregate demand failure, but they are not the only cause. To the "new Classical '' followers of Lucas, markets are presumed to be perfect and always attain equilibrium (given inflationary expectations).
We re-arrange the equation into:
Next we add unexpected exogenous shocks to the world supply v:
Subtracting last year 's price levels P will give us inflation rates, because
and
where π and π are the inflation and expected inflation respectively.
There is also a negative relationship between output and unemployment (as expressed by Okun 's law). Therefore, using
where b is a positive constant, U is unemployment, and U is the natural rate of unemployment or NAIRU, we arrive at the final form of the short - run Phillips curve:
This equation, plotting inflation rate π against unemployment U gives the downward - sloping curve in the diagram that characterises the Phillips curve.
The New Keynesian Phillips curve was originally derived by Roberts in 1995, and since been used in most state - of - the - art New Keynesian DSGE models like the one of Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (2000).
where κ = α (1 − (1 − α) β) φ 1 − α (\ displaystyle \ kappa = (\ frac (\ alpha (1 - (1 - \ alpha) \ beta) \ phi) (1 - \ alpha))). The current expectations of next period 's inflation are incorporated as β E t (π t + 1) (\ displaystyle \ beta E_ (t) (\ pi _ (t + 1)))
In the 1970s, new theories, such as rational expectations and the NAIRU (non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment) arose to explain how stagflation could occur. The latter theory, also known as the "natural rate of unemployment '', distinguished between the "short - term '' Phillips curve and the "long - term '' one. The short - term Phillips Curve looked like a normal Phillips Curve, but shifted in the long run as expectations changed. In the long run, only a single rate of unemployment (the NAIRU or "natural '' rate) was consistent with a stable inflation rate. The long - run Phillips Curve was thus vertical, so there was no trade - off between inflation and unemployment. Edmund Phelps won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2006 in part for this work. However, the expectations argument was in fact very widely understood (albeit not formally) before Phelps ' work on it.
In the diagram, the long - run Phillips curve is the vertical red line. The NAIRU theory says that when unemployment is at the rate defined by this line, inflation will be stable. However, in the short - run policymakers will face an inflation - unemployment rate tradeoff marked by the "Initial Short - Run Phillips Curve '' in the graph. Policymakers can therefore reduce the unemployment rate temporarily, moving from point A to point B through expansionary policy. However, according to the NAIRU, exploiting this short - run tradeoff will raise inflation expectations, shifting the short - run curve rightward to the "New Short - Run Phillips Curve '' and moving the point of equilibrium from B to C. Thus the reduction in unemployment below the "Natural Rate '' will be temporary, and lead only to higher inflation in the long run.
Since the short - run curve shifts outward due to the attempt to reduce unemployment, the expansionary policy ultimately worsens the exploitable tradeoff between unemployment and inflation. That is, it results in more inflation at each short - run unemployment rate. The name "NAIRU '' arises because with actual unemployment below it, inflation accelerates, while with unemployment above it, inflation decelerates. With the actual rate equal to it, inflation is stable, neither accelerating nor decelerating. One practical use of this model was to provide an explanation for stagflation, which confounded the traditional Phillips curve.
The rational expectations theory said that expectations of inflation were equal to what actually happened, with some minor and temporary errors. This in turn suggested that the short - run period was so short that it was non-existent: any effort to reduce unemployment below the NAIRU, for example, would immediately cause inflationary expectations to rise and thus imply that the policy would fail. Unemployment would never deviate from the NAIRU except due to random and transitory mistakes in developing expectations about future inflation rates. In this perspective, any deviation of the actual unemployment rate from the NAIRU was an illusion.
However, in the 1990s in the U.S., it became increasingly clear that the NAIRU did not have a unique equilibrium and could change in unpredictable ways. In the late 1990s, the actual unemployment rate fell below 4 % of the labor force, much lower than almost all estimates of the NAIRU. But inflation stayed very moderate rather than accelerating. So, just as the Phillips curve had become a subject of debate, so did the NAIRU.
Furthermore, the concept of rational expectations had become subject to much doubt when it became clear that the main assumption of models based on it was that there exists a single (unique) equilibrium in the economy that is set ahead of time, determined independently of demand conditions. The experience of the 1990s suggests that this assumption can not be sustained.
The Phillips curve started as an empirical observation in search of a theoretical explanation. Specifically, the Phillips curve tried to determine whether the inflation - unemployment link was causal or simply correlational. There are several major explanations of the short - term Phillips curve regularity.
To Milton Friedman there is a short - term correlation between inflation shocks and employment. When an inflationary surprise occurs, workers are fooled into accepting lower pay because they do not see the fall in real wages right away. Firms hire them because they see the inflation as allowing higher profits for given nominal wages. This is a movement along the Phillips curve as with change A. Eventually, workers discover that real wages have fallen, so they push for higher money wages. This causes the Phillips curve to shift upward and to the right, as with B. Some research underlines that some implicit and serious assumptions are actually in the background of the Friedmanian Phillips curve. This information asymmetry and a special pattern of flexibility of prices and wages are both necessary if one wants to maintain the mechanism told by Friedman. However, as it is argued, these presumptions remain completely unrevealed and theoretically ungrounded by Friedman.
Economists such as Edmund Phelps reject this theory because it implies that workers suffer from money illusion. According to them, rational workers would only react to real wages, that is, inflation adjusted wages. However, one of the characteristics of a modern industrial economy is that workers do not encounter their employers in an atomized and perfect market. They operate in a complex combination of imperfect markets, monopolies, monopsonies, labor unions, and other institutions. In many cases, they may lack the bargaining power to act on their expectations, no matter how rational they are, or their perceptions, no matter how free of money illusion they are. It is not that high inflation causes low unemployment (as in Milton Friedman 's theory) as much as vice versa: Low unemployment raises worker bargaining power, allowing them to successfully push for higher nominal wages. To protect profits, employers raise prices.
Similarly, built - in inflation is not simply a matter of subjective "inflationary expectations '' but also reflects the fact that high inflation can gather momentum and continue beyond the time when it was started, due to the objective price / wage spiral.
However, other economists, like Jeffrey Herbener, argue that price is market - determined and competitive firms can not simply raise prices. They reject the Phillips curve entirely, concluding that unemployment 's influence is only a small portion of a much larger inflation picture that includes prices of raw materials, intermediate goods, cost of raising capital, worker productivity, land, and other factors.
Robert J. Gordon of Northwestern University has analyzed the Phillips curve to produce what he calls the triangle model, in which the actual inflation rate is determined by the sum of
The last reflects inflationary expectations and the price / wage spiral. Supply shocks and changes in built - in inflation are the main factors shifting the short - run Phillips Curve and changing the trade - off. In this theory, it is not only inflationary expectations that can cause stagflation. For example, the steep climb of oil prices during the 1970s could have this result.
Changes in built - in inflation follow the partial - adjustment logic behind most theories of the NAIRU:
In between these two lies the NAIRU, where the Phillips curve does not have any inherent tendency to shift, so that the inflation rate is stable. However, there seems to be a range in the middle between "high '' and "low '' where built - in inflation stays stable. The ends of this "non-accelerating inflation range of unemployment rates '' change over time.
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when was unix created and who was its main author | Unix - wikipedia
Unix (/ ˈjuːnɪks /; trademarked as UNIX) is a family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, development starting in the 1970s at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others.
Initially intended for use inside the Bell System, AT&T licensed Unix to outside parties from the late 1970s, leading to a variety of both academic and commercial variants of Unix from vendors such as the University of California, Berkeley (BSD), Microsoft (Xenix), IBM (AIX) and Sun Microsystems (Solaris). AT&T finally sold its rights in Unix to Novell in the early 1990s, which then sold its Unix business to the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) in 1995, but the UNIX trademark passed to the industry standards consortium The Open Group, which allows the use of the mark for certified operating systems compliant with the Single UNIX Specification (SUS). Among these is Apple 's macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014.
From the power user 's or programmer 's perspective, Unix systems are characterized by a modular design that is sometimes called the "Unix philosophy '', meaning that the operating system provides a set of simple tools that each perform a limited, well - defined function, with a unified filesystem as the main means of communication and a shell scripting and command language to combine the tools to perform complex workflows. Aside from the modular design, Unix also distinguishes itself from its predecessors as the first portable operating system: almost the entire operating system is written in the C programming language that allowed Unix to reach numerous platforms.
Many Unix - like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, having displaced SUS - certified Unix on many server platforms since its inception in the early 1990s. Android, the most widely used mobile operating system in the world, is in turn based on Linux.
Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the operating system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system and shared them with colleagues.
Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time - sharing configuration. Unix systems are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain text for storing data; a hierarchical file system; treating devices and certain types of inter-process communication (IPC) as files; and the use of a large number of software tools, small programs that can be strung together through a command - line interpreter using pipes, as opposed to using a single monolithic program that includes all of the same functionality. These concepts are collectively known as the "Unix philosophy ''. Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike summarize this in The Unix Programming Environment as "the idea that the power of a system comes more from the relationships among programs than from the programs themselves ''.
By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a potential universal operating system, suitable for computers of all sizes. The Unix environment and the client -- server program model were essential elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers.
Both Unix and the C programming language were developed by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than any other operating system.
Under Unix, the operating system consists of many utilities along with the master control program, the kernel. The kernel provides services to start and stop programs, handles the file system and other common "low - level '' tasks that most programs share, and schedules access to avoid conflicts when programs try to access the same resource or device simultaneously. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space.
The microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a hard disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output (I / O), the Unix file model worked quite well, as most I / O was linear. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices. As graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I / O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, while conventional (monolithic) Unix implementations have network protocol stacks as part of the kernel.
The pre-history of Unix dates back to the mid-1960s when the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bell Labs, and General Electric were developing an innovative time - sharing operating system called Multics for the GE - 645 mainframe. Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims, Bell Labs slowly pulled out of the project. Their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M.D. McIlroy, and J.F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale.
The new operating system was initially without organizational backing, and also without a name. At this stage, the new operating system was a singletasking operating system, not a multitasking one such as Multics. The name Unics (Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, pronounced as "eunuchs ''), a pun on Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computer Services), was initially suggested for the project in 1970. Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, and adds that "no one can remember '' who came up with the final spelling Unix. Dennis Ritchie, Doug McIlroy, and Peter G. Neumann also credit Kernighan.
In 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. The migration from assembly to the higher - level language C resulted in much more portable software, requiring only a relatively small amount of machine - dependent code to be replaced when porting Unix to other computing platforms. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are collectively referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to Donald B. Gillies at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science. UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson (who had worked on the UNIX kernel at Bell Labs) was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to large - scale adoption of Unix (BSD and System V) by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP - UX, Solaris, AIX, and Xenix. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4 (SVR4), which was subsequently adopted by many commercial Unix vendors.
In the 1990s, Unix - like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers. In 2000, Apple released Darwin, also a Unix - like system, which became the core of the Mac OS X operating system, later renamed macOS.
Unix operating systems are widely used in modern servers, workstations, and mobile devices.
Beginning in the late 1980s, an open operating system standardization effort now known as POSIX provided a common baseline for all operating systems; IEEE based POSIX around the common structure of the major competing variants of the Unix system, publishing the first POSIX standard in 1988. In the early 1990s, a separate but very similar effort was started by an industry consortium, the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative, which eventually became the Single UNIX Specification (SUS) administered by The Open Group. Starting in 1998, the Open Group and IEEE started the Austin Group, to provide a common definition of POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification, which, by 2008, had become the Open Group Base Specification.
In 1999, in an effort towards compatibility, several Unix system vendors agreed on SVR4 's Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) as the standard for binary and object code files. The common format allows substantial binary compatibility among Unix systems operating on the same CPU architecture.
The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard was created to provide a reference directory layout for Unix - like operating systems, and has mainly been used in Linux.
The Unix system is composed of several components that were originally packaged together. By including the development environment, libraries, documents and the portable, modifiable source code for all of these components, in addition to the kernel of an operating system, Unix was a self - contained software system. This was one of the key reasons it emerged as an important teaching and learning tool and has had such a broad influence.
The inclusion of these components did not make the system large -- the original V7 UNIX distribution, consisting of copies of all of the compiled binaries plus all of the source code and documentation occupied less than 10 MB and arrived on a single nine - track magnetic tape. The printed documentation, typeset from the on - line sources, was contained in two volumes.
The names and filesystem locations of the Unix components have changed substantially across the history of the system. Nonetheless, the V7 implementation is considered by many to have the canonical early structure:
The Unix system had significant impact on other operating systems. It achieved its reputation by its interactivity, by providing the software at a nominal fee for educational use, by running on inexpensive hardware, and by being easy to adapt and move to different machines. Unix was originally written in assembly language (which had been thought necessary for system implementations on early computers), but was soon rewritten in C, a high - level programming language. Although this followed the lead of Multics and Burroughs, it was Unix that popularized the idea.
Unix had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating systems: treating all kinds of files as simple byte arrays. The file system hierarchy contained machine services and devices (such as printers, terminals, or disk drives), providing a uniform interface, but at the expense of occasionally requiring additional mechanisms such as ioctl and mode flags to access features of the hardware that did not fit the simple "stream of bytes '' model. The Plan 9 operating system pushed this model even further and eliminated the need for additional mechanisms.
Unix also popularized the hierarchical file system with arbitrarily nested subdirectories, originally introduced by Multics. Other common operating systems of the era had ways to divide a storage device into multiple directories or sections, but they had a fixed number of levels, often only one level. Several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned after Multics. DEC 's RSX - 11 M 's "group, user '' hierarchy evolved into VMS directories, CP / M 's volumes evolved into MS - DOS 2.0 + subdirectories, and HP 's MPE group. account hierarchy and IBM 's SSP and OS / 400 library systems were folded into broader POSIX file systems.
Making the command interpreter an ordinary user - level program, with additional commands provided as separate programs, was another Multics innovation popularized by Unix. The Unix shell used the same language for interactive commands as for scripting (shell scripts -- there was no separate job control language like IBM 's JCL). Since the shell and OS commands were "just another program '', the user could choose (or even write) his own shell. New commands could be added without changing the shell itself. Unix 's innovative command - line syntax for creating modular chains of producer - consumer processes (pipelines) made a powerful programming paradigm (coroutines) widely available. Many later command - line interpreters have been inspired by the Unix shell.
A fundamental simplifying assumption of Unix was its focus on newline - delimited text for nearly all file formats. There were no "binary '' editors in the original version of Unix -- the entire system was configured using textual shell command scripts. The common denominator in the I / O system was the byte -- unlike "record - based '' file systems. The focus on text for representing nearly everything made Unix pipes especially useful, and encouraged the development of simple, general tools that could be easily combined to perform more complicated ad hoc tasks. The focus on text and bytes made the system far more scalable and portable than other systems. Over time, text - based applications have also proven popular in application areas, such as printing languages (PostScript, ODF), and at the application layer of the Internet protocols, e.g., FTP, SMTP, HTTP, SOAP, and SIP.
Unix popularized a syntax for regular expressions that found widespread use. The Unix programming interface became the basis for a widely implemented operating system interface standard (POSIX, see above). The C programming language soon spread beyond Unix, and is now ubiquitous in systems and applications programming.
Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a "software tools '' movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for developing software, norms which became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the Unix philosophy.
The TCP / IP networking protocols were quickly implemented on the Unix versions widely used on relatively inexpensive computers, which contributed to the Internet explosion of worldwide real - time connectivity, and which formed the basis for implementations on many other platforms.
The Unix policy of extensive on - line documentation and (for many years) ready access to all system source code raised programmer expectations, and contributed to the 1983 launch of the free software movement.
In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU (short for "GNU 's Not Unix '') project, an ambitious effort to create a free software Unix - like system; "free '' in the sense that everyone who received a copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redistribute it. The GNU project 's own kernel development project, GNU Hurd, had not produced a working kernel, but in 1991 Linus Torvalds released the Linux kernel as free software under the GNU General Public License. In addition to their use in the Linux operating system, many GNU packages -- such as the GNU Compiler Collection (and the rest of the GNU toolchain), the GNU C library and the GNU core utilities -- have gone on to play central roles in other free Unix systems as well.
Linux distributions, consisting of the Linux kernel and large collections of compatible software have become popular both with individual users and in business. Popular distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Fedora, SUSE Linux Enterprise, openSUSE, Debian GNU / Linux, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Mandriva Linux, Slackware Linux, and Gentoo.
A free derivative of BSD Unix, 386BSD, was released in 1992 and led to the NetBSD and FreeBSD projects. With the 1994 settlement of a lawsuit brought against the University of California and Berkeley Software Design Inc. (USL v. BSDi) by UNIX Systems Laboratories, it was clarified that Berkeley had the right to distribute BSD Unix for free, if it so desired. Since then, BSD Unix has been developed in several different product branches, including OpenBSD and DragonFly BSD.
Linux and BSD are increasingly filling the market needs traditionally served by proprietary Unix operating systems, as well as expanding into new markets such as the consumer desktop and mobile and embedded devices. Because of the modular design of the Unix model, sharing components is relatively common; consequently, most or all Unix and Unix - like systems include at least some BSD code, and some systems also include GNU utilities in their distributions.
In a 1999 interview, Dennis Ritchie voiced his opinion that Linux and BSD operating systems are a continuation of the basis of the Unix design, and are derivatives of Unix:
"I think the Linux phenomenon is quite delightful, because it draws so strongly on the basis that Unix provided. Linux seems to be the among the healthiest of the direct Unix derivatives, though there are also the various BSD systems as well as the more official offerings from the workstation and mainframe manufacturers. ''
In the same interview, he states that he views both Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago. ''
OpenSolaris was the open - source counterpart to Solaris developed by Sun Microsystems, which included a CDDL - licensed kernel and a primarily GNU userland. However, Oracle discontinued the project upon their acquisition of Sun, which prompted a group of former Sun employees and members of the OpenSolaris community to fork OpenSolaris into the illumos kernel. As of 2014, illumos remains the only active open - source System V derivative.
In May 1975, RFC 681 described the development of Network Unix by the Center for Advanced Computation at the University of Illinois. The system was said to "present several interesting capabilities as an ARPANET mini-host ''. At the time Unix required a license from Bell Laboratories that at $20,000 (US) was very expensive for non-university users, while an educational license cost just $150. It was noted that Bell was "open to suggestions '' for an ARPANET - wide license.
Specific features found beneficial were the local processing facilities, compilers, editors, a document preparation system, efficient file system and access control, mountable and unmountable volumes, unified treatment of peripherals as special files, integration of the network control program (NCP) within the Unix file system, treatment of network connections as special files that can be accessed through standard Unix I / O calls, closing of all files on program exit, and the decision to be "desirable to minimize the amount of code added to the basic Unix kernel ''.
In October 1993, Novell, the company that owned the rights to the Unix System V source at the time, transferred the trademarks of Unix to the X / Open Company (now The Open Group), and in 1995 sold the related business operations to Santa Cruz Operation (SCO). Whether Novell also sold the copyrights to the actual software was the subject of a 2006 federal lawsuit, SCO v. Novell, which Novell won. The case was appealed, but on August 30, 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit affirmed the trial decisions, closing the case. Unix vendor SCO Group Inc. accused Novell of slander of title.
The present owner of the trademark UNIX is The Open Group, an industry standards consortium. Only systems fully compliant with and certified to the Single UNIX Specification qualify as "UNIX '' (others are called "Unix - like '').
By decree of The Open Group, the term "UNIX '' refers more to a class of operating systems than to a specific implementation of an operating system; those operating systems which meet The Open Group 's Single UNIX Specification should be able to bear the UNIX 98 or UNIX 03 trademarks today, after the operating system 's vendor pays a substantial certification fee and annual trademark royalties to The Open Group. Systems licensed to use the UNIX trademark include AIX, HP - UX, Inspur K - UX, IRIX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX (formerly "Digital UNIX '', or OSF / 1), macOS, and a part of z / OS. Notably, Inspur K - UX is a Linux distribution certified as UNIX 03 compliant.
Sometimes a representation like Un * x, * NIX, or * N? X is used to indicate all operating systems similar to Unix. This comes from the use of the asterisk (*) and the question mark characters as wildcard indicators in many utilities. This notation is also used to describe other Unix - like systems that have not met the requirements for UNIX branding from the Open Group.
The Open Group requests that UNIX is always used as an adjective followed by a generic term such as system to help avoid the creation of a genericized trademark.
Unix was the original formatting, but the usage of UNIX remains widespread because it was once typeset in small caps (Unix). According to Dennis Ritchie, when presenting the original Unix paper to the third Operating Systems Symposium of the American Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), "we had a new typesetter and troff had just been invented and we were intoxicated by being able to produce small caps. '' Many of the operating system 's predecessors and contemporaries used all - uppercase lettering, so many people wrote the name in upper case due to force of habit. It is not an acronym.
Trademark names can be registered by different entities in different countries and trademark laws in some countries allow the same trademark name to be controlled by two different entities if each entity uses the trademark in easily distinguishable categories. The result is that Unix has been used as a brand name for various products including book shelves, ink pens, bottled glue, diapers, hair driers and food containers.
Several plural forms of Unix are used casually to refer to multiple brands of Unix and Unix - like systems. Most common is the conventional Unixes, but Unices, treating Unix as a Latin noun of the third declension, is also popular. The pseudo-Anglo - Saxon plural form Unixen is not common, although occasionally seen. Sun Microsystems, developer of the Solaris variant, has asserted that the term Unix is itself plural, referencing its many implementations.
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who voted against civil rights act of 1964 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. Thereafter, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 -- 27 and House vote of 289 -- 126. The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly - owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only. ''
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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what is the oldest period in the mesozoic era | Mesozoic - wikipedia
The Mesozoic Era (/ ˌmɛsəˈzoʊɪk, ˌmiː -, - soʊ - / or / ˌmɛzəˈzoʊɪk, ˌmiː -, - soʊ - /) is an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago. It is also called the Age of Reptiles, a phrase introduced by the 19th century paleontologist Gideon Mantell who viewed it as dominated by diapsids such as Iguanodon, Megalosaurus, Plesiosaurus and Pterodactylus. This Era is also called from a paleobotanist view the Age of Conifers.
Mesozoic means "middle life '', deriving from the Greek prefix meso - / μεσο - for "between '' and zōon / ζῷον meaning "animal '' or "living being ''. It is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, preceded by the Paleozoic ("ancient life '') and succeeded by the Cenozoic ("new life ''). The era is subdivided into three major periods: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, which are further subdivided into a number of epochs and stages.
The era began in the wake of the Permian -- Triassic extinction event, the largest well - documented mass extinction in Earth 's history, and ended with the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, another mass extinction which is known for having killed off non-avian dinosaurs, as well as other plant and animal species. The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climate and evolutionary activity. The era witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into separate landmasses that would eventually move into their current positions. The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods. Overall, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today. Dinosaurs appeared in the Late Triassic and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates early in the Jurassic, occupying this position for about 135 million years until their demise at the end of the Cretaceous. Birds first appeared in the Jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs. The first mammals also appeared during the Mesozoic, but would remain small -- less than 15 kg (33 lb) -- until the Cenozoic.
Following the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic extended roughly 186 million years, from 251.902 to 66 million years ago when the Cenozoic Era began. This time frame is separated into three geologic periods. From oldest to youngest:
The lower boundary of the Mesozoic is set by the Permian -- Triassic extinction event, during which approximately 90 % to 96 % of marine species and 70 % of terrestrial vertebrates became extinct. It is also known as the "Great Dying '' because it is considered the largest mass extinction in the Earth 's history. The upper boundary of the Mesozoic is set at the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event (or K -- Pg extinction event), which may have been caused by the impactor that created Chicxulub Crater on the Yucatán Peninsula. Towards the Late Cretaceous large volcanic eruptions are also believed to have contributed to the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event. Approximately 50 % of all genera became extinct, including all of the non-avian dinosaurs.
The Triassic ranges roughly from 252 million to 201 million years ago. The Triassic is a time in Earth 's history bracketed between the Permian Extinction and the Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event, two of the big five, and precedes the Jurassic Period. It has three major epochs: the Early Triassic, the Middle Triassic and the Late Triassic.
The Early Triassic was between about 252 million to 247 million years ago and was dominated by deserts as Pangaea had not yet broken up, thus the interior was nothing but arid. The Earth had just witnessed a massive die - off in which 95 % of all life became extinct. The most common vertebrate life on earth were Lystrosaurus, labyrinthodonts, and Euparkeria along with many other creatures that managed to survive the Great Dying. Temnospondyls evolved during this time and would be the dominant predator for much of the Triassic.
The Middle Triassic spans roughly from 247 million to 237 million years ago. The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea, and the opening of the Tethys Sea. The ecosystem had recovered from the devastation that was the Great Dying. Algae, sponge, corals, and crustaceans all had recovered, and the reptiles began to get bigger and bigger. New aquatic reptiles evolved, such as ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs. Meanwhile, on land, pine forests flourished, as did groups of insects like mosquitoes and fruit flies. The first ancient crocodilians evolved, which sparked competition with the large amphibians that had since ruled the freshwater world.
The Late Triassic spans roughly from 237 million to 201 million years ago. Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic featured frequent heat spells, as well as moderate precipitation (10 - 20 inches per year). The recent warming led to a boom of reptilian evolution on land as the first true dinosaurs evolved, as well as pterosaurs. During the Late Triassic, some advanced cynodonts gave rise to the first Mammaliaformes. All this climatic change, however, resulted in a large die - out known as the Triassic - Jurassic extinction event, in which many archosaurs (excluding pterosaurs, dinosaurs and crocodylomorphs), most synapsids, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34 % of marine life in the fourth mass extinction event of the world. The cause is debatable.
The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago and features 3 major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.
The Early Jurassic spans from 200 million years to 175 million years ago. The climate was much more humid than the Triassic, and as a result, the world was very tropical. In the oceans, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and ammonites were abundant. On land, dinosaurs and other archosaurs stake their claim as the dominant race of the land, with species such as Dilophosaurus at the top. The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing out the large amphibians to near extinction. All - in - all, archosaurs rise to rule the world. Meanwhile, the first true mammals evolve, remaining relatively small sized but otherwise expanding ecologically; the Jurassic Castorocauda, for example, had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish. Fruitafossor, from the late Jurassic period about 150 million years ago, was about the size of a chipmunk and its teeth, forelimbs and back suggest that it broke open the nest of social insects to prey on them (probably termites, as ants had not yet appeared). The first multituberculates like Rugosodon evolve, while volaticotherians take to the skies.
The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 million to 163 million years ago. During this epoch, dinosaurs flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as Brachiosaurus and Diplodocus, filled the fern prairies of the Middle Jurassic. Many other predators rose as well, such as Allosaurus. Conifer forests made up a large portion of the forests. In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs were flourishing. This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.
The Late Jurassic spans from 163 million to 145 million years ago. During the Late Jurassic, the first avialans, like Archaeopteryx, evolved from small coelurosaurian dinosaurs. The increase in sea - levels opened up the Atlantic sea way which would continue to get larger over time. The divided world would give opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs.
The Cretaceous is the longest period in the Mesozoic, but has only two epochs: the Early Cretaceous, and the Late Cretaceous.
The Early Cretaceous spans from 145 million to 100 million years ago. The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways, and as a result, the decline and extinction of sauropods (except in South America). Some island - hopping dinosaurs, like Eustreptospondylus, evolved to cope with the coastal shallows and small islands of ancient Europe. Other dinosaurs rose up to fill the empty space that the Jurassic - Cretaceous extinction left behind, such as Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus. Of the most successful would be the Iguanodon which spread to every continent. Seasons came back into effect and the poles got seasonally colder, but dinosaurs still inhabited this area like the Leaellynasaura and Muttaburrasaurus which inhabited the polar forests year - round. Since it was too cold for crocodiles, it was the last stronghold for large amphibians, like Koolasuchus. Pterosaurs got larger as species like Tapejara and Ornithocheirus evolved. Mammals continued to expand ecologically; eutriconodonts produced fairly large, wolverine - like predators like Repenomamus and Gobiconodon, early therians began to expand into metatherians and eutherians, and cimolodont multituberculates went on to become large components of the fossil record.
The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 million to 66 million years ago. The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue on in the Cenozoic period. Eventually, tropics were restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines featured extreme seasonal changes in weather. Dinosaurs still thrived as new species such as Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Triceratops and hadrosaurs dominated the food web. In the oceans, mosasaurs ruled the seas, filling the role of the ichthyosaurs, which, after declining, had disappeared in the Cenomanian - Turonian boundary event. Though pliosaurs had gone extinct in the same event, long necked plesiosaurs, such as Elasmosaurus, continued to thrive. Flowering plants, possibly appearing as far back as the Triassic, became truly dominant for the first time. Pterosaurs in the Late Cretaceous declined for poorly understood reasons, though this might be due to fossil record bias as their diversity seems to be much higher than previously thought. Birds became increasingly common and diverse, diversifying in a variety of enantiornithe and ornithurine forms. Though mostly small, marine Hesperornithes became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea. Metatherians and primitive eutherian also became common and even produced large and specialised species like Didelphodon and Schowalteria. Still, the dominant mammals were multituberculates, cimolodonts in the north and gondwanatheres in the south. At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this was continuing, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into earth 66 million years ago, creating the Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the K-T Extinction, the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75 % of life on earth became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Everything over 10 kilograms became extinct. The age of the dinosaurs was over.
Compared to the vigorous convergent plate mountain - building of the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. The sole major Mesozoic orogeny occurred in what is now the Arctic, creating the Innuitian orogeny, the Brooks Range, the Verkhoyansk and Cherskiy Ranges in Siberia, and the Khingan Mountains in Manchuria. This orogeny was related to the opening of the Arctic Ocean and subduction of the North China and Siberian cratons under the Pacific Ocean. Nevertheless, the era featured the dramatic rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea. Pangaea gradually split into a northern continent, Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana. This created the passive continental margin that characterizes most of the Atlantic coastline (such as along the U.S. East Coast) today.
By the end of the era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate during the Cenozoic, the impact giving rise to the Himalayas.
The Triassic was generally dry, a trend that began in the late Carboniferous, and highly seasonal, especially in the interior of Pangaea. Low sea levels may have also exacerbated temperature extremes. With its high specific heat capacity, water acts as a temperature - stabilizing heat reservoir, and land areas near large bodies of water -- especially the oceans -- experience less variation in temperature. Because much of the land that constituted Pangaea was distant from the oceans, temperatures fluctuated greatly, and the interior of Pangaea probably included expansive areas of desert. Abundant red beds and evaporites such as halite support these conclusions, but evidence exists that the generally dry climate of the Triassic was punctuated by episodes of increased rainfall. The most important humid episodes were the Carnian Pluvial Event and one in the Rhaetian, a few million years before the Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event.
Sea levels began to rise during the Jurassic, which was probably caused by an increase in seafloor spreading. The formation of new crust beneath the surface displaced ocean waters by as much as 200 m (656 ft) more than today, which flooded coastal areas. Furthermore, Pangaea began to rift into smaller divisions, bringing more land area in contact with the ocean by forming the Tethys Sea. Temperatures continued to increase and began to stabilize. Humidity also increased with the proximity of water, and deserts retreated.
The climate of the Cretaceous is less certain and more widely disputed. Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are thought to have caused the world temperature gradient from north to south to become almost flat: temperatures were about the same across the planet. Average temperatures were also higher than today by about 10 ° C. The circulation of oxygen to the deep ocean may also have been disrupted. For this reason, large volumes of organic matter that was unable to decompose accumulated, eventually being deposited as "black shale ''.
Not all of the data support these hypotheses, however. Even with the overall warmth, temperature fluctuations should have been sufficient for the presence of polar ice caps and glaciers, but there is no evidence of either. Quantitative models have also been unable to recreate the flatness of the Cretaceous temperature gradient.
Different studies have come to different conclusions about the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere during different parts of the Mesozoic, with some concluding oxygen levels were lower than the current level (about 21 %) throughout the Mesozoic, some concluding they were lower in the Triassic and part of the Jurassic but higher in the Cretaceous, and some concluding they were higher throughout most or all of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
The dominant land plant species of the time were gymnosperms, which are vascular, cone - bearing, non-flowering plants such as conifers that produce seeds without a coating. This is opposed to the earth 's current flora, in which the dominant land plants in terms of number of species are angiosperms. One particular plant genus, Ginkgo, is thought to have evolved at this time and is represented today by a single species, Ginkgo biloba. As well, the extant genus Sequoia is believed to have evolved in the Mesozoic.
Some plant species had distributions that were markedly different from succeeding periods; for example, the Schizeales, a fern order, were skewed to the Northern Hemisphere in the Mesozoic, but are now better represented in the Southern Hemisphere.
The extinction of nearly all animal species at the end of the Permian Period allowed for the radiation of many new lifeforms. In particular, the extinction of the large herbivorous pareiasaurs and carnivorous gorgonopsians left those ecological niches empty. Some were filled by the surviving cynodonts and dicynodonts, the latter of which subsequently became extinct.
Recent research indicates that the specialized animals that formed complex ecosystems, with high biodiversity, complex food webs and a variety of niches, took much longer to reestablish, recovery did not begin until the start of the mid-Triassic, 4M to 6M years after the extinction and was not complete until 30M years after the Permian -- Triassic extinction event. Animal life was then dominated by various archosaurs: dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs.
The climatic changes of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous provided for further adaptive radiation. The Jurassic was the height of archosaur diversity, and the first birds and eutherian mammals also appeared. Angiosperms radiated sometime in the early Cretaceous, first in the tropics, but the even temperature gradient allowed them to spread toward the poles throughout the period. By the end of the Cretaceous, angiosperms dominated tree floras in many areas, although some evidence suggests that biomass was still dominated by cycad and ferns until after the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction.
Some have argued that insects diversified with angiosperms because insect anatomy, especially the mouth parts, seems particularly well - suited for flowering plants. However, all major insect mouth parts preceded angiosperms and insect diversification actually slowed when they arrived, so their anatomy originally must have been suited for some other purpose.
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who sings lover you dont treat me no good no more lyrics | You Do n't Treat Me No Good - wikipedia
"You Do n't Treat Me No Good '' is a song recorded by the American soul group Sonia Dada. Released in 1992, the song was a number - one hit in Australia, spending four weeks at the top of the ARIA Charts. Eighteen years later, country music singer Jerrod Niemann released a cover version under the title "Lover, Lover '', and his version reached number one on the U.S. Hot Country Songs chart.
Glenn A. Baker of Billboard magazine described the song 's chart success as "the most unexpected (...) breakout in the Australian market for many years. '' He also cited the song as an example of the label 's success with breaking new acts outside their home markets. SAFM in Adelaide was among the first stations to play the song.
Joe Rassenfoss of the Rocky Mountain News, in his review of the album, called the song a "catchy vocal entreaty. ''
"You Do n't Treat Me No Good '' debuted at number 38 on the Australian ARIA Charts on November 29, 1992. After spending six weeks at the number - two position behind Whitney Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You, '' the song reached its peak of number one on February 28, 1993. It held that position for four weeks, then fell to number four on March 28. It was also ranked number three on the ARIA year - end chart. In neighboring New Zealand, the song debuted at number 47 on November 29, 1992, then reached its peak of number two on January 17, unable to dethrone "I Will Always Love You '' from the top spot for five weeks. It remained in the top 40 for 11 more weeks and ended the year as New Zealand 's 27th best - selling single. Although the song did not chart in the United States, the self - titled album from which it was taken sold more than 100,000 copies in the United States after its release in 1992.
On March 1, 2010, American country music artist Jerrod Niemann released a cover version of this song under the title "Lover, Lover ''. It was Niemann 's first release on the Sea Gayle label, a sister label of Arista Nashville, as well as his fourth single release overall. It is included on his album Judge Jerrod & the Hung Jury, which was released in July 2010, as well as the thirty - fifth edition of Now That 's What I Call Music!
Niemann 's recording of the song features nine vocal tracks, all of which he recorded himself and then overdubbed. He recorded eight of the vocal tracks in one day and recorded the bass backing vocals the next day. Niemann once explained that his voice was hoarse from recording the eight vocal parts and was unable to record the bass vocal. He and a friend then visited the Nashville tavern Tin Roof, which is near the studio where the song was recorded, after Niemann recalled upon several occasions where the Tin Roof bartender would serve Niemann excessive doses of whiskey resulting in Niemann awakening in the morning after with an extremely low voice. With this in mind, Niemann "medicated '' his vocal cords by having the Tin Roof bartender serve him Jack Daniels whiskey nonstop for approximately six hours that night and then returned to the studio the next morning to record the bass vocal.
The song is in the key of G Major, at a moderate tempo, based around a two - measure riff played on acoustic guitar. No full chords are played in the song, although the second measure of the riff includes an open fifth consisting of C and G.
Writing for the CMT blog, Whitney Self said that Niemann "gives the tune a new feel with his contagious beats and acoustic guitar. '' Bobby Peacock of Roughstock called it "soulful, catchy and distinctive, '' giving it a four - star rating out of five.
Potsy Ponciroli directed the music video, which features Niemann playing guitar while singing the song on a porch. It was filmed in Nashville, Tennessee. Jamey Johnson and Randy Houser make cameos at the end.
"Lover, Lover '' debuted at number 52 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts dated for the week ending March 6, 2010. On the week of August 14, 2010, it became his first number one on the Hot Country Songs charts. It finished at number 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 year - end chart and 22 on the Hot Country Songs year - end chart.
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how many races are there in the preakness | Preakness Stakes - wikipedia
The Preakness Stakes is an American flat thoroughbred horse race held on the third Saturday in May each year at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland. It is a Grade I race run over a distance of 9.5 furlongs (1 ⁄ miles (1,900 m) on dirt. Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kg); fillies 121 lb (55 kg). It is the second jewel of the Triple Crown, held two weeks after the Kentucky Derby and two or three weeks before the Belmont Stakes.
First run in 1873, the Preakness Stakes was named by a former Maryland governor after a winning colt at Pimlico. The race has been termed "The Run for the Black - Eyed Susans '' because a blanket of yellow flowers altered to resemble Maryland 's state flower is placed across the withers of the winning colt or filly. Attendance at the Preakness Stakes ranks second in North America among equestrian events, only surpassed by the Kentucky Derby.
The 143rd running of the Preakness Stakes took place on Saturday, May 19, 2018.
Two years before the Kentucky Derby was run for the first time, Pimlico introduced its new stakes race for three - year - olds, the Preakness, during its first - ever spring race meet in 1873. Then Maryland governor Oden Bowie named the then mile and one - half (2.41 km) race in honor of the colt Preakness from Milton Holbrook Sanford 's Preakness Stables in Preakness, Wayne Township, New Jersey, who won the Dinner Party Stakes on the day Pimlico opened (October 25, 1870). The New Jersey name was said to have come from the Native American name Pra - qua - les ("Quail Woods '') for the area. After Preakness won the Dinner Party Stakes, his jockey, Billy Hayward, untied a silk bag of gold coins that hung from a wire stretched across the track from the judges ' stand. This was the supposed way that the "wire '' at the finish line was introduced and how the awarding of "purse '' money came to be. In reality, the term "purse '', meaning prize money, had been in use for well over a century.
The first Preakness, held on May 27, 1873, drew seven starters. John Chamberlain 's three - year - old, Survivor, collected the $2,050 winning purse by galloping home easily by 10 lengths. This was the largest margin of victory until 2004, when Smarty Jones won by 11 1 / 2 lengths.
In 1890 Morris Park Racecourse in the Bronx, New York hosted the Preakness Stakes. This race was run under handicap conditions, and the age restriction was lifted. The race was won by a five - year - old horse named Montague. After 1890, there was no race run for three years. For the 15 years from 1894 through 1908, the race was held at Gravesend Race Track on Coney Island, New York. In 1909 it returned to Pimlico.
Seven editions of the Preakness Stakes have been run under handicap conditions, in which more accomplished or favored horses are assigned to carry heavier weight. It was first run under these conditions in 1890 and again in the years 1910 - 1915. During these years, the race was known as the Preakness Handicap.
In March 2009 Magna Entertainment Corp., which owns Pimlico, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy thus throwing open the possibility the Stakes could move again. On April 13, 2009, the Maryland Legislature approved a plan to buy the Stakes and the Pimlico course if Magna Entertainment can not find a buyer.
Attendance at the Preakness Stakes ranks second in North America and usually surpasses the attendance of all other stakes races including the Belmont Stakes, the Breeders ' Cup and the Kentucky Oaks. The attendance of the Preakness Stakes typically only trails the Kentucky Derby, for more information see American Thoroughbred Racing top Attended Events.
In February 2017, the Maryland Stadium Authority released the first phase of a study saying that Pimlico needed $250 million in renovations. As of May 2017, no one showed interest in financing the work. The Stronach Group, owner of Pimlico Race Course and Laurel Park, was only interested in moving the Preakness Stakes to Laurel Park unless someone else financed work on Pimlico.
The Preakness is the second leg in American thoroughbred racing 's Triple Crown series and almost always attracts the Kentucky Derby winner, some of the other horses that ran in the Derby, and often a few horses that did not start in the Derby. The Preakness is 1 ⁄ miles, or 9 ⁄ furlongs (1.88 km), compared to the Kentucky Derby, which is 1 ⁄ miles / 10 furlongs (2km). It is followed by the third leg, the Belmont Stakes, which is 1 ⁄ miles / 12 furlongs (2.4 km).
Since 1932, the order of Triple Crown races has the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Prior to 1932, the Preakness was run before the Derby eleven times. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby were run on the same day.
Today, the Preakness is run on the third Saturday in May, two weeks after the Kentucky Derby, and three weeks before the Belmont Stakes. Consequently, the race is run no earlier than May 15, and no later than May 21.
Just after the horses for the Preakness are called to the post, the audience is invited to sing "Maryland, My Maryland '', the official state song of Maryland. Traditionally, the Baltimore Colts ' Marching Band led the song from the infield. Today, the United States Naval Academy Glee Club leads the song.
As soon as the Preakness winner has been declared official, a painter climbs a ladder to the top of a replica of the Old Clubhouse cupola. The colors of the victorious owner 's silks are applied on the jockey and horse that are part of the weather vane atop the infield structure. The practice began in 1909 when a horse and rider weather vane sat atop the old Members ' Clubhouse, which was constructed when Pimlico opened in 1870. The Victorian building was destroyed by fire in June 1966. A replica of the old building 's cupola was built to stand in the Preakness winner 's circle in the infield.
A blanket of yellow flowers daubed with black lacquer to recreate the appearance of a black - eyed Susan (see Winning) is placed around the winning horse 's neck at this time, and a replica of the Woodlawn Vase is given to the winning horse 's owner. Should that horse have also won the Kentucky Derby, speculation and excitement immediately begin to mount as to whether that horse will go on to win the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing at the Belmont Stakes in June.
In 1917, the first Woodlawn Vase was awarded to the Preakness winner, who was not allowed to keep it. Eventually a half - size reproduction of the trophy was given to winners to keep permanently. The original trophy is kept at the Baltimore Museum of Art and brought to the race each year under guard, for the winner 's presentation ceremony.
In 1940, it was proposed to drape the winning horse in a garland of the Maryland State flower, Rudbeckia hirta, commonly called black - eyed Susans. This posed a problem, as the race is run nearly two months before the flowers come into bloom in late June or July. At first, yellow Viking daisies were painted to resemble black - eyed Susans. Painted flowers have been discontinued since the first decade of the current millennium and viking poms, a member of the chrysanthemum family, are now used. Although the Preakness is sometimes referred to as "the race for the black - eyed Susans '', no black - eyed Susan is ever used.
In 1918, 26 horses entered the race, and it was run in two divisions, providing for two winners that year. Currently, the race is limited to 14 horses.
In 1948, the Preakness was televised for the first time by CBS.
The Preakness has been run at seven different distances:
At its inauguration in 1873, the Preakness carried a value of $1,000. The first major increase occurred in 1919 when the race had a $25,000 value. It climbed to $100,000 in 1946 and in 1959 was raised to $150,000. Subsequent increases occurred from 1979 to 1989, when the purse rose four times from $200,000 to $500,000, before going to $1 million in 1997. On December 12, 2013, the Maryland Jockey Club announced for the 2014 running of the Preakness the purse would be increased from $1,000,000 to $1,500,000.
The race has had something of a party atmosphere in the past, especially in the infield, which is general admission. The course had a "bring your own booze '' policy until 2009, formerly including kegs of beer but in the 2000s restricted to all the beer cans a person could carry in a cooler. However, despite crowds in excess of 100,000, the BYOB policy was canceled in 2009 after videos of intoxicated people running along the tops of lines of portable toilets while being pelted by beer cans reached a large audience.
In 2009, with the alcohol ban, race attendance dropped to 77,850 after topping 100,000 for eight consecutive years. In 2010, and the Maryland Jockey Club responded with a new event called "InfieldFest '' with performances by musical acts, the "Mug Club '', which included an infield ticket and an unlimited - refill beer mug, and a mascot named "Kegasus '', a play on keg and pegasus (though actually a centaur). The much - derided Kegasus was retired in 2013. In 2010, ticket sales had recovered to 95,760 and have since stayed high.
Aside from InfieldFest, the race is known for its fancy hats and official cocktail, the Black - eyed Susan, made with vodka, St - Germain liqueur and pineapple, lime and orange juices.
Speed record:
Secretariat, the 1973 winner (and ultimately Triple Crown winner) was originally credited with a running time of 1: 55. Two Daily Racing Form clockers, however, had timed Secretariat 's Preakness in 1: 53 ⁄, which would be a new stakes record. A hearing was held over the time discrepancy, where a video replay showed Secretariat reached the wire faster than Canonero II, the then - current record holder, but instead of giving Secretariat the record, the Maryland Jockey Club decided to split the difference and make its official time that of Pimlico 's clocker, who had timed the race in 1: 54 ⁄. The matter was finally resolved in June 2012, when a meeting of the Maryland Racing Commission unanimously ruled to change Secretariat 's final time to 1: 53 based on testimony and analysis of the race replays. Consequently, Secretariat holds the current official record for all three Triple Crown races.
Margin of Victory:
Most wins by a jockey:
Most wins by a trainer:
Most wins by an owner:
Five fillies have won the Preakness:
A † designates a Triple Crown Winner. A ‡ designates a filly. § D. Wayne Lukas swept the 1995 Triple Crown with two different horses.
Legend -- ₩ = Triple Crown Winners, ♥ = Filly
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what does esquire mean behind someone's name | Esquire - wikipedia
Esquire (British English: / ɪˈskwaɪə /; American English: / ˈɛsˌkwaɪr / or / ɪˈskwaɪr /; abbreviated Esq.) is usually a courtesy title.
In the United Kingdom, Esquire historically was a title of respect accorded to men of higher social rank, particularly members of the landed gentry above the rank of gentleman and below the rank of knight. In 1826, William Blackstone reiterated that, "the title should be limited to those only who bear an office of trust under the Crown and who are styled esquires by the king in their commissions and appointments; and all, I conceive, who are once honoured by the king with the title of esquire have a right to that distinction for life. ''
By the early 20th century, it came to be used as a general courtesy title for any man in a formal setting, usually as a suffix to his name, as in "Todd Smith, Esq. '', with no precise significance. In the United Kingdom today, it is still commonly used as a written style of address in formal or professional correspondence. In certain formal contexts, it remains an indication of a social status that is recognised in the formal Order of Precedence.
In the United States, Esquire is mostly used to denote a lawyer, in a departure from traditional use, and is irrespective of gender. In letters, a lawyer is customarily addressed by adding the suffix Esquire (abbreviated Esq.), preceded by a comma, after the lawyer 's full name.
Chief Justice Coke (1552 -- 1634) defined "gentlemen '' as those who bear coat armour. From the 16th century such families were defined by the inclusion of their pedigrees within their county 's Heraldic Visitations, which necessitated their submitting a return of their pedigree to the visiting herald at the specified location, generally one of the chief towns of the county. The 1623 Heraldic Visitation for Gloucestershire, for example, includes a section at the back headed: "A note of such as were disclaymed to be no gentilmen within the county and city of Gloucester '', the list being headed by "Edward Hill, Customer, of Gloucester, neither gentilman of bloud, ancestry nor armes ''. The list thus identifies those persons whose returns were not accepted, perhaps because fabricated or insufficiently evidenced in some way.
Sir John Fearn in "Glory of Generositie '' spoke of esquires by creation, birth, dignity and office, specifying several circumstances that customarily conferred the title.
Coke followed Sir William Camden, Clarenceux King of Arms (1551 -- 1623), who defined esquires as:
John Weever (d. 1632) identified five categories of esquires:
According to one typical definition, esquires in English law included:
Charles Boutell (1812 -- 1877) defined the term as
Esquire -- A rank next below that of Knight. Besides those Esquires who are personal attendants of Knights of Orders of Knighthood, this title is held by all attendants on the person of the Sovereign, and all persons holding the Sovereign 's commission being of military rank not below Captain; also, by general concession, by Barristers at Law, Masters of Arts and Bachelors of Law and Physic.
James Parker supplied the following definition:
Esquire, (lat. armiger, fr. escuyer): a title of a gentleman of the rank immediately below a knight. It was originally a military office, an esquire being (as the name escuyer, from escu, a shield, implies) a knight 's attendant and shield bearer. Esquires may be theoretically divided into five classes:
Oxford Dictionaries currently provides for the following definition of Esquire:
By the end of the 16th century, the pretentious use of the title, especially in its Latin form, Armiger, was being mocked by Shakespeare in his character Robert Shallow, esquire, a Justice of the Peace:
... a gentleman born, master parson; who writes himself "Armigero, '' in any bill, warrant, quittance, or obligation, "Armigero. ''
To which Shallow directly replies:
Ay, that I do; and have done any time these three hundred years.
Nineteenth century tables of precedence further distinguished between "esquires by birth '' and "esquires by office '' (and likewise for "gentleman ''). Today the term "gentleman '' is still found in official tables of precedence, and it invariably means a person who is an armiger with no higher rank or a descendant of someone who has borne arms. An English use of the term is to distinguish between men of the upper and lower gentry, who are "esquires '' and "gentlemen '' respectively, which still applies in terms of the official Order of Precedence. Examples of this may be found in the Parish Tithe Map Schedules made under the Tithe Commutation Act 1836. Later examples appear in the list of subscribers to The History of Elton, by the Rev. Rose Fuller Whistler, published in 1892, which distinguishes between subscribers designated Mr (another way of indicating gentlemen) and those allowed Esquire.
But formal definitions like these were proposed because there was, in reality, no fixed criterion distinguishing those designated esquire: it was essentially a matter of impression as to whether a person qualified for this status. William Segar, Garter King of Arms (the senior officer of arms at the College of Arms), wrote in 1602: "And who so can make proofe, that his Ancestors or himselfe, have had Armes, or can procure them by purchase, may be called Armiger or Esquier. '' Honor military, and civill (1602; lib. 4, cap. 15, p. 228). (By Armes he referred to a coat of arms; it is not clear from this quotation whether Segar made a distinction between esquires and gentlemen.) For example, Lords of the Manor hold the rank of esquire by prescription.
Although esquire is the English translation of the French écuyer, the latter indicated legal membership in the nobilities of ancien régime France and contemporaneous Belgium, whereas an esquire belongs to the British gentry rather than to its nobility, albeit that the term "gentry '' in England came to be used to describe what is elsewhere labelled the untitled nobility. Écuyer in French (11th to 14th century) means "shield - bearer '', a knight in training, age 14 to 21. In the later stages of the Middle Ages, the cost of the adoubement or accolade became too high for many noblemen to bear. They stayed écuyers all their lives, making that title synonymous with "nobleman '' or "gentleman ''.
The most common occurrence of term "esquire '' today is in the addition of the suffix "Esq. '' in order to pay an informal compliment to a male recipient by way of implying gentle birth. There remain respected protocols for identifying those to whom it is thought most proper that the suffix should be given, especially in very formal or in official circumstances.
The breadth of Esquire (as Esq.) had become universal in the United Kingdom by the mid 20th century, with no distinction in status being perceived between Mr and Esquire. Esquire was used generally as the default title for all men who did not have a grander title when addressing correspondence, with letters addressed using the name in initial format (e.g., K.S. Smith, Esq.) but Mr being used as the form of address (e.g. Dear Mr Smith). In the 1970s, the use of Esq. started to decline, and by the end of the 20th century most people had stopped using it and changed to using Mr instead. Esq. is generally considered to be old - fashioned but is still used by some traditional individuals and organisations such as Christie 's and Berry Bros. & Rudd. British men invited to Buckingham Palace receive their invitations in an envelope with the suffix Esq. after their names, while men of foreign nationalities instead have the prefix Mr (women are addressed as Miss, Ms, or Mrs). The same practice applies for other post from the palace (e.g., to employees).
Esquire is historically a feudal designation in Scotland. Today, the title of esquire is defined as a social dignity that refers to people of the Scottish gentry, who hold the next position in the Order of Precedence above Gentlemen. It is also used as a common courtesy in correspondence. Traditionally, this was one who was classified as a ' cadet for knighthood '. Today, the title of esquire is not bestowed on gentlemen, although certain positions carry with them the degree of esquire, such as that of advocate or Justice of the Peace. Whether an armiger is a gentleman, an esquire, or of a higher rank can be told by the type of helm depicted on the Letters Patent granting or matriculating the arms. In Scots Heraldry, Sir Thomas Innes of Learney makes clear that a gentleman 's helm is a closed pot helm, in plain steel, with no gold, whereas an esquire 's helm can be a steel pot helm garnished in gold or a helmet with a closed visor garnished in gold. The Court of the Lord Lyon will display the helm appropriate to their "degree '', or social rank, in the illustration on the Letters Patent.
The definition of Esquire today includes:
There is some confusion over the fact that the Lord Lyon King of Arms addresses correspondents by their name followed by "Esq. '' in correspondence, namely on letters. Some people erroneously believe that this makes them an Esquire, however this is a common courtesy in Scotland, as in the rest of Britain, and does not constitute official recognition in the degree of an Esquire. The Scottish courts have confirmed that the base degree in which an Armiger is recognised is the dignity of Gentleman, not Esquire.
In feudal times an Esquire was an Armour - Bearer, attendant upon a Knight, but bearing his own unique armorial device. Similarly, an Armiger in contemporary terms is well - defined within the jurisdiction of Scotland as someone who is an Armour - Bearer. These two senses of "Armour - Bearer '' are different: An Esquire in feudal times was an "Armour - Bearer '' in the sense of being the person who carried their knight 's armour for them; whereas in the contemporary sense the term "Armour - Bearer '' is being used to mean the bearer of a Coat of Arms, an Armiger. The two are not the same thing, although the feudal Esquire would also most likely have been an Armiger. For centuries the title of Esquire has not been bestowed on a Knight 's Attendee (since knights no longer need to train for battle). Attendants on Knights, however, were not the only bearers of arms, and similarly not all Armigers were Esquires. Today, being an Armiger is synonymous with the title of Gentleman within the Order of Precedence in Scotland, and is a social dignity. The Letters Patent of Scottish Armigers will never include the title of Gentleman, because the Letters Patent themselves evidence the individual is an Armour - Bearer, or Gentleman by the strictest sense of the definition. A Scottish Armiger is a Gentleman or Gentlewoman unless they hold a higher rank.
Scottish Armigers are those individuals with a hereditary right, grant or matriculation of Arms so entitling them to use personal Arms by the Court of the Lord Lyon (Ref. Scottish Heraldry). The bearing of duly registered Arms is an indication of nobility (either peerage or non-peerage in rank). All Scottish Armigers are recognised as members of the nobility in the broader sense through their grant or matriculation of Arms awarded by the Crown or Sovereign through the Court of the Lord Lyon, and by issuance of a Warrant from the Lord Lyon King of Arms is so entered in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland and through later official "Ensigns of Nobility ''. Without such legal Arms it is practically impossible to prove one 's nobiliary status. "Technically, a grant of arms from the Lord Lyon is a patent of nobility (also referred to a ' Diploma of Nobility '); the Grantee is thereby ' enrolled with all nobles in the noblesse of Scotland. ', however the term "nobility '' today is little used in this context, as in common parlance in Britain the term is widely associated with the Peerage. Instead the French term of Noblesse has been used by the Court of the Lord Lyon as this term not only includes Peers but also the non-Peerage minor - nobility, which includes Baronets, Knights, feudal Barons, Armigers with Territorial Designations, Esquires, and Gentlemen.
In the U.S., the title Esquire is commonly encountered among members of the legal profession. The term is used for both male and female lawyers. The title is not allocated by the law of any state to any profession, class, or station in society
Similarly, when addressing social correspondence to a commissioned officer of the United States Foreign Service, Esquire may be used as a complimentary title. While the abbreviated Esq. is correct, Esquire is typically written in full when addressing a diplomat. If any other titles are used on the same line, Esquire is omitted.
Some fraternal groups use the Esquire title. One appendant body in Freemasonry also uses Esquire as a degree title.
Honorifics are not used with courtesy titles, so John Smith, Esq. or Mr John Smith would be correct, but Mr John Smith, Esq. would be incorrect.
When addressing a person who has an academic degree or other post-nominal professional designation, such as a Certified Public Accountant, a writer should use either the post-nominal designation (usually abbreviated) or the Esq., but not both; as Esquire is a courtesy title, it should not be used with post-nominals.
Before 1947, the term Esquire was used by most senior government officers, especially the former members of the Indian Civil Service and the rest of the higher services of the Imperial Civil Services. The term was used by members of the anglicised segments of the Indian society who could join the government services. In keeping with the criteria established centuries earlier, the title was mostly used by government officials who could claim to have received their legal education in England, especially in Oxford, Cambridge University, or University of London and had become barristers in London.
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when did the solar eclipse happen in minnesota | Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 - Wikipedia
The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed "The Great American Eclipse '' by the media, was a total eclipse visible within a band across the entire contiguous United States, passing from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible on land from Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In Asia it was visible only at the eastern extremity, the Chukchi Peninsula.
Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entire contiguous United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States. The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U.S. had a partial eclipse. The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, with most of this area over the ocean, not land. The event 's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4: 05 p.m. UTC (9: 05 a.m. PDT), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5: 16 p.m. UTC (10: 16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse 's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6: 44 p.m. UTC (2: 44 p.m. EDT). Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4: 20 p.m. UTC (6: 20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5: 25 p.m. UTC (7: 25 a.m. HST).
This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America. Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience.
Marriage proposals took place coinciding with the eclipse, and at least one wedding was also planned and took place to coincide with the eclipse. Logistical problems were expected with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities. The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries.
Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States in April 2024 (12 states) and August 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses -- wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun -- will occur in October 2023 (9 states) and June 2048 (9 states).
The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor 70 miles (110 km) wide, crossing fourteen of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It was first seen from land in the U.S. shortly after 10: 15 a.m. PDT (17: 15 UTC) at Oregon 's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; Nashville, Tennessee; Columbia, South Carolina about 2: 41 p.m.; and finally Charleston, South Carolina. A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9: 00 a.m. PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon. Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U.S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast.
The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about 37 ° 35 ′ 0 '' N 89 ° 7 ′ 0 '' W / 37.58333 ° N 89.11667 ° W / 37.58333; - 89.11667 in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at 36 ° 58 ′ 0 '' N 87 ° 40 ′ 18 '' W / 36.96667 ° N 87.67167 ° W / 36.96667; - 87.67167 near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton. This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970. Two NASA WB - 57F flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra. A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon 's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3 -- 5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north - east Asia.
During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible. The star - system Regulus was visible slightly to the west of the Sun. Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right. Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left.
This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991 -- which was seen only from part of Hawaii -- and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979. An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia.
The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota. Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades.
Some American scientists and interested amateurs who wanted to experience a total eclipse participated in a four - day Atlantic Ocean cruise to view the solar eclipse of July 10, 1972 as it passed near Nova Scotia. (This is referenced in the Carly Simon hit song "You 're So Vain '' in the lyric, "Then you flew your Lear Jet up to Nova Scotia to see the total eclipse of the Sun. '') Organizers of the cruise advertised in astronomical journals and in planetarium announcements, emphasizing the rarity of the event.
The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S. since 1918. Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country 's declaration of independence in 1776. Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States.
The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale. An area of about 9,000 square miles, including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years. The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years.
The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 will have a very similar path of totality over the U.S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long.
A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut. In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre
A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others.
A partial eclipse was visible only in the Chukchi Peninsula. In Anadyr, the maximum obscuration was 27.82 %.
In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset. Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in the rest of the UK, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse. In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country. In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible.
In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset.
A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets. NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high - altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that "never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points -- from space, from the air, and from the ground. '' ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel. The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event -- "Eclipse Over America '' -- later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history).
Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project. The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high - altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches. Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at 20,000 feet (6,100 m). Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at 100,000 feet (30,000 m) it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery.
The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse.
In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse.
A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump. With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses.
The rapper Joey Badass boasted of watching the solar eclipse without viewing glasses, considering that "our ancestors ai n't have no fancy eyewear (and) they ai n't all go blind ''. Unlike the US president, he did not wear viewing glasses during the entire eclipse. Later, he complained of vision problems and had to cancel his Cleveland, Chicago & Toronto shows on the Everybody Tour, due to "unforeseen circumstances ''.
The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life. Some farm animals including domestic chickens came out from under their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity. Horses also displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event. Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality. Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations. Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event.
NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency 's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over.
In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale. Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well. For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment.
The eye 's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one 's awareness.
The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312 - 2 standard avoid risk to one 's eyes, and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors ' products, some even claiming the company 's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.
Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that "the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long - term harmful effects. '' As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage.
On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification. In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that "may not comply with industry standards '', and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them.
Short - term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty - four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity.
Long - term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and / or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision.
Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.
Dr. Avnish Deobhakta, an ophthalmologist in New York, states that, ""If you 're looking at the sun you 're actually focusing, intentionally, the light of the sun onto the spot (fovea) where you want the most precise vision. ''
Following a total eclipse in the United Kingdom in 1999, at least 14 cases of permanent damage were confirmed.
One story of solar eclipse danger was illustrated by the case of Mr. Tomososki, who damaged his eyesight when viewing a 1962 eclipse, leaving him with a pea - sized blind spot for the rest of his life. During the 2017 eclipse he warned the country to not make the mistake he did. While some can recover, the danger of an eclipse comes in part because the excitement can override the instinct to not look at the sun.
Officials inside and near the path of totality planned -- sometimes for years -- for the sudden influx of people. Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster.
In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Idaho 's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly 100 miles (160 km) north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance. The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents.
Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state 's fire season. Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and anti -- snake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line.
In Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse. The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state. These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ.
Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended. Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse.
In Oregon, an estimated one million people were expected to arrive that the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97. Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse.
Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance. The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18 -- 22 in order to have all lanes open; their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the 220 miles (350 km) north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same. On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I - 15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to 10 -- 15 miles per hour (16 -- 24 km / h). The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I - 15 every 15 miles (24 km) between Shelley and the Utah border.
After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I - 15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south. The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper - to - bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls. Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the 47 miles (76 km) from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes. Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, 30 miles (48 km) farther north of Pocatello.
In the rest of the state the impact was less severe. Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20.
For some northbound travelers on I - 15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted "we... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard. ''
In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on August 21 showing 536,000 more cars than the five - year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase. One official offered an estimate of "two people in every car '' to arrive at a one - million - visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one - day traffic count of limited portions of major highways. There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days. Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five - year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road. Sunday saw an additional 217,000 - vehicle increase.
Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways. Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel 160 miles (260 km) into northern Colorado. There was one traffic fatality, and another fatality related to an off - highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated.
In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state. One backup along Interstate 75 reached 34 miles (55 km) in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut. A spokesman for the state 's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I - 75 congestion to Knoxville - area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city 's normal afternoon rush hour.
Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice - a-season NASCAR Monster Energy Cup races at Bristol or the formerly - held Boomsday fireworks festival. "Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events '', the News Sentinel commented. The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that "(e) very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave (wa) s working '' the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency - aid HELP trucks were available as well. Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles.
In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work. The department warned that due to "unprecedented '' traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow.
In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed "Eclipseville, USA '', post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays. The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal. The Hopkinsville - to - Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours.
An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds.
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse. In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4 -- 6,000 megawatts at 70 MW / minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW / minute as the shadow passes. CAISO 's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute. Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured.
After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000 -- 3,500 megawatts of utility - scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, mimicking the usual duck curve. Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop.
NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states. When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar - generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there. Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it. During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences.
The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity.
On June 20, 2017, the United States Postal Service released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017. When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the black circle in the center of the stamp into an image of the full moon. The stamp image is a photo of the solar eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya. The photo was taken by retired NASA astrophysicist Fred Espenak.
Illustration showing umbra (black oval), penumbra (concentric shaded ovals), and path of totality (red).
Illustration featuring several visualizations of the event.
Short time - lapse showing umbra as it moves across the clouds.
Video of the moment totality occurred in Newberry, South Carolina
(Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon)
Sequence starting at 9: 06am, totality at 10: 19am, and ending at 10: 21am PDT, as seen from Corvallis, Oregon
Totality and prominences as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming
Totality as seen from Columbia, Missouri
Totality as seen from Sweetwater, Tennessee
Totality as seen from Saint Paul, Clarendon County, South Carolina
Totality as seen from Newberry, South Carolina
(Images showing Baily 's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends)
Beginning of Diamond ring as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming
Diamond ring as seen from Jay Em, Wyoming
Baily 's beads before totality from far western Nebraska
Diamond ring as seen from Corvallis, Oregon
Diamond ring as seen from Saint Paul, South Carolina
Diamond ring as seen from Newberry, South Carolina
Diamond ring (with large flare) as seen from Cullowhee, NC
(Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon)
Seattle, Washington
North Cascades National Park, Washington
San Francisco, California
Mira Mesa in San Diego, California
Far western Nebraska
White House, Tennessee
Maine at 2: 41 p.m. EDT before maximum 68 % coverage at 2: 45 p.m.
Brooklyn, New York
Ellicott City, Maryland shortly before maximum eclipse (~ 80 %)
Virginia Beach, Virginia
Simpsonville, South Carolina
Newberry, South Carolina
(Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves)
North Cascade mountains (British Columbia and Washington).
Moon, Pennsylvania
Tuxtla Gutiérrez (Chiapas), Mexico at 12: 36 GMT - 6.
Chihuahua, Mexico at 11: 40 a.m.
Sunset from Zarautz, Basque Country Spain
Sunset, viewed from Coimbra, Portugal
Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019 and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019.
A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season. It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe.
Each member in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon 's orbit.
This solar eclipse is a part of Saros cycle 145, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, 8 hours, containing 77 events. The series started with a partial solar eclipse on January 4, 1639, and reached a first annular eclipse on June 6, 1891. It was a hybrid event on June 17, 1909, and total eclipses from June 29, 1927, through September 9, 2648. The series ends at member 77 as a partial eclipse on April 17, 3009. The longest eclipse will occur on June 25, 2522, with a maximum duration of totality of 7 minutes, 12 seconds.
The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1 / 5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days).
Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
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the name of the central limit theorem implies that | Central limit theorem - wikipedia
In probability theory, the central limit theorem (CLT) establishes that, in most situations, when independent random variables are added, their properly normalized sum tends toward a normal distribution (informally a "bell curve '') even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed. The theorem is a key concept in probability theory because it implies that probabilistic and statistical methods that work for normal distributions can be applicable to many problems involving other types of distributions.
For example, suppose that a sample is obtained containing a large number of observations, each observation being randomly generated in a way that does not depend on the values of the other observations, and that the arithmetic average of the observed values is computed. If this procedure is performed many times, the central limit theorem says that the computed values of the average will be distributed according to a normal distribution. A simple example of this is that if one flips a coin many times the probability of getting a given number of heads in a series of flips will approach a normal curve, with mean equal to half the total number of flips in each series. (In the limit of an infinite number of flips, it will equal a normal curve.)
The central limit theorem has a number of variants. In its common form, the random variables must be identically distributed. In variants, convergence of the mean to the normal distribution also occurs for non-identical distributions or for non-independent observations, given that they comply with certain conditions.
The earliest version of this theorem, that the normal distribution may be used as an approximation to the binomial distribution, is now known as the de Moivre -- Laplace theorem.
In more general usage, a central limit theorem is any of a set of weak - convergence theorems in probability theory. They all express the fact that a sum of many independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables, or alternatively, random variables with specific types of dependence, will tend to be distributed according to one of a small set of attractor distributions. When the variance of the i.i.d. variables is finite, the attractor distribution is the normal distribution. In contrast, the sum of a number of i.i.d. random variables with power law tail distributions decreasing as x where 0 < α < 2 (and therefore having infinite variance) will tend to an alpha - stable distribution with stability parameter (or index of stability) of α as the number of variables grows.
Let (X,..., X) be a random sample of size n -- that is, a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables drawn from a distribution of expected value given by μ and finite variance given by σ. Suppose we are interested in the sample average
of these random variables. By the law of large numbers, the sample averages converge in probability and almost surely to the expected value μ as n → ∞. The classical central limit theorem describes the size and the distributional form of the stochastic fluctuations around the deterministic number μ during this convergence. More precisely, it states that as n gets larger, the distribution of the difference between the sample average S and its limit μ, when multiplied by the factor √ n (that is √ n (S − μ)), approximates the normal distribution with mean 0 and variance σ. For large enough n, the distribution of S is close to the normal distribution with mean μ and variance σ / n. The usefulness of the theorem is that the distribution of √ n (S − μ) approaches normality regardless of the shape of the distribution of the individual X. Formally, the theorem can be stated as follows:
Lindeberg -- Lévy CLT. Suppose (X, X,...) is a sequence of i.i.d. random variables with E (X) = μ and Var (X) = σ < ∞. Then as n approaches infinity, the random variables √ n (S − μ) converge in distribution to a normal N (0, σ):
In the case σ > 0, convergence in distribution means that the cumulative distribution functions of √ n (S − μ) converge pointwise to the cdf of the N (0, σ) distribution: for every real number z,
where Φ (x) is the standard normal cdf evaluated at x. Note that the convergence is uniform in z in the sense that
where sup denotes the least upper bound (or supremum) of the set.
The theorem is named after Russian mathematician Aleksandr Lyapunov. In this variant of the central limit theorem the random variables X have to be independent, but not necessarily identically distributed. The theorem also requires that random variables X have moments of some order (2 + δ), and that the rate of growth of these moments is limited by the Lyapunov condition given below.
Lyapunov CLT. Suppose (X, X,...) is a sequence of independent random variables, each with finite expected value μ and variance σ. Define
If for some δ > 0, Lyapunov 's condition
is satisfied, then a sum of X − μ / s converges in distribution to a standard normal random variable, as n goes to infinity:
In practice it is usually easiest to check Lyapunov 's condition for δ = 1.
If a sequence of random variables satisfies Lyapunov 's condition, then it also satisfies Lindeberg 's condition. The converse implication, however, does not hold.
In the same setting and with the same notation as above, the Lyapunov condition can be replaced with the following weaker one (from Lindeberg in 1920).
Suppose that for every ε > 0
where 1 is the indicator function. Then the distribution of the standardized sums
converges towards the standard normal distribution N (0, 1).
Proofs that use characteristic functions can be extended to cases where each individual X is a random vector in R, with mean vector μ = E (X) and covariance matrix Σ (amongst the components of the vector), and these random vectors are independent and identically distributed. Summation of these vectors is being done componentwise. The multidimensional central limit theorem states that when scaled, sums converge to a multivariate normal distribution.
Let
be the k - vector. The bold in X means that it is a random vector, not a random (univariate) variable. Then the sum of the random vectors will be
and the average is
and therefore
The multivariate central limit theorem states that
where the covariance matrix Σ is equal to
The rate of convergence is given by the following Berry Esseen type result:
Theorem. Let X 1,..., X n (\ displaystyle X_ (1), \ dots, X_ (n)) be independent R d (\ displaystyle R ^ (d)) - valued random vectors, each having mean zero. Write S = ∑ i = 1 n X i (\ displaystyle S = \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (n) X_ (i)) and assume Σ = Cov (S) (\ displaystyle \ Sigma = \ operatorname (Cov) (S)) is invertible. Let Z ∼ N (0, Σ) (\ displaystyle Z \ sim N (0, \ Sigma)) be a d (\ displaystyle d) - dimensional Gaussian with the same mean and covariance matrix as S (\ displaystyle S). Then for all convex sets U ⊆ R d (\ displaystyle U \ subseteq R ^ (d)),
where C (\ displaystyle C) is a universal constant, γ = ∑ i = 1 n E (‖ Σ − 1 / 2 X i ‖ 2 3) (\ displaystyle \ gamma = \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (n) \ operatorname (E) (\ \ Sigma ^ (- 1 / 2) X_ (i) \ _ (2) ^ (3))), and ‖ ⋅ ‖ 2 (\ displaystyle \ \ cdot \ _ (2)) denotes the Euclidean norm on R d (\ displaystyle R ^ (d)).
It is unknown whether the factor d 1 / 4 (\ displaystyle d ^ (1 / 4)) is necessary.
The central limit theorem states that the sum of a number of independent and identically distributed random variables with finite variances will tend to a normal distribution as the number of variables grows. A generalization due to Gnedenko and Kolmogorov states that the sum of a number of random variables with a power - law tail (Paretian tail) distributions decreasing as x where 0 < α < 2 (and therefore having infinite variance) will tend to a stable distribution f (x; α, 0, c, 0) as the number of summands grows. If α > 2 then the sum converges to a stable distribution with stability parameter equal to 2, i.e. a Gaussian distribution.
A useful generalization of a sequence of independent, identically distributed random variables is a mixing random process in discrete time; "mixing '' means, roughly, that random variables temporally far apart from one another are nearly independent. Several kinds of mixing are used in ergodic theory and probability theory. See especially strong mixing (also called α - mixing) defined by α (n) → 0 where α (n) is so - called strong mixing coefficient.
A simplified formulation of the central limit theorem under strong mixing is:
Theorem. Suppose that X, X,... is stationary and α - mixing with α = O (n) and that E (X) = 0 and E (X) < ∞. Denote S = X +... + X, then the limit
In fact,
where the series converges absolutely.
The assumption σ ≠ 0 can not be omitted, since the asymptotic normality fails for X = Y − Y where Y are another stationary sequence.
There is a stronger version of the theorem: the assumption E (X) < ∞ is replaced with E (X) < ∞, and the assumption α = O (n) is replaced with
Existence of such δ > 0 ensures the conclusion. For encyclopedic treatment of limit theorems under mixing conditions see (Bradley 2007).
Theorem. Let a martingale M satisfy
Caution: The restricted expectation E (X; A) should not be confused with the conditional expectation E (X A) = E (X; A) / P (A).
For a theorem of such fundamental importance to statistics and applied probability, the central limit theorem has a remarkably simple proof using characteristic functions. It is similar to the proof of the (weak) law of large numbers.
As stated above, suppose (X,..., X) are independent and identically distributed random variables, each with mean μ and finite variance σ. The sum X +... + X has mean nμ and variance nσ. Consider the random variable
where in the last step we defined the new random variables Y = X − μ / σ, each with zero mean and unit variance (var (Y) = 1). The characteristic function of Z is given by
where in the last step we used the fact that all of the Y are identically distributed. The characteristic function of Y is, by Taylor 's theorem,
where c is a (complex) constant and o (t) is "little o notation '' for some function of t that goes to zero more rapidly than t. By the limit of the exponential function (e = lim (1 + x / n)), the characteristic function of Z equals
Note that all of the higher order terms vanish in the limit n → ∞. The right hand side equals the characteristic function of a standard normal distribution N (0, 1), which implies through Lévy 's continuity theorem that the distribution of Z will approach N (0, 1) as n → ∞. Therefore, the sum X +... + X will approach that of the normal distribution N (nμ, nσ), and the sample average
converges to the normal distribution N (μ, σ / n), from which the central limit theorem follows.
The central limit theorem gives only an asymptotic distribution. As an approximation for a finite number of observations, it provides a reasonable approximation only when close to the peak of the normal distribution; it requires a very large number of observations to stretch into the tails.
The convergence in the central limit theorem is uniform because the limiting cumulative distribution function is continuous. If the third central moment E ((X − μ)) exists and is finite, then the speed of convergence is at least on the order of 1 / √ n (see Berry -- Esseen theorem). Stein 's method can be used not only to prove the central limit theorem, but also to provide bounds on the rates of convergence for selected metrics.
The convergence to the normal distribution is monotonic, in the sense that the entropy of Z increases monotonically to that of the normal distribution.
The central limit theorem applies in particular to sums of independent and identically distributed discrete random variables. A sum of discrete random variables is still a discrete random variable, so that we are confronted with a sequence of discrete random variables whose cumulative probability distribution function converges towards a cumulative probability distribution function corresponding to a continuous variable (namely that of the normal distribution). This means that if we build a histogram of the realisations of the sum of n independent identical discrete variables, the curve that joins the centers of the upper faces of the rectangles forming the histogram converges toward a Gaussian curve as n approaches infinity, this relation is known as de Moivre -- Laplace theorem. The binomial distribution article details such an application of the central limit theorem in the simple case of a discrete variable taking only two possible values.
The law of large numbers as well as the central limit theorem are partial solutions to a general problem: "What is the limiting behaviour of S as n approaches infinity? '' In mathematical analysis, asymptotic series are one of the most popular tools employed to approach such questions.
Suppose we have an asymptotic expansion of f (n):
Dividing both parts by φ (n) and taking the limit will produce a, the coefficient of the highest - order term in the expansion, which represents the rate at which f (n) changes in its leading term.
Informally, one can say: "f (n) grows approximately as a φ (n) ''. Taking the difference between f (n) and its approximation and then dividing by the next term in the expansion, we arrive at a more refined statement about f (n):
Here one can say that the difference between the function and its approximation grows approximately as a φ (n). The idea is that dividing the function by appropriate normalizing functions, and looking at the limiting behavior of the result, can tell us much about the limiting behavior of the original function itself.
Informally, something along these lines happens when the sum, S, of independent identically distributed random variables, X,..., X, is studied in classical probability theory. If each X has finite mean μ, then by the law of large numbers, S / n → μ. If in addition each X has finite variance σ, then by the central limit theorem,
where ξ is distributed as N (0, σ). This provides values of the first two constants in the informal expansion
In the case where the X do not have finite mean or variance, convergence of the shifted and rescaled sum can also occur with different centering and scaling factors:
or informally
Distributions Ξ which can arise in this way are called stable. Clearly, the normal distribution is stable, but there are also other stable distributions, such as the Cauchy distribution, for which the mean or variance are not defined. The scaling factor b may be proportional to n, for any c ≥ 1 / 2; it may also be multiplied by a slowly varying function of n.
The law of the iterated logarithm specifies what is happening "in between '' the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. Specifically it says that the normalizing function √ n log log n, intermediate in size between n of the law of large numbers and √ n of the central limit theorem, provides a non-trivial limiting behavior.
The density of the sum of two or more independent variables is the convolution of their densities (if these densities exist). Thus the central limit theorem can be interpreted as a statement about the properties of density functions under convolution: the convolution of a number of density functions tends to the normal density as the number of density functions increases without bound. These theorems require stronger hypotheses than the forms of the central limit theorem given above. Theorems of this type are often called local limit theorems. See Petrov for a particular local limit theorem for sums of independent and identically distributed random variables.
Since the characteristic function of a convolution is the product of the characteristic functions of the densities involved, the central limit theorem has yet another restatement: the product of the characteristic functions of a number of density functions becomes close to the characteristic function of the normal density as the number of density functions increases without bound, under the conditions stated above. Specifically, an appropriate scaling factor needs to be applied to the argument of the characteristic function.
An equivalent statement can be made about Fourier transforms, since the characteristic function is essentially a Fourier transform.
Let S be the sum of n random variables. Many central limit theorems provide conditions such that S / √ Var (S) converges in distribution to N (0, 1) (the normal distribution with mean 0, variance 1) as n → ∞. In some cases, it is possible to find a constant σ and function f (n) such that S / (σ √ n ⋅ f (n)) converges in distribution to N (0, 1) as n → ∞.
Lemma. Suppose X 1, X 2,... (\ displaystyle X_ (1), X_ (2), \ dots) is a sequence of real - valued and strictly stationary random variables with E (X i) = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (E) (X_ (i)) = 0) for all i (\ displaystyle i), g: (0, 1) → R (\ displaystyle g: (0, 1) \ rightarrow \ mathbb (R)), and S n = ∑ i = 1 n g (i n) X i (\ displaystyle S_ (n) = \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (n) g ((\ tfrac (i) (n))) X_ (i)). Construct
The logarithm of a product is simply the sum of the logarithms of the factors. Therefore, when the logarithm of a product of random variables that take only positive values approaches a normal distribution, the product itself approaches a log - normal distribution. Many physical quantities (especially mass or length, which are a matter of scale and can not be negative) are the products of different random factors, so they follow a log - normal distribution. This multiplicative version of the central limit theorem is sometimes called Gibrat 's law.
Whereas the central limit theorem for sums of random variables requires the condition of finite variance, the corresponding theorem for products requires the corresponding condition that the density function be square - integrable.
Asymptotic normality, that is, convergence to the normal distribution after appropriate shift and rescaling, is a phenomenon much more general than the classical framework treated above, namely, sums of independent random variables (or vectors). New frameworks are revealed from time to time; no single unifying framework is available for now.
Theorem. There exists a sequence ε ↓ 0 for which the following holds. Let n ≥ 1, and let random variables X,..., X have a log - concave joint density f such that f (x,..., x) = f (x,..., x) for all x,..., x, and E (X) = 1 for all k = 1,..., n. Then the distribution of
These two ε - close distributions have densities (in fact, log - concave densities), thus, the total variance distance between them is the integral of the absolute value of the difference between the densities. Convergence in total variation is stronger than weak convergence.
An important example of a log - concave density is a function constant inside a given convex body and vanishing outside; it corresponds to the uniform distribution on the convex body, which explains the term "central limit theorem for convex bodies ''.
Another example: f (x,..., x) = const exp (− (x +... + x)) where α > 1 and αβ > 1. If β = 1 then f (x,..., x) factorizes into const exp (− x)... exp (− x), which means X,..., X are independent. In general, however, they are dependent.
The condition f (x,..., x) = f (x,..., x) ensures that X,..., X are of zero mean and uncorrelated; still, they need not be independent, nor even pairwise independent. By the way, pairwise independence can not replace independence in the classical central limit theorem.
Here is a Berry -- Esseen type result.
Theorem. Let X,..., X satisfy the assumptions of the previous theorem, then
for all a < b; here C is a universal (absolute) constant. Moreover, for every c,..., c ∈ R such that c +... + c = 1,
The distribution of X +... + X / √ n need not be approximately normal (in fact, it can be uniform). However, the distribution of c X +... + c X is close to N (0, 1) (in the total variation distance) for most vectors (c,..., c) according to the uniform distribution on the sphere c +... + c = 1.
Theorem (Salem -- Zygmund): Let U be a random variable distributed uniformly on (0, 2π), and X = r cos (n U + a), where
Then
Theorem: Let A,..., A be independent random points on the plane R each having the two - dimensional standard normal distribution. Let K be the convex hull of these points, and X the area of K Then
The same also holds in all dimensions greater than 2.
The polytope K is called a Gaussian random polytope.
A similar result holds for the number of vertices (of the Gaussian polytope), the number of edges, and in fact, faces of all dimensions.
A linear function of a matrix M is a linear combination of its elements (with given coefficients), M ↦ tr (AM) where A is the matrix of the coefficients; see Trace (linear algebra) # Inner product.
A random orthogonal matrix is said to be distributed uniformly, if its distribution is the normalized Haar measure on the orthogonal group O (n, R); see Rotation matrix # Uniform random rotation matrices.
Theorem. Let M be a random orthogonal n × n matrix distributed uniformly, and A a fixed n × n matrix such that tr (AA *) = n, and let X = tr (AM). Then the distribution of X is close to N (0, 1) in the total variation metric up to 2 √ 3 / n − 1.
Theorem. Let random variables X, X,... ∈ L (Ω) be such that X → 0 weakly in L (Ω) and X → 1 weakly in L (Ω). Then there exist integers n < n <... such that
The central limit theorem may be established for the simple random walk on a crystal lattice (an infinite-fold abelian covering graph over a finite graph), and is used for design of crystal structures.
A simple example of the central limit theorem is rolling a large number of identical, unbiased dice. The distribution of the sum (or average) of the rolled numbers will be well approximated by a normal distribution. Since real - world quantities are often the balanced sum of many unobserved random events, the central limit theorem also provides a partial explanation for the prevalence of the normal probability distribution. It also justifies the approximation of large - sample statistics to the normal distribution in controlled experiments.
Published literature contains a number of useful and interesting examples and applications relating to the central limit theorem. One source states the following examples:
From another viewpoint, the central limit theorem explains the common appearance of the "bell curve '' in density estimates applied to real world data. In cases like electronic noise, examination grades, and so on, we can often regard a single measured value as the weighted average of a large number of small effects. Using generalisations of the central limit theorem, we can then see that this would often (though not always) produce a final distribution that is approximately normal.
In general, the more a measurement is like the sum of independent variables with equal influence on the result, the more normality it exhibits. This justifies the common use of this distribution to stand in for the effects of unobserved variables in models like the linear model.
Regression analysis and in particular ordinary least squares specifies that a dependent variable depends according to some function upon one or more independent variables, with an additive error term. Various types of statistical inference on the regression assume that the error term is normally distributed. This assumption can be justified by assuming that the error term is actually the sum of a large number of independent error terms; even if the individual error terms are not normally distributed, by the central limit theorem their sum can be well approximated by a normal distribution.
Given its importance to statistics, a number of papers and computer packages are available that demonstrate the convergence involved in the central limit theorem.
Dutch mathematician Henk Tijms writes:
The central limit theorem has an interesting history. The first version of this theorem was postulated by the French - born mathematician Abraham de Moivre who, in a remarkable article published in 1733, used the normal distribution to approximate the distribution of the number of heads resulting from many tosses of a fair coin. This finding was far ahead of its time, and was nearly forgotten until the famous French mathematician Pierre - Simon Laplace rescued it from obscurity in his monumental work Théorie analytique des probabilités, which was published in 1812. Laplace expanded De Moivre 's finding by approximating the binomial distribution with the normal distribution. But as with De Moivre, Laplace 's finding received little attention in his own time. It was not until the nineteenth century was at an end that the importance of the central limit theorem was discerned, when, in 1901, Russian mathematician Aleksandr Lyapunov defined it in general terms and proved precisely how it worked mathematically. Nowadays, the central limit theorem is considered to be the unofficial sovereign of probability theory.
Sir Francis Galton described the Central Limit Theorem in this way:
I know of scarcely anything so apt to impress the imagination as the wonderful form of cosmic order expressed by the "Law of Frequency of Error ''. The law would have been personified by the Greeks and deified, if they had known of it. It reigns with serenity and in complete self - effacement, amidst the wildest confusion. The huger the mob, and the greater the apparent anarchy, the more perfect is its sway. It is the supreme law of Unreason. Whenever a large sample of chaotic elements are taken in hand and marshalled in the order of their magnitude, an unsuspected and most beautiful form of regularity proves to have been latent all along.
The actual term "central limit theorem '' (in German: "zentraler Grenzwertsatz '') was first used by George Pólya in 1920 in the title of a paper. Pólya referred to the theorem as "central '' due to its importance in probability theory. According to Le Cam, the French school of probability interprets the word central in the sense that "it describes the behaviour of the centre of the distribution as opposed to its tails ''. The abstract of the paper On the central limit theorem of calculus of probability and the problem of moments by Pólya in 1920 translates as follows.
The occurrence of the Gaussian probability density 1 = e in repeated experiments, in errors of measurements, which result in the combination of very many and very small elementary errors, in diffusion processes etc., can be explained, as is well - known, by the very same limit theorem, which plays a central role in the calculus of probability. The actual discoverer of this limit theorem is to be named Laplace; it is likely that its rigorous proof was first given by Tschebyscheff and its sharpest formulation can be found, as far as I am aware of, in an article by Liapounoff. (...)
A thorough account of the theorem 's history, detailing Laplace 's foundational work, as well as Cauchy 's, Bessel 's and Poisson 's contributions, is provided by Hald. Two historical accounts, one covering the development from Laplace to Cauchy, the second the contributions by von Mises, Pólya, Lindeberg, Lévy, and Cramér during the 1920s, are given by Hans Fischer. Le Cam describes a period around 1935. Bernstein presents a historical discussion focusing on the work of Pafnuty Chebyshev and his students Andrey Markov and Aleksandr Lyapunov that led to the first proofs of the CLT in a general setting.
Through the 1930s, progressively more general proofs of the Central Limit Theorem were presented. Many natural systems were found to exhibit Gaussian distributions -- a typical example being height distributions for humans. When statistical methods such as analysis of variance became established in the early 1900s, it became increasingly common to assume underlying Gaussian distributions.
A curious footnote to the history of the Central Limit Theorem is that a proof of a result similar to the 1922 Lindeberg CLT was the subject of Alan Turing 's 1934 Fellowship Dissertation for King 's College at the University of Cambridge. Only after submitting the work did Turing learn it had already been proved. Consequently, Turing 's dissertation was not published.
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what kind of office is the show the office about | The Office (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
The Office is an American television comedy series that aired on NBC from March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013. It is an adaptation of the BBC series of the same name. The Office was adapted for American audiences by Greg Daniels, a veteran writer for Saturday Night Live, King of the Hill, and The Simpsons. It is co-produced by Daniels 's Deedle - Dee Productions, and Reveille Productions (later Shine America), in association with Universal Television. The original executive producers were Greg Daniels, Howard Klein, Ben Silverman, Ricky Gervais, and Stephen Merchant, with numerous others being promoted in later seasons.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. To simulate the look of an actual documentary, it is filmed in a single - camera setup, without a studio audience or a laugh track. The show debuted on NBC as a mid-season replacement and ran for nine seasons and 201 episodes. The Office initially featured Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer and B.J. Novak as the main cast; the show experienced numerous changes to its ensemble cast during its run.
The first season of The Office was met with mixed reviews, but the following four seasons received widespread acclaim from television critics. These seasons were included on several critics ' year - end top TV series lists, winning several awards including four Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Comedy Series in 2006. While later seasons were criticized for a decline in quality, earlier writers oversaw the final season and ended the show 's run with a positive reception.
List of showrunners throughout the series ' run:
Greg Daniels served as the senior series showrunner for the first four seasons of the series and developed the British series for American television. He then left the position when he co-created the comedy series Parks and Recreation with fellow Office writer Michael Schur and divided his time between the two series. Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta were named the series showrunners for the fifth season. Celotta left the series after the sixth season and Lieberstein stayed on as showrunner for the following two seasons. He left the showrunner spot after the eighth season for the potential Dwight Schrute spin - off, The Farm, which was eventually passed up by NBC. Daniels returned to the showrunner position for the ninth and final season. Other executive producers include cast members B.J. Novak and Mindy Kaling. Kaling, Novak, Daniels, Lieberstein and Schur made up the original team of writers. Kaling, Novak and Lieberstein also serve multiple roles on the series, as they play regular characters on the show, as well as write, direct and produce episodes. Credited with twenty - four episodes, Kaling is the most prolific writer on the staff. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who created the original British series, are credited as executive producers, and wrote the pilot and the third - season episode, "The Convict ''. Merchant later directed the episode "Customer Survey '' while Gervais appeared in the episodes "The Seminar '' and "Search Committee ''.
Randall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series has also had several guest directors, including Lost co-creator J.J. Abrams, Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, Ed Helms, and Brian Baumgartner.
Before the series aired its second episode, the writers spent time researching in offices. This process was used for Daniels ' other series King of the Hill and Parks and Recreation. The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the British version. Daniels had decided to go this route because "completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do '' due to the show being an adaptation. He had briefly considered using the idea for "The Dundies '' as the pilot episode. After the writers knew who the cast was, they were allowed to write for the actors, which allowed the show to be more original for the following episode, "Diversity Day ''. Following the mixed reaction towards the first season, the writers attempted to make the series more "optimistic '' and to make Michael Scott more likable. They also established the supporting characters of the series more, giving them actual personalities. They also made the lights in the office brighter, which allowed the series to differentiate itself from the British version.
A common problem with the scripts, according to Novak, is that they tend to run too long for the regular 22 - minute time slot, leading to several cuts. For example, the script for the episode "Search Committee '' was initially 75 pages -- 10 pages too long. A complete script is written for each episode; however, actors are given opportunities to improvise during the shooting process. Fischer said, "Our shows are 100 percent scripted. They put everything down on paper. But we get to play around a little bit, too. Steve and Rainn are brilliant improvisers. '' This leads to a large number of deleted scenes with almost every episode of The Office, all of which are considered part of the show 's canon and storyline by Daniels. Deleted scenes have sometimes been restored in repeats to make episodes longer or draw back people who have seen the episode before to see the bonus footage. In an experiment, a deleted scene from "The Return '' was made available over NBC.com and iTunes, explaining the absence of a character over the next several episodes. Daniels hoped that word of mouth among fans would spread the information, but eventually considered the experiment a failure.
According to Jenna Fischer, the series used an unusual casting process which did not involve a script. The producers would ask the actors several questions and they would respond as the characters they were auditioning for. NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott, but the actor declined. Martin Short, Hank Azaria, and Bob Odenkirk were reported to be interested in the part. In January 2004, Variety reported that Steve Carell, of the popular Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, was in talks to play the role. At the time, he was already committed to another NBC mid-season replacement comedy, Come to Papa, but the series was quickly canceled, allowing his full commitment to The Office. Carell later stated that he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned. He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais ' characterizations. Other people who were considered or auditioned for the role included Ben Falcone, Alan Tudyk, Jim Zulevic, and Paul F. Tompkins. Rainn Wilson was cast as power - hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute, and he watched every episode of the series before he auditioned. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael, a performance that he described as a "terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation ''; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him. Seth Rogen, Matt Besser, Patton Oswalt, and Judah Friedlander also auditioned for the role.
John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were virtually unknown before being cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam, the central love interests. Krasinski had attended school with B.J. Novak, and the two were friends. Fischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible, creating the original Pam hairstyle. In an interview on NPR 's Fresh Air, Fischer recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim, with the producers partnering the different potential Pams and Jims (four of each) together to gauge their chemistry. When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski, he told her that she was his favorite Pam, to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim. Adam Scott and John Cho both auditioned for the role of Jim, and Kathryn Hahn also auditioned for the role of Pam.
The supporting cast includes actors known for their improv work: Angela Kinsey, Kate Flannery, Oscar Nunez, Leslie David Baker, Brian Baumgartner, Melora Hardin, and David Denman. Kinsey had originally auditioned for Pam. The producers thought she was "too feisty '' for the character, but they called her back for the part of Angela Martin, which she won. Flannery first auditioned for the part of Jan Levinson - Gould, before landing the role of Meredith Palmer. Baumgartner originally auditioned for Stanley, but was eventually cast as Kevin. Ken Kwapis, the director of the pilot episode, liked the way Phyllis Smith, a casting associate, read with other actors auditioning so much that he cast her as Phyllis. At the beginning of the third season, Ed Helms and Rashida Jones joined the cast as members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford. While Jones would later leave the cast for a role on Parks and Recreation, in February 2007, NBC announced that Helms was being promoted to a series regular.
Four of the show 's writers have also performed in front of the camera. B.J. Novak was cast as reluctant temp Ryan Howard after Daniels saw his stand - up act. Paul Lieberstein was cast as human resources director Toby Flenderson on Novak 's suggestion after his cold readings of scripts. Greg Daniels was originally unsure where to use Mindy Kaling on - screen in the series until the opportunity came in the script for the second episode, "Diversity Day '', where Michael needed to be slapped by a minority. "Since (that slap), I 've been on the show '' (as Kelly Kapoor), says Kaling. Michael Schur has also made occasional appearances as Dwight 's cousin Mose, and consulting producer Larry Wilmore has played diversity trainer Mr. Brown. Plans were made for Mackenzie Crook, Martin Freeman, and Lucy Davis, from the British version of The Office, to appear in the third season, but those plans were scrapped due to scheduling conflicts.
The Office was filmed with a single - camera setup in a cinéma vérité allowing the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track, allowing its "deadpan '' and "absurd '' humor to fully come across. The primary vehicle for the show is that a camera crew has decided to film Dunder Mifflin and its employees, seemingly around the clock. The presence of the camera is acknowledged by the characters, especially Michael Scott, who enthusiastically participates in the filming. The characters, especially Jim and Pam, also look towards the camera when Michael creates an awkward situation. The main action of the show is supplemented with talking - head interviews or "confessionals '' in which characters speak one on one with the camera crew about the day 's events. Actor John Krasinski shot the footage of Scranton for the opening credits after he found out he was cast as Jim. He visited Scranton for research and interviewed employees at actual paper companies.
In order to get the feel of an actual documentary, the producers hired cinematographer Randall Einhorn, who is known for directing episodes of Survivor, which allowed the show to have the feel of "rough and jumpy '' like an actual documentary. According to producer Michael Schur, the producers to the series would follow the documentary format strictly. The producers would have long discussions over whether a scene could work under the documentary format. For example, in the fourth - season episode "Did I Stutter?, '' a scene featured Michael going through a long process to go to the bathroom and not pass by Stanley. The producers debated whether that was possible and Einhorn walked through the whole scene in order to see if a camera man could get to all the places in time to shoot the whole scene. Despite the strict nature in the early years of the series, later seasons seem to have loosened the rules on the format, with the camera crew often going into places that actual documentary crews would not, which also changed the writing and comedy - style of the series. This inconsistency has received criticism from critics and fans.
The theme song for The Office was written by Jay Ferguson and performed by The Scrantones. It is played over the title sequence, which features scenes of Scranton, various tasks around the office and the main cast members. Some episodes of the series use a shortened version of the theme song. Starting with the fourth season, the theme song is played over the closing credits, which previously rolled in silence. The exteriors of buildings in the title sequence are actual buildings in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and were shot by cast member John Krasinski. The mockumentary format of the show contains no laugh track, and most of the music is diegetic, with songs either sung or played by the characters or heard on radios, computers, or other devices. However, songs have been played during montages or the closing credits, such as "Tiny Dancer '' by Elton John ("The Dundies '') and "Islands in the Stream '' by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton ("E-mail Surveillance ''). Featured music tends to be well known, and often songs reflect the character, such as Michael 's attempt to seem hip by using "Mambo No. 5 '' and later "My Humps '' as his cell phone ringtone. Daniels has said that it does not count as film score as long as it already appeared in the episode.
The Office employs an ensemble cast. Many characters portrayed by The Office cast are based on the British version of the show. While these characters normally have the same attitude and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show. The show is known for its generally large cast size, with many of its actors and actresses known particularly for their improvisational work. Steve Carell stars as Michael Scott, Regional Manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais ' character in the British version, Scott is a well - intentioned man whose attempts at humor, while seemingly innocent to himself, often offend and annoy his peers and employees, and in some situations lead to reprimanding from his superiors. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, who, based upon Gareth Keenan, is a salesman and the Assistant to the Regional Manager, a fictional title created by Michael. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a salesman and, in later seasons, co-manager who is often known for his wittiness and his hijinks on Schrute (often accompanied by Pam Beesly). Halpert is based upon Tim Canterbury, and is known to have feelings for Pam, the receptionist. Pam, played by Jenna Fischer, is based on Dawn Tinsley. She is shy, but in many cases a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. B.J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who for the first two seasons is a temporary worker, but is promoted to sales representative in the third season. He later ascends to the position of Vice President, North East Region and Director of New Media until his treachery was exposed for corporate fraud and he was fired. After this, he gets a job in a bowling alley and then briefly works for the Michael Scott Paper Company. After all this, and a stint in rehab, he eventually ends up again as the temporary worker at the Scranton branch.
The accounting department features Angela Martin, an admitted uptight and hypocritical woman who wishes to keep things orderly and make sure situations remain as serious as possible; Kevin Malone, a lovable, but dim - witted man who revels in juvenile humor and frequently indulges himself with gambling and M&Ms; and Oscar Martinez is intelligent but often patronizing and whose homosexuality and Hispanic heritage made him a favorite target for Michael 's unintentional off - color comments. Rounding out the office are the stern salesman Stanley Hudson, who barely stood for Michael 's constant references to his Black - American heritage (he also does n't like to take part in time wasting meetings and sometimes sleeps in them or works on crossword puzzles); eccentric quality assurance representative Creed Bratton; the kind and caring saleswoman Phyllis Lapin - Vance, who marries Bob Vance from Vance Refrigeration across the hall from the office; Andy Bernard is a salesman introduced in season three after the closing of the Stamford, Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin and the merging of the two; the bubbly and talkative customer service representative Kelly Kapoor; the promiscuous alcoholic supply relations representative Meredith Palmer; human resources representative Toby Flenderson, who is admittedly hated by, and often the target of abuse by Michael Scott; warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin; Warehouse dock worker and Pam 's ex-fiancé Roy Anderson, who was fired in the third season; and Michael 's former love interest and former Vice President for Regional Sales for Dunder Mifflin Jan Levinson (Jan Levinson - Gould until her divorce in season 2).
Toward the end of season five, the bubbly and naive Erin Hannon is introduced as Pam 's replacement at reception following Pam 's short stint at the Michael Scott Paper Company and her subsequent move to sales. A story arc at the end of season four has Holly Flax transferred to the office as Toby 's replacement. She acts as a love interest for Michael, as they share very similar personalities. Jo Bennett is the CEO of Sabre and Gabe Lewis, introduced in the middle of season six, is a Sabre employee who is assigned to the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch as the Regional Director of Sales. In season nine Clark Green and Pete Miller joined as two new customer service representatives to attempt to catch up on the ignored customer services complaints that Kelly had dismissed while she worked at Dunder Mifflin.
Initially the actors who portray the other office workers were credited as guest stars before they were named series regulars during the second season. The show 's large ensemble has been mainly praised by critics and led to the series winning two Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Carell was reportedly paid $175,000 per episode starting with the third season. Krasinski and Fischer were paid around $20,000 for the beginning of the series. Starting with the fourth season, the two started getting paid around $100,000 per episode.
A typical episode for a half - hour time slot runs 20 - and - a-half minutes. The final episode of season two introduces the first of what would be several super-sized episodes that are approximately 28 - minute running time for a 40 - minute time slot. Season three introduces the first of occasional hour - long episodes (approximately 42 - minute running time; suitable for being shown as two separate normal episodes).
The first season consists of six episodes.
The series begins by mostly introducing the office 's workers via a tour given by branch manager Michael Scott for both the camera crew and a first - day temp (Ryan Howard). The audience learns salesman Jim Halpert has a crush on receptionist Pam Beesly (who helps him play pranks on co-worker Dwight Schrute), even though she is engaged to Roy (who works in the building 's lower - level warehouse). News spreads throughout the office that Dunder Mifflin 's corporate headquarters is planning to downsize an entire branch, leading to general anxiety, but Michael chooses to deny or downplay the realities of the situation in order to maintain employee morale.
The second season is the series ' first twenty - two - episode season, and has its first 40 - minute "super-sized '' episode.
Many workers seen in the background of the first season are developed into secondary characters, and romantic relationships begin to develop between some of the characters. Michael spends the night with his boss Jan, in the wake of the latter 's divorce, but does not sleep with her. Dwight and Angela become romantically involved, but keep the relationship a secret from everyone else. Kelly develops a crush on Ryan, and they start dating. When Roy sets a date for his wedding to Pam, Jim grows depressed and considers transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch, but tells Pam in the season finale that he loves her, even though Pam still insists she will marry Roy. The two kiss, but Jim transfers to the Stamford branch soon after. The general threat of downsizing continues throughout the season as well.
The third season consists of 25 half - hours of material, divided into 17 half - hour episodes, four 40 - minute "super-sized '' episodes, and two one - hour episodes.
Jim briefly transfers to Stamford branch after Pam confirms her commitment to Roy. Corporate is later forced to merge the Stamford branch and staff into the Scranton branch. Included in the transfer to Scranton are Karen Filippelli, with whom Jim has developed a relationship, and the anger - prone Andy Bernard. Pam is newly single after calling off her marriage and relationship to Roy prior to the merger, and Jim 's unresolved feelings for her and new relationship with Karen lead to shifting tensions amongst the three. Meanwhile, Michael and Jan 's relationship escalates which causes them both to behave erratically on the job while Dwight and Angela continue their secret relationship. In the season 's finale, Jim, Karen, and Michael interview for a corporate position that turns out to be Jan 's, who is fired that day for poor performance. Jim wins and rejects the offer off - screen, opting instead to return to Scranton without Karen and asks Pam out on a date, which she joyfully accepts. In the final scene, we learn Ryan has been awarded Jan 's job due to his business school credentials.
NBC ordered a full fourth season of 30 half - hour episodes, but ended with only 19 due to a halt in production caused by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season consists of 9 half - hour episodes, and 5 hour - long episodes to comprise the 19 total episodes of material created.
Karen has left the Scranton branch after her breakup with Jim, and becomes regional manager at the Utica branch. Pam and Jim date happily. An unemployed Jan moves in with Michael, until the dissolution of their relationship midway through the season. After Dwight 's crude (though well - intentioned) method of euthanasia of Angela 's ailing cat without her permission, she leaves him for Andy, leading Dwight into depression. Ryan, in his new corporate life in New York City, attempts to modernize Dunder Mifflin with a new website for online sales; he also learns that his boss, David Wallace, favors Jim, and thus Ryan attempts to sabotage Jim 's career. Ryan is soon arrested and fired for committing fraud related to the website 's sales numbers. Toby, embarrassed after accidentally revealing affection for Pam, announces he is moving to Costa Rica, and is replaced by Holly Flax, who quickly shows fondness towards Michael. Pam decides to follow her artistic interests and attends a three - month graphic design course at the Pratt Institute in New York City. In the season finale Andy proposes to Angela, who reluctantly agrees. Phyllis then catches Dwight and Angela having sex in the office.
The fifth season consists of 28 half - hours of material, divided into 24 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes, one of which aired after Super Bowl XLIII.
Jim and Pam become engaged, and she ultimately returns from New York to Scranton, where Jim has bought his parents ' house for the two of them. Having avoided jail and only been sentenced to community service, Ryan dyes his hair and starts working for a bowling alley. Michael initiates a romance with Holly until she is transferred to the Nashua, New Hampshire branch and the relationship ends. When Andy is made aware of Dwight and Angela 's continued affair, both men leave her. Newly hired Vice President Charles Miner implements a rigid managerial style over the branch that causes Michael to resign in protest. Michael opens the Michael Scott Paper Company, enticing Pam and Ryan to join as salespeople, and though his business model is ultimately unsustainable, Dunder Mifflin 's profits are immediately threatened. In a buyout of the Michael Scott Paper Company, the three are rehired with Pam promoted to sales and Ryan returning as a temp. During the chaos, new receptionist Erin is hired to fill the vacancy originally left by Pam. The season 's finale ends with a cliffhanger ending hinting that Pam might be pregnant.
The sixth season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 22 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes.
Jim and Pam marry and have a baby named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Andy and Erin develop mutual interest in one another, but find their inherent awkwardness inhibits his attempts to ask her out on a date. Rumors of bankruptcy begin to surround Dunder Mifflin, and by Christmas, Wallace announces to the branch that Dunder Mifflin has accepted a buyout from Sabre Corporation, a printer company. While Wallace and other executives are let go, the Scranton office survives due to its relative success within the company. In the season finale, Dwight buys the office park. Michael agrees to make an announcement to the press regarding a case of faulty printers. When Jo Bennet, Sabre CEO, asks how she can repay him, Michael responds that she could bring Holly back to the Scranton branch.
The seventh season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 21 half - hour episodes, one "super-sized '' episode, and two hour - long episodes.
This is the final season for Steve Carell, who plays the lead character Michael Scott, as Carell wanted to move on after his contract expired during this season. Beginning with this season, Zach Woods, who portrays Gabe Lewis, was promoted to a series regular. Erin and Gabe have begun a relationship, much to Andy 's chagrin, and he attempts to win her affection back. Michael 's former girlfriend, Holly returns to Scranton to fill in for Toby who is doing jury duty for the "Scranton Strangler '' trial. Michael and Holly eventually restart their relationship. After the two get engaged, he then reveals he will be leaving Scranton to go to Colorado with Holly in order to support her elderly parents. Pam and Jim are still adjusting to parenthood as Angela starts dating the Senator. After Michael 's replacement (Will Ferrell) is seriously injured, Jo creates a search committee to interview candidates and choose a new manager for the office.
The eighth season consists of 24 episodes.
James Spader reprises his role as Robert California, the new CEO of Dunder Mifflin / Sabre. Andy is then promoted to Regional Manager and works hard to make a good impression on Robert, and asks Dwight to be his number two. Pam and Jim are expecting their second child, Phillip, at the start of the season, to coincide with Fischer 's real life pregnancy. Angela is pregnant with her first son, also named Philip, with State Senator Robert Lipton (although it is implied that Dwight Schrute is actually the child 's biological father). Darryl starts falling for new warehouse foreman Val. Dwight is tasked with traveling to Tallahassee, Florida in order to assist Sabre Special Projects Manager Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) in launching a chain of retail stores, along with Jim, Ryan, Stanley, Erin, and new office temp Cathy Simms. Cathy is also revealed to have ulterior motives for the trip, as she intends to seduce Jim, but fails. Robert later kills the retail store project, and Erin decides to stay in Florida as an elderly woman 's live - in helper. Andy goes to Florida and wins back Erin, but this allows Nellie to claim the manager position as her own. Robert tells Andy that he has been demoted back to a salesman, but he refuses to accept the news, which causes him to be fired. Andy becomes motivated to begin a Dunder Mifflin comeback and joins with former CFO, David Wallace, to buy Dunder Mifflin back from Sabre, putting Sabre completely out of business and giving Andy the manager position once again.
The final season consists of 25 episodes.
Andy, recently returning from Outward Bound manager 's training, reverts to his arrogant earlier season personality, abandoning both Erin and the office to travel around the Caribbean with his brother. In his absence, Erin strikes up a romance with new customer service rep Pete, who along with Clark, another new character, replaces Kelly, who left for Ohio with her new husband (Ryan also moves to Ohio for "unrelated reasons ''). Meanwhile, Jim receives an exciting opportunity from an old college friend, who offers him a job at Athlead, a sports marketing company based in Philadelphia. Darryl also jumps on board, but the distance and dedication to Athlead hurts Jim 's relationship with Pam. Angela also must deal with her husband 's infidelity with Oscar. She also deals with her lingering attraction to Dwight, who inherits his family 's beet farm. Dwight receives more good news when David Wallace handpicks him to be the new manager after Andy quits to pursue an acting career, which quickly ends when he embarrasses himself at an a cappella singing competition that turns into a viral web sensation. Dwight later makes Jim his Assistant to the Regional Manager and the two officially end their grudge. After Jim reconciles with Pam, choosing to stay in Scranton over Philadelphia, Dwight professes his love for Angela, and finally marries her. In the series finale, taking place one year after the release of the documentary, the employees reunite for Dwight and Angela 's wedding, for which Michael returns (with help from Jim who was the person Dwight first asked to be his best man) to serve as the best man. Kelly and Ryan run away together, Nellie now lives in Poland and "adopts '' Ryan 's abandoned baby, Erin meets her birth parents, Andy gets a job at Cornell, Stanley retires to Florida, Kevin and Toby are both fired with the former buying a bar and the latter moving to New York City to become an author, Oscar runs for State Senate, Jim and Pam, at her persuasion, move to Austin to open a new branch of Athleap (previously Athlead) with Darryl (Dwight "fires '' them to give them both severance packages), and Creed is arrested for his many crimes.
The Office has had product placement deals with Staples and the Olympic balers, as well as mentioning in dialogue or displaying clear logos for products such as Sandals Resorts, HP, Apple, and Gateway computers, and Activision 's Call of Duty video game series. In "The Merger '', Kevin Malone uses a Staples - branded shredding machine to shred a Staples - branded CD - R and many other non-paper items, including a salad. As with HP, Cisco Systems, a supplier of networking and telephone equipment, pays for product placement, which can be seen on close - up shots of the Cisco IP Telephones. Some products have additional branding labels attached; this can be clearly seen with the HP photo printer on Toby 's desk in season 6, and is less noticeable with the Cisco phones. In "The Secret '' Michael takes Jim to Hooters to discuss Jim 's feelings for Pam.
Many products featured are not part of product placement agreements, but rather inserted by writers as products the characters would use to create realism under the guise of a documentary. Chili 's restaurants were used for filming in "The Dundies '' and "The Client '', as the writers believed they were realistic choices for a company party and business lunch. Though not an explicit product placement, the producers of the show had to allow Chili 's to have final approval of the script before filming, causing a scene of "The Dundies '' to be hastily rewritten when the chain objected to the original version. Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the iPod when it was used as a much - desired gift in "Christmas Party '', though the company did not pay for the placement. The travel website TripAdvisor.com was featured during Season 4 when after a visit to Dwight 's "agritourism '' bed and breakfast, Schrute Farms, Jim and Pam post an online review about their stay. The show reportedly approached the travel review website about using their name on the show and TripAdvisor set up a review page for the fictional B&B which itself received hundreds of reviews. The appearance of Second Life in the episode "Local Ad '' was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007.
Before the show aired, Ricky Gervais acknowledged that there were feelings of hesitation from certain viewers. The first season of The Office was met with a mixed response from critics with some of them comparing it to the short - lived NBC series Coupling which was also based on a British version. The New York Daily News called it "so diluted there 's little left but muddy water, '' and USA Today called it a "passable imitation of a miles - better BBC original. '' A Guardian Unlimited review panned its lack of originality, stating, "(Steve Carell) just seems to be trying too hard... Maybe in later episodes when it deviates from Gervais and Merchant 's script, he 'll come into his own. But right now he 's a pale imitation. '' Tom Shales of the Washington Post said it was "not the mishmash that (Americanized version of Coupling) turned out to be, but again the quality of the original show causes the remake to look dim, like when the copying machine is just about to give out. ''
The second season was better received. James Poniewozik of Time remarked, "Producer Greg Daniels created not a copy but an interpretation that sends up distinctly American work conventions... with a tone that 's more satiric and less mordant... The new boss is different from the old boss, and that 's fine by me. '' He named it the second best TV show of 2006 after Battlestar Galactica. Entertainment Weekly writer Mark Harris echoed these sentiments a week later, stating, "Thanks to the fearless Steve Carell, an ever - stronger supporting cast, and scripts that spew American corporate absurdist vernacular with perfect pitch, this undervalued remake does the near impossible -- it honors Ricky Gervais ' original and works on its own terms. '' The A.V. Club reviewer Nathan Rabin expressed its views on the show 's progression: "After a rocky start, The Office improved immeasurably, instantly becoming one of TV 's funniest, sharpest shows. The casting of Steve Carell in the Gervais role proved to be a masterstroke. The American Office is that rarest of anomalies: a remake of a classic show that both does right by its source and carves out its own strong identity. ''
The series has been included on several top TV series lists. The show placed # 61 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list. Time 's James Poniewozik named it the second best TV series of 2006, and the sixth best returning series of 2007, out of ten TV series. He also included it on his "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - TIME '' list. The show was also named the best show of 2006 by BuddyTV. while Paste named it the sixth best sitcom of 2010. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America placed it at # 66 on their list of 101 Best Written TV Series.
The show has some superficial similarities to the comic strip Dilbert, which also features employees coping with an inept superior. John Spector, CEO of The Conference Board, says that both show the impact a leader can have, for good or bad. Dilbert creator Scott Adams also touts the similarities: "The lesson from The Office and from Dilbert is that people are often dysfunctional, and no amount of training can fix it. '' A labor - affiliated group praised the episode "Boys and Girls '' for what it considered an unusually frank depiction of union busting on American television. Metacritic, a review aggregation website, only graded the first, third, sixth, and final seasons. However, it denoted that all four of them received "generally favorable reviews '' from critics, awarding a 61, 85, 78, and 64 score -- out of 100 -- to each of them, respectively. It later named it the thirteenth most mentioned series on "Best of Decade '' top - ten lists.
The last few seasons were criticized for a dip in quality. The sixth season received criticisms for a lack of stakes for the characters. Other critics and fans have also criticized the dragging out of the Jim and Pam romance. The Office co-creator Ricky Gervais wrote in his blog, referring to "Search Committee, '' particularly Warren Buffett 's guest appearance, "If you 're going to jump a shark, jump a big one '', and compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais 's other series, Extras (although he later said on his website, "I fucking did n't (diss The Office), that 's for sure ''). Some critics said the series should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell. Rainn Wilson felt that the eighth season possessed some mistakes "creatively '', such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms, which he called "a bit dark '' and argued that the show should have gone for a "brighter and more energized '' relationship. Despite this, there are later - series episodes that have received critical acclaim, including "Stress Relief '', "Niagara '', "Garage Sale '', "Goodbye, Michael '', "Dwight Christmas '', "A.A.R.M. '', and "Finale ''.
The series received 42 Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, with five wins. It won for Outstanding Comedy Series in season two, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (Greg Daniels for "Gay Witch Hunt ''), Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Jeffrey Blitz for "Stress Relief '') and Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for "Finale ''). Many cast and crew members have expressed anger that Carell did not receive an Emmy award for his performance in the series. Despite this, Carell won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical in 2006. The series was also named the best TV series by the American Film Institute in 2006 and 2008, won two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2006 and 2007 and won a Peabody Award in 2006.
Premiering on Thursday, March 24, 2005, after an episode of The Apprentice on NBC, The Office brought in 11.2 million viewers in the U.S., winning its time slot. When NBC moved the series to its intended Tuesday night slot, it lost nearly half its audience with only 5.9 million viewers. The program averaged 5.4 million viewers, ranking it # 102 for the 2004 -- 05 U.S. television season. "Hot Girl '', the first season 's finale, rated a 2.2 with a 10 audience measurement share. Episodes were also rerun on CNBC.
As the second season started, the success of Carell 's hit summer movie The 40 - Year - Old Virgin and online sales of episodes at iTunes helped the show. The increase in viewership led NBC to move the series to the "Must See TV '' Thursday night in January 2006, where ratings continued to grow. By the 2005 -- 06 season, it placed # 67 (tied with 20 / 20). It averaged 8 million viewers with a 4.0 / 10 rating / share among viewers ages 18 -- 49, and was up 80 % in viewers from the year before and up 60 % in viewers ages 18 -- 49. The series ranked as NBC 's highest rated scripted series during its run. The highest rated episode of the series was "Stress Relief '', which was watched by 22.9 million viewers. This episode was aired right after Super Bowl XLIII. While later seasons dropped in the ratings, the show was still one of NBC 's highest rated shows, and in October 2011 it was reported that it cost $178,840 per - 30 second commercial, the most for any NBC scripted series.
The city of Scranton, long known mainly for its industrial past as a coal mining and rail center, has embraced, and ultimately has been redefined by the show. "We 're really hip now, '' says the mayor 's assistant. The Dunder Mifflin logo is on a lamppost banner in front of Scranton City Hall, as well as the pedestrian bridge to The Mall at Steamtown. The Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company, whose tower is shown in the opening credits, plans to add it to the tower as well. Newspapers in other Northeastern cities have published travel guides to Scranton locations for tourists interested in visiting places mentioned in the show. Scranton has become identified with the show outside the United States as well. In a 2008 St. Patrick 's Day speech in its suburb of Dickson City, former Taoiseach (Irish prime minister) Bertie Ahern identified the city as the home of Dunder Mifflin.
The inaugural The Office convention was held downtown in October 2007. Notable landmarks, some of which have been settings for the show, that served as venues include the University of Scranton, the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel and the Mall at Steamtown. Cast appearances were made by B.J. Novak, Ed Helms, Oscar Nunez, Angela Kinsey, Brian Baumgartner, Leslie David Baker, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, Melora Hardin, Phyllis Smith, Creed Bratton, Kate Flannery, Bobby Ray Shafer, and Andy Buckley. Writer appearances, besides Novak and Kaling, were made by Greg Daniels, Michael Schur, Jennifer Celotta, Lee Eisenberg, Gene Stupnitsky, Justin Spitzer, Anthony Ferrell, Ryan Koh, Lester Lewis, and Jason Kessler. Not present were writer - actor Paul Lieberstein (who was originally going to make an appearance), Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, and Jenna Fischer.
On an episode of The Daily Show, Republican presidential candidate John McCain, reportedly a devoted fan of the show, jokingly told Jon Stewart he might take Dwight Schrute as his running mate. Rainn Wilson later accepted on Dwight Schrute 's behalf while on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. After the airing of "Garage Sale '', Colorado governor John Hickenlooper issued a press release appointing Michael Scott to the position of Director of Paper Distribution in the Department of Natural Resources.
The show is often paid tribute by the band Relient K. Band member Matt Thiessen is a fan of The Office, and, during concerts, will often perform a self - described "love song '' about the series, titled "The Ballad of Dunder Mifflin '', followed by him and the band playing the show 's opening theme.
Aside from NBC, The Office has gone into off - network syndication in the United States. It has reruns on local stations and TBS. In the United Kingdom, the show was named in listings magazines (but not onscreen) as The Office: An American Workplace when it was originally aired on ITV2.
Episodes from The Office were among the first shows available for download from the iTunes Store beginning in December 2005. In 2006, ten internet - exclusive webisodes featuring some of the characters on The Office aired on NBC.com. "Producer 's Cuts '' (containing approximately ten additional minutes of material) of the episodes "Branch Closing '' and "The Return '' were also made available on NBC.com. The Office also became available for download from Amazon. com 's Unbox video downloads in 2006. Sales of new The Office episodes on iTunes ceased in 2007 due to a dispute between NBC and Apple ostensibly over pricing. As of September 9, 2008 The Office was put back on the iTunes Store, and can be bought in HD and Regular format. Netflix also offers the show for online viewing by subscribers, in addition to traditional DVD rental. The Office is also available on Microsofts Zune Marketplace.
Of the 12.4 million total viewings of "Fun Run '', the fourth season 's premiere, 2.7 million, or 22 %, were on a computer via online streaming. "The Office, '' said The New York Times, "is on the leading edge of a sharp shift in entertainment viewing that was thought to be years away: watching television episodes on a computer screen is now a common activity for millions of consumers. '' It was particularly popular with online viewers, an NBC researcher said, because as an episode - driven sitcom without special effects it was easy to watch on smaller monitors such as those found on laptops and iPods. Between the online viewings and those who use digital video recorders, 25 -- 50 % of the show 's viewers watch it after its scheduled airtime.
The show 's Internet success became an issue in the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Daniels and many of the cast members who double as writers posted a video to YouTube shortly after the strike began, pointing out how little, if any, they received in residuals from online and DVD viewing. "You 're watching this on the Internet, a thing that pays us zero dollars, '' Schur said. "We 're supposed to get 11 cents for every two trillion downloads. '' The writers were particularly upset that they were n't compensated for the Daytime Emmy Award - winning summer webisodes "The Accountants '', which NBC considered promotional material despite the embedded commercials.
The show 's success has resulted in expansion outside of television. Characters have appeared in promotional materials for NBC, and a licensed video game -- The Office -- was released in 2007. In 2008 two games were introduced via Pressman Toy Corp: The Office Trivia Board Game and The Office DVD Board Game. In 2009, The Office Clue was released, and The Office Monopoly was released in 2010. Other merchandise, from T - shirts and a bobblehead doll of Dwight Schrute to more office - specific items such as Dunder Mifflin copy paper and parodies of the Successories motivational poster series featuring the cast are available. Dunder Mifflin has two websites, and the cast members maintain blogs both as themselves and in character.
Several members of the cast maintained blogs. These include Jenna Fischer, Angela Kinsey, and Brian Baumgartner, who posted regularly during the season. Rainn Wilson wrote in character on "Schrute Space '' on NBC.com, which is updated periodically. However, he stopped writing the blog himself. It is unknown whether Creed Bratton authors "Creed Thoughts '', the blog attributed to his character.
A spin - off to the series was proposed in 2008, with a pilot episode expected to debut as the Super Bowl lead - out program in 2009. However, The Office 's creative team instead decided to develop Parks and Recreation as a separate series.
Another spin - off starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute running a bed - and - breakfast and beet farm, titled The Farm, was proposed in early 2012. In October 2012, however, NBC decided not to go forward with the series. The backdoor pilot episode instead aired as part of the ninth and final season of The Office on March 14, 2013.
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how many numbers do you need to win in lotto max | Lotto Max - wikipedia
Lotto Max is a Canadian lottery game coordinated by the Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, as one of the country 's three national lottery games. Introduced on September 19, 2009, with its first draw occurring on September 25, 2009, the game replaced Lotto Super 7. Lotto Max drawings are held every Friday.
Lotto Max is played similarly to its predecessor, with players selecting seven numbers from a field of 49. A single board costs $5, and each purchased board also includes two additional quick picks. The main drawing features a jackpot prize starting at CDN $10 million. After the jackpot reaches at least $50 million, additional drawings are held for auxiliary "MaxMillions '' prizes of $1 million each. MaxMillions prizes are carried over until they are won, and additional MaxMillions prizes are added for each week a main jackpot of at least $50 million is not won. Initially capped at $50 million, the main jackpot is capped at $60 million as of the July 17, 2015 draw. Once a jackpot is won, unclaimed MaxMillions prizes, if any, are placed in the main jackpot on top of the $10 million minimum. As with all Canadian lottery jackpot games, winners receive their prizes in a tax - free lump sum.
The launch of Lotto Max was successful, attracting higher revenue in its first 10 months of operation than Super 7 did in its best year of sales. A representative of OLG attributed Lotto Max 's popularity to the size of its total prize pools (which approach the larger jackpots seen in U.S. lotteries), and the perception of consumers that the MaxMillions system increased the probability that they could win a major prize.
The Lotto Max game is administered by the Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, an alliance of the five regional lottery corporations in Canada.
Each of these corporations operate a regional add - on games that, for an extra $1 each, can be added to a Lotto Max ticket. This "spiel '' game (named "Tag '', "Encore '' or "Extra '' depending on the region), adds a 6 - or 7 - digit number to the ticket with a top prize of $100,000 if all six digits are matched or $250,000 to $1,000,000 depending on the region for a seven - number match ($1,000,000 in Ontario and Quebec; $250,000 in the Western Canada region of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the territories).
Similarly to Lotto 6 / 49, Loto - Québec and the Western Canada Lottery Corporation also run local versions of Lotto Max, known as Max Quebec and Western Max respectively. These draws are held on the same night as each Lotto Max draw and have similar payouts, but with a fixed jackpot of $2,000,000, and additional drawings for a pool of 7 (Quebec) or 10 (Western) $1,000,000 prizes on each draw, similarly to MaxMillions.
When applicable. The 6 + / 7 pool swells with a $60 million capped jackpot as excess funds not used toward a MaxMillions prize goes into this pool. When a capped jackpot is won, the MaxMillions prizes not won go towards the next jackpot cycle, often resulting in a starting jackpot above $10 million.
The July 17, 2015 drawing was the first held under new rules allowing the main jackpot to exceed $50 million. The $55 million prize was won by a group of 20 employees of a Rona store in Quebec. At the time, it was the second - largest lottery jackpot in Canadian history, behind a $63.4 million Lotto 6 / 49 drawing in 2013. The first ever Lotto Max drawing for $60 million occurred September 25, 2015, with a single winning ticket sold in Brampton, Ontario.
The July 6, 2012 drawing was the first to offer a major prize pool (for matching all 7 numbers exactly) of $100 million, with a $50 million jackpot and 50 of the $1 million MaxMillions prizes. Three consecutive weeks of rollovers fuelled the large payout, which marked the largest Lotto Max drawing under the previous caps. This combination of a $50 million jackpot and 50 of the $1 million MaxMillions prizes, totalling $100 million in main prizes, has been replicated on other occasions, including June 2015.
With the increase of the main jackpot 's cap to $60 million, a new record was established on the August 12, 2016 draw with a $60 million jackpot and 42 MaxMillions prizes, totalling $102 million in main prizes. The jackpot had rolled over for eight consecutive weeks, fuelling the new prize pool record. This record was repeated on the January 6, 2017 draw.
The record has been surpassed since the May 25, 2018 draw, which had a prize pool of $106 million (46 MaxMillions). There was no jackpot winner, but 21 MaxMillions prizes were won. The subsequent June 1, 2018 draw had 50 MaxMillions prizes, totalling $110 million in prizes. The jackpot remained unclaimed once more, but 33 of the MaxMillions prizes were won. The June 8, 2018 draw will have 52 MaxMillions prizes.
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who plays jules and verne in back to the future 3 | List of Back to the Future characters - wikipedia
The Back to the Future film trilogy and subsequent animated series feature characters created by Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale.
The lead character of the series is Marty McFly. During the course of the trilogy, he travels through time using a DeLorean time machine invented by his friend Emmett Brown and encounters the villain, Biff Tannen, in several different time periods and visits his family ancestors and descendants.
Martin Seamus "Marty '' McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox in the films and voiced by David Kaufman in the animated series and AJ LoCascio in Back to the Future: The Game) is the son of George McFly and Lorraine Baines McFly. Marty travels between the past and the future, encountering his ancestors and descendants. Marty and his friend Doc Brown help restore the space - time continuum while encountering Biff Tannen (or members of the Tannen clan) at various points in time.
Doctor Emmett Lathrop "Doc '' Brown (portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in the films and Back to the Future: The Game, and voiced by Dan Castellaneta in the animated series) is the inventor of the DeLorean time machine. At various points in time, Doc helps Marty restore the space - time continuum and reverse the changes that were caused by time travel.
In 2008, the character was selected by film magazine Empire as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time, ranking at # 20.
Biff Howard Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in the films and animated series and voiced by Kid Beyond in Back to the Future: The Game) is the main antagonist of the first 2 films and a local bully who harassed George McFly and has once altered history in the second film. He comes from a long line of bullies in Hill Valley, most of whom harassed members of the McFly family. Biff is also a descendant of Buford Tannen (also portrayed by Wilson), who is one of Hill Valley 's outlaws during the 1880s.
George Douglas McFly (portrayed by Crispin Glover in Back to the Future and by Jeffrey Weissman in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III and voiced by Michael X. Sommers in Back to the Future: The Game) is the father of Marty, Linda and Dave from the union with his wife Lorraine Baines McFly. Although he is one of the main characters in the first movie, George only makes cameos in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III.
In the first film, George is portrayed as weak and the main target of Biff Tannen 's bullying. The novelization of the film expounds on George 's history of weakness, describing two incidents in which he is unable to stand up for himself. In 1955, in contrast with Marty, George did not have any friends for support and was targeted not only by Biff and his gang but also other kids in school. He has a penchant for science fiction, and writes some of his own but never allows himself to share them with anyone due to his fear of rejection. In 1955, with Marty 's help, he gets the courage to stand up to Biff, knocking him unconscious. As a result, he and Lorraine fall in love and George becomes popular in school for defeating Biff in a fight. In the new future, they are both happily married with George working as a college professor and being a successful writer who orders Biff around. In the alternate timeline in Part II, George was murdered by Biff in 1973.
George 's character was greatly reduced in the sequels, and the role was recast to Jeffrey Weissman. Weissman wore prosthetics to resemble Glover and imitated Glover 's rendering of McFly, and his scenes were spliced with shots of Glover from Back to the Future. The result was so convincing that many people were fooled by it. Glover did not appreciate this, and sued. The lawsuit resulted in the adoption of stricter rules by the Screen Actors Guild to prevent this situation from occurring again.
Lorraine Baines - McFly (portrayed by Lea Thompson and voiced by Aimee Miles in Back to the Future: The Game) is the wife of George McFly and the mother of Marty, Linda and Dave. She is the eldest daughter of Sam (George DiCenzo) and Stella (Frances Lee McCain) Baines, and sister of Milton (Jason Hervey), Sally (Maia Brewton), Toby, and Joey.
In Back to the Future, Lorraine is initially portrayed in 1985 as middle - aged and unhappy. After Marty changes the timeline, she is shown to be fit and happily married to George in 1985. In Part II, she is still happily married to George in 2015, but in the dystopian alternate 1985 timeline she is widowed and married to Biff.
David "Dave '' McFly (portrayed by Marc McClure) is the eldest child of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985 before Marty went to 1955, Dave works at Burger King, but in the post-time travel 1985 he wears a suit as a nondescript white - collar worker for an accounting firm. In a deleted scene from Part II, the alternate 1985 timeline shows that Dave is an alcoholic and a gambling addict following George 's death and Lorraine 's second marriage to Biff.
Linda McFly (portrayed by Wendie Jo Sperber) is the middle child and only daughter of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985 before Marty went to 1955, Linda is having boy trouble and it is unknown if she is in college or has a job. In 1985 after Marty went to 1955, Linda works in a boutique and has gained the attention of many boys.
Seamus and Maggie McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox and Lea Thompson) are Irish immigrants and the paternal great - great - grandparents of Marty McFly. In Part III, Marty is befriended by Seamus and Maggie. While Maggie does not trust the "strange young man '', Seamus has a familiar feeling about him and believes that helping him is the right thing to do. They have a son named William (Marty 's great - grandfather). Much like his descendants, Seamus is harassed by a member of the Tannen family, Buford Tannen.
Maggie McFly is played by Lea Thompson, who also plays Marty 's mother Lorraine, even though Maggie is not an ancestor of Lorraine; in a DVD commentary track for Part III, Bob Gale states that the creative team considered it important to include Thompson in the film, and he imagines that McFly men are simply "genetically predisposed '' to be attracted to women who look like her.
Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly (both portrayed by Michael J. Fox) are Marty McFly and Jennifer Parker 's future fraternal twin son and daughter in Part II.
Originally Marty Jr. was to be arrested and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for joining a robbery initiated by Griff and his gang. Marlene attempted to help Marty Jr. break out of jail but failed and was sentenced to twenty years in a woman 's prison. Doc and Marty prevented the event from ever happening.
Clara Clayton (portrayed by Mary Steenburgen in both Back to the Future Part III and the animated series) is the wife of Doc Brown and mother of Jules and Verne Brown.
Clara moved to Hill Valley and originally died in an accident when her wagon plummeted into Shonash Ravine, which was renamed Clayton Ravine in her memory. The animated series reveals that Clara, along with the rest of the family, moves to the early 1990s and lives in a farmhouse outside of Hill Valley. She then becomes a teacher at Hill Valley Elementary School.
Jules Eratosthenes Brown and Verne Newton Brown (portrayed by Todd Cameron Brown and Daniel Evans in Back to the Future Part III and voiced by Josh Keaton and Troy Davidson in the animated series) are the two children of Doc Brown and his wife, Clara, who named them after their favorite author Jules Verne.
The characters had minor, non-speaking roles in Back to the Future Part III but were further developed in the animated series. Jules, an introvert, mostly imitates his father 's interests and mannerisms while Verne appears to be more outgoing and extroverted. Several plot points of the animated series revolve around either Jules or Verne altering history and the steps necessary to correct the damage.
Copernicus is Doc 's dog from 1955. Like his other dogs, Copernicus was used in many of Doc 's experiments. When Copernicus died, he was replaced by Einstein.
Einstein (portrayed by Tiger in the first film and Freddie in the other two and voiced by Danny Mann in the animated series) is Doc Brown 's pet Catalan sheepdog. He later becomes one of the main characters in the animated series as the Brown family 's dog.
In the first film, Doc successfully tests his time machine by placing Einstein in it and sending him one minute into the future. In the animated series, Einstein becomes anthropomorphic and smarter, helping Doc with his inventions for traveling to the past and the future.
Kid Tannen is Biff 's father who only appears in the Back to the Future game. Kid is a gangster who runs a local speakeasy in the 1930s Hill Valley. He, like the rest of the Tannen family, bullies the McFly family forcing Marty 's grandfather Arthur to do his accounting. Kid is brought down with the help of Marty, a young version of Doc, and Arthur McFly. He later marries Edna Strickland and reforms from his criminal ways with her help.
Buford Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in Back to the Future Part III) is the main antagonist of the third film. He is the great - grandfather of Biff Tannen and the local town outlaw in 1885 Hill Valley. He was nicknamed "Mad Dog '' by a newspaper reporter, due to his violent temper and propensity for drooling, a nickname Tannen greatly despises. Buford is cruel, homicidal, rude, and emotionally unstable. He displays a need for control and is brought down to childlike tantrums when he is humiliated or makes mistakes, whether it be something that happens to him or something he says or does. He is often accompanied by his gang (played by Christopher Wynne, Sean Sullivan and Mike Watson), and developed a feud with Marshal James Strickland and his deputies.
Griff (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in both Back to the Future Part II and in the animated series) is a grandson of Biff. He is part of a gang that also consists of "Data '', "Spike '', and "Whitey '' (portrayed by Ricky Dean Logan, Darlene Vogel, and Jason Scott Lee).
In the animated series, Griff makes a brief cameo appearance in the episode "Solar Sailors '' where his grandson, Ziff (also voiced by Wilson), is detained after he attempts to sabotage Marta McFly 's space cruiser due to his hatred towards her family.
Griff 's last name is never mentioned in the movies, which means he could either be the son of Biff 's son Biff Jr, or the son of Biff 's daughter, Tiffaney. However, in the animated series, Ziff refers that both he and Griff are Tannens.
In the animated series, Biff Jr. is the son of Biff Tannen. Like his father and paternal relatives, he likes to bully and steal from children around him including Jules and Verne Brown with whom he developed a feud with. In addition, Biff Jr. delights vandalizing other people 's properties. Biff Jr. lives with his father with whom he has an abusive relationship. He is voiced by Benji Gregory.
Gerald Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan) is the strict principal of Hill Valley High School. He is the grandson of Chief Marshal James Strickland of Hill Valley 1885.
There is a reference from Verne Brown that there is another Strickland who works at Hill Valley Elementary School as its vice principal.
James Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan in Back to the Future Part III) is the chief marshal of Hill Valley in 1885 and the grandfather of Mr. Strickland. He also has an unnamed son (portrayed by Kaleb Henley), who will become Gerald Strickland 's father.
Edna Strickland, in Back to the Future: The Game, is the sister of Gerald Strickland. She is somewhat nicer than her brother, but still set in her ways towards upholding strong morals and abolishing crime and laziness. After Marty alters her original timeline, Edna marries Kid Tannen who becomes the father of Biff Tannen.
Jennifer Jane Parker is the girlfriend (and, in 2015 in Back to the Future Part II, the wife) of Marty McFly.
The character was played by Claudia Wells in Back to the Future. However, Wells was not available to film the sequels for personal reasons, and the role was recast to Elisabeth Shue although Wells reprised her role as Jennifer in Back to the Future: The Game as a punk rock version of her character. Consequently, the opening scene of Back to the Future Part II was re-shot with Shue taking Wells ' place, rather than using the ending of Back to the Future. In the spin - off Back to the Future: the Animated Series, Jennifer was voiced by Cathy Cavadini.
In 1985, Jennifer attends Hill Valley High School, along with her boyfriend Marty. In the animated series, Jennifer is enrolled to Hill Valley College with Marty after graduating high school and working part - time as a tutor. She lives with her family on a ranch, the deed to which was owned by Biff Tannen, after one of his ancestors forced Jennifer 's great - great - grandfather to sign it over by holding Jennifer 's great - great - grandmother hostage. In the episode "A Friend in Deed '', Marty travels back in time to 1875 and sabotages the deal with help from Jules and Verne.
In the future witnessed in Back to the Future Part II, Jennifer and Marty had two children, Marlene and Marty Jr. (both played by Michael J. Fox)
Douglas J. Needles (portrayed by Flea in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III) is an acquaintance of Marty McFly and Jennifer Parker from Hill Valley High School. Like his school 's alumnus, Biff Tannen, Needles also has his own gang (portrayed by Christopher Wynne, J.J. Cohen, and Ricky Dean Logan) and develops a rivalry with Marty. Needles often goads Marty into doing reckless things such as a street race that leads Marty to crash into a Rolls Royce and an illegal transaction which results in his firing in 2015.
Goldie Wilson (played by Donald Fullilove in part 1) is a young man working at Lou 's Cafe in 1955 who goes on to become the first black Mayor of Hill Valley in the 1980s. A campaign poster shows the name Goldie in quotation marks, suggesting Goldie is a nickname, presumably in reference to his gold tooth. He would also have a grandson, Goldie Wilson III (also played by Fullilove) in Part II, who works as a car salesman.
Match (portrayed by Billy Zane), Skinhead (portrayed by Jeffrey Jay Cohen), and 3 - D (portrayed by Casey Siemaszko) are the three high school boys who make up Biff Tannen 's gang in 1955. Their nicknames are only given in the films ' novels, screenplays, and credits. Only one of their real names is mentioned in the movies -- Biff refers to Skinhead as Joey in one of the 1955 scenes in Back to the Future Part II, while outside of the "Enchantment Under the Sea '' dance.
In the alternate 1985, the three work in Biff 's casino as his bodyguards. Each gets his nickname from a distinctive character trait. Match often has a match sticking out of his mouth; Skinhead has very short, close - cropped hair; 3 - D is always wearing a pair of anaglyphic 3 - D glasses (a reference to the 3 - D movies that were popular in the 1950s).
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where did the idea of transformers come from | Transformers - wikipedia
War for Cybertron Fall of Cybertron Transformers Universe
Transformers (Japanese: トランスフォーマー, Hepburn: Toransufōmā) is a media franchise produced by American toy company Hasbro and Japanese toy company Takara Tomy. Initially a line of transforming toys rebranded from Takara 's Diaclone and Microman toylines, the franchise began in 1984 with the Transformers toy line, and centers on factions of self - configuring modular extraterrestrial robotic lifeforms (often the Autobots and the Decepticons) in an endless civil war for dominance or eventual peace. In its history, the Transformers robot superhero franchise has expanded to encompass comic books, animation, video games and films.
The term "Generation 1 '' covers both the animated television series The Transformers and the comic book series of the same name, which are further divided into Japanese and British spin - offs, respectively. Sequels followed, such as the Generation 2 comic book and Beast Wars TV series, which became its own mini-universe. Generation 1 characters underwent two reboots with Dreamwave in 2001 and IDW Publishing in 2005, also as a remastered series. There have been other incarnations of the story based on different toy lines during and after the 20th century. The first was the Robots in Disguise series, followed by three shows (Armada, Energon, and Cybertron) that constitute a single universe called the "Unicron Trilogy ''. A live - action film was also released in 2007, with a sequel in 2009, a second sequel in 2011, a third in 2014, and a fourth in 2017, again distinct from previous incarnations, while the Transformers: Animated series merged concepts from the G1 story - arc, the 2007 live - action film and the "Unicron Trilogy ''. Transformers: Prime previously aired on The Hub.
Although initially a separate and competing franchise started in 1983, Tonka 's Gobots became the intellectual property of Hasbro after their buyout of Tonka in 1991. Subsequently, the universe depicted in the animated series Challenge of the GoBots and follow - up film GoBots: Battle of the Rock Lords was retroactively established as an alternate universe within the Transformers robot superhero franchise.
Generation One is a retroactive term for the Transformers characters that appeared between 1984 and 1993. The Transformers began with the 1980s Japanese toy lines Microman and Diaclone. The former utilized varying humanoid - type figures while the latter presented robots able to transform into everyday vehicles, electronic items or weapons. Hasbro, fresh from the success of the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero toyline, which used the Microman technology to great success, bought the Diaclone toys, and partnered with Takara. Jim Shooter and Dennis O'Neil were hired by Hasbro to create the backstory; O'Neil also created the name "Optimus Prime. '' Afterwards, Bob Budiansky created most of the Transformers characters, giving names and personalities to many unnamed Diaclone figures.
The primary concept of Generation One is that the heroic Optimus Prime, the villainous Megatron, and their finest soldiers crash land on pre-historic Earth in the Ark and the Nemesis before awakening in 1985, Cybertron hurtling through the Neutral zone as an effect of the war. The Marvel comic was originally part of the main Marvel Universe, with appearances from Spider - Man and Nick Fury, plus some cameos, as well as a visit to the Savage Land.
The Transformers TV series began around the same time. Produced by Sunbow Productions and Marvel Productions, later Hasbro Productions, from the start it contradicted Budiansky 's backstories. The TV series shows the Autobots looking for new energy sources, and crash landing as the Decepticons attack. Marvel interpreted the Autobots as destroying a rogue asteroid approaching Cybertron. Shockwave is loyal to Megatron in the TV series, keeping Cybertron in a stalemate during his absence, but in the comic book he attempts to take command of the Decepticons. The TV series would also differ wildly from the origins Budiansky had created for the Dinobots, the Decepticon turned Autobot Jetfire (known as Skyfire on TV), the Constructicons (who combine to form Devastator), and Omega Supreme. The Marvel comic establishes early on that Prime wields the Creation Matrix, which gives life to machines. In the second season, the two - part episode The Key to Vector Sigma introduced the ancient Vector Sigma computer, which served the same original purpose as the Creation Matrix (giving life to Transformers), and its guardian Alpha Trion.
In 1986, the cartoon became the film The Transformers: The Movie, which is set in the year 2005. It introduced the Matrix as the "Autobot Matrix of Leadership '', as a fatally wounded Prime gives it to Ultra Magnus; however, as Prime dies he drops the matrix, which is then caught by Hot Rod who subsequently becomes Rodimus Prime later on in the film. Unicron, a transformer who devours planets, fears its power and recreates a heavily damaged Megatron as Galvatron, as well as Bombshell or Skywarp becoming Cyclonus, Thundercracker becoming Scourge and two other Insecticons becoming Scourge 's huntsmen, the Sweeps. Eventually, Rodimus Prime takes out the Matrix and destroys Unicron. In the United Kingdom, the weekly comic book interspliced original material to keep up with U.S. reprints, and The Movie provided much new material. Writer Simon Furman proceeded to expand the continuity with movie spin - offs involving the time travelling Galvatron. The Movie also featured guest voices from Leonard Nimoy as Galvatron, Scatman Crothers as Jazz, Casey Kasem as Cliffjumper, Orson Welles as Unicron and Eric Idle as the leader of the Junkions (Wreck - Gar, though unnamed in the movie). The Transformers theme tune for the film was performed by Lion with "Weird Al '' Yankovic adding a song to the soundtrack.
The third season followed up The Movie, with the revelation of the Quintessons having used Cybertron as a factory. Their robots rebel, and in time the workers become the Autobots and the soldiers become the Decepticons. (Note: This appears to contradict background presented in the first two seasons of the series.) It is the Autobots who develop transformation. Due to popular demand, Optimus Prime is resurrected at the conclusion of the third season, and the series ended with a three - episode story arc. However, the Japanese broadcast of the series was supplemented with a newly produced OVA, Scramble City, before creating entirely new series to continue the storyline, ignoring the 1987 end of the American series. The extended Japanese run consisted of The Headmasters, Super-God Masterforce, Victory and Zone, then in illustrated magazine form as Battlestars: Return of Convoy and Operation: Combination. Just as the TV series was wrapping up, Marvel continued to expand its continuity. It followed The Movie 's example by killing Prime and Megatron, albeit in the present day. Dinobot leader Grimlock takes over as Autobot leader. There was a G.I. Joe crossover and the limited series The Transformers: Headmasters, which further expanded the scope to the planet Nebulon. It led on to the main title resurrecting Prime as a Powermaster.
In the United Kingdom, the mythology continued to grow. Primus was introduced as the creator of the Transformers, to serve his material body that is planet Cybertron and fight his nemesis Unicron. Female Autobot Arcee also appeared, despite the comic book stating the Transformers had no concept of gender, with her backstory of being built by the Autobots to quell human accusations of sexism. Soundwave, Megatron 's second - in - command, also broke the fourth wall in the letters page, criticising the cartoon continuity as an inaccurate representation of history. The UK also had a crossover in Action Force, the UK counterpart to G.I. Joe. The comic book featured a resurrected Megatron, whom Furman retconned to be a clone when he took over the U.S. comic book, which depicted Megatron as still dead. The U.S. comic would last for 80 issues until 1991, and the UK comic lasted 332 issues and several annuals, until it was replaced as Dreamwave Productions, later in the 20th - Century.
In 2009, Shout! Factory released the entire G1 series in a 16 - DVD box set called the Matrix of Leadership Edition. They also released the same content as individual seasons.
It was five issues of the G.I. Joe comic in 1993 that would springboard a return for Marvel 's Transformers, with the new twelve - issue series Transformers: Generation 2, to market a new toy line.
This story revealed that the Transformers originally breed asexually, though it is stopped by Primus as it produced the evil Swarm. A new empire, neither Autobot nor Decepticon, is bringing it back, however. Though the year - long arc wrapped itself up with an alliance between Optimus Prime and Megatron, the final panel introduced the Liege Maximo, ancestor of the Decepticons. This minor cliffhanger was not resolved until 2001 and 2002 's Transforce convention when writer Simon Furman concluded his story in the exclusive novella Alignment.
The story focused on a small group of Maximals (the new Autobots), led by Optimus Primal, and Predacons, led by Megatron, 300 years after the "Great War ''. After a dangerous pursuit through transwarp space, both the Maximal and Predacon factions end up crash landing on a primitive, uncivilized planet similar to Earth, but with two moons and a dangerous level of Energon (which is later revealed to be prehistoric Earth with an artificial second moon, taking place sometime during the 4 million year period in which the Autobots and Decepticons were in suspended animation from the first episode of the original Transformers cartoon), which forces them to take organic beast forms in order to function without going into stasis lock. After writing this first episode, Bob Forward and Larry DiTillio learned of the G1 Transformers, and began to use elements of it as a historical backstory to their scripts, establishing Beast Wars as a part of the Generation 1 universe through numerous callbacks to both the cartoon and Marvel comic. By the end of the first season, the second moon and the Energon are revealed to have been constructed by a mysterious alien race known as the Vok.
The destruction of the second moon releases mysterious energies that make some of the characters "transmetal '' and the planet is revealed to be prehistoric Earth, leading to the discovery of the Ark. Megatron attempts to kill the original Optimus Prime, but at the beginning of the third season, Primal manages to preserve his spark. In the two - season follow - up series, Beast Machines, Cybertron is revealed to have organic origins, which Megatron attempts to stamp out.
After the first season of Beast Wars (comprising 26 episodes) aired in Japan, the Japanese were faced with a problem. The second Canadian season was only 13 episodes long, not enough to warrant airing on Japanese TV. While they waited for the third Canadian season to be completed (thereby making 26 episodes in total when added to season 2), they produced two exclusive cel - animated series of their own, Beast Wars II (also called Beast Wars Second) and Beast Wars Neo, to fill in the gap. Dreamwave retroactively revealed Beast Wars to be the future of their G1 universe, and the 2006 IDW comic book Beast Wars: The Gathering eventually confirmed the Japanese series to be canon within a story set during Season 3.
Beast Wars contained elements from both the G1 cartoon series and comics. Attributes taken from the cartoon include Transformers that were female, the appearance of Starscream (who mentions being killed off by Galvatron in, The Transformers: The Movie), and appearances of the Plasma Energy Chamber and Key to Vector Sigma. The naming of the Transformer ship, the "Ark '' (and reference to 1984, the year the Transformers on board were revived) and the character, Ravage being shown as intelligent, and Cybertron having an organic core were elements taken from the comics.
In 2011, Shout! Factory released the complete series of Beast Wars on DVD.
In 2001, Dreamwave Productions began a new universe of annual comics adapted from Marvel, but also included elements of the animated. The Dreamwave stories followed the concept of the Autobots defeating the Decepticons on Earth, but their 1997 return journey to Cybertron on the Ark II is destroyed by Shockwave, now ruler of the planet. The story follows on from there, and was told in two six - issue limited series, then a ten - issue ongoing series. The series also added extra complexities such as not all Transformers believing in the existence of Primus, corruption in the Cybertronian government that first lead Megatron to begin his war and Earth having an unknown relevance to Cybertron.
Three Transformers: The War Within limited series were also published. These are set at the beginning of the Great War, and identify Prime as once being a clerk named Optronix. Beast Wars was also retroactively stated as the future of this continuity, with the profile series More than Meets the Eye showing the Predacon Megatron looking at historical files detailing Dreamwave 's characters and taking his name from the original Megatron. In 2004, this real life universe also inspired three novels and a Dorling Kindersley guide, which focused on Dreamwave as the "true '' continuity when discussing in - universe elements of the characters. In a new twist, Primus and Unicron are siblings, formerly a being known as The One. Transformers: Micromasters, set after the Ark 's disappearance, was also published. The real life universe was disrupted when Dreamwave went bankrupt in 2005. This left the Generation One story hanging and the third volume of The War Within half finished. Plans for a comic book set between Beast Wars and Beast Machines were also left unrealized.
Throughout the years, the G1 characters have also starred in crossovers with fellow Hasbro property G.I. Joe, but whereas those crossovers published by Marvel were in continuity with their larger storyline, those released by Dreamwave and G.I. Joe publisher Devil 's Due Publishing occupy their own separate real life universes. In Devil 's Due, the terrorist organization Cobra is responsible for finding and reactivating the Transformers. Dreamwave 's version reimagines the familiar G1 and G.I. Joe characters in a World War II setting, and a second limited series was released set in the present day, though Dreamwave 's bankruptcy meant it was cancelled after a single issue. Devil 's Due had Cobra re-engineer the Transformers to turn into familiar Cobra vehicles, and released further mini-series that sent the characters travelling through time, battling Serpentor and being faced with the combined menace of Cobra - La and Unicron. During this time, Cobra teams up with the Decepticons. IDW Publishing has expressed interest in their own crossover.
The following year, IDW Publishing rebooted the G1 series from scratch within various limited series and one shots. This allowed long - time writer of Marvel and Dreamwave comics, Simon Furman to create his own universe without continuity hindrance, similar to Ultimate Marvel. This new continuity originally consisted of a comic book series titled The Transformers with a companion series known as The Transformers: Spotlight. The main series was broken up into several story arcs. Eventually, with IDW Publishing displeased with the format, the series was given two soft reboots. The first one sped up the story, while the second ditched the mini series format as well as the Spotlight series. Finally, the series was broken into three, becoming The Transformers: More Than Meets The Eyes, The Transformers: Robots in Disguise (now simply The Transformers) and The returning The Transformers - Spotlight.
In January 2006, the Hasbro Transformers Collectors ' Club comic wrote a story based on the Transformers Classics toy line, set in the Marvel Comics universe, but excluding the Generation 2 comic. Fifteen years after Megatron crash lands in the Ark with Ratchet, the war continues with the characters in their Classics bodies.
IDW Publishing introduced The Transformers: Evolutions in 2006, a collection of mini-series that re-imagine and reinterpret the G1 characters in various ways. To date, only one miniseries has been published, Hearts of Steel, placing the characters in an Industrial Revolution - era setting. The series was delayed as Hasbro did not want to confuse newcomers with too many fictional universes before the release of the live - action film.
However, IDW and the original publisher Marvel Comics announced a crossover storyline with the Avengers to coincide with the film New Avengers / Transformers. The story is set on the borders of Symkaria and Latveria, and its fictional universe is set between the first two New Avengers storylines, as well in between the Infiltration and Escalation phase of IDW 's The Transformers. IDW editor - in - chief, Chris Ryall hinted at elements of it being carried over into the main continuities, and that a sequel is possible.
First broadcast in Japan in 2000, Robots in Disguise was a single animated series consisting of thirty - nine episodes. It was exported to other countries in subsequent years. In this continuity, Megatron recreates the Decepticons as a subfaction of the Predacons on Earth, a potential reference to the return to the vehicle - based characters following the previous dominance of the animal - based characters of the Beast eras. It is a stand - alone universe with no ties to any other Transformers fiction, though some of the characters from Robots in Disguise did eventually make appearances in Transformers: Universe, including Optimus Prime, Ultra Magnus, Side Burn and Prowl.
The show was heavily censored in the U.S. due to its content of buildings being destroyed and terrorism references after the 9 / 11 attacks on the World Trade Centers. The show was eventually banned from cable TV networks in the U.S.
These three lines, launched in 2002 and dubbed the "Unicron Trilogy '' by Transformers designer Aaron Archer, are co-productions between Takara and (lesser extent) Hasbro, simultaneously released in both countries, each lasting 52 episodes. Armada followed the Autobots and Decepticons discovering the powerful Mini-Cons on Earth, which are revealed by the end to be weapons of Unicron. Energon, set ten years later, followed the Autobots and the Omnicons in their fight to stop the Decepticons and the Terrorcons from resurrecting Unicron with energon.
In Japan, the series Transformers: Cybertron showed no ties to the previous two series, telling its own story. This caused continuity problems when Hasbro sold Cybertron as a follow - up to Armada / Energon. The writers attempted to change certain plot elements from the Japanese version to remedy this, although this largely added up to nothing more than references to Unicron, Primus, Primes and Minicons.
Just as Marvel produced a companion comic to Generation One, Dreamwave Productions published the comic Transformers Armada set in a different continuity to the cartoon. At # 19, it became Transformers Energon. Dreamwave went bankrupt and ceased all publications before the storyline could be completed at # 30. However, the Transformers Fan Club published a few stories set in the Cybertron era.
The storyline of Transformers: Universe, mainly set following Beast Machines, sees characters from many assorted alternate continuities, including existing and new ones, encountering each other. The story was told in an unfinished comic book exclusive to the Official Transformers Collectors ' Convention.
In 2007, Michael Bay directed a live - action film based on Transformers, with Steven Spielberg serving as executive producer. It stars Shia LaBeouf, Josh Duhamel, Megan Fox, and Tyrese Gibson in the lead human cast while voice actors Peter Cullen and Hugo Weaving voice Optimus Prime and Megatron, respectively. Transformers received mixed to positive reviews and was a box office success. It is the forty - fifth highest - grossing film and the fifth highest - grossing film of 2007, grossing approximately $709 million worldwide. The film won four awards from the Visual Effects Society and was nominated for three Academy Awards, for Best Sound Editing, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Visual Effects. The performance of Shia Labeouf was praised by Empire, and Peter Cullen 's reprisal of Optimus Prime from the 1980s was well received by fans. A sequel, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, was released on June 24, 2009. Despite mostly negative reviews, it was a commercial success and grossed more than its predecessor. A third film, Transformers: Dark of the Moon, was released on June 29, 2011, in 3 - D and went on to gross over $1 billion, despite receiving mixed reviews. A fourth film, Transformers: Age of Extinction, was released on June 27, 2014, which also grossed over $1 billion, though it got mixed to negative reviews. A fifth film, Transformers: The Last Knight was released on June 23, 2017.
Transformers: Animated is a cartoon that was aired in early 2008 on Cartoon Network in the United States. Originally scheduled for late after 2007 under the title of Transformers: Heroes, Transformers Animated is set in 2050 Detroit (after crash landing 50 years earlier), when robots and humans live side - by - side. The Autobots come to Earth and assume superhero roles, battling evil humans with the Decepticons having a smaller role until Megatron resurfaces. Main characters include Autobots Optimus Prime, Bumblebee, Bulkhead, Prowl, and Ratchet; Decepticons Megatron, Starscream, Blitzwing, Lugnut, and Blackarachnia; and humans Professor Sumdac and Sari Sumdac. Several characters that were in the original Transformers cartoon and 1986 animated movie, as well as characters only seen in comics and such, make special appearances and cameos throughout the show.
In 2010, Hasbro released a toy line expansion to the film universe. This line is simply branded as Transformers and contains a promotion called "Hunt for the Decepticons ''. The promotion consists of a code number which collectors use to access online games on Transformers.com. The toy line consists of redecos and remolds of existing movie characters, as well as new versions of characters from Generation 1 and Generation 2.
Highlights in this toy line include the Leader Class Starscream, Battle Ops Bumblebee and all - new more movie accurate redesigns of the Voyager Class Optimus Prime and Deluxe Class Bumblebee.
The video game War for Cybertron was released in 2010 and is said to be set in the same universe as the Transformers: Prime cartoon. War for Cybertron toys were released as the first wave of the Generations line, and the Prime toys were first released as a series of First Edition toys and are currently released under the Prime: Robots in Disguise line. The game has also inspired a book called Transformers: Exodus and its sequel titled Transformers: Exiles, the first of which consists of events leading up to the beginning of the game & the latter containing the events leading up to Generation 1. Hasbro and the California - based online game Roblox have also arranged an event promoting the cartoon.
A new Transformers series, Transformers: Cyberverse, is expected to air in 2018, animated by Boulder Media Limited in association with Hasbro Studios.
An officially recognized fan convention (usually called BotCon) has been held nearly every year since 1994. The first few conventions were organized by individual fans, but a fan - made company named 3H Enterprises (later changed to 3H Productions) secured the license to BotCon from 1997 to 2002. The license was secured by a new organization named Fun Publications in 2005, who held it until 2016 after which Hasbro reclaimed the licence as part of a strategy to merge many of its media franchises (including G.I. Joe, M.A.S.K., Rom the Space Knight, Micronauts and Visionaires into a single universe.
Because the conventions are officially sanctioned by Hasbro, presenters have been able to produce official, limited - run toys, fiction, and other merchandise for sale at BotCon. The BotCon toys have grown dramatically over the years. In 1994, a single figure was provided for attendees. In 2010, fifteen different figures were available through a collection of box sets, souvenir packages, and customization classes.
Fictional contributions have also increased over the years. Prior to 2005, most conventions released a single comic, often accompanying the toys released that year. Since Fun Publications assumed the license, however, the annual BotCon comic has been supplemented by on - line text stories available exclusively at the official club website, and a bi-monthly magazine sent out to members with a six - page comic in each issue. Grouped under the umbrella term "Transformers: Timelines '', Fun Publications fiction deals with a variety of existing Transformers franchises, including Generation 1, Beast Wars and Cybertron, as well as new universes created specifically by Fun Publications such as TransTech and Shattered Glass.
It was announced in 2016 that Fun Publications would no longer run the Transformers or G.I. Joe conventions; instead Hasbro would announce a new convention, HASCON, that would feature all of its licensed properties.
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number of weddings per year in the us | Wedding industry in the United States - wikipedia
The wedding industry in the United States is the providers of services and goods for weddings in the U.S., taken as a whole. Every year in the United States, there are approximately 2.5 million weddings. The United States wedding industry was estimated to be worth $53.4 billion as of 2013. The following provides a sociological overview of how the wedding industry functions in the United States, cultural and social elements of the event and how it has become the economic giant seen today. The article will also discuss elements of the wedding process that generate major revenue for many major corporations each year. This includes clothes, flowers, music and many other elements that are a part of the ceremony, reception, honeymoon, and bachelor and bachelorette parties.
The wedding industry is a modern phenomenon.
The wedding industry changed and evolved into a capitalist industry that we know today between the 1920s to 1950s, and many American practices that are now considered traditional were developed during this time by advertisements and promotions from major retailers, jewelers, caterers, and many other companies.
In the 1960s and 1970s brides started to deviate from the original wedding plan, and moved the wedding outside of the church. This developed the idea of the "destination wedding, '' and is still very popular today.
As of 2012, the median cost of a wedding, including both the ceremony and reception, but not the honeymoon, in the United States, was about US $18,000 per wedding, according to a large survey at an online wedding website. Half of the people in the survey paid more than the median, and half of the people paid less. Regional differences are significant, with residents of Manhattan paying more than three times the median, while residents of Alaska spent less than half as much. Additionally, the survey probably overestimates the typical cost because of a biased sample population. Another large survey in 2016 estimated the average cost of a wedding in the United States to be $29,858, with vast regional differences. Notably, the average Manhattan wedding was estimated to cost $88,176, whereas a Mississippi wedding was estimated to cost $12,769. The most expensive part of a wedding was found to be the reception, followed by the engagement ring, wedding band, photographer, and ceremony site, in that order.
The more widely reported mean cost in this survey was significantly higher, with a mean of over US $28,000. Most people in this survey spent at least $10,000 less than the median amount. The difference of $10,000 per wedding is due entirely to very high spending by a small number of very wealthy couples -- the couples most likely to pay for more services from the wedding industry. The mean cost is useful for professionals and salespeople in the wedding industry, as it helps them understand the budgets of people who are spending the most, rather than for the typical person. It may also encourage overspending by their clients, since they can point to the higher mean as being the "average '' cost, even though it is much higher than what most couples actually spend.
A couple may purchase wedding insurance to cover unexpected financial losses related to their wedding, for instance loss or damage to the wedding dress or tuxedo. Other things potentially covered by wedding insurance include lost deposits as a result of vendor bankruptcy, cancellation due to illness, injury, military service or extreme weather and third - party or liquor liability claims. depending on the level of cover required. Problems a couple knew about before taking out the policy are not covered and almost all insurers will not cover cancellations that are due to "cold feet ''. Currently, only one company does and it can only be purchased by the person who finances the wedding, not the Bride or Groom, and only applies if the wedding is cancelled more than 180 days before. Wedding insurance is becoming increasingly popular in other countries, including Australia, New Zealand and the UK. The UK is very different with quite a few big name providers.
Costs of bachelor and bachelorette parties depend upon what the party entails. If the party is held in someone 's home, then it may cost no more than any other dinner party. A multi-day event held out of town, however, can cost hundreds or even thousands of dollars per person, like any other vacation trip.
This money may go towards things such as renting a venue, flowers and other decorations, the officiant, the wedding planner, and invitations to the event, as well as music played before and during the ceremony.
For wedding invitations, couples spend, on average, about US $848, which includes costs of stationery accessories ($188) and printed, pre-made invitations or reply cards ($659).
A wedding band or singer may cost at least $1,000 depending on who performs, and this cost can be for either the ceremony or the reception. A professional wedding planner may charge about US $25 per hour or $3,000 total.
In the United States in 2013, the average wedding dress cost US $1,211.
Television series like TLC 's "Say Yes to The Dress '' which features bridal boutique, Kleinfeld 's, show the workings of the bridal gown industry. The bridal gown industry relies mainly on bridal magazines for advertising.
As for the groom, the cost of his clothes and accessories is considerably less than the bride, with the average cost coming to about $313.
In 2008, despite the start of a recession, the price spent on the average engagement ring increased to $5,861. In 2006, many couples spent just over $2,000 for his and hers wedding bands. The bride may additionally spend a few hundred dollars on a necklace or other jewelry to wear with her wedding dress. Even in times of economic hardship couples rarely skimp on the jewelry. This boosts sales for the jewelry industry as wedding jewelry is part of a larger industry.
There are other accessories such as "something old '', centerpieces, décor, bouquets, the wedding veil, garter, and the couple 's toasting glasses that are often purchased before the wedding day.
The size and grandeur of a wedding reception can be an indicator of a couple 's social status or the one they would like to portray. The amount of guests, quality of the food and drinks, location, and who plays the music can all symbolize the wealth and presumed status of the newly weds. The reception can be an opportunity to flaunt wealth and impress guests (friends and family). This can lead to couples and / or parents spending an excessive amount of money and even putting themselves into debt to pay for the wedding. Celebrities like Donald Trump and his wife Melania Knauss spent an approximated amount of US $1 million on their wedding. The reception consisted of 400 guests, was serenaded by a full orchestra, and was catered by chef Jean - Georges Vongerichten. But this is nothing compared to Liza Minnelli and David Gest 's wedding that was estimated at 3.5 million dollars, and then the couple divorced the next year.
Approximately 28 percent of the wedding budget is spent on the reception, which makes it the most expensive part of the wedding.
The honeymoon industry is a US $12 billion industry annually. On average, about 10 percent of newlyweds book cruises as their honeymoon trip; 37 percent travel to domestic locations, while 63 percent go abroad; lastly, 40 percent stay at a resort, while 27 percent stay at a large hotel, while 10 percent look into a small hotel.
Other than romance, couples often choose to engage in outdoor activities to enhance their honeymoon experience. The top five activities are listed below: Visiting a new place for sightseeing, restaurants, entertainment and nightlife - 75 % Beaches and lakes -- 45 % Casinos -- 20 % Cruises -- 15 % Golf / sports vacations -- 10
Wedding magazines, wedding blogs, and their associated social media accounts (such as Instagram, Facebook, Pinterest, and Snapchat) play an important role in the wedding industry. They showcase and drive current trends, and serve as a useful way for couples to discover vendors and ideas.
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who took the book of romans to rome | Epistle to the Romans - wikipedia
The Epistle to the Romans or Letter to the Romans, often shortened to Romans, is the sixth book in the New Testament. Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by the Apostle Paul to explain that salvation is offered through the gospel of Jesus Christ. It is the longest of the Pauline epistles and is often considered his "most important theological legacy '' and magnum opus.
In the opinion of Jesuit scholar Joseph Fitzmyer, the book "overwhelms the reader by the density and sublimity of the topic with which it deals, the gospel of the justification and salvation of Jew and Greek alike by the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ, revealing the uprightness and love of God the Father. ''
N.T. Wright notes that Romans is
... neither a systematic theology nor a summary of Paul 's lifework, but it is by common consent his masterpiece. It dwarfs most of his other writings, an Alpine peak towering over hills and villages. Not all onlookers have viewed it in the same light or from the same angle, and their snapshots and paintings of it are sometimes remarkably unalike. Not all climbers have taken the same route up its sheer sides, and there is frequent disagreement on the best approach. What nobody doubts is that we are here dealing with a work of massive substance, presenting a formidable intellectual challenge while offering a breathtaking theological and spiritual vision.
The scholarly consensus is that Paul wrote the Epistle to the Romans.
C.E.B. Cranfield, in the introduction to his commentary on Romans, says:
The denial of Paul 's authorship of Romans by such critics... is now rightly relegated to a place among the curiosities of NT scholarship. Today no responsible criticism disputes its Pauline origin. The evidence of its use in the Apostolic Fathers is clear, and before the end of the second century it is listed and cited as Paul 's. Every extant early list of NT books includes it among his letters. The external evidence of authenticity could indeed hardly be stronger; and it is altogether borne out by the internal evidence, linguistic, stylistic, literary, historical and theological.
The letter was most probably written while Paul was in Corinth, probably while he was staying in the house of Gaius, and transcribed by Tertius, his amanuensis. There are a number of reasons why Corinth is considered most plausible. Paul was about to travel to Jerusalem on writing the letter, which matches Acts where it is reported that Paul stayed for three months in Greece. This probably implies Corinth as it was the location of Paul 's greatest missionary success in Greece. Additionally, Phoebe was a deacon of the church in Cenchreae, a port to the east of Corinth, and would have been able to convey the letter to Rome after passing through Corinth and taking a ship from Corinth 's west port. Erastus, mentioned in Romans 16: 23, also lived in Corinth, being the city 's commissioner for public works and city treasurer at various times, again indicating that the letter was written in Corinth.
The precise time at which it was written is not mentioned in the epistle, but it was obviously written when the collection for Jerusalem had been assembled and Paul was about to "go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints '', that is, at the close of his second visit to Greece, during the winter preceding his last visit to that city. The majority of scholars writing on Romans propose the letter was written in late 55 / early 56 or late 56 / early 57. Early 55 and early 58 both have some support, while German New Testament scholar Gerd Lüdemann argues for a date as early as 51 / 52 (or 54 / 55), following on from Knox, who proposed 53 / 54. Lüdemann is the only serious challenge to the consensus of mid to late 50s.
Some manuscripts have a subscription at the end of the Epistle:
For ten years before writing the letter (approx. 47 -- 57), Paul had traveled around the territories bordering the Aegean Sea evangelizing. Churches had been planted in the Roman provinces of Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia and Asia. Paul, considering his task complete, wanted to preach the gospel in Spain, where he would not "build upon another man 's foundation ''. This allowed him to visit Rome on the way, a long - time ambition of his. The letter to the Romans, in part, prepares them and gives reasons for his visit.
In addition to Paul 's geographic location, his religious views are important. First, Paul was a Hellenistic Jew with a Pharisaic background (see Gamaliel), integral to his identity: see Paul the Apostle and Judaism for details. His concern for his people is one part of the dialogue and runs throughout the letter. Second, the other side of the dialogue is Paul 's conversion and calling to follow Christ in the early 30s.
The most probable ancient account of the beginning of Christianity in Rome is given by a 4th - century writer known as Ambrosiaster:
It is established that there were Jews living in Rome in the times of the Apostles, and that those Jews who had believed (in Christ) passed on to the Romans the tradition that they ought to profess Christ but keep the law (Torah)... One ought not to condemn the Romans, but to praise their faith, because without seeing any signs or miracles and without seeing any of the apostles, they nevertheless accepted faith in Christ, although according to a Jewish rite.
From Adam Clarke:
The occasion of writing the epistle:... Paul had made acquaintance with all circumstances of the Christians at Rome... and finding that it was... partly of heathens converted to Christianity, and partly of Jews, who had, with many remaining prejudices, believed in Jesus as the true Messiah, and that many contentions arose from the claims of the Gentiles to equal privileges with the Jews, and from absolute refusal of the Jews to admit these claims, unless the Gentile converts become circumcised; he wrote this epistle to adjust and settle these differences.
At this time, the Jews made up a substantial number in Rome, and their synagogues, frequented by many, enabled the Gentiles to become acquainted with the story of Jesus of Nazareth. Consequently, churches composed of both Jews and Gentiles were formed at Rome. According to Irenaeus, a 2nd - century Church Father, the church at Rome was founded directly by the apostles Peter and Paul. However, many modern scholars disagree with Irenaeus, holding that while little is known of the circumstances of the church 's founding, it was not founded by Paul:
Many of the brethren went out to meet Paul on his approach to Rome. There is evidence that Christians were then in Rome in considerable numbers and probably had more than one place of meeting.
Note the large number of names in Romans 16: 3 -- 15 of those then in Rome, and verses 5, 15 and 16 indicate there was more than one church assembly or company of believers in Rome. Verse 5 mentions a church that met in the house of Aquila and Priscilla. Verses 14 and 15 each mention groupings of believers and saints.
Jews were expelled from Rome because of disturbances around AD 49 by the edict of Claudius. Fitzmyer claims that both Jews and Jewish Christians were expelled as a result of their infighting. Claudius died around the year AD 54, and his successor, Emperor Nero, allowed the Jews back into Rome, but then, after the Great Fire of Rome of 64, Christians were persecuted. Fitzmyer argues that with the return of the Jews to Rome in 54 new conflict arose between the Gentile Christians and the Jewish Christians who had formerly been expelled. Keck thinks Gentile Christians may have developed a dislike of or looked down on Jews (see also Antisemitism and Responsibility for the death of Jesus), because they theologically rationalized that Jews were no longer God 's people.
Scholars often have difficulty assessing whether Romans is a letter or an epistle, a relevant distinction in form - critical analysis:
A letter is something non-literary, a means of communication between persons who are separated from each other. Confidential and personal in nature, it is intended only for the person or persons to whom it is addressed, and not at all for the public or any kind of publicity... An Epistle is an artistic literary form, just like the dialogue, the oration, or the drama. It has nothing in common with the letter except its form: apart from that one might venture the paradox that the epistle is the opposite of a real letter. The contents of the epistle are intended for publicity -- they aim at interesting "the public. ''
Joseph Fitzmyer argues, from evidence put forth by Stirewalt, that the style of Romans is an "essay - letter. '' Philip Melanchthon, a writer during the Reformation, suggested that Romans was caput et summa universae doctrinae christianae ("a summary of all Christian doctrine ''). While some scholars attempt to suggest, like Melanchthon, that it is a type of theological treatise, this view largely ignores chapters 14 and 15 of Romans. There are also many "noteworthy elements '' missing from Romans that are included in other areas of the Pauline corpus. The breakdown of Romans as a treatise began with F.C. Baur in 1836 when he suggested "this letter had to be interpreted according to the historical circumstances in which Paul wrote it. ''
Paul sometimes uses a style of writing common in his time called a "diatribe ''. He appears to be responding to a "heckler '' (probably an imaginary one based on Paul 's encounters with real objections in his previous preaching), and the letter is structured as a series of arguments. In the flow of the letter, Paul shifts his arguments, sometimes addressing the Jewish members of the church, sometimes the Gentile membership and sometimes the church as a whole.
To review the current scholarly viewpoints on the purpose of Romans, along with a bibliography, see Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. For a 16th - century "Lollard '' reformer view, see the work of William Tyndale. In his prologue to his translation of the book of Romans, which was largely taken from the prologue of German Reformer Martin Luther, Tyndale writes that:
... this epistle is the principal and most excellent part of the new testament, and most pure evangelion, that is to say glad tidings and what we call the gospel, and also a light and a way in unto the whole scripture... The sum and whole cause of the writings of this epistle, is, to prove that a man is justified by faith only: which proposition whoso denieth, to him is not only this epistle and all that Paul writeth, but also the whole scripture, so locked up that he shall never understand it to his soul 's health. And to bring a man to the understanding and feeling that faith only justifieth, Paul proveth that the whole nature of man is so poisoned and so corrupt, yea and so dead concerning godly living or godly thinking, that it is impossible for her to keep the law in the sight of God.
This essay - letter composed by Paul was written to a specific audience at a specific time; to understand it, the situations of both Paul and the recipients must be understood.
The introduction provides some general notes about Paul. He introduces his apostleship here and introductory notes about the gospel he wishes to preach to the church at Rome. Jesus ' human line stems from David. Paul, however, does not limit his ministry to Jews. Paul 's goal is that the Gentiles would also hear the gospel.
He commends the Romans for their faith. Paul also speaks of the past obstacles that have blocked his coming to Rome earlier.
Paul 's announcement that he is not "ashamed '' (epaiscúnomai) of his gospel because it holds power (dúnamis). These two verses form a backdrop for the rest of the book. First, we note that Paul is unashamed of his love for this gospel that he preaches about Jesus Christ. He also notes that he is speaking to the "Jew first. '' There is significance to this, but much of it is scholarly conjecture as the relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still debated. We are hard - pressed to find an answer to such a question without knowing more about the audience in question. Wayne Brindle argues, based on Paul 's former writings against the Judaizers in Galatians and 2 Corinthians, that rumors had probably spread about Paul totally negating the Jewish existence in a Christian world (see also Antinomianism in the New Testament and Supersessionism). Paul may have used the "Jew first '' approach to counter such a view.
Paul now begins into the main thrust of his letter. He begins by suggesting that humans have taken up ungodliness and wickedness for which there will be wrath from God. People have taken God 's invisible image and made him into an idol. Paul draws heavily here from the Wisdom of Solomon. He condemns unnatural sexual behavior and warns that such behavior will result in a depraved body and mind ("reprobate mind '' in the King James Version) and says that people who do such things (including murder and wickedness) are worthy of death. Paul stands firmly against the idol worship system which was common in Rome. Several scholars believe the passage is a non-Pauline interpolation.
On the traditional Protestant interpretation, Paul here calls out Jews who are condemning others for not following the law when they themselves are also not following the law. Stanley Stowers, however, has argued on rhetorical grounds that Paul is in these verses not addressing a Jew at all but rather an easily recognizable caricature of the typical boastful person (ὁ ἀλαζων). Stowers writes, "There is absolutely no justification for reading 2: 1 -- 5 as Paul 's attack on ' the hypocrisy of the Jew. ' No one in the first century would have identified ho alazon with Judaism. That popular interpretation depends upon anachronistically reading later Christian characterizations of Jews as ' hypocritical Pharisees ' ''. See also Anti-Judaism.
Paul says that a righteousness from God has made itself known apart from the law, to which the law and prophets testify, and this righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus to all who believe. He describes justification -- legally clearing the believer of the guilt and penalty of sin -- as a gift of God, and not the work of man (lest he might boast), but by faith.
In chapters five through eight, Paul argues that believers can be assured of their hope in salvation, having been freed from the bondage of sin. Paul teaches that through faith, the faithful have been joined with Jesus and freed from sin. Believers should celebrate in the assurance of salvation and be certain that no external force or party can take their salvation away from them. This promise is open to everyone since everyone has sinned, save the one who paid for all of them.
In chapters 9 -- 11 Paul addresses the faithfulness of God to the Israelites, where he says that God has been faithful to his promise. Paul hopes that all Israelites will come to realize the truth since he himself was also an Israelite, and had in the past been a persecutor of Early Christians. In Romans 9 -- 11 Paul talks about how the nation of Israel has been cast away, and the conditions under which Israel will be God 's chosen nation again: when Israel returns to its faith, sets aside its unbelief.
In Romans 7: 1, Paul says that humans are under the law while we live: "Know ye not... that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth? '' However, Jesus ' death on the cross makes believers dead to the law (7: 4, "Wherefore, my brethren, ye are also become dead to the law by the body of Christ ''), according to an antinomistic interpretation.
From chapter 12 through the first part of chapter 15, Paul outlines how the Gospel transforms believers and the behaviour that results from such a transformation. This transformation is described as a "renewing of your mind '' (12: 2), a transformation that Douglas J. Moo characterizes as "the heart of the matter. '' It is a transformation so radical that it amounts to "a transfiguration of your brain, '' a "metanoia '', a "mental revolution. ''
Paul goes on to describe how believers should live. Christians are no longer under the law, that is, no longer bound by the law of Moses, but under the grace of God, see Law and grace. We do not need to live under the law because to the extent our minds have been renewed, we will know "almost instinctively '' what God wants of us. The law then provides an "objective standard '' for judging progress in the "lifelong process '' of our mind 's renewal.
To the extent they have been set free from sin by renewed minds (Romans 6: 18), believers are no longer bound to sin. Believers are free to live in obedience to God and love everybody. As Paul says in Romans 13: 10, "love (ἀγάπη) worketh no ill to his neighbor: therefore love is the fulfilling of law ''.
The fragment in Romans 13: 1 -- 7 dealing with obedience to earthly powers is considered by some, for example James Kallas, to be an interpolation. (See also the Great Commandment and Christianity and politics). Paul Tillich accepts the historical authenticity of Romans 13: 1 -- 7, but claims it has been misinterpreted by churches with an anti-revolutionary bias:
One of the many politico - theological abuses of biblical statements is the understanding of Paul 's words (Romans 13: 1 -- 7) as justifying the anti-revolutionary bias of some churches, particularly the Lutheran. But neither these words nor any other New Testament statement deals with the methods of gaining political power. In Romans, Paul is addressing eschatological enthusiasts, not a revolutionary political movement.
The passage was cited by Jeff Sessions to justify separating immigrant children from their parents, in the 1840s and 1850s to justify Slavery in the United States, and prior to the American Revolution to both support and reject the right of King George 's rule.
The concluding verses contain a description of his travel plans, personal greetings and salutations. One - third of the twenty - one Christians identified in the greetings are women, some of whom played an important role in the early church at Rome. Additionally, none of these Christians answer to the name Peter, although according to the Catholic tradition, he had been ruling as Pope in Rome for about 25 years. Possibly related was the Incident at Antioch between Paul and Cephas.
Roman Catholics accept the necessity of faith for salvation but point to Romans 2: 5 -- 11 for the necessity of living a virtuous life as well:
But by your hard and impenitent heart you are storing up wrath for yourself on the day of wrath when God 's righteous judgment will be revealed. For he will render to every man according to his works: to those who by patience in well - doing seek for glory and honor and immortality, he will give eternal life; but for those who are factious and do not obey the truth, but obey wickedness, there will be wrath and fury. There will be tribulation and distress for every human being who does evil, the Jew first and also the Greek, but glory and honor and peace for every one who does good, the Jew first and also the Greek. For God shows no partiality.
Throughout his writings, St. Augustine strongly affirms the Catholic understanding of this and other such Scriptural admonitions. In his sermons to his Catholic congregations, he is especially careful to warn them against an inordinate desire for a complete assurance of salvation. In his Exposition of Psalm 147 for example, he states:
The gospel warned us, "Be on the watch for the last day, the day when the Son of Man will come, '' because it will spell disaster for those it finds secure as they are now -- secure for the wrong reasons, I mean, secure in the pleasures of this world, when they ought to be secure only when they have dominated this world 's lusts. The apostle certainly prepares us for that future life in words of which I also reminded you on that occasion.
Again, in his Exposition of Psalm 85, Augustine is perhaps even more specific:
Let us not expect security while we are on pilgrimage. When we do find ourselves wanting it, what we are looking for is bodily sluggishness rather than personal security.
Catholics would also look to the passage in Romans 8: 13 for evidence that justification by faith is only valid so long as it is combined with obedient cooperation with The Holy Spirit, and the passage in Romans 11: 22 to show that the Christian can lose their justification if they turn away from cooperating with The Holy Spirit and reject Christ through mortal sin.
In the Protestant interpretation, the New Testament epistles (including Romans), describes salvation as coming from faith and not from righteous actions. For example, Romans 4: 2 -- 5 (underlining added):
They also point out that in Romans chapter 2: 9, Paul says that God will reward those who follow the law and then goes on to say that no one follows the law perfectly (see also Sermon on the Mount: Interpretation) Romans 2: 21 -- 25:
Martin Luther described Paul 's letter to the Romans as "the most important piece in the New Testament. It is purest Gospel. It is well worth a Christian 's while not only to memorize it word for word but also to occupy himself with it daily, as though it were the daily bread of the soul ''.
Luther controversially added the word "alone '' (allein in German) to Romans 3: 28 so that it read: "thus, we hold, then, that man is justified without doing the works of the law, alone through faith ''. The word "alone '' does not appear in the original Greek text, but Luther defended his translation by maintaining that the adverb "alone '' was required both by idiomatic German and Paul 's intended meaning. This is a "literalist view '' rather than an literal view of the Bible.
Apologist James Swan lists numerous Catholic sources that also translated Romans 3: 28 with the word "alone, '' or testified to others doing so before Luther. A Bible commentary published in 1864 reports that:
Catholic translators before the time of Luther had given the same translation. So in the Nuremberg Bible, 1483, "Nur durch den glauben. '' And the Italian Bibles of Geneva, 1476, and of Venice, 1538, per sola fede. The Fathers also often use the expression, "man is justified by faith alone; ''
The Romans Road (or Roman Road) refers to a set of scriptures from Romans that Christian evangelists use to present a clear and simple case for personal salvation to each person, as all the verses are contained in one single book, making it easier for evangelism without going back and forth through the entire New Testament. The core verses used by nearly all groups using Romans Road are: Romans 3: 23, 6: 23, 5: 8, 10: 9, and 10: 13.
Romans has been at the forefront of several major movements in Protestantism. Martin Luther 's lectures on Romans in 1515 -- 1516 probably coincided with the development of his criticism of Roman Catholicism which led to the 95 Theses of 1517. In 1738, while hearing Luther 's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans read at St. Botolph Church on Aldersgate Street in London, John Wesley famously felt his heart "strangely warmed '', a conversion experience which is often seen as the beginning of Methodism. In 1919 Karl Barth 's commentary on Romans, The Epistle to the Romans, was the publication which is widely seen as the beginning of neo-orthodoxy.
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when was the last time a hurricane hit beaufort sc | 1893 Sea Islands hurricane - wikipedia
On August 27, 1893, a major hurricane which came to be known as the Sea Islands Hurricane struck the United States near Savannah, Georgia. It was one of three deadly hurricanes during the 1893 Atlantic hurricane season; the storm killed an estimated 1,000 -- 2,000 people, mostly from storm surge. This is also the storm that made United States Life - Saving Service Keeper Dunbar Davis famous.
Modern analysis of historical records has allowed the history of this storm to be pieced together, although the analysis is only an estimate since few accurate meteorological records were taken.
On August 15, 1893, a tropical storm formed east of Cape Verde. It likely passed directly through the islands on the 16th, leaving their vicinity during the evening of the 17th. It became a hurricane on the 19th, while crossing the Atlantic between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane continued to strengthen, attaining Category 3 status on August 22 while located northeast of the Lesser Antilles. By the evening of the 25th, the storm was approaching the Bahamas. During the approach it began to deviate from its westerly course and arc west - northwest. It is believed that the first effects of the storm were beginning to be felt in the Sea Islands area, with the winds steadily increasing during the night of the 25th.
Some of the inhabitants anticipated the storm and left the islands as quickly as possible. The conditions soon rapidly deteriorated on the island and the hurricane passed over sometime on the 26th. By now the hurricane was turning more and more towards the north. It moved parallel to the coast for about one hundred miles before making landfall.
Landfall occurred near Savannah, Georgia, on August 27. Reports from the time say that wind during landfall was around 120 mph (190 km / h), making it a category 3 storm. Pressure in Savannah was measured at 960 mbar (28 inHg); modern estimates put the pressure around 954 mbar (28.2 inHg) at landfall, and possibly as low as 931 mbar (27.5 inHg) out at sea. This would have made the hurricane most likely stronger than a Category 3 storm on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale. The hurricane passed north over South Carolina on August 28 and moved up the U.S. East Coast before becoming extratropical over Atlantic Canada. The storm likely intensified to a Category 4, or 5, but there are no reports of this occurring.
The hurricane carried with it a heavy storm surge (16 ft or 4.9 m, according to Clara Barton, although the modern NOAA SLOSH model calculates that some areas may have been inundated up to 30 feet), which caused great destruction along the coastline and offshore Sea Islands in Georgia and South Carolina. An estimated 1,000 to 2,000 people were killed (mostly by drowning), putting it on - par with 2005 's Hurricane Katrina as the fourth deadliest hurricane in US history. St. Helena was estimated to have 6,000 African - Americans living there while 2,000 were women. The majority of the African - Americans owned land there and some rented. A lot of structures in that area were not elevated higher than 2 feet; therefore, they were covered by the first waves that went above the normal water mark.
Although the hurricane was devastating, the American Red Cross did not arrive until October 1, possibly because of ongoing efforts following another hurricane that hit South Carolina in June. After the Red Cross arrived, a warehouse of clothing and food was started at Beaufort, South Carolina, to provide services to the affected. Relief efforts were impeded by a second Category 3 hurricane that struck just north of the area, near Charleston, South Carolina, on October 13. During a massive 10 - month relief campaign, success was declared, with the Sea Islands population living in decent houses producing their own food again. Damages from the storm totaled to at least $1 million (1893 USD).
Damage was reported as far north as Maine. Some areas, particularly New York City and Long Island, were already reeling from what later came to be known as the 1893 New York hurricane that had struck the region just days before, on August 24, and were damaged anew by this storm. "Immense '' damage was reported to shade trees and telegraph and telephone wires in Washington. In Annapolis, Maryland "hardly a tree was left standing '' and Baltimore reported the worst flooding since 1868. In New Jersey, damage was "heavy '' in the New Brunswick area, and many trees were downed and roofs were blown off in Trenton. Damage was heavy all along the New Jersey coast and breakers were described as the biggest ever witnessed. Railroad tracks were under four feet of water between Bay Head and Berkley. In New York, several lives were lost in The Rockaways, and a number of people were killed at points along the Hudson River when tow boats were destroyed. Crops were heavily damaged in Pennsylvania and upstate New York. Boats were wrecked and sunk in the Dunkirk area. In Brooklyn, where 13 houses under construction were destroyed, damage was "severe '' and Gravesend Bay was "littered with the wrecks of small yachts and boats. '' In Coney Island, roofs were lifted off big buildings and carried for blocks. Waves topped the seawall by 15 feet at Battery Park. Damage was heavy at resorts on Long Island and it was the worst storm on the New England coast in 20 years.
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who has the power to create a new all india service | Lawmaking procedure in India - Wikipedia
India is a democracy having a Federal structure of government. Laws are made separately at different levels, by the Union Government / Federal Government for the whole country and by the State Governments for their respective states as well as by local municipal councils at district level. The Legislative procedure in India for the Union Government requires that proposed bills pass through the two legislative houses of the Parliament of India, i.e. the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. The legislative procedure for states with bicameral legislatures requires that proposed bills be passed, at least in the state 's Lower House or the Vidhan Sabha and not mandatory to be passed in the Upper House or the Vidhan Parishad. For states with unicameral legislatures, laws and bills need to be passed only in the state 's Vidhan Sabha, for they do n't have a Vidhan Parishad.
The process of addition, variation or repeal of any part of the constitution by the Parliament under its constituent powers, is called amendment of the constitution. The procedure is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each House of the Parliament by a majority of the total membership of that House when at least two - thirds members are present and voted. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal and judicial aspects of the constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. There is no provision for joint sitting of the two houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament to pass a constitutional amendment bill. Basic structure of the Indian constitution can not be altered or destroyed through constitutional amendments under the constituent powers of the Parliament without undergoing judicial review by the Supreme Court. After the 24th amendment, parliament in its constituent capacity can not delegate its function of amending the constitution to another legislature or to itself in its ordinary legislative capacity.
Proclamation of emergency per Article 352 (6) shall be ratified by the Parliament similar to its constituent power. When President 's rule is invoked in a state using Article 356 (c) and its proclamation contains such incidental and consequential provisions suspending in whole or in part the operation of any provisions of the constitution relating to any body or authority in the State for giving effect to the objects of the proclamation, the proclamation needs to be approved by the Parliament under its constituent power (i.e. not by simple majority) after the 24th amendment
The legislative power of the states and the Centre are defined in the constitution and these powers are divided into three lists. The subjects that are not mentioned in any of the three lists are known as residuary subjects. Subject to the provisions in the constitution elsewhere, the power to legislate on residuary subjects, rests with parliament or state legislative assembly as the case may be per Article 245. Deemed amendments to the constitution which could be passed under legislative powers of Parliament, are no more valid after the addition of Article 368 (1) by 24th amendment.
Union list consists of 100 items (previously 97 items) on which the parliament has exclusive power to legislate.
State list consists of 61 items (previously 66 items) where state legislative assembly can make laws applicable in that state. But in certain circumstances, the parliament can also legislate temporarily on subjects mentioned in the state list, when the Rajya Sabha has passed a resolution with 2 / 3rd majority that it is expedient to legislate in the national interest per Articles 249 to 252 of the constitution.
Concurrent list consists of 52 (earlier 47) where both parliament and a state legislative assembly can make laws in their domains subject to Articles 254 of the constitution
The powers of a ruling party / co-alliance of the union is depending on the extent of the mandate it receives from the elections at central and state levels. These are
At state level, simple majority in the legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha) is enough to exercise all its constitutional powers except for deciding to have or abolish Legislative Council per Articles 169.
Legislative proposals are brought before either house of the Parliament of India in the form of a bill. A bill is the draft of a legislative proposal, which, when passed by both houses of Parliament and assented to by the President, becomes an Act of Parliament. As soon as the bill has been framed, it has to be published in the news papers and the general public is asked to comment in a democratic manner. The bill may then be amended to incorporate the public opinion in a constructive manner and then may be introduced in the Parliament by ministers or private members. The former are called government bills and the latter, private members ' bills. Bills may also be classified as public bills and private bills. A public bill is one referring to a matter applying to the public in general, whereas a private bill relates to a particular person or corporation or institution. The Orphanages and Charitable Homes Bill or the Muslim Waqfs Bills are examples of private bills.
A Bill is the draft of a legislative proposal. It has to pass through various stages before it becomes an Act of Parliament. There are three stages through which a bill has to pass in one House of Parliament. The procedure is similar for the Legislative Assemblies of States.
The legislative process begins with the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament, i.e. the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. A Bill can be introduced either by a Minister or by a private member. In the former case it is known as a Government Bill and in the latter case it is known as a Private Member 's Bill. It is necessary for a member - in - charge of the Bill to ask for the leave of the House to introduce the Bill. If leave is granted by the House, the Bill is introduced. This stage is known as the First Reading of the Bill. If the motion for leave to introduce a Bill is opposed, the Speaker may, in his discretion, allow a brief explanatory statement to be made by the member who opposes the motion and the member - in - charge who moved the motion. Where a motion for leave to introduce a Bill is opposed on the ground that the Bill initiates legislation outside the legislative competence of the House, the Speaker may permit a full discussion thereon. Thereafter, the question is put to the vote of the House. However, the motion for leave to introduce a Finance Bill or an Appropriation Bill is forthwith put to the vote of the House. Money / Appropriation Bills and financial bills can be introduced only in Lok Sabha per Articles 109, 110 and 117. Speaker of Lok Sabha decides whether a bill is Money Bill or not. Chairman of Rajya Sabha decides whether a bill is finance bill or not when the bill is introduced in the Rajya Sabha.
After a Bill has been introduced, it is published in The Gazette of India. Even before introduction, a Bill might, with the permission of the Speaker, be published in the Gazette. In such cases, leave to introduce the Bill in the House is not asked for and the Bill is straight away introduced.
After a Bill has been introduced, the Presiding Officer of the concerned House (Speaker of the Lok Sabha or the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or anyone acting on their behalf) can refer the Bill to the concerned Standing Committee for examination and to prepare a report thereon. If a Bill is referred to a Standing Committee, the Committee shall consider the general principles and clauses of the Bill referred to them and make a report thereon. The Committee can also seek expert opinion or the public opinion of those interested in the measure. After the Bill has thus been considered, the Committee submits its report to the House. The report of the Committee, being of persuasive value, shall be treated as considered advice.
The Second Reading consists of consideration of the Bill which occurs in two stages.
The first stage consists of general discussion on the Bill as a whole when the principle underlying the Bill is discussed. At this stage it is open to the House to refer the Bill to a Select Committee of the House or a Joint Committee of the two Houses or to circulate it for the purpose of eliciting opinion thereon or to straight away take it into consideration.
If a Bill is referred to a Select / Joint Committee, the Committee considers the Bill clause - by - clause just as the House does. Amendments can be moved to the various clauses by members of the Committee. The Committee can also take evidence of associations, public bodies or experts who are interested in the measure. After the Bill has thus been considered, the Committee submits its report to the House which considers the Bill again as reported by the Committee. If a Bill is circulated for the purpose of eliciting public opinion thereon, such opinions are obtained through the Governments of the States and Union Territories. Opinions so received are laid on the Table of the House and the next motion in regard to the Bill must be for its reference to a Select / Joint Committee. It is not ordinarily permissible at this stage to move the motion for consideration of the Bill.
The second stage of the Second Reading consists of clause - by - clause consideration of the Bill as introduced or as reported by Select / Joint Committee. Discussion takes place on each clause of the Bill and amendments to clauses can be moved at this stage. Amendments to a clause have been moved but not withdrawn are put to the vote of the House before the relevant clause is disposed of by the House. The amendments become part of the Bill if they are accepted by a majority of members present and voting. After the clauses, the Schedules if any, clause 1, the Enacting Formula and the Long Title of the Bill have been adopted by the House, the Second Reading is deemed to be over.
Thereafter, the member - in - charge can move that the Bill be passed. This stage is known as the Third Reading of the Bill. At this stage the debate is confined to arguments either in support or rejection of the Bill without referring to the details thereof further than that are absolutely necessary. Only formal, verbal or consequential amendments are allowed to be moved at this stage. In passing an ordinary Bill, a simple majority of members present and voting is necessary. But in the case of a Bill to amend the Constitution, a majority of the total membership of the House and a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members present and voting is required in each House of Parliament. If the number of votes in favour and against the bill are tied, then the Presiding officer of the concerned House can cast his / her vote, referred to as a Casting Vote Right.
If at any time during a meeting of a House there is no quorum which is minimum one - tenth of the total members of a House, it shall be the duty of the Chairman or Speaker, or person acting as such, either to adjourn the House or to suspend the meeting until there is a quorum. The bills taken up under legislative power of parliament are treated as passed provided majority of members present at that time approved the bill either by voting or voice vote. It is also right of a member to demand voting instead of voice vote. In case of passing a constitutional amendment bill, two - third of the total members present and voted in favour of the bill with more than 50 % of the total members of a house, is required per Article 368.
After the Bill is passed by one House, it is sent to the other House for concurrence with a message to that effect, and there also it goes through the stages described above, except the introduction stage. If a Bill passed by one House is amended by the other House, it is sent back to the originating House for approval. If the originating House does not agree with the amendments, it shall be that the two houses have disagreed. The other House may keep a money bill for 14 days and an ordinary Bill for three months without passing (or rejecting) it. If it fails to return the Bill within the fixed time, the Bill is deemed to be passed by both the houses and is sent for the approval of the President.
At state level, it is not mandatory that a bill shall be passed by the legislative council (if existing) per Articles 196 to 199. There is no provision of conducting joint session of both Houses to pass a bill.
In case of a deadlock between the two houses or in a case where more than six months lapse in the other house, the President may summon, though is not bound to, a joint session of the two houses which is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the deadlock is resolved by simple majority. Until now, only three bills: the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), the Banking Service Commission Repeal Bill (1978) and the Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act (2002) have been passed at joint sessions.
When a bill has been passed, it is sent to the President for his approval per Article 111. The President can assent or withhold his assent to a bill or he can return a bill, other than a money bill which is recommended by president himself to the houses. However Article 255 says that prior recommendation of president or governor of a state wherever stipulated is not compulsory for an Act of parliament or of the legislature of a State but the final consent of president or governor of a state is mandatory. President may be of view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. President shall not withhold constitutional amendment bill duly passed by parliament per Article 368. If the President gives his assent, the bill is published in The Gazette of India and becomes an Act from the date of his assent. If he withholds his assent, the bill is dropped, which is known as absolute veto. The President can exercise absolute veto on aid and advice of council of ministers per Article 111 and Article 74. The president may also effectively withhold his assent as per his own discretion, which is known as pocket veto. The pocket veto has only been exercised once by President Zail Singh in 1986, over the postal act where the government wanted to open postal letters without warrant by amending the Indian Post Office Act, 1898. If the president returns it for reconsideration, the Parliament must do so, but if it is passed again and returned to him, he must give his assent to it. If parliament is not happy with the president for not assenting a bill passed by it under its legislative powers, the bill can be modified as a constitutional amendment bill and passed under its constituent powers for compelling the president to give assent. In case a constitutional amendment act is violating the basic structure of the constitution, constitutional bench of Supreme Court would quash the act. When parliament is of the view that the actions of the president are violating the constitution, impeachment proceedings against president could be taken up to remove him under Article 61 where at least two - thirds of total membership of each house of parliament should vote in favour of the impeachment when charges against the president are found valid in an investigation.
In case of a bill passed by the legislative assembly of a state, the consent of that state 's Governor has to be obtained. Some times the governor may refer the bill to the president anticipating clash between other central laws or constitution and decision of the president is final per Articles 200 and 201.
All decisions of the union cabinet are to be assented by the president for issuing gazette order (GO). In case the cabinet decisions are not in the purview of the established law, president shall not give assent to the cabinet decisions. He may indicate union cabinet to pass the necessary legislation by the parliament to clear the cabinet decision. A minister is not supposed to take any decision without being considered by the council of ministers per Article 78 (c).
The purpose of framing the Indian constitution is to serve with honesty, efficiency and impartiality for the betterment of its citizens by the people who are heading or representing the independent institutions created by the constitution such as judiciary, legislature, executive, etc. When one or more institutions are failing in their duty, the remaining shall normally take the lead in correcting the situation by using checks and balances as per the provisions available in the constitution.
Generally most Acts will come into force, or become legally enforceable in a manner as prescribed in the Act itself. Either it would come into effect from the date of assent by the President (mostly in case of Ordinances which is later approved by the Parliament), or a specific date is mentioned in the Act itself (mostly in case of Finance Bills) or on a date as per the wish of the Central or the State Government as the case may be. In case the commencement of the Act is as made as per the wish of the government, a separate Gazette notification is made, which is mostly accompanied by the Rules or subordinate legislation in another gazette notification.
Bills which exclusively contain provisions for imposition and abolition of taxes, for appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund, etc., are certified as Money Bills by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Money Bills can be introduced only in Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President per Articles 109, 110 and 117. For every fiscal year, the annual budget or annual financial statement with demand for grants on the recommendation of the President per Articles 112 to 116 shall be passed by the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha can not make amendments to a Money Bill passed by the Lok Sabha and sent to it. It can, however, recommend amendments in a Money Bill, but must return all Money Bills to Lok Sabha within fourteen days from the date of their receipt. The Lok Sabha can choose to accept or reject any or all of the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha with regard to a Money Bill. If Lok Sabha accepts any of the recommendations of Rajya Sabha, the Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses with amendments recommended by Rajya Sabha and accepted by Lok Sabha. If Lok Sabha does not accept any of the recommendations of Rajya Sabha, the Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by Lok Sabha without any of the amendments recommended by Rajya Sabha. If a Money Bill passed by Lok Sabha and transmitted to Rajya Sabha for its recommendations is not returned to Lok Sabha within the said period of fourteen days, it is deemed to have been passed by both Houses at the expiration of the said period in the form in which it was passed by Lok Sabha. When a money bill introduced in the Lok Sabha by the government fails to get its approval, the ruling party is treated as not commanding the majority support in the Lok Sabha or shall be dismissed by the president to pave way for new government / fresh elections or opposition would move no confidence motion.
At state level also money bills shall be introduced in the legislative assembly only per Articles 198, 199 and 207 on the recommendation of the governor. When a money bill introduced in the legislative assembly by the state government fails to get its approval, the ruling party is treated as not commanding the majority support in the legislative assembly or shall be dismissed by the governor to pave way for new government / fresh elections or opposition would move no confidence motion.
When both houses of parliament are not in session, extant provisions of law are felt inadequate, under compelling circumstances and the president is satisfied for the need of immediate action, he / she may promulgate such required ordinances under Article 123 of the constitution. An ordinance has same force and effect as an ' act of parliament '. Every ordinance shall cease to operate if not passed by the parliament before the expiration of six weeks from its reassembly. President shall not issue any ordinance which needs amendment to the constitution or violating the constitution. When state assembly is not in session, governor of a state can issue ordinances per Article 213 subject to the approval of the president in case required so.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir was accorded higher degree of federalism under Article 370 read with Appendix I (The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954) of the Indian constitution. Matters related to Defence, Foreign relations and Communication of Jammu and Kashmir are under jurisdiction of union government. The laws enacted by the parliament (including amendments to the Indian constitution) applicable to rest of India are not valid in J&K state unless ratified by its state assembly. Government of India can declare emergency in Jammu and Kashmir and impose Governor 's rule in certain conditions. The state has its own constitution other than applicable Indian constitution. Part XII of the J&K state constitution makes provision to amend its constitution with two thirds majority by the state assembly. Part VI (The states) and Part XIV (Services under the union and the states) of the Indian constitution is not applicable to J&K state per Article 152 and Article 308.
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is there a nuclear power plant in indiana | Category: Nuclear power plants in Indiana - wikipedia Help
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who were the iroquois and why were they important | Iroquois - wikipedia
The Iroquois (/ ˈɪrəkwɔɪ / or / ˈɪrəkwɑː /) or Haudenosaunee (/ ˈhoʊdənoʊˈʃoʊni /) are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the "Iroquois League '', and later as the "Iroquois Confederacy '', and to the English as the "Five Nations '' (before 1722), and later as the "Six Nations '', comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora peoples.
The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, and by offering shelter to displaced peoples.
The historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot (Huron), and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In the larger sense of linguistic families, they are often considered Iroquoian peoples because of their similar languages and cultures, all culturally and linguistically descended from the Proto - Iroquoian people and language; however, they were traditionally enemies of the nations in the Iroquois League.
In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and about 80,000 in the United States.
The most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, where it occurs as "Irocois ''. Other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include "Erocoise '', "Hiroquois '', "Hyroquoise '', "Irecoies '', "Iriquois '', "Iroquaes '', "Irroquois '', and "Yroquois ''. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as (irokwe) or (irokwɛ). Over the years, several competing theories have been proposed for this name 's ultimate origin -- the earliest such proposal is by the Jesuit priest Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, who wrote in 1744:
The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the term Hiro or Hero, which means I have said -- with which these Indians close all their addresses, as the Latins did of old with their dixi -- and of Koué, which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter.
In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, and that "no other nation or tribe of which we have any knowledge has ever borne a name composed in this whimsical fashion ''. Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa "they who smoke '' or Cayuga iakwai "a bear ''. J.N.B. Hewitt responded to Hale 's etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages. His preferred etymology at the time was from Montagnais irin "true, real '' and ako "snake '', plus the French - ois suffix, though he later revised his theory to state that the source was Algonquin Irinakhoiw. However, none of these etymologies gained widespread acceptance, and by 1978 Ives Goddard could write: "No such form is attested in any Indian language as a name for any Iroquoian group, and the ultimate origin and meaning of the name are unknown. ''
A more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning "terrible man '', via the reduced form irokue. Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning "a man, an Iroquois '', as the origin of this term. For the first element irno, Day cites cognates from other attested Montagnais dialects: irinou, iriniȣ, and ilnu; and for the second element kwédač he suggests a relation to kouetakiou, kȣetat - chiȣin, and goéṭètjg -- names used by neighboring Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois, Hurons, and Laurentians.
More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for "Iroquois ''. Basque fishermen and whalers are known to have frequented the waters of the Northeast in the 1500s, so much so that a Basque - based pidgin developed for communication with the Algonquian tribes of the region. Bakker claims that it is unlikely that "- quois '' derives from a root specifically used to refer to the Iroquois, citing as evidence that several other Indian tribes of the region were known to the French by names terminating in the same element, e.g. "Armouchiquois '', "Charioquois '', "Excomminquois '', and "Souriquois ''. He proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa (via the intermediate form irokoa), from the Basque roots hil "to kill '', ko (the locative genitive suffix), and a (the definite article suffix). In favor of an original form beginning with / h /, Bakker cites alternate spellings such as "hyroquois '' sometimes found in documents from the period, and the fact that in the Southern dialect of Basque the word hil is pronounced il. He also argues that the / l / was rendered as / r / since the former is not attested in the phonemic inventory of any language in the region (including Maliseet, which developed an / l / later). Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as "the killer people '', and is similar to other terms used by Eastern Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois which translate as "murderers ''.
A different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also occasionally preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name "Iroquois '' to be derogatory in origin. This name derives from two phonetically - similar but etymologically - distinct words in the Seneca language: Hodínöhšö: ni: h, meaning "those of the extended house, '' and Hodínöhsö: ni: h, meaning "house builders ''. The name "Haudenosaunee '' first appears in English in Lewis Henry Morgan (1851), where it is written as Ho - dé - no - sau - nee, although the spelling "Hotinnonsionni '' is also attested from later in the nineteenth century. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is occasionally encountered as well. This term derives from the Mohawk kanǫhsyǫ́ ni ("the extended house ''), or from a cognate expression is a related Iroquoian language, and is frequently encountered in earlier sources variously spelled "Kanosoni '', "akwanoschioni '', "Aquanuschioni '', "Cannassoone '', "Canossoone '', "Ke - nunctioni '', or "Konossioni ''. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also often referred to simply as the Six Nations (or, for the period before the entry of the Tuscarora in 1722, the Five Nations). The word is Rotinonsionni in the Mohawk language.
The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace ''. Each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present - day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes and down both sides of the Allegheny mountains into present - day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley.
The League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations.
The original Iroquois League (as the French knew them) or Five Nations (as the British knew them), occupied large areas of present - day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River, and south into northwestern Pennsylvania. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. In or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo - European settlement. Also an Iroquoian - speaking people, the Tuscarora were accepted into what became the Six Nations.
Other Iroquoian - speaking peoples, such as the Erie, Susquehannock, Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot, lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River, and around the Great Lakes. In the American Southeast, the Cherokee were an Iroquoian - language people who had migrated to that area centuries before European contact. None of these were part of the Haudenosaunee. Those on the borders of their territory in the Great Lakes region competed and warred with the Haudenosaunee.
The Iroquois and most Iroquoian peoples have a matrilineal kinship system; with descent and inheritance passing through the maternal lines, children are considered born into their mother 's clan and take their social status from her family. The clan mothers, the elder women of each clan, are highly respected. The women elders nominate the chief for life from the clan, and own the symbols of his office.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as Central New York west of the Hudson River and through the Finger Lakes region, and upstate New York along the St. Lawrence River area downstream to today 's Montreal.
French, Dutch and British colonists in both Canada and the Thirteen Colonies recognized a need to gain favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of lands west of colonial settlements. In addition, these peoples established lucrative fur trading with the Iroquois, which was favorable to both sides. The colonists also sought to establish positive relations to secure their borders.
For nearly 200 years the Iroquois were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy - making decisions. Alignment with Iroquois offered political and strategic advantages to the colonies but the Iroquois preserved considerable independence. Some of their people settled in mission villages along the St. Lawrence River, becoming more closely tied to the French. While they participated in French raids on Dutch and later English settlements, where some Mohawk and other Iroquois settled, in general the Iroquois resisted attacking their own peoples.
The Iroquois remained a politically unique, undivided, large Native American polity up until the American Revolution. The League kept its treaty promises to the British Crown. But when the British were defeated, they ceded the Iroquois territory without consultation; many Iroquois had to abandon their lands in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere and relocate in the northern lands retained by the British.
The Iroquois League has also been known as the "Iroquois Confederacy ''. Modern scholars distinguish between the League and the Confederacy. According to this interpretation of the scholars, the Iroquois League refers to the ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in the Grand Council, while the Iroquois Confederacy is the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization. According to that theory, "The League '' still exists. The Confederacy dissolved after the defeat of the British and allied Iroquois nations in the American Revolutionary War. Today 's Iroquois / Six Nations people do not make any distinction between "The League '' and "the Confederacy '' and use the terms interchangeably.
After the defeat of the British and their Iroquois allies in the American Revolutionary War, Britain ceded most of the Iroquois territory, without bringing their allies to the negotiating table. Many of the Iroquois migrated to Canada, forced out of New York because of hostility to the British allies. Those remaining in New York were required to live mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois had to confront 240,000 New Yorkers, with land - hungry New Englanders poised to migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush waiting to happen. ''
In addition to the major cessions of Iroquois land, the Oneida and others who gained reservations in New York faced increasing pressures for their lands. By the War of 1812, they had lost control of considerable property.
Knowledge of Iroquois history stems from Haudenosaunee oral tradition, archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott Stevens credits the early modern European value for the written word over oral tradition and cultures as contributing to a prejudiced, racialized element within writings about the Iroquois that continued into the 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois people is therefore a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period.
Jesuit accounts of the Iroquois portrayed them as savages because of comparisons to French culture; the Jesuits perceived them to lack government, law, letters, and religion. A major problem with contemporary European sources, both French and British, from the 17th and 18th centuries, was that Europeans, coming from a patriarchal society, did not understand the matriarchal nature of Iroquois society. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod writing about the relationship between the Canadian Iroquois and the French in the time of the Seven Years ' War wrote: "Most critically, the importance of clan mothers, who possessed considerable economic and political power within Canadian Iroquois communities, was blithely overlooked by patriarchal European scribes. Those references that do exist, show clan mothers meeting in council with their male counterparts to take decisions regarding war and peace and joining in delegations to confront the Onontio (the Iroquois term for the French governor - general) and the French leadership in Montreal, but only hint at the real influence wielded by these women ''. Eighteenth - century English historiography focuses on the diplomatic relations with the Iroquois, with visualizations such as John Verelst 's Four Mohawk Kings and publications such as the Anglo - Iroquoian treaty proceedings printed by Benjamin Franklin. One historical narrative persistent in the 19th and 20th centuries casts the Iroquois as "an expansive military and political power... (who) subjugated their enemies by violent force and for almost two centuries acted as the fulcrum in the balance of power in colonial North America ''. Historian Scott Stevens noted that the Iroquois also began to influence the writing of their history in the 19th century, including the Mohawk Joseph Brant, and Tuscarora David Cusick. Seneca John Arthur Gibson (1850 -- 1912) was an important figure of his generation in rendering versions of Iroquois history in epics on the Peacemaker. Notable women historians among the Iroquois emerged in the following decades, including Laura "Minnie '' Kellog (Oneida, 1880 -- 1949) and Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca, 1901 -- 1964).
The Iroquois League was established prior to European contact, with the banding together of five of the many Iroquoian peoples who 'd originated ' to the south '. Reliable sources link the origins of the Iroquois confederacy to 1142 and an agricultural shift when corn was adopted as a staple crop. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed about 1450. Arguments have been made for an earlier date.
One theory argues that the League formed shortly after a solar eclipse on August 31, 1142, an event thought to be expressed in oral tradition about the League 's origins.
Anthropologist Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a date earlier than 1450, and that recent claims for a much earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes ''. In contrast, other scholars note that when anthropological studies were made, only male informants were consulted, even though the Iroquois people had distinct oral traditions held by males and females, thus excluding half of the historical story which was told by women. For this reason, origin tales tend to emphasize Deganawidah and Hiawatha while the role of Jigonsaseh largely remains unknown because this part of the oral history was held by women.
According to oral traditions, the League was formed through the efforts of two men and one woman. They were Dekanawida, sometimes known as the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonhsasee, known as the Mother of Nations, whose home acted as a sort of United Nations. They brought the Peacemaker 's message, known as the Great Law of Peace, to the squabbling Iroquoian nations, who were fighting, raiding and feuding with one another and other tribes, both Algonkians and Iroquoian people. There were originally only five nations that joined themselves into the League giving rise to the many historic references of Five Nations of the Iroquois or as often, just The Five Nations. With the addition of the southern Tuscarora in the 17th century, these original five tribes are the others which still compose it today: the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca. There were as many, and likely a few more tribal peoples including the populous Wyandot (Huron) with Iroquoian language, social organization, and cultures that were to later go extinct as tribes which did not join the league when invited after the decades over which the multiple bloodlettings of the Beaver Wars, and the various colonial frontier wars with the Indians, through the French and Indian War. After the end of the later, which was in effect a civil war between Iroquois who 'd backed both sides,
According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He was offered the position as the titular chair of the League 's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present - day Syracuse, New York. The title Tadodaho is still used for the League 's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council.
With the formation of the League, the impact of internal conflicts was minimized, the council of fifty thereafter ruled on disputes, displacing raiding traditions and most of the impulsive actions by hotheaded warriors onto surrounding peoples. This allowed the Iroquois to increase in numbers while pushing down rival nations ' numbers. The political cohesion of the Iroquois rapidly became one of the strongest forces in 17th - and 18th - century northeastern North America; though only occasionally used as representations of all five tribes until about 1678, when negotiations between the governments of Pennsylvania and New York seemed to awake the power. Thereafter, the editors of American Heritage write the Iroquois became very adroit at playing the French off against the British, as individual tribes had played the Swedes, Dutch, and English. The editors of American Heritage magazine suggest the Iroquois spokesmen were politically sophisticated, and as manipulative as many a modern politician.
As has been noted above, there were peoples who spoke languages in the same linguistic family, but who were not part of the League of whom it is known were culturally similar including reputations of being as fierce, as territorial -- yet before the Beaver Wars, were known to co-exist in societies which more often than not, were at peace and conducting trade with the Iroquois when the French and Dutch first explored, conducted maritime fur trading and first settled North America. The explorer Robert La Salle in the 17th century identified the Mosopelea as among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s, whereas the Erie and peoples of the upper Allegheny valley were known to have fallen earlier during the Beaver Wars, while by 1676 the Susquehannock were known to be broken as a power between three years of epidemic disease, war with the Iroquois, and frontier battles as settlers took advantage of the weakened tribe.
According to one theory of early Iroquois history, after becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the Ohio River Valley in the territories that would become the eastern Ohio Country down as far as present - day Kentucky to seek additional hunting grounds. They displaced about 1200 Siouan - speaking tribepeople of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea), Ofo (Mosopelea), and Tutelo and other closely related tribes out of the region. These tribes migrated to regions around the Mississippi River and the piedmont regions of the east coast.
In Reflections in Bullough 's Pond, historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn / beans / squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest. The People of the Confederacy dispute whether any of this historical interpretation relates to the League of the Great Peace which they contend is the foundation of their heritage.
The Iroquois may be the Kwedech described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies -- the Kwedech -- westward across New Brunswick, and finally out of the Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last - conquered land Gespedeg or "last land, '' from which the French derived Gaspé. The "Kwedech '' are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring c. 1535 -- 1600.
Around 1535, Jacques Cartier reported Iroquoian - speaking groups on the Gaspé peninsula and along the St. Lawrence River. Archeologists and anthropologists have defined the St. Lawrence Iroquoians as a distinct and separate group (and possibly several discrete groups), living in the villages of Hochelaga and others nearby (near present - day Montreal), which had been visited by Cartier. By 1608, when Samuel de Champlain visited the area, that part of the St. Lawrence River valley had no settlements, but was controlled by the Mohawk as a hunting ground. On the Gaspé peninsula, Champlain encountered Algonquian - speaking groups. The precise identity of any of these groups is still debated.
The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th - century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the Massawomeck, and to the French as the Antouhonoron. They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the Massawomeck / Antouhonoron as the Haudenosaunee. Other Iroquoian - language tribes included the Erie, who were destroyed by the Iroquois in 1654 over competition for the fur trade.
Between 1665 and 1670, the Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present - day Ontario, collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord '' villages. The villages were all abandoned by 1701.
Over the years 1670 -- 1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present - day West Virginia and Kentucky. As a result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan - speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest. They finally sold the British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in a decades - long series of wars, the so - called Beaver Wars, against the French, their Huron allies, and other neighboring tribes, including the Petun, Erie, and Susquehannock. Trying to control access to game for the lucrative fur trade, they put great pressure on the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast (the Lenape or Delaware), the Anishinaabe peoples of the boreal Canadian Shield region, and not infrequently fought the English colonies as well. During the Beaver Wars, they were said to have defeated and assimilated the Huron (1649), Petun (1650), the Neutral Nation (1651), Erie Tribe (1657), and Susquehannock (1680). The traditional view is that these wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade in order to access European goods on which they had become dependent.
Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the Beaver Wars were an escalation of the "Mourning Wars '', which were an integral part of early Iroquoian culture. This view suggests that the Iroquois launched large - scale attacks against neighboring tribes in order to avenge or replace the massive number of deaths resulting from battles or smallpox epidemics.
In 1628, the Mohawk defeated the Mahican to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange (present - day Albany), New Netherland. The Mohawk would not allow northern native peoples to trade with the Dutch. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Huron, Algonquin, and French.
In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte - Marie among the Hurons went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the fragile peace of the time. Mohawk attitudes toward the peace soured while the Jesuits were traveling, and their warriors attacked the party en route. The missionaries were taken to the village of Ossernenon (near present - day Auriesville, New York), where the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans recommended setting the priests free. Angered, members of the Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande, and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The Catholic Church has commemorated the two French priests and Jesuit lay Brother René Goupil (killed 29 September 1642) as among the eight North American Martyrs.
In 1649 during the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois used recently purchased Dutch guns to attack the Huron, who were allied with the French. These attacks, primarily against the Huron towns of Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace) and St. Louis in Michigan, were the final battles that effectively destroyed the Huron Confederacy. From 1651 to 1652, the Iroquois attacked the Susquehannock, located to their south in present - day Pennsylvania, without sustained success.
In the early 17th century, the Iroquois Confederacy was at the height of its power, with a total population of about 12,000 people. In 1653 the Onondaga Nation extended a peace invitation to New France. An expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie de Ganentaa in 1656 in their territory. The Jesuits were forced to abandon the mission by 1658 as hostilities resumed, possibly because of the sudden death of 500 native people from an epidemic of smallpox, a European infectious disease to which they had no immunity.
From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Lenape and Province of Maryland allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River. Smallpox struck again, and through the effects of disease, famine, and war, the Iroquois were under threat of extinction. In 1664, an Oneida party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.
In 1665, three of the Five Nations made peace with the French. The following year, the Canadian Governor sent the Carignan regiment under Marquis de Tracy to confront the Mohawk and the Oneida. The Mohawk avoided battle, but the French burned their villages and crops. In 1667, the remaining two Iroquois Nations signed a peace treaty with the French and agreed to allow their missionaries to visit their villages. This treaty lasted for 17 years.
Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan - speaking Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region. They began to claim ownership of the territory by right of conquest. In 1672, the Iroquois were defeated by a war party of Susquehannock. The Iroquois appealed to the French for support and asked Governor Frontenac to assist them against the Susquehannock.
It would be a shame for him to allow his children to be crushed, as they saw themselves to be... they not having the means of going to attack their fort, which was very strong, nor even of defending themselves if the others came to attack them in their villages.
Some old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock during this time period. As no record of a defeat has been found, historians have concluded that no defeat occurred. In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Iroquoian - speaking Susquehannock into their nation. In January 1676, the Governor of New York colony, Edmund Andos, sent a letter to the chiefs of the Iroquois asking for their help in King Philip 's War as the English colonists in New England were having much difficulty fighting the Wampanoag under the leadership of Metacom. In exchange for guns from the English, which the Iroquois greatly valued, an Iroquois war party launched a devastating raid on the Wampanoag in February 1676, destroying villages and with them, supplies of food while taking many prisoners.
By 1677, the Iroquois formed an alliance with the English through an agreement known as the Covenant Chain. By 1680, the Iroquois Confederacy was in a strong position, having eliminated the Susquehannock and the Wampanoag, taken vast number of captives to increase the size of their population, and had secured an alliance with the English that guaranteed supplies of guns and ammunition. Together the allies battled to a standstill the French, who were allied with the Huron. These Iroquoian people had been a traditional and historic foe of the Confederacy. The Iroquois colonized the northern shore of Lake Ontario and sent raiding parties westward all the way to Illinois Country. The tribes of Illinois were eventually defeated, not by the Iroquois, but by the Potawatomi.
In 1679, the Susquehannock, with Iroquois help, attacked Maryland 's Piscataway and Mattawoman allies. Peace was not reached until 1685. During the same period, French Jesuit missionaries were active in Iroquoia, which led to a voluntary mass relocation of many Haudenosaunee to the St. Lawrence valley at Kahnawake and Kanesatake near Montreal. It was the intention of the French to use the Catholic Haudenosaunee in the St. Lawrence valley as a buffer to keep the Haudenosaunee allied with the English living in what is now upstate New York away from Montreal, the center of the French fur trade. The attempts of both the English and the French to use their Haudenosaunee allies for their own purposes were foiled as the two groups of Haudenosaunee showed a "profound reluctance to kill one another ''. Following the move of the Catholic Iroquois to the St. Lawrence valley, historians commonly describe the Iroquois living outside of Montreal as the Canadian Iroquois while the Iroquois who remained in the historical heartland of Iroquoia in modern upstate New York are described as the League Iroquois.
In 1684, the governor of New France, Joseph - Antoine Le Febvre de La Barre, decided to launch a putative expedition against the Seneca, who were attacking French and Algonquian fur traders in the Mississippi river valley, and asked for the Catholic Haudenosaunee to contribute men for his expedition. La Barre 's expedition ended in fiasco in September 1684 when influenza broke out among the troupes de la Marine while the Canadian Iroquois warriors refused to fight, instead only engaging in verbal battles as they exchanged insults with the Seneca warriors. King Louis XIV of France was not amused when he heard of La Barre 's failure, which led him to sack La Barre as governor of New France, and sent as his replacement, the marquis de Denonville, who arrived in August 1685 as the new governor of New France with orders from the king to crush the Haudenosaunee confederacy. The Sun King had instructed Denonville to ensure that the "grandeur '' of France be respected even in the most remotest woods of North America.
In 1684, the Iroquois invaded Virginia and Illinois territory again and unsuccessfully attacked French outposts in the latter. Trying to reduce warfare in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, later that year, the Virginia Colony agreed in a conference at Albany to recognize the Iroquois ' right to use the North - South path, known as the Great Warpath, running east of the Blue Ridge, provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the Fall Line.
In 1687, Jacques - René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, Governor of New France from 1685 to 1689, set out for Fort Frontenac (modern Kingston) with a well - organized force. In July 1687 Denonville took with him on his expedition a mixed force of troupes de la Marine, French - Canadian militiamen, and 353 Indian warriors from the Jesuit mission settlements, of which 220 were Haudenosaunee. They met with 50 hereditary sachems from the Onondaga council fire, who came under a flag of truce in what on the north shore of Lake Ontario in what is now southern Ontario. Denonville recaptured the fort for New France and seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois chiefs to Marseilles, France, to be used as galley slaves. Several of the Catholic Haudenosaunee were outraged at the way in which French enslaved a diplomatic party that had come under the flag of truce and had enslaved all of the Cayuga people living in several villages on the north shore of Lake Ontario, which led to least 100 of them to desert to the Seneca. Denonville justified enslaving the people he encountered, saying that as an "civilized European '' he did not respect the customs of "savages '' and would do as he liked with them. On 13 August 1687, an advance party of French soldiers walked into a Seneca ambush and were nearly killed to a man; however the Seneca had mistaken the advance party for the main French force and fled when the main French force came up. The remaining Catholic Haudenosaunee warriors refused orders from Dennoville to pursue the retreating Seneca.
Denonville ravaged the land of the Seneca, landing a French armada at Irondequoit Bay, striking straight into the seat of Seneca power, and destroying many of its villages. Fleeing before the attack, the Seneca moved farther west, east and south down the Susquehanna River. Although great damage was done to the Seneca homeland, the Senecas ' military might was not appreciably weakened. The Confederacy and the Seneca developed an alliance with the English who were settling in the east. The destruction of the Seneca land infuriated the members of the Iroquois Confederacy. On August 4, 1689, they retaliated by burning to the ground Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defenses for many months prior to that.
They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac, who succeeded Denonville as Governor for the next nine years (1689 -- 1698). Frontenac had been arranging a new plan of attack to lessen the effects of the Iroquois in North America. Realizing the danger of continuing to hold the sachems, he located the 13 surviving leaders of the 50 originally taken and returned with them to New France in October 1689.
In 1696, Frontenac decided to take the field against the Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy - six years of age. On July 6, he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force and traveled to the village of the Onondaga, where he arrived a month later. With support from the French, the Algonquian nations drove the Iroquois out of the territories north of Lake Erie and west of present - day Cleveland, Ohio, regions which they had conquered during the Beaver Wars. In the meantime, the Iroquois had abandoned their villages. As pursuit was impracticable, the French army commenced its return march on August 10. Under Frontenac 's leadership, the Canadian militia became increasingly adept at guerrilla warfare, taking the war into Iroquois territory and attacking a number of English settlements. The Iroquois never threatened the French colony again.
During King William 's War (North American part of the War of the Grand Alliance), the Iroquois were allied with the English. In July 1701, they concluded the "Nanfan Treaty '', deeding the English a large tract north of the Ohio River. The Iroquois claimed to have conquered this territory 80 years earlier. France did not recognize the validity of the treaty, as it had settlements in the territory at that time and the English had virtually none. Meanwhile, the Iroquois were negotiating peace with the French; together they signed the Great Peace of Montreal that same year.
After the 1701 peace treaty with the French, the Iroquois remained mostly neutral. During the course of the 17th century, the Iroquois had acquired a fearsome reputation among the Europeans, and it was the policy of the Six Nations to use this reputation to play off the French against the British in order to extract the maximum amount of material rewards. In 1689, the English Crown provided the Six Nations goods worth £ 100 pounds in exchange for help against the French, in the year 1693 the Iroquois had received goods worth £ 600 pounds, and in the year 1701 the Six Nations had received goods worth £ 800 pounds.
During Queen Anne 's War (North American part of the War of the Spanish Succession), they were involved in planned attacks against the French. Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, arranged for three Mohawk chiefs and a Mahican chief (known incorrectly as the Four Mohawk Kings) to travel to London in 1710 to meet with Queen Anne in an effort to seal an alliance with the British. Queen Anne was so impressed by her visitors that she commissioned their portraits by court painter John Verelst. The portraits are believed to be the earliest surviving oil portraits of Aboriginal peoples taken from life.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, the Iroquoian - speaking Tuscarora fled north from the pressure of British colonization of North Carolina and intertribal warfare; they had been subject to having captives sold into Indian slavery. They petitioned to become the sixth nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. This was a non-voting position, but they gained the protection of the Haudenosaunee.
The Iroquois program toward the defeated tribes favored assimilation within the ' Covenant Chain ' and Great Law of Peace, over wholesale slaughter. Both the Lenni Lenape, and the Shawnee were briefly tributary to the Six Nations, while subjected Iroquoian populations emerged in the next period as the Mingo, speaking a dialect like that of the Seneca, in the Ohio region.
In 1721 and 1722, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia concluded a new Treaty at Albany with the Iroquois, renewing the Covenant Chain and agreeing to recognize the Blue Ridge as the demarcation between Virginia Colony and the Iroquois. But, as European settlers began to move beyond the Blue Ridge and into the Shenandoah Valley in the 1730s, the Iroquois objected. Virginia officials told them that the demarcation was to prevent the Iroquois from trespassing east of the Blue Ridge, but it did not prevent English from expanding west. Tensions increased over the next decades, and the Iroquois were on the verge of going to war with the Virginia Colony. In 1743, Governor Gooch paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the Valley that was claimed by the Iroquois. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold Virginia all their remaining claims in the Shenandoah Valley for 200 pounds in gold.
During the French and Indian War (the North American frontier of the Seven Years ' War), the League Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquian allies, who were traditional enemies. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Few Iroquois warriors joined the campaign. By contrast, the Canadian Iroquois supported the French.
In February 1756, the French learned from a spy, Ou8tatory, an Oneida chief, that a British were stockpiling supplies at the Oneida Carrying Place, a crucial portage between Albany and Oswego to support an offensive in the spring into what is now Ontario. As the frozen waters melted south of Lake Ontario on average two weeks before the waters did north of Lake Ontario, the British would be able to move against the French bases at Fort Frontenac and Fort Niagara before the French forces in Montreal could come to their relief, which from the French perspective necessitated a preventive strike at the Oneida Carrying Place in the winter. To carry out this strike, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the Governor - General of New France, assigned the task to Gaspard - Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, an officer of the troupes de le Marine, who required and received the assistance of the Canadian Iroquois to guide him to the Oneida Carrying Place. The Canadian Iroquois joined the expedition, which left Montreal on 29 February 1756 on the understanding that they would only fight against the British, not the League Iroquois, and they would not be assaulting a fort.
On 13 March 1756, an Oswegatchie Indian traveler informed the expedition that the British had built two forts at the Oneida Carrying Place, which caused the majority of the Canadian Iroquois to want to turn back, as they argued the risks of assaulting a fort would mean too many casualties, and many did in fact abandon the expedition. On 26 March 1756, Léry 's force of troupes de le Marine and French - Canadian militiamen, who had not eaten for two days, received much needed food when the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a British wagon train bringing supplies to Fort William and Fort Bull. As far as the Canadian Iroquois were concerned, the raid was a success as they captured 9 wagons full of supplies and taken 10 prisoners without losing a man, and for them, engaging in a frontal attack against the two wooden forts as Léry wanted to do was irrational. The Canadian Iroquois informed Léry "if I absolutely wanted to die, I was the master of the French, but they were not going to follow me ''. In the end, about 30 Canadian Iroquois reluctantly joined Léry 's attack on Fort Bull on the morning of 27 March 1756, when the French and their Indian allies stormed the fort, finally smashing their way in through the main gate with a battering ram at noon. Of the 63 people in Fort Bull, half of whom were civilians, only 3 soldiers, one carpenter and one woman survived the Battle of Fort Bull as Léry reported "I could not restrain the ardor of the soldiers and the Canadians. They killed everyone they encountered ''. Afterwards, the French destroyed all of the British supplies and Fort Bull itself, which secured the western flank of New France. At the same day, the main force of the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a relief force from Fort William coming to the aid of Fort Bull, and did not slaughter their prisoners as the French did at Fort Bull; for the Iroquois, prisoners were very valuable as they increased the size of the tribe.
The crucial difference between the European and First Nations way of war was that Europe had millions of people, which meant that British and French generals were willing to see thousands of their own men die in battle in order to secure victory as their losses could always be made good; by contrast, the Iroquois had a considerably smaller population, and could not afford heavy losses, which could cripple a community. The Iroquois custom of "Mourning wars '' to take captives who would become Iroquois reflected the continual need for more people in the Iroquois communities. Iroquois warriors were brave, but would only fight to the death if necessary, usually to protect their women and children; otherwise, the crucial concern for Iroquois chiefs was always to save manpower. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote that the Iroquois way of war was based on their hunting philosophy, where a successful hunter would bring down an animal efficiently without taking any losses to his hunting party, and in the same way, a successful war leader would inflict losses on the enemy without taking any losses in return.
In the Battle of Lake George, a group of Catholic Mohawk (from Kahnawake) and French forces ambushed a Mohawk - led British column; the Mohawk were deeply disturbed as they had created their confederacy for peace among the peoples and had not had warfare against each other.
After the war, to protect their alliance, the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, forbidding Anglo - European (white) settlements beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists largely ignored the order, and the British had insufficient soldiers to enforce it.
Faced with confrontations, the Iroquois agreed to adjust the line again in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768). Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern District, had called the Iroquois nations together in a grand conference in western New York, which a total of 3,102 Indians attended. They had long had good relations with Johnson, who had traded with them and learned their languages and customs. As Alan Taylor noted in his history, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (2006), the Iroquois were creative and strategic thinkers. They chose to sell to the British Crown all their remaining claim to the lands between the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, which they did not occupy, hoping by doing so to draw off English pressure on their territories in the Province of New York.
During the American Revolution, the Iroquois first tried to stay neutral. Pressed to join one side or the other, the Tuscarora and the Oneida sided with the colonists, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain, with whom they had stronger relationships. Joseph Louis Cook offered his services to the United States and received a Congressional commission as a lieutenant colonel -- the highest rank held by any Native American during the war.
The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant, other war chiefs, and British allies conducted numerous operations against frontier settlements in the Mohawk Valley, including the Cherry Valley massacre, destroying many villages and crops, and killing and capturing inhabitants. The Continentals retaliated and in 1779, George Washington ordered the Sullivan Campaign, led by Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan, against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overrun, but destroy '', the British - Indian alliance. They burned many Iroquois villages and stores throughout western New York; refugees moved north to Canada. By the end of the war, few houses and barns in the valley had survived the warfare.
The American Revolution was a war that caused a great divide amongst the colonists between Patriots and Loyalists; it caused a divide between the colonies and Great Britain, and it also caused a rift that would break the Iroquois Confederacy. At the onset of the Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy 's Six Nations attempted to take a stance of neutrality. However, almost inevitably, the Iroquois nations eventually had to take sides in the conflict. It is easy to see how the American Revolution would have caused conflict and confusion among the Six Nations. For years they had been used to thinking about the English and their colonists as one and the same people. In the American Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy now had to deal with relationships between two governments.
The Iroquois Confederation 's population had changed significantly since the arrival of Europeans. Disease had reduced their population to a fraction of what it had been in the past. Therefore, it was in their best interest to be on the good side of whoever would prove to be the winning side in the war, for the winning side would dictate how future relationships would be with the Iroquois in North America. Dealing with two governments made it hard to maintain a neutral stance, because the governments could get jealous easily if the Confederacy was interacting or trading more with one side over the other, or even if there was simply a perception of favoritism. Because of this challenging situation, the Six Nations had to choose sides. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the American colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and their Loyalists among the colonists.
There were many reasons that the Six Nations could not remain neutral and uninvolved in the Revolutionary War. One of these is simple proximity; the Iroquois Confederacy was too close to the action of the war to not be involved. The Six Nations were very discontented with the encroachment of the English and their colonists upon their land. They were particularly concerned with the border established in the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768.
During the American Revolution, the authority of the British government over the frontier was highly contested. The colonists tried to take advantage of this as much as possible by seeking their own profit and claiming new land. In 1775, the Six Nations were still neutral when "a Mohawk person was killed by a Continental soldier ''. Such a case shows how the Six Nations ' proximity to the war drew them into it. They were concerned about being killed, and about their lands being taken from them. They could not show weakness and simply let the colonists and British do whatever they wanted. Many of the English and colonists did not respect the treaties made in the past. "A number of His Majesty 's subjects in the American colonies viewed the proclamation as a temporary prohibition which would soon give way to the opening of the area for settlement... and that it was simply an agreement to quiet the minds of the Indians ''. The Six Nations had to take a stand to show that they would not accept such treatment, and they looked to build a relationship with a government that would respect their territory.
In addition to being in close proximity to the war, the new lifestyle and economics of the Iroquois Confederacy since the arrival of the Europeans in North America made it nearly impossible for the Iroquois to isolate themselves from the conflict. By this time, the Iroquois had become dependent upon the trade of goods from the English and colonists, and had adopted many European customs, tools, and weapons. For example, they were increasingly dependent on firearms for hunting. After becoming so reliant, it would have been hard to even consider cutting off trade that brought goods that were a central part of everyday life.
As Barbara Graymont stated, "Their task was an impossible one to maintain neutrality. Their economies and lives had become so dependent on each other for trading goods and benefits it was impossible to ignore the conflict. Meanwhile they had to try and balance their interactions with both groups. They did not want to seem as they were favoring one group over the other, because of sparking jealousy and suspicion from either side ''. Furthermore, the English had made many agreements with the Six Nations over the years, yet most of the Iroquois ' day - to - day interaction had been with the colonists. This made it a confusing situation for the Iroquois because they could not tell who the true heirs of the agreement were, and could n't know if agreements with England would continue to be honored by the colonists if they were to win independence.
Supporting either side in the Revolutionary War was a complicated decision. Each nation individually weighed their options to come up with a final stance that ultimately broke neutrality and ended the collective agreement of the Confederation. The British were clearly the most organized, and seemingly most powerful. In many cases, the British presented the situation to the Iroquois as the colonists just being "naughty children ''. On the other, the Iroquois considered that "the British government was three thousand miles away. This placed them at a disadvantage in attempting to enforce both the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty at Fort Stanwix 1768 against land hungry frontiersmen. '' In other words, even though the British were the strongest and best organized faction, the Six Nations had concerns about whether they would truly be able to enforce their agreements from so far away.
The Iroquois also had concerns about the colonists. The British asked for Iroquois support in the war. "In 1775, the Continental Congress sent a delegation to the Iroquois in Albany to ask for their neutrality in the war coming against the British ''. It had been clear in prior years that the colonists had not been respectful of the land agreements made in 1763 and 1768. The Iroquois Confederacy was particularly concerned over the possibility of the colonists winning the war, for if a revolutionary victory were to occur, the Iroquois very much saw it as the precursor to their lands being taken away by the victorious colonists, who would no longer have the British Crown to restrain them. Continental army officers such as George Washington had attempted to destroy the Iroquois.
On a contrasting note, it was the colonists who had formed the most direct relationships with the Iroquois due to their proximity and trade ties. For the most part, the colonists and Iroquois had lived in relative peace since the English arrival on the continent a century and a half before. The Iroquois had to determine whether their relationships with the colonists were reliable, or whether the English would prove to better serve their interests. They also had to determine whether there were really any differences between how the English and the colonists would treat them.
The war ensued, and the Iroquois broke their confederation. Hundreds of years of precedent and collective government was trumped by the immensity of the American Revolutionary War. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and Loyalists. At the conclusion of the war the fear that the colonists would not respect the Iroquois ' pleas came true, especially after the majority of the Six Nations decided to side with the British and were no longer considered trustworthy by the newly independent Americans. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed. While the treaty included peace agreements between all of the European nations involved in the war as well as the newborn United States, it made no provisions for the Iroquois, who were left to be treated with by the new United States government as it saw fit.
After the Revolutionary War, the ancient central fireplace of the League was re-established at Buffalo Creek. By 1811, Methodist and Episcopalian missionaries established missions to assist the Oneida and Onondaga in western New York. However, white settlers continued to move into the area. By 1821, a group of Oneida led by Eleazar Williams, son of a Mohawk woman, went to Wisconsin to buy land from the Menominee and Ho - Chunk and thus move their people further westward.
Captain Joseph Brant and a group of Iroquois left New York to settle in the Province of Quebec (present - day Ontario). To partially replace the lands they had lost in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere because of their fateful alliance with the British Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River, at Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Brant 's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant 's Ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle nearby and named the village Brantford. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present - day Canadian city at a location still favorable for launching and landing canoes. In the 1830s many additional Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, and Tuscarora relocated into the Indian Territory, the Province of Upper Canada, and Wisconsin.
Many Iroquois (mostly Mohawk) and Iroquois - descended Métis people living in Lower Canada (primarily at Kahnawake) took employment with the Montreal - based North West Company during its existence from 1779 to 1821 and became voyageurs or free traders working in the North American fur trade as far west as the Rocky Mountains. They are known to have settled in the area around Jasper 's House and possibly as far west as the Finlay River and north as far as the Pouce Coupe and Dunvegan areas, where they founded new Aboriginal communities which have persisted to the present day claiming either First Nations or Métis identity and indigenous rights. The Michel Band, Mountain Métis, and Aseniwuche Winewak Nation of Canada in Alberta and the Kelly Lake community in British Columbia all claim Iroquois ancestry.
The complex political environment which emerged in Canada with the Haudenosaunee grew out of the Anglo - American era of European colonization. At the end of the War of 1812, Britain shifted Indian affairs from the military to civilian control. With the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, civil authority, and thus Indian affairs, passed to Canadian officials with Britain retaining control of military and security matters. At the turn of the century, the Canadian government began passing a series of Acts which were strenuously objected to by the Iroquois Confederacy. During World War I, an act attempted to conscript Six Nations men for military service. Under the Soldiers Resettlement Act, legislation was introduced to redistribute native land. Finally in 1920, an Act was proposed to force citizenship on "Indians '' with or without their consent, which would then automatically remove their share of any tribal lands from tribal trust and make the land and the person subject to the laws of Canada.
The Haudenosaunee hired a lawyer to defend their rights in the Supreme Court of Canada. The Supreme Court refused to take the case, declaring that the members of the Six Nations were British citizens. In effect, as Canada was at the time a division of the British government, it was not an international state, as defined by international law. In contrast, the Iroquois Confederacy had been making treaties and functioning as a state since 1643 and all of their treaties had been negotiated with Britain, not Canada. As a result, a decision was made in 1921 to send a delegation to petition the King of England, whereupon Canada 's External Affairs division blocked issuing passports. In response, the Iroquois began issuing their own passports and sent Levi General, the Cayuga Chief "Deskaheh, '' to England with their attorney. Winston Churchill dismissed their complaint claiming that it was within the realm of Canadian jurisdiction and referred them back to Canadian officials.
On 4 December 1922, Charles Stewart, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Superintendent of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs traveled to Brantford to negotiate a settlement on the issues with the Six Nations. After the meeting, the Native delegation brought the offer to the tribal council, as was customary under Haudenosaunee law. The council agreed to accept the offer, but before they could respond, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police conducted a liquor raid on the Iroquois ' Grand River territory. The siege lasted three days and prompted the Haudenosaunee to send Deskaheh to Washington, DC, to meet with the chargé d'affaires of the Netherlands asking the Dutch Queen to sponsor them for membership in the League of Nations. Under pressure from the British, the Netherlands reluctantly refused sponsorship.
Deskaheh and the tribal attorney proceeded to Geneva and attempted to gather support. "On 27 September 1923, delegates representing Estonia, Ireland, Panama and Persia signed a letter asking for communication of the Six Nations ' petition to the League 's assembly, '' but the effort was blocked. Six Nations delegates traveled to the Hague and back to Geneva attempting to gain supporters and recognition, while back in Canada, the government was drafting a mandate to replace the traditional Haudenosaunee Confederacy Council with one that would be elected under the auspices of the Canadian Indian Act. In an unpublicized signing on 17 September 1924, Prime Minister Mackenzie King and Governor - General Lord Byng of Vimy signed the Order in Council, which set elections on the Six Nations reserve for 21 October. Only 26 ballots were cast.
The long - term effect of the Order was that the Canadian government had wrested control over the Haudenosaunee trust funds from the Iroquois Confederation and decades of litigation would follow. In 1979, over 300 Indian chiefs visited London to oppose Patriation of the Canadian Constitution, fearing that their rights to be recognized in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 would be jeopardized. In 1981, hoping again to clarify that judicial responsibilities of treaties signed with Britain were not transferred to Canada, several Alberta Indian chiefs filed a petition with the British High Court of Justice. They lost the case but gained an invitation from the Canadian government to participate in the constitutional discussions which dealt with protection of treaty rights.
In the period between World War II and The Sixties the US government followed a policy of Indian Termination for its Native citizens. In a series of laws, attempting to mainstream tribal people into the greater society, the government strove to end the U.S. government 's recognition of tribal sovereignty, eliminate trusteeship over Indian reservations, and implement state law applicability to native persons. In general the laws were expected to create taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal taxes as well as laws, from which Native people had previously been exempt.
On 13 August 1946 the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79 - 726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five - year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the 5 - year deadline in August, 1951.
On 2 July 1948 Congress enacted (Public Law 881) 62 Stat. 1224, which transferred criminal jurisdiction over offenses committed by and against "Indians '' to the State of New York. It covered all reservations lands within the state and prohibited the deprivation of hunting and fishing rights which may have been guaranteed to "any Indian tribe, band, or community, or members thereof. '' It further prohibited the state from requiring tribal members to obtain fish and game licenses. Within 2 years, Congress passed (Public Law 785) 64 Stat. 845, on 13 September 1950 which extended New York 's authority to civil disputes between Indians or Indians and others within the State. It allowed the tribes to preserve customs, prohibited taxation on reservations, and reaffirmed hunting and fishing rights. It also prohibited the state from enforcing judgments regarding any land disputes or applying any State Laws to tribal lands or claims prior to the effective date of the law 13 September 1952. During congressional hearings on the law, tribes strongly opposed the passage, fearful that states would deprive them of their reservations. The State of New York disavowed any intention to break up or deprive tribes of their reservations and asserted that they did not have the ability to do so.
On 1 August 1953, United States Congress issued a formal statement, House Concurrent Resolution 108, which was the formal policy presentation announcing the official federal policy of Indian termination. The resolution called for the "immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas. '' All federal aid, services, and protection offered to Native people were to cease, and the federal trust relationship and management of reservations would end. Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United States citizens with all the rights, benefits and responsibilities of any other United States citizen. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly identify other tribes who would be ready for termination in the near future.
Beginning in 1953, a Federal task force began meeting with the tribes of the Six Nations. Despite tribal objections, legislation was introduced into Congress for termination. The proposed legislation involved more than 11,000 Indians of the Iroquois Confederation and was divided into two separate bills. One bill dealt with the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes and the other dealt with the Seneca. The arguments the Six Nations made in their hearings with committees were that their treaties showed that the United States recognized that their lands belonged to the Six Nations, not the United States and that "termination contradicted any reasonable interpretation that their lands would not be claimed or their nations disturbed '' by the federal government. The bill for the Iroquois Confederation died in committee without further serious consideration.
On 31 August 1964, H.R. 1794 An Act to authorize payment for certain interests in lands within the Allegheny Indian Reservation in New York was passed by Congress and sent to the president for signature. The bill authorized payment for resettling and rehabilitation of the Seneca Indians who were being dislocated by the construction of the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River. Though only 127 Seneca families (about 500 people) were being dislocated, the legislation benefited the entire Seneca Nation, because the taking of the Indian land for the dam abridged a 1794 treaty agreement. In addition, the bill provided that within three years, a plan from the Interior Secretary should be submitted to Congress withdrawing all federal supervision over the Seneca Nation, though technically civil and criminal jurisdiction had lain with the State of New York since 1950.
Accordingly, on 5 September 1967 a memo from the Department of the Interior announced proposed legislation was being submitted to end federal ties with the Seneca. In 1968 a new liaison was appointed from the BIA for the tribe to assist the tribe in preparing for termination and rehabilitation. The Seneca were able to hold off termination until President Nixon issued his Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs in July 1970. Thus, no New York tribes then living in New York were terminated during this period.
In a twist of fate, one former New York Tribe did lose its federal recognition. The Emigrant Indians of New York included the Oneidas, Stockbridge - Munsee, and Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin. In an effort to fight termination and force the government into recognizing their outstanding land claims from New York, the three tribes filed litigation with the Claims Commission in the 1950s. They won their claim on 11 August 1964. Public Law 90 - 93 81 Stat. 229 Emigrant New York Indians of Wisconsin Judgment Act established federal trusteeship to pay the Oneidas and Stockbridge - Munsee, effectively ending Congressional termination efforts for them. Though the law did not specifically state the Brothertown Indians were terminated, it authorized all payments to be made directly to each enrollee with special provisions for minors to be handled by the Secretary. The payments were not subject to state or federal taxes. Beginning in 1978, the Brothertown Indians submitted a petition to regain federal recognition. In 2012 the Department of the Interior, in the final determination on the Brothertown petition found that Congress had terminated their tribal status when it granted them citizenship in 1838 and therefore only Congress could restore their tribal status. They are still seeking Congressional approval.
For the Haudenosaunee, grief for a loved one who died was a powerful emotion that if not attended would cause all sorts of problems for the grieving who if left without consolation would go mad. Rituals to honor the dead were very important and the most important of all was the Condolence ceremony to provide consolation for those who lost a family member or friend. Since it was believed that the death of a family member also weakened the spiritual strength of the surviving family members, it was considered crucially important to replace the lost family member by providing a substitute who could be adopted or alternatively could be tortured to provide an outlet for the grief. Hence the "mourning wars ''.
One of the central features of traditional Iroquois life was the "mourning wars '' when Haudenosaunee warriors would raid neighboring peoples in search of captives to replace those Haudenosaunee who had died. War for the Haudenosaunee was primarily for captives, and the usual factors that were considered benefits of war for the Europeans like expansion of territory or glory in battle did not count for the Haudeenosaunee, who only cared about taking captives. A successful war party was one that had taken many prisoners without suffering losses in return; killing enemies was considered acceptable if necessary, but disapproved of as it reduced the number of potential captives. Captives were seen as far more important than scalps. Additionally war served as a way for young men to demonstrate their valor and courage, which was not a prerequisite for becoming a chief, but also essential if one wanted to get married and hence have sex. A man considered a coward was viewed as unattractive by Haudenosaunee women who saw bravery in war as a very attractive feature in a man. In the precontact era, war was relativity bloodless as First Nations peoples fought one another in suits of wooden armor. In 1609, the French explorer Samuel de Champlain observed several battles between the Algonquins and the Iroquois which featured hardly any killing, which seemed to be the norm for First Nations wars. At a battle between the Algonquins and the Iroquois by the shores of Lake Champlain, the only people killed were two Iroquois warriors when Champlain demonstrated the power of his musket to his Algonquin allies.
The clan mothers would demand a "mourning war '' to provide consolation and renewed spiritual strength for a family that lost a member to death by accusing the warriors of cowardice; either the warriors would go on a "mourning war '' or would be marked as cowards forever, which make them unmarriageable. At this point, the warriors would then usually leave to raid a neighboring people in search of captives. The captives were either adopted into Haudenosaunee families to become Haudenosaunee, or were to killed after bouts of ritualized torture as a way of expressing rage at the death of a family member. The male captives were usually received with blows as they were marched into the community, and were then all captives regardless of their sex or age were stripped naked and tied to poles in the middle of the community. After having sensitive parts of their bodies burned and some of their fingernails pulled out, the prisoners were allowed to rest and given food and water. In the following days, the captives had to dance naked before the community, and then it was decided if they were to be adopted or killed. If those who were adopted into the Haudenosaunee families made a sincere effort to become Haudenosaunee, then they would be embraced by the community, and if they did not, then they were swiftly executed.
Those slated for execution had to wear red and black facial paint and were "adopted '' by a family who addressed the prisoner as "uncle '', "aunt '', "nephew '' or "niece '' depending on their age and sex, and would bring them food and water. The captive would be executed after a day - long torture session of burning and removing body parts, which the prisoner was expected to behave with stoicism and nobility (an expectation not usually met) before being scalped alive, had hot sand applied to the exposed skull and finally killed by cutting out their hearts. Afterwards, the victim 's body was cut and eaten by the community. The practice of ritual torture and execution together with cannibalism ended some time in the early 18th century, and by late 18th century European writers like Philip Mazzei and James Adair were denying that the Haudenosaunee engaged in ritual torture and cannibalism, saying they had seen no evidence of such practices during their visits to Haudenosaunee villages.
For Iroquois, the purpose of war was to take prisoners first and foremost, with the Onondaga chief Teganissorens telling the governor of New York, Sir Robert Hunter, in 1711: "We are not like you Christians, for when you have prisoners of one another you send them home, by such means you can never rout one another ''. The converse of this strategy was that the Iroquois would not accept losses in battle as it defeated the whole purpose of the "mourning wars '', which was to add to their numbers, not decrease them. The French during their wars with the Haudenosaunee were often astonished when a war party that was on the verge of victory over them could be made to retreat by merely killing one or two of their number. The European notion of a glorious death in battle had no counterpart with the Haudenosaunee. Death in battle was to accepted only when absolutely necessary, and the Iroquois believed the souls of those who died in battle were destined to spend eternity as angry ghosts haunting the world in search of vengeance. For this reason, those who died in battle were never buried in community cemeteries, as it would bring the presence of unhappy ghosts into the community.
For these reasons, the Haudenosaunee engaged in tactics that the French, the British and later on the Americans all considered to be cowardly. The Haudenosaunee preferred ambushes and surprise attacks, would almost never attack a fortified place or attack frontally, or would retreat if outnumbered. If Kanienkeh was invaded, the Haudenosaunee would attempt to ambush the enemy, or alternatively they would retreat behind the wooden walls of their villages to endure a siege. If the enemy appeared too powerful as when the French invaded Kanienkeh in 1693, the Haudenosaunee burned their villages and their crops and the entire population retreated into the woods to wait for the French to depart.
When European diseases that the Indians had no immunity to like smallpox devastated the Five Nations in the 17th century, causing thousands of deaths, the League began a period of "mourning wars '' without precedent, which led to the virtual destruction of the Huron, Petun and Neutral peoples. By the 1640s, it is estimated that smallpox had reduced the population of the Haudenosaunee by least 50 %, which required massive "mourning wars '' to make up these losses. The American historian Daniel Richter wrote it was at this point that war changed from being sporadic, small - scale raids launched in response to individual deaths and became "the constant and increasing undifferentiated symptom of societies in demographic crisis ''. Furthermore, the introduction of guns, which could piece though the wooden armor, made First Nations warfare bloodier and more deadly than it had been in the pre-contact era, ending the age when armed conflicts were more brawls than battles as Europeans would had understood the term. At the same time, guns could be only be obtained by trading furs with the Europeans, and once the Haudenosaunee exhausted their supplies of beaver by about 1640, they were forced to buy beaver pelts from Indians living further north, which led them to attempt to eliminate other middlemen in order to monopolize the fur trade in a series of "beaver wars ''. Richter wrote "the mourning war tradition, deaths from disease, dependence on firearms, and the trade in furs combined to produce a dangerous spiral: epidemics led to deadlier mourning wars fought with firearms; the need for guns increased the need for pelts to trade for them; the quest for furs provoked wars with other nations; and deaths in those wars began the mourning war cycle anew ''. From 1640 to 1701, the Five Nations was almost continuously at war, battling at various times the French, the Huron, the Erie, the Neutral, the Lenape, the Susquenhannock, the Petun, the Abenaki, the Ojibwa, and the Algonquins, fighting campaigns from Virginia to the Mississippi and all the way to what is now northern Ontario.
Despite taking thousands of captives, the Five Nations populations continued to fall, as diseases continued to take their toll while Jesuits, whom the Haudenosaunee were forced to accept after making peace with the French in 1667, encouraged Catholic converts to move to the St. Lawrence river valley. In the 1640s, the Mohawks could field about 800 warriors, and the 1670s, could field only 300 warriors, which suggested a population decline.
The Iroquois League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through captives taken in "mourning wars '', the blood feuds and vendettas that were an essential aspect of Iroquois culture. As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to take vengeance and seize captives. Captives were generally adopted directly by the grieving family to replace the member (s) who had been lost.
This process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. The adoption of conquered peoples, especially during the period of the Beaver Wars (1609 - 1701), meant that the Iroquois League was composed largely of naturalized members of other tribes. Cadwallader Colden wrote, "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their nation suffers by the people they lose in war. '' Those who attempted to return to their families were harshly punished; for instance, the French fur trader Pierre - Esprit Radisson was captured by an Iroquois raiding party as a teenager, was adopted by a Mohawk family, ran away to return to his family in Trois - Rivières, and upon being recaptured was punished by having his fingernails pulled out and having one of his fingers cut to the bone. However, Radisson was not executed as his adopted parents provided gifts to the families of the men Radisson had killed when he fled as compensation for their loss; several of the Huron who fled with Radisson were not so lucky and were executed.
By 1668, two - thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated Algonquians and Hurons. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven different nations and among the Seneca eleven. They also adopted European captives, as did the Catholic Mohawk in settlements outside Montreal. This tradition of adoption and assimilation was common to native people of the northeast but was quite different from European settlers ' notions of combat.
At the time of first European contact the Iroquois lived in a small number of large villages scattered throughout their territory. Each nation had between one and four villages at any one time, and villages were moved approximately every five to twenty years as soil and firewood were depleted. These settlements were surrounded by a palisade and usually located in a defensible area such as a hill, with access to water. Because of their appearance with the palisade, Europeans termed them castles.
Within the villages the inhabitants lived in longhouses. In 1653, Dutch official and landowner Adriaen van der Donck described a Mohawk longhouse in his Description of New Netherland.
Their houses are mostly of one and the same shape, without any special embellishment or remarkable design. When building a house, large or small, -- for sometimes they build them as long as some hundred feet, though never more than twenty feet wide -- they stick long, thin, peeled hickory poles in the ground, as wide apart and as long as the house is to be. The poles are then bent over and fastened one to another, so that it looks like a wagon or arbor as are put in gardens. Next, strips like split laths are laid across these poles from one end to the other.... This is then well covered all over with very tough bark.... From one end of the house to the other along the center they kindle fires, and the area left open, which is also in the middle, serves as a chimney to release the smoke. Often there are sixteen or eighteen families in a house... This means that often a hundred or a hundred and fifty or more lodge in one house.
A castle might contain twenty or thirty longhouses. In addition to the castles the Iroquois also had smaller settlements which might be occupied seasonally by smaller groups, for example for fishing or hunting.
Total population for the five nations has been estimated at 20,000 before 1634. After 1635 the population dropped to around 6,800, chiefly due to the epidemic of smallpox introduced by contact with European settlers.
By the late 1700s The Iroquois were building smaller log cabins resembling those of the colonists, but retaining some native features, such as bark roofs with smoke holes and a central fireplace.
The Iroquois are a mix of horticulturalists, farmers, fishers, gatherers and hunters, though their main diet traditionally has come from farming. The main crops they cultivated are corn, beans and squash, which were called the three sisters (De-oh - há - ko) and are considered special gifts from the Creator. These crops are grown strategically. The cornstalks grow, the bean plants climb the stalks, and the squash grow beneath, inhibiting weeds and keeping the soil moist under the shade of their broad leaves. In this combination, the soil remained fertile for several decades. The food was stored during the winter, and it lasted for two to three years. When the soil in one area eventually lost its fertility, the Haudenosaunee moved their village.
Gathering is the traditional job of the women and children. Wild roots, greens, berries and nuts were gathered in the summer. During spring, sap is tapped from the maple trees and boiled into maple syrup, and herbs are gathered for medicine. The Iroquois hunted mostly deer but also other game such as wild turkey and migratory birds. Muskrat and beaver were hunted during the winter. Fishing was also a significant source of food because the Iroquois had villages mostly in the St. Lawrence area. They fished salmon, trout, bass, perch and whitefish until the St. Lawrence became too polluted by industry. In the spring the Iroquois netted, and in the winter fishing holes were made in the ice. Allium tricoccum is also a part of traditional Iroquois cuisine.
In 1644 Johannes Megapolensis described Mohawk traditional wear.
In summer they go naked, having only their private parts covered with a patch. The children and young folks to ten, twelve and fourteen years of age go stark naked. In winter, they hang about them simply an undressed deer or bear or panther skin; or they take some beaver and otter skins, wild cat, racoon, martin, otter, mink, squirrel or such like skins... and sew some of them to others, until it is a square piece, and that is then a garment for them; or they buy of us Dutchmen two and a half ells (about 170 centimetres (5.6 ft)) of duffel, and that they hang simply about them, just as it was torn off, without sewing it.
On their feet the Iroquois wore moccasins, "true to nature in its adjustment to the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and durable as an article of apparel. ''
The moccason is made of one piece of deer - skin. It is seamed up at the heel, and also in front, above the foot, leaving the bottom of the moccasin without a seam. In front the deer - skin is gathered, in place of being crimped; over this part porcupine quills or beads are worked, in various patterns. The plain moccasin rises several inches above the ankle... and is fastened with deer strings; but usually this part is turned down, so as to expose a part of the instep, and is ornamented with bead - work.
Moccasins of a sort were also made of corn husks. In 1653 Dutch official Adriaen van der Donck wrote:
Around their waist they all (i.e. both men and women) wear a belt made of leather, whalefin, whalebone, or wampum. The men pull a length of duffel cloth -- if they have it -- under this belt, front and rear, and pass it between the legs. It is over half an ell (35 centimetres (14 in)) wide and nine quarter - ells (155 centimetres (61 in)) long, which leaves a square flap hanging down in front and back... Before duffel cloth was common in that country, and sometimes even now when it can not be had, they took for that purpose some dressed leather or fur -- The women also wear a length of woolen cloth of full width (165 centimetres (65 in)) and an ell and a quarter (90 centimetres (35 in)) long, which comes halfway down the leg. It is like a petticoat, but under it, next to the body, they wear a deerskin which also goes around the waist and ends in cleverly cut pointed edging and fringes. The wealthier women and those who have a liking for it wear such skirts wholly embroidered with wampum... As for covering the upper part of the body both men and women use a sheet of duffel cloth of full width, i.e. nine and a half quarter - ells, and about three ells 210 centimetres (83 in) long. It is usually worn over the right shoulder and tied in a knot around the waist and from there hangs down to the feet.
By the 1900s most Iroquois were wearing the same clothing as their non-Indian neighbors. Today most nations only wear their traditional clothing to ceremonies or special events.
Men wore a cap with a single long feather rotating in a socket called a gustoweh. Later, feathers in the gustoweh denote the wearer 's tribe by their number and positioning. The Mohawk wear three upright feathers, the Oneida two upright and one down. The Onondaga wear one feather pointing upward and another pointing down. The Cayuga have a single feather at a forty - five degree angle. The Seneca wear a single feather pointing up, and the Tuscarora have no distinguishing feathers.
Writing in 1851 Morgan wrote that women 's outfits consisted of a skirt (gä - kä ' - ah) "usually of blue broadcloth, and elaborately embroidered with bead - work. It requires two yards of cloth, which is worn with the selvedge at the top and bottom; the skirt being secured about the waist and descending nearly to the top of the moccasin. '' Under the skirt, between the knees and the moccasins, women wore leggings (gise ' - hǎ), called pantalettes by Morgan, "of red broadcloth, and ornamented with a border of beadwork around the lower edge... In ancient times the gise ' - hǎ was made of deer - skin and embroidered with porcupine - quill work. '' An over-dress (ah - de-a ' - da - we - sa) of muslin or calico was worn over the skirt, it is "gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part way down the skirt... In front it is generally buttoned with silver broaches. '' The blanket (e'yose) is two or three yards of blue or green broadcloth "it falls from the head or neck in natural folds the width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like a shawl. ''
The women wore their hair very long and tied together at the back, or "tied at the back of the head and folded into a tress of about a hand 's length, like a beaver tail... they wear around the forehead a strap of wampum shaped like the headband that some was worn in olden times. '' "The men have a long lock hanging down, some on one side of the head, and some on both sides. On the top of their heads they have a streak of hair from the forehead to the neck, about the breadth of three fingers, and this they shorten until it is about two or three fingers long, and it stands right on end like a cock 's comb or hog 's bristles; on both sides of this cock 's comb they cut all the hair short, except for the aforesaid locks, and they also leave on the bare places here and there small locks, such as aree in sweeping brushes and then they are in fine array. '' This is the forerunner to what is today called a "Mohawk hairstyle. ''
The women did not paint their faces. The men "paint their faces red, blue, etc. ''
Plants traditionally used by the Iroquois include Agrimonia gryposepala, which was to treat diarrhea, and interrupted fern, used for blood and venereal diseases and conditions. Cone flower (Echinacea), an immune system booster and treatment for respiratory disease was also known and used. They also give an infusion of Chelidonium majus, another plant & milk to pigs that drool and have sudden movements. They use Ranunculus acris, in that apply a poultice of the smashed plant to the chest for pains and for colds, take an infusion of the roots for diarrhea, and apply a poultice of plant fragments with another plant to the skin for excess water in the blood. Symphyotrichum novae - angliae is used in a decoction for weak skin, use a decoction of the roots and leaves for fevers, use the plant as a "love medicine '', and use an infusion of whole plant and rhizomes from another plant to treat mothers with intestinal fevers,. A decoction of the roots of chicory is used as a wash and applied as a poultice to chancres and fever sores. A decoction of the root of Allium tricoccum is used to treat worms in children, and they also use the decoction as a spring tonic to "clean you out ''. Epigaea repens is also utilized, as they use a compound for labor pains in parturition, use a compound decoction for rheumatism, take a decoction of the leaves for indigestion, and they also take a decoction of the whole plant or roots, stalks and leaves taken for the kidneys. A pounded infusion of the roots of Potentilla canadensis is given as an antidiarrheal. They also use Senna hebecarpa as a worm remedy and take a compound decoction of it as a laxative.
The Iroquois also used quinine, chamomile, ipecac, and a form of penicillin.
The Iroquois are a matriarchal Mother Clan system. No person is entitled to ' own ' land, but it is believed that the Creator appointed women as stewards of the land. Traditionally, the Clan Mothers appoint leaders, as they have raised children and are therefore held to a higher regard. By the same token, if a leader does not prove sound, becomes corrupt or does not listen to the people, the Clan Mothers have the power to strip him of his leadership.
The Iroquois had a matrilineal system: women held property and hereditary leadership passed through their lines. They held dwellings, horses and farmed land, and a woman 's property before marriage stayed in her possession without being mixed with that of her husband. They had separate roles but real power in the nations. The work of a woman 's hands was hers to do with as she saw fit. At marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the wife 's family. A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband was able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take his possessions with him.
The children of the marriage belong to their mother 's clan and gain their social status through hers. Her brothers are important teachers and mentors to the children, especially introducing boys to men 's roles and societies. The clans are matrilineal, that is, clan ties are traced through the mother 's line. If a couple separated, the woman traditionally kept the children. The chief of a clan can be removed at any time by a council of the women elders of that clan. The chief 's sister was responsible for nominating his successor. It was regarded as incest by the Iroquois to marry within one 's matrilineal clan, but it was considered acceptable to marry someone from the same patrilineal clan.
Like many cultures, the Iroquois ' spiritual beliefs changed over time and varied across tribes. Generally, the Iroquois believed in numerous deities, including the Great Spirit, the Thunderer, and the Three Sisters (the spirits of beans, maize, and squash). The Great Spirit was thought to have created plants, animals, and humans to control "the forces of good in nature '', and to guide ordinary people. Orenda was the Iroquoian name for the magical potence found in people and their environment.
Sources provide different stories about Iroquois creation beliefs. Brascoupé and Etmanskie focus on the first person to walk the earth, called the Skywoman or Aientsik. Aientsik 's daughter Tekawerahkwa gave birth to twins, Tawiskaron, who created vicious animals and river rapids, while Okwiraseh created "all that is pure and beautiful ''. After a battle where Okwiraseh defeated Tawiskaron, Tawiskaron was confined to "the dark areas of the world '', where he governed the night and destructive creatures. Other scholars present the "twins '' as the Creator and his brother, Flint. The Creator was responsible for game animals, while Flint created predators and disease. Saraydar (1990) suggests the Iroquois do not see the twins as polar opposites but understood their relationship to be more complex, noting "Perfection is not to be found in gods or humans or the worlds they inhabit. ''
Descriptions of Iroquois spiritual history consistently refer to dark times of terror and misery prior to the Iroquois Confederacy, ended by the arrival of the Great Peacemaker. Tradition asserts that the Peacemaker demonstrated his authority as the Creator 's messenger by climbing a tall tree above a waterfall, having the people cut down the tree, and reappearing the next morning unharmed. The Peacemaker restored mental health to a few of the most "violent and dangerous men '', Ayonhwatha and Thadodaho, who then helped him bear the message of peace to others.
After the arrival of the Europeans, some Iroquois became Christians, among them the first Native American Saint, Kateri Tekakwitha, a young woman of Mohawk - Algonquin parents. The Seneca sachem Handsome Lake, also known as Ganeodiyo, introduced a new religious system to the Iroquois in the late 18th century, which incorporated Quaker beliefs along with traditional Iroquoian culture. Handsome Lake 's teachings include a focus on parenting, appreciation of life, and peace. A key aspect of Handsome Lake 's teachings is the principle of equilibrium, wherein each person 's talents combined into a functional community. By the 1960s, at least 50 % of Iroquois followed this religion.
Dreams play a significant role in Iroquois spirituality, providing information about a person 's desires and prompting individuals to fulfill dreams. To communicate upward, humans can send prayers to spirits by burning tobacco.
Iroquois ceremonies are primarily concerned with farming, healing, and thanksgiving. Key festivals correspond to the agricultural calendar, and include Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green Maize, Harvest, and Mid-Winter (or New Year 's), which is held in early February. The ceremonies were given by the Creator to the Iroquois to balance good with evil.
During healing ceremonies, a carved "False Face Mask '' is worn to represent spirits in a tobacco - burning and prayer ritual. False Face Masks are carved in living trees, then cut free to be painted and decorated. False Faces represent grandfathers of the Iroquois, and are thought to reconnect humans and nature and to frighten illness - causing spirits. The False Face Society continues today among modern Iroquois.
Condolence ceremonies are conducted by the Iroquois for both ordinary and important people, but most notably when sachems died. Such ceremonies were still held on Iroquois reservations as late as the 1970s. After death, the soul is thought to embark on a journey, undergo a series of ordeals, and arrive in the sky world. This journey is thought to take one year, during which the Iroquois mourn for the dead. After the mourning period, a feast is held to celebrate the soul 's arrival in the skyworld.
"Keepers of the faith '' are part - time specialists who conduct religious ceremonies. Both men and women can be appointed as keepers of the faith by tribe elders.
The Iroquois traditionally celebrate six major festivals throughout the year. These usually combine a spiritual component and ceremony, a feast, a chance to celebrate together, sports, entertainment and dancing. These celebrations have historically been oriented to the seasons and celebrated based on the cycle of nature rather than fixed calendar dates.
For instance, the Mid-winter festival, Gi ' - ye - wä - no - us - quä - go - wä ("The supreme belief '') ushers in the new year. This festival is traditionally held for one week around the end of January to early February, depending on when the new moon occurs that year.
The favorite sport of the Iroquois was lacrosse (O - tä - dä - jish ′ - quä - äge in Seneca). This version was played between two teams of six or eight players, made up of members of two sets of clans (Wolf, Bear, Beaver, and Turtle on one side vs. Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk on the other among the Senecas). The goals were two sets of poles roughly 450 yards (410 m) apart. The poles were about 10 feet (3.0 m) high and placed about 15 feet (4.6 m) apart. A goal was scored by carrying or throwing a deer - skin ball between the goal posts using netted sticks -- touching the ball with hands was prohibited. The game was played to a score of five or seven. The modern version of lacrosse remains popular as of 2015.
A popular winter game was the snow - snake game. The "snake '' was a hickory pole about 5 -- 7 feet (1.5 -- 2.1 m) long and about. 25 inches (0.64 cm) in diameter, turned up slightly at the front and weighted with lead. The game was played between two sides of up to six players each, often boys, but occasionally between the men of two clans. The snake, or Gawa ′ sa, was held by placing the index finger against the back end and balancing it on the thumb and other fingers. It was not thrown but slid across the surface of the snow. The side whose snake went the farthest scored one point. Other snakes from the same side which went farther than any other snake of the opposing side also scored a point; the other side scored nothing. This was repeated until one side scored the number of points which had been agreed to for the game, usually seven or ten.
The Peach - stone game (Guskä ′ eh) was a gambling game in which the clans bet against each other. Traditionally it was played on the final day of the Green Corn, Harvest, and Mid-winter festivals. The game was played using a wooden bowl about one foot in diameter and six peach - stones (pits) ground to oval shape and burned black on one side. A "bank '' of beans, usually 100, was used to keep score and the winner was the side who won them all. Two players sat on a blanket - covered platform raised a few feet off the floor. To play the peach stones were put into the bowl and shaken. Winning combinations were five of either color or six of either color showing.
Players started with five beans each from the bank. The starting player shook the bowl; if he shook a five the other player paid him one bean, if a six five beans. If he shook either he got to shake again. If he shook anything else the turn passed to his opponent. All his winnings were handed over to a "manager '' or "managers '' for his side. If a player lost all of his beans another player from his side took his place and took five beans from the bank. Once all beans had been taken from the bank the game continued, but with the draw of beans now coming from the winnings of the player 's side, which were kept out of sight so that no one but the managers knew how the game was going. The game was finished when one side had won all the beans.
The game sometimes took quite a while to play, depending on the starting number of beans, and games lasting more than a day were common.
The First Nations Lacrosse Association is recognized by the Federation of International Lacrosse as a sovereign state for international lacrosse competitions. It is the only sport in which the Iroquois field national teams and the only indigenous people 's organization sanctioned for international competition by any world sporting governing body.
Each clan has a group of personal names which may be used to name members. The clan mother is responsible for keeping track of those names not in use, which may then be reused to name infants. When a child becomes an adult he takes a new "adult '' name in place of his "baby '' name. Some names are reserved for chiefs or faith keepers, and when a person assumes that office he takes the name in a ceremony in which he is considered to "resuscitate '' the previous holder. If a chief resigns or is removed he gives up the name and resumes his previous one.
Although the Iroquois are sometimes mentioned as examples of groups who practiced cannibalism, the evidence is mixed as to whether such a practice could be said to be widespread among the Six Nations, and to whether it was a notable cultural feature. Some anthropologists have found evidence of ritual torture and cannibalism at Iroquois sites, for example, among the Onondaga in the sixteenth century. However, other scholars, most notably anthropologist William Arens in his controversial book, The Man - Eating Myth, have challenged the evidence, suggesting the human bones found at sites point to funerary practices, asserting that if cannibalism was practiced among the Iroquois, it was not widespread. Modern anthropologists seem to accept the probability that cannibalism did exist among the Iroquois, with Thomas Abler describing the evidence from the Jesuit Relations and archaeology as making a "case for cannibalism in early historic times... so strong that it can not be doubted. ''. Scholars are also urged to remember the context for a practice that now shocks the modern Western society. Sanday reminds us that the ferocity of the Iroquois ' rituals "can not be separated from the severity of conditions... where death from hunger, disease, and warfare became a way of life ''.
The missionaries Johannes Megapolensis and François - Joseph Bressani, and the fur trader Pierre - Esprit Radisson present first - hand accounts of cannibalism among the Mohawk. A common theme is ritualistic roasting and eating the heart of a captive who has been tortured and killed. "To eat your enemy is to perform an extreme form of physical dominance. ''
The first five nations listed below formed the original Five Nations (listed from east to west, as they were oriented to the sunrise); the Tuscarora became the sixth nation in 1722.
1 Not one of the original Five Nations; joined 1720. 2 Settled between the Oneida and Onondaga.
Within each of the six nations, people belonged to a number of matrilineal clans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to eight, with a total of nine different clan names.
According to the Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, The Iroquois Confederacy had 10,000 people at its peak, but by the 18th century, their population had decreased to 4,000, recovering only to 7,000 by 1910.
According to data compiled in 1995 by Doug George - Kanentiio, a total of 51,255 Six Nations people lived in Canada. These included 15,631 Mohawk in Quebec; 14,051 Mohawk in Ontario; 3,970 Oneida in Ontario; and a total of 17,603 of the Six Nations at the Grand River Reserve in Ontario. More recently according to the Six Nations Elected Council, some 12,436 on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada, as of December 2014 and 26,034 total in Canada.
In 1995, tribal registrations among the Six Nations in the United States numbered about 30,000 in total, with the majority of 17,566 in New York. The remainder were more than 10,000 Oneida in Wisconsin, and about 2200 Seneca - Cayuga in Oklahoma. As the nations individually determine their rules for membership or citizenship, they report the official numbers. (Some traditional members of the nations refuse to be counted.) There is no federally recognized Iroquois nation or tribe, nor are any Native Americans enrolled as Iroquois.
In the 2000 United States census, 80,822 people identified as having Iroquois ethnicity (which is similar to identifying as European), with 45,217 claiming only Iroquois ancestry. There are the several reservations in New York: Cayuga Nation of New York (~ 450,) St. Regis Mohawk Reservation (3248 in 2014), Onondaga Reservation (473 in 2014), Oneida Indian Nation (~ 1000), Seneca Nation of New York (~ 8000) and the Tuscarora Reservation (1100 in 2010). Some lived at the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin on the reservation there counting some 21,000 according to the 2000 census. Seneca - Cayuga Nation in Oklahoma has more than 5,000 people in 2011. In the 2010 Census, 81,002 persons identified as Iroquois, and 40,570 as Iroquois only across the United States. Including the Iroquois in Canada, the total population numbered over 125,000 as of 2009.
The Grand Council of the Six Nations is an assembly of 56 Hoyenah (chiefs) or sachems. Today, the seats on the Council are distributed among the Six Nations as follows:
When anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan studied the Grand Council in the 19th century, he interpreted it as a central government. This interpretation became influential, but Richter argues that while the Grand Council served an important ceremonial role, it was not a government in the sense that Morgan thought. According to this view, Iroquois political and diplomatic decisions are made on the local level, and are based on assessments of community consensus. A central government that develops policy and implements it for the people at large is not the Iroquois model of government.
Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855, Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was ratified by 75 % of the male voters and 75 % of the mothers of the nation. In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two - thirds of the mothers was required. The need for a double supermajority to make major changes made the Confederacy a de facto consensus government.
The women traditionally held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war. The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers of each clan. If any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, the mother of his clan could demote him, a process called "knocking off the horns ''. The deer antlers, an emblem of leadership, were removed from his headgear, thus returning him to private life.
Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from the men 's councils. The women used men as runners to send word of their decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men 's council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took the initiative in suggesting legislation.
The term "wampum '' refers to beads made from purple and white mollusk shells. Species used to make wampum include the highly prized quahog clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) which produces the famous purple colored beads. For white colored beads the shells from the channeled whelk (Busycon canaliculatum), knobbed whelk (Busycon carica), lightning whelk (Busycon sinistrum), and snow whelk (Busycon Laeostomum) are used.
Wampum was primarily used to make wampum belts by the Iroquois. Wampum belts are used to signify the importance of a specific message being presented. Treaty making often involved wampum belts to signify the importance of the treaty. A famous example is "The Two Row Wampum '' or "Guesuenta '', meaning "it brightens our minds '', which was originally presented to the Dutch settlers, and then French, representing a canoe and a sailboat moving side - by - side along the river of life, not interfering with the other 's course. All non-Native settlers are, by associations, members of this treaty.
"The Covenant Belt '' was presented to the Iroquois at the signing of the Canandaigua Treaty. The belt has a design of thirteen human figures representing symbolically the Thirteen Colonies of the United States. The house and the two figures directly next to the house represent the Iroquois people and the symbolic longhouse. The figure on the left of the house represent the Seneca Nation who are the symbolic guardians of the western door (western edge of Iroquois territory) and the figure to the right of the house represents the Mohawk who are the keepers of the eastern door (eastern edge of Iroquois territory).
The Hiawatha belt is the national belt of the Iroquois and is represented in the Iroquois Confederacy flag. The belt has four squares and a tree in the middle which represents the original five nations of the Iroquois. Going from left to right the squares represent the Seneca, Cayuga, Oneida and Mohawk. The Onondaga are represented by an eastern white pine which represents the Tree of Peace. Traditionally the Onondaga are the peace keepers of the confederacy. The placement of the nations on the belt represents the actually geographical distribution of the six nations over their shared territory, with the Seneca in the far west and the Mohawk in the far east of Iroquois territory.
Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the United States 's government. Contact between the leaders of the English colonists and the Iroquois started with efforts to form an alliance via the use of treaty councils. Prominent individuals such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were often in attendance. Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government. The Six Nations ' governing committee was elected by the men and women of the tribe, one member from each of the six nations. Giving each member the same amount of authority in the council ensured no man received too much power, providing some of the same effect as the United States 's future system of checks and balances.
Consensus has not been reached on how influential the Iroquois model was to the development of United States ' documents such as the Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution. The influence thesis has been discussed by historians such as Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen. In 1988, the United States Congress passed a resolution to recognize the influence of the Iroquois League upon the Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1987, Cornell University held a conference on the link between the Iroquois ' government and the U.S. Constitution.
Scholars such as Jack N. Rakove challenge thesis. Stanford University historian Rakove writes, "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois '' and notes that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States. Historian Francis Jennings noted that supporters of the thesis frequently cite the following statement by Benjamin Franklin, made in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to James Parker in 1751: "It would be a very strange thing, if six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming a Scheme for such a Union... and yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a Dozen English Colonies, '' but he disagrees that it establishes influence. Rather, he thinks Franklin was promoting union against the "ignorant savages '' and called the idea "absurd ''.
The anthropologist Dean Snow has stated that although Franklin 's Albany Plan may have drawn inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from that source. He argues that "... such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception. ''
Similarly, the anthropologist Elizabeth Tooker has concluded that "there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois. '' She argues that the idea is a myth resulting from a claim made by linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt that was exaggerated and misunderstood after his death in 1937. According to Tooker, the original Iroquois constitution did not involve representative democracy and elections; deceased chiefs ' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the tribe.
The Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany in 1917 during World War I and again in 1942 in World War II.
The Haudenosaunee government has issued passports since 1923, when Haudenosaunee authorities issued a passport to Cayuga statesman Deskaheh (Levi General) to travel to the League of Nations headquarters.
More recently, passports have been issued since 1997. Before 2001 these were accepted by various nations for international travel, but with increased security concerns across the world since the September 11 attacks, this is no longer the case. In 2010, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team was allowed by the U.S. to travel on their own passports to the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in England only after the personal intervention of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. However, the British government refused to recognize the Iroquois passports and denied the team members entry into the United Kingdom.
The Onondaga Nation spent $1.5 million on a subsequent upgrade to the passports designed to meet 21st century international security requirements.
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who does the commentary on celebs go dating | Celebs Go Dating - wikipedia
Celebs Go Dating is a British reality television dating program. It began broadcasting on 29 August 2016. The first series had 15 episodes and was shown at 10 pm on weekdays on E4. In November 2016, it was confirmed that Celebs Go Dating had been renewed for two more series, with the second airing in spring of 2017 and the third airing in late 2017. The second series finished on 10 March 2017. The third series began on 4 September 2017 and finished on 29 September 2017.
It was confirmed on 27 September 2017 that the show was renewed for a fourth series to air in 2018, the fourth series was confirmed on the Celebs Go Dating official Twitter page on 29 September 2017.
This is a list of the main cast, recurring cast and guest starring currently appearing on Celebs Go Dating.
It was announced in March 2016 that E4 had commissioned a new reality dating show which see celebrities go on dates with members of the public. Filming for the first series started in August 2016, with the show airing later that month. The show is filmed a few weeks in advance. The first series was made up of 15 episodes airing every weekday.
In 2017, a second and third series was confirmed to air in early and late 2017 unlike the first series the second and third series would last one week longer with 20 episodes. Filming began for the second series in late January with the series launching in February 2017, with filming finishing in early March.
Series two saw the return of Joey Essex who broke the rules in the first series when he started dating a celebrity on the show. During the filming of series two, Stephen Bear brought many problems to the dating agency, breaking the rules of the show by dating another celebrity outside of the show; this led to his removal from the show.
It was announced on the official Celebs Go Dating Twitter account that the third series of the show will feature same - sex relationships for the first time.
In September 2017 it was confirmed that the series would return for a fourth series in 2018. The fourth series will again feature same - sex relationships.
The first and second series of Celebs Go Dating aired every week night on E4 at 10pm with a repeat at the weekend on Sunday morning at 12am.
The third series was due to end on 29 September 2017, however an episode that was due to be aired on 15 September 2017 did not air, seemingly pulled from broadcast moments before its scheduled starting time. The show 's social media accounts even posted the trailer for the evening 's episode hours before airing. An E4 spokesman cited "editorial reasons '' and said the show will return on Monday 17 September.
All information in this table comes from BARB.
It was announced that E4 had made a new reality dating show which see celebrities go on number of dates with members of the public to see if they can find love. The series stars Eden Blackman and Nadia Essex as the dating experts, also starting in the show is Tom Read Wilson who was on The Voice but is the shows receptionist who gets along well with all the celebrity clients. The series launched on 29 August and finished on 16 September 2016
It was announced after the first series ended that E4 had ordered two more series of the show to air in 2017.
In November 2016 it was confirmed via the official Twitter account for Celebs Go Dating that the show would return for a second series in Spring 2017. This is the first in the second of a new contract by E4 with the third series airing later in 2017. The second series launched on 13 February 2017 and finished on 10 March 2017. Series 2 was the longest series with a total of 20 episodes.
It was announced that E4 had renewed the show for a third series, which see celebrities go on number of dates with members of the public to see if they can find love. The third series again stars Eden Blackman and Nadia Essex as the dating experts and Tom Read Wilson as the shows receptionist. The third series was announced alongside the second series, which aired in January 2017. It was announced on the official Celebs Go Dating Twitter account that the third series of the show will feature same - sex relationships for the first time. The third series began airing on 4 September 2017 on E4 and the series finished on 29 September 2017.
The third series was due to end on 29 September 2017, however an episode that was due to be aired on 15 September 2017 did not air, seemingly pulled from broadcast moments before its scheduled starting time. The show 's social media accounts even posted the trailer for the evening 's episode hours before airing. An E4 spokesman cited "editorial reasons '' and said the show will return on Monday 17 September. Updated transmission dates for the remaining episodes are currently unknown. It was confirmed on TV listings that the episode that was due to air on 15 September will air on Monday 18 November 2017. The series has been cut from 20 episodes to 19; the reason behind this is unknown.
The third series saw the most celebrities take part with a total of 8. Unlike the first two series where the final was just the celebs and their dates and the agents, the third series will see the celebs invite their friends and family to meet their perfect plus one date and to enjoy an evening party / meal. The third series was the only series which saw all the celebs get a successful couple.
It was confirmed on 27 September 2017 that the show was renewed for a fourth 20x65 minute series to air in 2018; the fourth series was confirmed by Eden when interviewed about the third series.
The line up for the fourth series of Celebs Go Dating was revealed on 20 November 2017. Filming for the fourth series begun on 20 November 2017 in London
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robin thicke the evolution of robin thicke album download | The Evolution of Robin Thicke - wikipedia
The Evolution of Robin Thicke is the second studio album by American singer - songwriter Robin Thicke; it was released on October 3, 2006, by Star Trak Records. The album features guest appearances from Faith Evans, Lil Wayne and Pharrell. On February 13, 2007, the album was re-released titling as Deluxe Edition, which included all three new bonus tracks.
The Evolution of Robin Thicke was supported by two singles; "Wanna Love U Girl '' and "Lost Without U ''. The lead single "Wanna Love You Girl '' became an urban hit, while the second single "Lost Without U '' became the number - one hit on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs.
Thicke described the album to Billboard as being about "a guy who 's been stripped of everything. He does n't have any money and is about to lose his house. His wife is off becoming a movie star and everyone else is pretty much leaving him. All the cool friends I 'd had stopped inviting me to parties. I was all alone at home writing songs on my piano about what I was feeling. Thus came ' Complicated, ' ' Can U Believe, ' ' I Need Love, ' ' 2 the Sky ' and ' Angels. ' All these songs were about brokenhearted loneliness and hopelessness; trying to still believe in myself. ''
Thicke toured with India. Arie and then opened for John Legend in late 2006. Notable performances in support of the album and its single "Lost Without U '' include the 2007 BET Awards, The 2007 MOBO Awards, American Idol, and the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards. The song "Angels '' appeared on General Hospital, aired on November 22, 2006, during Luke and Laura 's goodbye scene. The song "Shooter '' was played, during Jason and Sonny 's shootout scene from April 12, 2007 to April 13, 2007. The song "Lost Without U '' was played on October 2, 2007, during a love scene between Sonny and Kate.
The album 's lead single, titled "Wanna Love U Girl '' featuring Pharrell, was released on August 9, 2005, before the album was officially released. The single has experienced chart success on urban radio in the United Kingdom. The remix to "Wanna Love You Girl '' was released, adding to it was an American rapper Busta Rhymes.
The album 's second single, "Lost Without U '' was released on January 30, 2007. The single began getting a lot of radio airplay in Urban & Rhythmic radio stations from 2006 to 2007. The song reached number 14 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 1 on the Billboard 's Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs. As a result, Thicke became the first Caucasian male artist since George Michael to top the R&B singles chart.
Thicke and his record label Interscope soon considered a potential track to be released as the album 's third single. Thicke 's preference was the track "Can U Believe '' (released on April 12, 2007), which has peaked at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and at number 99 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On October 2, 2007, "Got 2 Be Down '' was officially released to radio airplay as the album 's fourth single.
The album debuted at number 45 on the US Billboard 200, selling 20,000 copies in its first week. The album reached at a peak position at number 5 on the US Billboard 200, and number 1 on the Billboard Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. It is the first R&B number one album of Thicke 's career. From February 24 to March 3, 2007, both his second single "Lost Without U '' and his second album The Evolution of Robin Thicke simultaneously spent two consecutive weeks at number 1 on the both R&B single and album charts, respectively.
On the March 3, 2007 issue of Billboard magazine, Thicke simultaneously topped 4 Billboard charts; including Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums, Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs, Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay and Hot Adult R&B Airplay. Due to the popularity of "Lost Without U '', the sales of the album started to increase. As of March 2007, The Evolution of Robin Thicke was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
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