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how did the stamp act and intolerable acts lead to the american revolution | Intolerable Acts - wikipedia
The Intolerable Acts was the term invented by 19th century historians to refer to a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party. The laws were meant to punish the Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in the Boston Tea Party protest in reaction to changes in taxation by the British to the detriment of colonial goods. In Great Britain, these laws were referred to as the Coercive Acts.
The acts took away self - governance and historic rights of Massachusetts, triggering outrage and resistance in the Thirteen Colonies. They were key developments in the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775.
Four of the acts were issued in direct response to the Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773. The British Parliament hoped these punitive measures would, by making an example of Massachusetts, reverse the trend of colonial resistance to parliamentary authority that had begun with the 1764 Sugar Act. A fifth act, the Quebec Act, enlarged the boundaries of what was then the Province of Quebec and instituted reforms generally favorable to the French Catholic inhabitants of the region; although unrelated to the other four Acts, it was passed in the same legislative session and seen by the colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts. The Patriots viewed the acts as an arbitrary violation of the rights of Massachusetts, and in September 1774 they organized the First Continental Congress to coordinate a protest. As tensions escalated, the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, leading in July 1776 to the declaration of an independent United States of America.
Relations between the Thirteen Colonies and the British Parliament slowly but steadily worsened after the end of the Seven Years ' War (French and Indian War) in 1763. The war had plunged the British government deep into debt, and so the British Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies. Parliament believed that these acts, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, were legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs of maintaining the British Empire. Although protests led to the repeal of the Stamp and Townshend Acts, Parliament adhered to the position that it had the right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever '' in the Declaratory Act of 1766.
A further tension especially with the Southern colonies was the Somerset v Stewart ruling of 1772 in which chattel slavery of humans was found totally unsupported in common law and as England had no statute for it, unenforceable. As the "slave owner '' concerned (Stewart) was from another British colony (Jamaica) this evolution ending slavery at common law was very disturbing to colonists travelling with servants..
Many colonists, either sincerely or with motives to avoid English imposed law as above, developed a different conception of the British Empire. Under the British Constitution, they argued, a British subject 's property could not be taken from him (in the form of taxes) without his consent (in the form of representation in government). Therefore, because the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, some colonists insisted that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them, a view expressed by the slogan "No taxation without representation. '' After the Townshend Acts, some colonial essayists took this line of thinking even further, and began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. This question of the extent of Parliament 's sovereignty in the colonies was the issue underlying what became the American Revolution.
On December 16, 1773, a group of Patriot colonists associated with the Sons of Liberty destroyed 342 chests of tea in Boston, Massachusetts, an act that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party. The colonists partook in this action because Parliament had passed the Tea Act, which granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, thereby saving the company from bankruptcy. This made British tea less expensive, which Parliament thought would be a welcome change in the colonies. In addition, there was added a small tax on which the colonists were not allowed to give their consent, but the tea still remained less expensive even with the tax. Again, Parliament taxed the colonists without their representation. This angered the colonists. News of the Boston Tea Party reached England in January 1774. Parliament responded by passing four laws. Three of the laws were intended to directly punish Massachusetts. This was for the destruction of private property, to restore British authority in Massachusetts, and to otherwise reform colonial government in America.
On April 22, 1774, Prime Minister Lord North defended the programme in the House of Commons, saying:
The Americans have tarred and feathered your subjects, plundered your merchants, burnt your ships, denied all obedience to your laws and authority; yet so clement and so long forbearing has our conduct been that it is incumbent on us now to take a different course. Whatever may be the consequences, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over.
The Boston Port Act, the first of the laws passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. It closed the port of Boston until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea and until the king was satisfied that order had been restored. Colonists objected that the Port Act punished all of Boston rather than just the individuals who had destroyed the tea, and that they were being punished without having been given an opportunity to testify in their own defense.
The Massachusetts Government Act provoked even more outrage than the Port Act because it unilaterally took away Massachusetts ' charter and brought it under control of the British government. Under the terms of the Government Act, almost all positions in the colonial government were to be appointed by the governor, Parliament, or king. The act also severely limited the activities of town meetings in Massachusetts to one meeting a year, unless the Governor called for one. Colonists outside Massachusetts feared that their governments could now also be changed by the legislative fiat of Parliament.
The Administration of Justice Act allowed the Royal governor to order that trials of accused royal officials take place in Great Britain or elsewhere within the Empire if he decided that the defendant could not get a fair trial in Massachusetts. Although the act stipulated for witnesses to be reimbursed after having traveled at their own expense across the Atlantic, it was not stipulated that this would include reimbursement for lost earnings during the period for which they would be unable to work, leaving few with the ability to testify. George Washington called this the "Murder Act '' because he believed that it allowed British officials to harass Americans and then escape justice. Many colonists believed the act was unnecessary because British soldiers had been given a fair trial following the Boston Massacre in 1770.
The Quartering Act applied to all of the colonies, and sought to create a more effective method of housing British troops in America. In a previous act, the colonies had been required to provide housing for soldiers, but colonial legislatures had been uncooperative in doing so. The new Quartering Act allowed a governor to house soldiers in other buildings if suitable quarters were not provided. While many sources claim that the Quartering Act allowed troops to be billeted in occupied private homes, historian David Ammerman 's 1974 study claimed that this is a myth, and that the act only permitted troops to be quartered in unoccupied buildings.
Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) as a violation of their constitutional rights, their natural rights, and their colonial charters. They, therefore, viewed the acts as a threat to the liberties of all of British America, not just Massachusetts. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, for example, described the acts as "a most wicked System for destroying the liberty of America. ''
The citizens of Boston not only viewed this as an act of unnecessary and cruel punishment, but the Coercive Acts drew hatred toward Britain even further. As a result of the Coercive Acts, even more colonists turned against British rule.
Great Britain hoped that the Coercive Acts would isolate radicals in Massachusetts and cause American colonists to concede the authority of Parliament over their elected assemblies. It was a calculated risk that backfired, however, because the harshness of some of the acts made it difficult for moderates in the colonies to speak in favor of Parliament. The acts promoted sympathy for Massachusetts and encouraged colonists from the otherwise diverse colonies to form committees of correspondence which sent delegates to the First Continental Congress. The Continental Congress created the Continental Association, an agreement to boycott British goods. Additionally, it was decided that if the Coercive Acts were not reversed after a year, goods were to stop being exported to Great Britain as well. The Congress also pledged to support Massachusetts in case of attack, which meant that all of the colonies would become involved when the American Revolutionary War began at Lexington and Concord.
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what does the fn key do on a laptop | Fn key - wikipedia
The Fn key, short form for function, is a modifier key on many keyboards, especially on laptops, used in a compact layout to combine keys which are usually kept separate. It is typically found on laptops due to their keyboard size restrictions. It is also found on many full - sized "multimedia '' keyboards as the F - Lock key. It is mainly for the purpose of changing display or audio settings quickly, such as brightness, contrast, or volume, and is held down in conjunction with the appropriate key to change the settings.
Typically, in a compact layout the main area of the keyboard (containing the letter keys) is kept in much the same layout as with a full - sized keyboard, and the numeric keypad is moved to share a group of central keys. This allows typists to enter text without having to learn a new layout. The symbol that is accessed through pressing Fn is often printed on the key in a smaller font, a box, or different color (usually blue but sometimes orange).
This 78 - key UK layout is taken from the Apple iBook. Characters in blue are accessed through the Fn key, but functions on the top row can be accessed without Fn key in Mac OS X.
Fn is a modifier key, and works like other modifiers keys, such as Ctrl, Shift, Alt and AltGr. For a standard modifier key, the microcontroller inside the keyboard sends a scancode for the modifier itself, which is then interpreted by the operating system and combined with other simultaneous key - presses. The Fn key is a form of meta - modifier key, in that it causes the operating system to see altered scancodes when other keys on the keyboard are pressed. This allows the keyboard to directly emulate a full - sized keyboard, so the operating system can use standard keymaps designed for a full - sized keyboard. However, because the operating system has no notion of the Fn key, the key can not normally be remapped in software, unlike all other standard keyboard keys.
While it is most common for the Fn key processing to happen directly in the keyboard micro-controller, offering no knowledge to the main computer of whether the Fn key was pressed, some manufacturers, like Lenovo, perform this mapping in BIOS running on the main CPU, allowing remapping the Fn key by modifying the BIOS interrupt handler; and Apple, in which the Fn key is mappable and serves other uses too, as triggering the Dictation function by pressing the Fn key twice.
In addition to being mapped to standard keyboard keys like Scroll Lock and Num Lock, the Fn key combinations may also be mapped to control system interfaces to change the LCD brightness, VGA output, or speaker volume on most laptop computers.
There is not yet an agreed - upon standard for the placement of the Fn key, although most manufacturers have elected to place it alongside a shrunken and / or displaced left Control key. Because the Control key is most frequently associated with OS and application shortcuts (such as Control + S to save a document, or Control + Shift + Escape to launch the Task Manager in modern versions of Microsoft Windows) altering its size and placement is often regarded as inconvenient for users accustomed to the larger left Control key on IBM PC - style keyboards commonly used for desktop computers.
The majority of portable computer manufacturers today (including HP, Dell, and Samsung) currently place the Fn key between the left Control key and the left Windows key, making it the second key from the left on the bottom row of the keyboard. This usually means that the Control key is reduced in size, but allows it to remain in the lowest - left position on the keyboard.
Conversely, Lenovo currently arrange keyboards on their ThinkPad computers with the Fn key as the lowest - left, making Control the second - from - left on the bottom row. This arrangement is currently unique to ThinkPads amongst all laptops shipped with Windows, but it is one that has been in place since the modern ThinkPad product line was introduced by IBM in 1992. IBM designers rationalised that since the Fn key was used to control features that in some cases had no other physical or software controls (for example, the ThinkLight keyboard - illumination lamp, which is switched only by the Fn + PgUp keys), the Fn key should have the more prominent position on the keyboard. Notably, IBM did not include Windows keys on any of their keyboards until 2006, which meant that though the left Control key was displaced by the Fn key, neither it nor the left Alt key needed to be made smaller. The inclusion of Windows keys on ThinkPad models from mid-2006 onwards was achieved mainly by shrinking the left Alt key, which means that ThinkPad keyboards now generally have larger left Control keys than those of many other manufacturers, and are unique in preserving on laptops the Control; Windows; Alt key arrangement used on most desktop keyboards.
Apple also place the Fn key at the bottom left of the keyboard, displacing and shrinking the left Control key, though this is less controversial as macOS, the main operating system for most Apple laptops, is much less reliant on the Control key for shortcuts and modifiers than Windows or Unix - like operating systems.
This inconsistency between manufacturers, and the overall issue of Control key shrinkage, has long been a point of contention between laptop purchasers and users, which is aggravated by the fact that on most keyboards the Fn key is mapped at the hardware level and so can not be remapped (that is, reconfigured or virtually "moved '') at the OS level. Lenovo, however, have since circa 2011 allowed users to reverse the Fn and left Control key arrangement via a BIOS setting. A different solution, which side - steps the Fn key placement issue altogether, is to remap the Caps - Lock key as Control. This emulates the layout of the IBM Model F keyboard for the original IBM PC, which placed the Caps - Lock key where right Control is found on modern keyboards, a location that is favoured by some Vim and Emacs users because of its prominent location and long - time use on Unix workstations.
Paramount seems to be whether the user keeps their palm stationary on a wrist rest or not. Other factors include the control key 's size, displacement, and position relative to the left - shift key.
A touch typist who prefers to keep their palm resting on a fixed position has difficulty reaching a lower - left control, whereas they can reach a right - displaced control without palm movement. Executing a control - and - shift operation with a right - displaced - control involves curling the little finger slightly underneath the ring - finger. Control key combinations involving the upper - left of the keyboard, including the keys (1, Q, W, 2) require either moving the hand, or using the right - control key with the opposite hand.
A user who hovers their hands and / or moves them laterally may prefer the lower - left control, as combined with movement of the palm, it offers a more open access to the leftmost keys. It also allows control - and - shift operations to be performed without curling the little finger underneath. Some workarounds include using little - finger - shift and ring - finger - control or thumb - control presses. Such change to the point of origin does reduce the useful radius of the first four fingers across the keyboard, yet may be more ergonomic for the hand.
On a fullsize keyboard, some users access the lower - left Control key using the side of their palm, a technique which is not generally possible on shallow throw laptop keyboards with wrist rests.
Fn key features vary from keyboard to keyboard, but the common ones are the follow:
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where does southern california get most of its water | Water in California - Wikipedia
California 's interconnected water system serves over 30 million people and irrigates over 5,680,000 acres (2,300,000 ha) of farmland. As the world 's largest, most productive, and most controversial water system, it manages over 40,000,000 acre feet (49 km) of water per year.
Water and water rights are among the state 's divisive political issues. Due to the lack of reliable dry season rainfall, water is limited in the most populous U.S. state. An ongoing debate is whether the state should increase the redistribution of water to its large agricultural and urban sectors, or increase conservation and preserve the natural ecosystems of the water sources.
California 's limited water supply comes from two main sources: surface water, or water that travels or gathers on the ground, like rivers, streams, and lakes; and groundwater, which is water that is pumped out from the ground. California has also begun producing a small amount of desalinated water, water that was once sea water, but has been purified.
Groundwater is a critical element of the California water supply. During a normal year, 30 % of the state 's water supply comes from groundwater (underground water). In times of intense drought, groundwater consumption can rise to 60 % or more. Over 850,000,000 acre feet (1,050 km) of water is stored in California 's 450 known groundwater reservoirs. However, not all the water is usable. Over half of the groundwater is unavailable due to poor quality and the high cost of pumping the water from the ground. While surface water is concentrated mostly in the northern part of the state, groundwater is more evenly distributed.
The largest groundwater reservoirs are found in the Central Valley. The majority of the supply there is in the form of runoff that seeps into the aquifer. The freshwater is usually found in deposits of gravel, silt, and sand. Below these deposits lies a layer of deep sediment, a relic of the era when the Pacific Ocean covered the area.
Though California has laws governing surface water usage and quality, there exist no statewide groundwater management laws. Each groundwater basin is individually adjudicated to determine water rights. Otherwise, for all practical purposes, land ownership implicitly carries the right to virtually unlimited groundwater pumping.
The large quantity of water beneath the surface has given rise to the misconception that groundwater is a sort of renewable resource that can be limitlessly tapped. Calculations assuming that groundwater usage is sustainable if the rate of removal equals the rate of recharge are often incorrect as a result of ignoring changes in water consumption and water renewal.
While the volume of groundwater in California is very large, aquifers can be over drafted when groundwater is removed more rapidly than it is replenished. In 1999, it was estimated that the average, annual overdrafting was around 2,200,000 acre feet (2.7 km) across the state, with 800,000 acre feet (0.99 km) in the Central Valley. Since then, overdrafting had significantly increased. Satellite measurements found that in just the combined Sacramento and San Joaquin River basins, including the Central Valley, overdrafting between 2011 and 2014 was 12,000,000 acre feet (15 km) of water per year.
California has ten major drainage basins defined for convenience of water management. These basins are divided from one another by the crests of mountains. From north to south the basins are: North Coast, Sacramento River, North Lahontan, San Francisco Bay, San Joaquin River, Central Coast, Tulare Lake, South Lahontan, South Coast, and Colorado River regions. Each region incorporates watersheds from many rivers of similar clime.
The Central Valley watershed, which incorporates the Sacramento River, San Joaquin River and Tulare Lake regions, is the largest in California, draining over a third of the state -- 60,000 square miles (160,000 km) -- and producing nearly half the total runoff. The Sierra Nevada snowpack feeds Central Valley river systems and is a critical source of water in the state 's long dry season when little if any precipitation falls. Up to 30 percent of California 's water supply is from snowpack. Much of California 's extensive reservoir and aqueduct system is designed to store and capture runoff from the Central Valley watershed. The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers converge at the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta, a large fresh - water estuary from where much of the state 's water supply is withdrawn. The Central Valley watershed provides most of the water for Northern and Central California, as well as a significant chunk of Southern California 's usage.
The North Coast watershed receives the highest annual precipitation of any California watershed. It incorporates many large river systems such as the Klamath, Smith and Eel, and produces over a third of the runoff in the state. With a few exceptions, the North Coast watersheds are relatively undeveloped and provides water only to local communities. The vast majority of water flows uncontrolled into the Pacific Ocean. There have been many proposals to divert water from North Coast rivers to increase water supplies in the rest of California, but these projects were never realized, both due to cost and potential environmental harm.
The Colorado River originates more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from California in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming and forms the state 's southeastern border in the Mojave Desert. Unlike the other California watersheds, essentially all of the water flowing in the Colorado originates outside the state. The Colorado is a critical source of irrigation and urban water for southern California, providing between 55 and 65 percent of the total supply.
The Central and South Coast watersheds include the most populous regions of California -- the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles and San Diego -- but have relatively little natural runoff, requiring the importation of water from other parts of the state.
Rivers of the Lahontan watersheds in eastern California are part of the high desert Great Basin and do not drain to the Pacific. Most of the water is used locally in eastern California and western Nevada for irrigation. The Owens River of the South Lahontan region, however, is a principal source of water for Los Angeles.
Rain typically falls in California only during the winter and spring months, from October through May, with more rain falling on the northern half of the state than the southern. Approximately 75 percent of the total precipitation volume occurs north of Sacramento, while 75 percent of the total water demand is in the south. With very rare exceptions, summers are dry throughout the state. Precipitation falling as snow in the Sierra and other mountain ranges feeds the network of reservoirs and surface water sources that supply the state; a low rainfall or light snowfall year can result in drought.
Rivers in northern and coastal California are mainly rain fed, peaking from January to April and falling to very low levels between June and November. Snowmelt has a significant influence on the Sierra Nevada rivers from east of Sacramento to east of Bakersfield, which typically peak between April and July. Snowmelt is also the primary water source for the Colorado River which supplies southern California.
California precipitation and snowpack is measured by the state of California by "water year '', which runs from October 1 to September 30.
In response to water shortages in the state, some water districts are looking to desalination as a way to provide water for residents. Supporters view seawater desalination as a safer water source, since it draws its water from the ocean and thus, is not affected by periods of drought like other sources of water are. Another incentive for desalination is the ability for localities to be more self - sufficient with their water supply, thus improving their drought resilience. However, desalination has been the subject of scrutiny by opponents, who believe that the costs and possible environmental effects of desalination are indicators that California should continue to pursue other alternatives.
Although the response to desalination has been mixed, some areas of California are moving forward with seawater desalination. In December 2015, Poseidon Water completed the construction of the Claude "Bud '' Lewis Carlsbad Desalination Plant. This facility, which was approved by the San Diego Water Authority, is responsible for providing water for about 8 % of San Diego County 's water by the year 2020. As of December 2015, there are 6 additional seawater desalination plants currently in operation in the state of California. As of May 2016, there are also 9 more proposed desalination plants.
Water always gets recycled, via rivers, aquifers, and the atmosphere, but we can also do this directly and intentionally. Water reuse in California is increasingly important, with reclaimed water being used preferably for agricultural irrigation, toilet flushing, and industry (e.g., making concrete, cooling), although some apply direct and indirect potable reuse, risking environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant s and other constituents of emerging concern. Treatment should be in accordance with the use and, in many cases, water can be safely and productively recycled back to the same non-potable use.
Water use in California is divided into approximately 51 % for environmental uses, 39 % agricultural use and 11 % urban uses, though that varies considerably between regions and between wet and dry years. Solely relying on these statewide volumes is controversial because they do n't consider the fact that most of the volume of water used for environmental purposes includes flows down Wild and Scenic Rivers in the North Coast where there is no practical way to recover it for either agricultural or urban use because it lacks many connections to the statewide water supply system. It also does n't factor in the amount of water required to keep salty water from the Pacific Ocean from intruding into the Delta beyond a certain small concentration. Otherwise, "reduced water quality resulting from large amounts of salt water drawn into the Delta could shut down the export pumps that supply fresh water to agriculture and cities. ''
Around 75 % of California 's water supply comes from north of Sacramento, while 80 % of the water demand occurs in the southern two - thirds of the state. The Sacramento - San Joaquin River Delta Estuary located between San Francisco Bay and Sacramento receives about 40 % of California 's total precipitation and 50 % of its total streamflow. It is a critical hub used by the federal Central Valley Project and California State Water Project to connect water collected and stored in the north regions of the state with aqueducts and canals that transport it to users in the North Bay, South Bay, East Bay, and Greater Southern California. In a typical year, about 10.8 million acre - feet are exported from the Delta: 67 % is delivered by the Central Valley Project, 26 % by the State Water Project and the remainder to other federal water project users. Those flows are greatly reduced in drought years. About 16.5 million acre - feet of water entering the Delta in a typical year flows through the Delta into San Francisco Bay, including 6.3 million acre - feet in governmentally mandated environmental flows; 22.4 million acre - feet is used for other environmental purposes, and 1.6 million acre - feet supplies water to managed wetlands and wildlife preserves.
In an average year, about 39 % of California 's water consumption, or 34.1 million acre - feet, is used for agricultural purposes. Of that total, 11 %, or 8.9 million acre - feet is not consumed by the farms for crop production but is instead recycled and reused by other water users, including environmental use, urban use, and agricultural use, yielding net water consumption for food and fiber production equal to 28 % of California 's water consumption, or 25.2 million acre - feet. This water irrigates almost 29 million acres (120,000 km), which grows 350 different crops. Agricultural water usage varies depending on the amount of rainfall each year.
Alfalfa uses about 18 % of California irrigation water and produces 4 % of California 's farm-gate revenue, most of which is used as livestock feed. In 2015, California exported one - fourth of its total alfalfa production of roughly 2 million tons. About one - third of that, around 700,000 tons, went to China, Japan took about the same amount and Saudi Arabia bought 5,000 tons. Alfalfa farmers pay about $70 an acre - foot, in Los Angeles that same amount of water is worth $1000 per acre - foot. In 2012, California exported 575,000 tons of alfalfa to China, for $586 million. Other common crop water use, if using all irrigated water: fruits and nuts with 34 % of water use and 45 % of revenue, field crops with 14 % of water and 4 % of revenue, pasture forage with 11 % of water use and 1 % of revenue, rice with 8 % of water use and 2 % of revenue (despite its lack of water, California grows nearly 5 billion pounds of rice per year, and is the second largest rice - growing state), and truck farming of vegetables and nursery crops with 4 % of water use and 42 % of revenue; head of broccoli: 5.4 gallons; one walnut: 4.9 gallons; head of lettuce: 3.5 gallons; one tomato: 3.3 gallons; one almond 1.1 gallon; one pistachio: 0.75 gallon; one strawberry 0.4 gallon; one grape: 0.3 gallon.
Horses, based on the amount of alfalfa they eat, use about 1.9 million acre feet of water -- about 7 % of irrigated water in the state. There are 698,000 horses in California.
Cheap agricultural water paired with a mild climate has allowed farmers to produce widely in California. Jane Dye Gussow discusses California 's agricultural water in her book This Organic Life. She argues the farms that use precious water in California produces food in an area that "was never intended to be a garden. '' The Central Valley, where the majority of this agricultural water is used, is the most threatened agricultural land in the nation.
California is one of the top five states in water use for livestock. Water withdrawals for livestock use in California were 101 - 250 million gallons per day in 2010.
Urban and industrial use of water consumes about 11 %, or 8.9 million acre - feet, of total water consumption in an average year. A 2011 study of a sampling of 735 California homes across ten water districts found that the weighted average annual total water use of these homes was 132,000 US gallons (0.41 acre ⋅ ft) per year or 362 US gallons (0.00111 acre ⋅ ft) per household per day. The study found that about 53 % of total average household water use, or more than 192 US gallons (0.00059 acre ⋅ ft) per household per day, was used for landscaping and other outdoor uses. Meanwhile, indoor use accounted for more than 170 US gallons (0.00052 acre ⋅ ft) per household per day. The most in - home water consumption is toilet flushes, using 20 % of the water. After toilets, 20 % is used for showers and 18 % goes to leaks inside homes.
In Sacramento, in 2012 before the severe drought started, residents were using 217 US gallons (0.00067 acre ⋅ ft) a day per - capita. Many homes in Sacramento did n't have water meters until recently. They now are gradually being installed after former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a 2004 law mandating meters statewide by 2025.
After Folsom, a city of 72,000 east of Sacramento, installed meters in 2011 and adopted tiered rates that charge more for people who consume the most water, per - capita use started falling steadily.
In response to the severe California drought, in April 2015, Governor Jerry Brown issued an executive order mandating statewide reductions in water use. The mandate aimed to reduce the amount of water consumed statewide in urban areas by 25 % from 2013 levels. The State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) proposed regulatory instructions that grouped urban water utilities into nine tiers, with conservation standards ranging from 8 % to 36 %.
There are six main systems of aqueducts and infrastructure that redistribute and transport water in California: the State Water Project, the Central Valley Project, several Colorado River delivery systems, the Los Angeles Aqueduct, the Tuolumne River / Hetch Hetchy system, and the Mokelumne Aqueduct.
The California State Water Project is the largest multipurpose, state - built water project in the United States. The SWP transports water from the Feather River watershed to agriculture, and some of the water goes to industrial and urban users. More than two - thirds of Californians receive some water from the SWP. The system was designed and contracted to deliver 4,200,000 acre feet (5.2 km), but in an average year delivers only 2,300,000 acre feet (2.8 km) because many of the original planned features were never built. Twenty - nine agencies hold contracts for SWP water. The contractors pay for SWP 's major operating costs and have gradually reduced the $1.75 billion bond debt that supplied funds for initial construction. In the years since 1960, SWP has built 29 dams, 18 pumping plants, five hydroelectric power plants, and around 600 miles (970 km) of canals and pipelines.
The SWP system begins with reservoirs on upper tributaries of the Feather River. Oroville Dam creates the largest SWP reservoir. At 770 feet (230 m) above the riverbed, the dam is the tallest in the United States. The reservoir covers 15,000 acres (61 km) and holds 3,500,000 acre feet (4.3 km). Water travels from Lake Oroville to the Sacramento River. At Harvey O. Banks Delta Pumping Plant, which pulls SWP water into the Bethany Reservoir, around 2,200,000 acre feet (2.7 km) are extracted from the Delta each year. Water that flows to the south end of the San Joaquin Valley must be pumped over the Tehachapi Mountains. Because of this, the SWP is California 's largest energy consumer, and even though the hydroelectric plants of the SWP generate 5,900 GWh per year, that is only a fraction of the energy needed to lift water over the Tehachapis. Below the Tehachapis the California Aqueduct splits, with the west branch storing water in Castaic and Pyramid Lake, and the east branch storing water in the Silverwood Lake reservoir.
The CVP 's original purpose was to tame seasonal flooding and to direct water to the south to irrigate 3 million acres (12,000 km) of farmland. The CVP is operated by the United States Bureau of Reclamation. As one of the largest water systems in the world it stores over 7,000,000 acre feet (8.6 km) of water, or 17 percent of the state 's developed water. The CVP dams and diverts five major rivers: the Trinity, the Sacramento, the American, the Stanislaus, and the San Joaquin. Friant Dam, on the San Joaquin, was completed in 1944, forming Millerton Lake. This was one of 20 reservoirs in the CVP. Shasta Dam, the largest CVP storage facility, was completed in 1945. At Sacramento, American River water stored by Folsom Dam is added. 2,500,000 acre feet (3.1 km) are annually pumped from the Delta into the Delta - Mendota Canal. New Melones Dam on the Stanislaus River was finished in 1979, and the reservoir was filled in 1982.
The CVP has generated some controversy about environmental damage, prices charged to farmers, and lax enforcement of farm size limitations. Bureau of Reclamation water was supposed to be used for farms limited to 160 acres (see Homestead Act). Under Spanish and Mexican land grants, however, there were only a few land owners, all of whom owned large tracts of land. A 1982 reform increased CVP area limits to 960 acres (3.9 km). In 1992, the Central Valley Project Improvement Act made fish and wildlife protection and restoration an authorized purpose of the CVP on an equal footing with other authorized purposes. 800,000 acre feet (0.99 km) of annual runoff were dedicated to environmental usage, which generated intense controversy.
The Colorado River is the source of 4,400,000 acre feet (5.4 km) per year for California. Six other states along the river 's watershed (Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona) and Mexico, share allocated portions of river water. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, or MWD, holds priority water rights on the Colorado. It sells water to 95 percent of the South Coast region. Lake Mead, formed by Hoover Dam, is the primary reservoir in the Colorado River basin. The Colorado River Aqueduct begins 155 miles (249 km) downstream from Hoover Dam, and can carry 1,200,000 acre feet (1.5 km) annually.
An additional system diverts water from the Colorado River at the Imperial Diversion Dam provides waters to the Imperial and Coachella valleys as well as Yuma, Arizona, via the Alamo Canal, the Coachella Canal and the All - American Canal, which runs alongside the Mexican border. This system was also responsible for the accidental re-creation of the Salton Sea in 1905.
The Colorado is considered over-allocated, because apportionments were made on inaccurate measurements of annual runoff. Marc Reisner in Cadillac Desert noted that the Colorado is "unable to satisfy all the demands on it, so it is referred to as a ' deficit ' river, as if the river were somehow at fault for its overuse ''. For years California took more than its share of the apportionment, because other states were not prepared to use their entire allotments. MWD became used to 800,000 acre feet (0.99 km) excess of water. Pressure from other Colorado river states caused the Secretary of the Interior to order California to show progress towards decreasing its dependency on the excess 800,000 acre feet (0.99 km), or face cuts. The Colorado River Water Use Plan called for Imperial and Coachella Valley agriculture to give up water in order to reallocate 800,000 acre feet (0.99 km) within the state. The plan 's proposals generated much controversy, and the deadline arrived with no agreement reached. The Department of the Interior reduced MWD 's access by 415,000 acre feet (0.512 km).
The Los Angeles Aqueduct carries water from the Eastern Sierra Nevada to Los Angeles. The construction of the aqueduct marked the first major water delivery project in California. The city purchased 300,000 acres (1,200 km) of land in the Owens Valley in order to gain access to water rights. The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power transports 400,000 acre feet (0.49 km) of Eastern Sierra Nevada water to the city each year. This growth clearly shows William Mulholland 's observation that "Whoever brings the water, brings the people. ''
After four decades of diversion from the Mono Lake area, environmental damage created an environmental battle in the 1980s, with a victory for the Mono Lake proponents in 1994. Other problems arose when dust from the bed of Owens Lake (completely dried up by diversions) became a major source of air pollution in the southern Owens Valley. To restore Mono Lake, correct air - quality law violations, and rewater portions of the Owens River, Los Angeles has begun to reduce its dependence on Eastern Sierra Nevada water. This has mostly been achieved through water conservation. The city enacted a program offering free low - flow toilets to its customers.
The Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct carries water from the Tuolumne River to San Francisco and other Bay Area regions. The system starts in Hetch Hetchy Valley, inside Yosemite National Park. The system also generates up to 400MW of electrical power, depending on rainfall, most of which is sent to San Francisco via city - owned power lines. After water leaves Hetch Hetchy, it passes through tunnels towards powerhouses. Three pipes then bring the water across the Central Valley. Concerns about the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct 's ability to withstand earthquakes led to a $1.7 billion bond, approved by voters in November 2002.
The East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) serves 35 communities in Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, including Berkeley and Oakland. The Mokelumne River in the central Sierra Nevada is the source for almost all of EBMUD 's water. EBMUD built the Pardee Dam across the Mokelumne in the foothills northeast of Stockton. South of Pardee is Camanche Reservoir, which regulates releases to serve downstream water rights holders. EBMUD holds almost 30,000 acres (120 km) in the Mokulumne River watershed and 25,000 acres (100 km) in other watersheds. EBMUD also has an American River water right that could be sent to the Mokelumne Aqueduct through the Folsom South Canal. The only time this has been done was during the drought years of 1977 -- 78, when the water was actually pumped from the Delta. This generated controversy, as EBMUD preferred the cleaner water from the American River, but environmentalists and Sacramento had concerns about the impacts such a diversion would have on the river. The legal battle led to affirmation of EBMUD 's water right, but modifications were also negotiated. The intake point was moved downstream, to maintain minimum flows in the American River before it merges with the Sacramento.
The North Bay Aqueduct of the California State Water Project delivers an annual average of 39,309 acre - feet of water to urban communities and agricultural users in Napa, Solano, Sonoma and Marin counties. That water is diverted from the Sacramento - San Joaquin River Delta Estuary, a water hub that serves as the junction of south -, west, and north - flowing rivers draining the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges.
Certain municipalities north of San Francisco Bay, including Santa Rosa and Petaluma, are served by the Sonoma County Water Agency. Their primary water source is the Russian River. However, it must be noted that the Russian River owes its summer flow in large part to the Eel, which is bled off via a tunnel into Potter Valley (via the Potter Valley Project) and flows to a reservoir near Ukiah, Lake Mendocino. PG&E now owns the rights to this delivery system, as well as the long controversial history. There are many along the Eel who would like their water back.
The cities of Vallejo, Fairfield, and Vacaville are served by the Solano County Water Agency, which transports water from Lake Berryessa and moves it south along the Putah South Canal. Marin County has the Marin Municipal Water District and the North Marin Water District.
The planning and management of water in California is subject to a vast number of laws, regulations, management plans, and historic water rights. The state agency responsible for water planning is the California Department of Water Resources.
Water purity has been a emerging issue in California, especially in communities with low - income residents. Aging infrastructure, coupled with a lack of research on the topic, has exacerbated this issue, with water health violations occurring in 7 - 8 % of water systems a year. The San Joaquin Valley, a largely rural and agricultural area with 65 % residents being people of color, is registered with the most water quality violations. Tulare, a city within San Joaquin Valley, has 99 % of its residents relying on compromised groundwater, contrasted with Los Angeles County, with 11 % of residents relying only on a contaminated water supply. These water violations often lead to purchased water sources and private ownership of water distribution, as private utilities appear to have larger bandwidth to serve a large population. Trade - offs often include greater inequity in water access, as private utilities face higher repercussions for delivering unsafe water and often decide to opt - out from serving under - resourced populations. In many cases, bottled water is tested less frequently than public water for pollutants, and in 1999, approximately 33 % of bottled water tested by the FDA exceeded allowable limits.
The U.S. Geological Survey analyzed the results of a 2002 study of 10 streams in California and discovered that the Sacramento River had the highest traces of acetaminophen, cholesterol and birth control hormones of any water source in the nation.
There have been several documents known as the "California Water Plan '', with the most recent being published in 2013. Before the state of California started drafting comprehensive plans for the management of water in the state, the earliest plan for water distribution in California was an 1873 report. This was followed by a 1919 report called "Irrigation of Twelve Million Acres in the Valley of California ''. The 1919 report is this first comprehensive plan, and is often called the "Marshall Plan '', after its author Col. Robert Bradford Marshall. There have been many subsequent water plans and water plan updates, which were often issued as California Department of Water Resources bulletins. California Water Code provides guidance or the plan updates. Beginning in 1957, early Water Plan Updates were largely technical and focused on water supply development. Plans gradually became more comprehensive to address the state 's growing conflicts over limited resources. Updates now present the status and trends of California 's water - dependent natural resources; water supplies; and agricultural, urban, and environmental water demands for a range of plausible future scenarios. They also evaluate different combinations of regional and statewide resource management strategies to reduce water demand, increase water supply, reduce flood risk, improve water quality, and enhance environmental and resource stewardship. The evaluations and assessments performed for the updates help identify effective actions and policies for meeting California 's resource management objectives in the near term and for several decades to come.
Since 2000, another major goal for each update has been to receive broad input and support from Californians. Preparation of these new millennial Water Plan updates has been widely viewed as exceptionally transparent and collaborative as the consensus seeking process is routinely cited by other agencies and states as a model for policy planning efforts. The approach involves: interest based dialog and exchange among teams, committees and the public to develop work products; multiple opportunities for review by different audiences; and integration and reconciliation of feedback from a variety of perspectives.
Update 2013 leverages the clear guidance Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. (Jerry Brown) forged with his California Water Action Plan. That five - year plan, released in January 2014, outlines a succinct set of actions that together bring reliability, restoration, and resilience to California water resources, even as the state 's population is expected to grow from 38 million to 50 million by 2049.
Three related themes distinguish Update 2013 from Update 2009. The five year time span reinforced the value of integrated water management, and Update 2013 closely examines the practices and policies that allow water managers to combine flood management, environmental stewardship, and surface water and groundwater supply actions to deliver multiple benefits across a region. Fundamental to that integrated approach is better alignment in the management of data, planning, policy - making, and regulation across local, State, tribal, and federal governments.
On more than one occasion, the California Supreme Court has noted that "the scope and technical complexity of issues concerning water resource management are unequalled by virtually any other type of activity presented to the courts. '' An example of this complexity is demonstrated in the case of National Audubon Society v. Superior Court.
Water rights are divided in multiple ways. Water rights to surface water and underground sources are separate. Also, California recognizes four distinct types of water rights to surface water in its statutory and common law: pueblo, riparian, prior appropriation, and water reserved by the US. A fifth statutory right also provides area of origin watershed rights.
California recognizes water rights granted to pueblos (settlements) under the Spanish and Mexican governments, prior to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Under the doctrine, pueblos organized under the laws of Mexico or Spain have a water right to the yield of all streams and rivers flowing through the city and the groundwater aquifers lying below. Pueblo water rights are superior to all riparian and appropriative rights and can not be lost by a failure to assert an interest or use the water. In addition, the pueblo 's claim expands with the needs of the city and may be used to supply the needs of areas that are later annexed to the city. Los Angeles and San Diego are the only original pueblos to exercise their pueblo water rights in the courts.
Pueblo water rights are controversial. Some modern scholars and courts argue that the pueblo water rights doctrine lacks a historical basis in Spanish or Mexican water law.
Under the riparian doctrine, "the owner of land has the right to divert the water flowing by his land for use upon his land, without regard to the extent of such use or priority in time ''. "Riparians on a stream system are vested with a common ownership such that in times of water shortage all riparians must reduce their usage proportionately. ''
Riparian water rights were inherited from the common law of England. Under the doctrine, property owners have correlative rights to the reasonable use of the water passing through their land adjacent to the watercourse. The right is part and parcel with the land itself and, in California, only accompanies those tracts that have always directly touched the water.
The English focus on landownership differs sharply from the "first in time, first in right '' approach 49ers, who were generally trespassing on federal land, developed to wash hills into rivers. In Lux v. Haggin (1886) the California Supreme Court resolved the conflict by finding that riparian water rights are superior even to older prior appropriations. When in 1926 the Court went so far as to find that riparian owners did not need to put their water to beneficial use, the People amended the California Constitution to reverse the decision, establishing that no water in the state may be wasted.
While riparian rights are superior to appropriative rights and may survive dormant and unused, in 1979 the California Supreme Court found that the California State Water Resources Control Board has the power to assign unused riparian rights lower priority than existing prior appropriations.
"The appropriation doctrine confers upon one who actually diverts and uses water the right to do so provided that the water is used for reasonable and beneficial uses, '' regardless of whether that person owns land contiguous to the watercourse. In addition, all appropriative rights are subordinate to riparians or earlier appropriators. In times of shortage riparians are entitled to fulfill their needs before appropriators are entitled to any use of the water. "And, as between appropriators, the rule of priority is ' first in time, first in right. ' '' Beginning in 1914, a statutory scheme has provided the exclusive method of acquiring appropriation rights through the California State Water Resources Control Board. The modern system of prior appropriation water rights followed by California is characterized by five principles:
Beneficial use is defined as agricultural, industrial, or urban use. Environmental uses, such as maintaining body of water and the wildlife that use it, were not initially regarded as beneficial uses in some states but have been accepted in some areas. Every water right is parameterized by an annual yield and an appropriation date. When a water right is sold, it maintains its original appropriation date.
Lands reserved by the United States government are accompanied by a corresponding reservation of water rights for as much water is needed to fulfill the purpose for which the reservation was made. Such reservations were made on behalf of Native American tribes, national parks, monuments and forests. Water rights reserved by the United States are defined by and controlled by federal law. And because reserved water rights are not riparian nor appropriative, they may conflict with state law.
California provides communities and other water users within watersheds senior status over appropriative water rights in limited circumstances. California area of origin laws include The County of Origin Law (1931), The Water Protection Statute (1933), and The Delta Protection Act (1959).
Area of origin water rights parallel pueblo water rights. In both cases, water is reserved for future growth of the local community. In other words, appropriations may be subject to a water rights claim from people / government in the area of origin. That later claim would be senior despite its temporal disconnect. As a result of its pueblo rights, Los Angeles has rights to all or almost all water from the Los Angeles River. In the same way, communities along major water sources such as the Sacramento River theoretically have senior water rights to support growth despite a downstream user holding otherwise senior appropriative water rights.
Area of origin laws were passed in reaction to the controversies related to Los Angeles diverting water from the Owens Valley. Despite being on the books for generations, the area of origin statutes were not used until 2000. In addition, there currently are no court opinions regarding area of origin watershed rights.
Since under the law, landowners can extract as much groundwater from their property as they can put to beneficial use, adjudication was used to determine who had the right to pump how much and to audit such usage. The courts appoint water masters to audit usage and otherwise enforce water rights, who are often management boards, the federal United States Department of the Interior, the California Department of Water Resources, or an individual.
The California Water Wars, a struggle between Los Angeles and certain parties within the Owens Valley, for water rights is but one of examples of the alleged wrongdoings of municipalities and people in securing adequate water supplies. The city of Los Angeles bought 300,000 acres (1,200 km) of land from residents of the Owens Valley and the water rights attached with them, for a fair price. The diverting of this water from the valley, transformed it from an agricultural valley into a dust bowl.
The electricity produced by the hydroelectric plants drawing their water from the Hetch Hetchy reservoir became the subject of controversy when it was reported by the San Francisco Bay Guardian that the city of San Francisco sold roughly 500 megawatts of power to the PG&E, supposedly in violation of the Raker Act, which specifies that because the source of water and power was on public land, no private profit could be gained from such sales. Whether or not the Raker Act is indeed being violated is still a matter of controversy.
The creation of so many dams in California in order to enact a pragmatic water supply program has been met with criticism from some environmentalists, who have decried the negative effects of dams on ecosystems, particularly on migratory fish populations.
It is projected that California 's population will grow to almost 50 million by 2050. If the prediction comes true and there is no action to increase the water supply, the difference between water demand and supply would be between 2,000,000 and 6,000,000 acre feet (7.4 km) in the year 2020. Over the past five years California voters have approved $3 billion in bonds for water development and management. Many of these projects are incorporated in the CALFED Bay - Delta program, a federal - state program designed to reduce water supply conflicts. In August 2000 the state and federal governments approved the CALFED plan for water quality, water conservation and recycling, watershed administration, ecosystem re-establishment, delta levees, surface and groundwater storage, water transportation, and science. The plan has a thirty - year implementation period and designed to incorporate changes in conditions and knowledge about the effects of specific projects. Stage 1 was initiated in 2000 and was designed as a seven - year program. The cost is estimated to be $8.7 billion. Stage 1 water yield within the next seven to ten years is estimated to be 2,900,000 acre feet (3.6 km) per year. As part of Stage 1, an Environmental Water Account was established through the purchase of 350,000 acre feet (0.43 km) of water. The EWA is used to protect fish and other wildlife without reducing water allocations to farms and municipalities.
A $7.5 billion water bond was approved in November 2014 with a 2 to 1 ratio. The bond - financing has been contentiously debated by the legislature and Governor Jerry Brown for the past few years, was said to improve the water quality, supply and infrastructure, if passed by voters.
The California Water Documents collection in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library is a valuable online resource of archived materials related to California 's water history. Additionally, the collection has digitized materials relating to the creation and operation of both the Central Valley Project and the California State Water Project as well as their component units. The items represented in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library are part of a larger collection entitled the Water Resources Collection in Special Collections at Claremont Colleges ' Honnold / Mudd Library. The Water Resources Collection was started in the 1930s by Librarian Willis Holmes Kerr and Librarian and Claremont Colleges ' Trustee John Treanor. These librarians ' interest in California 's water problem led them to start collecting a variety of documents related to water history and usage from around the state. It includes reports of engineers, annual reports and minute books of boards of directors of water companies, documents of federal and state governments, promotional pamphlets, and newspaper clippings. Most of the documents focus on the water history from the first half of the 20th century, but there are additional, more recent publications included, which have been donated by Claremont Graduate University Professor Merrill Goodall. The California Water Documents collection is currently a work in progress at the Claremont Colleges Digital Library.
The Water Resources Collections and Archives is located at the University of California, Riverside and features a comprehensive collection of water - resource related documents.
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when you have to get up early meme | All your base are belong to us - Wikipedia
"All your base are belong to us '' is a popular Internet meme based on a broken English ("Engrish '') phrase found in the opening cutscene of the 1992 Mega Drive port of the 1989 arcade video game Zero Wing. The quote comes from the European release of the game, featuring poor English translations of the original Japanese version.
The meme developed from this as the result of a GIF animation depicting the opening text, which was initially popularized on the Something Awful message forums.
The phrase or some variation of lines from the game has appeared in numerous articles, books, comics, clothing, movies, radio shows, songs, television shows, video games, webcomics, and websites.
In November 2000, Kansas City computer programmer, Something Awful forum member, and part - time disc jockey Jeffrey Ray Roberts of the Gabber band the Laziest Men on Mars, made a techno dance track, "Invasion of the Gabber Robots '', which remixed some of the Zero Wing video game music by Tatsuya Uemura with a voice - over phrase "All your base are belong to us ''. Tribal War forums member Bad_CRC in February 2001 created a video combining Roberts ' song and the various images created in a Something Awful AYB photoshop thread, which proceeded to go viral.
On February 23, 2001, Wired provided an early report on the phenomenon, covering it from the Flash animation to its spread through email and Internet forums to T - shirts bearing the phrase. Empire Earth, released in 2001, used the phrase as a cheat code to obtain 100,000 of each of the in game resources.
On April 1, 2003, in Sturgis, Michigan, seven people aged 17 to 20 placed signs all over town that read: "All your base are belong to us. You have no chance to survive make your time. '' They claimed to be playing an April Fool 's joke, but most people who saw the signs were unfamiliar with the phrase. Many residents were upset that the signs appeared while the U.S. was at war with Iraq and police chief Eugene Alli said the signs could be "a borderline terrorist threat, depending on what someone interprets it to mean ''.
In February 2004, North Carolina State University students and members of TheWolfWeb in Raleigh, North Carolina exploited a Web - based service used by local schools and businesses to report weather - related closures to display the phrase within a news ticker on a live news broadcast on News 14 Carolina.
On June 1, 2006, YouTube was taken down temporarily for maintenance. The phrase "ALL YOUR VIDEO ARE BELONG TO US '' appeared below the YouTube logo as a placeholder while the site was down. Some users believed the site had been hacked, leading YouTube to add the message "No, we have n't be (sic) hacked. Get a sense of humor. ''
The phrase appears in the 2006 animated movie Tekkonkinkreet after the character Black attacks a boy playing a video game.
The 2012 movie Wreck - It Ralph features several nods to retro video games, among which is a graffitied message that reads "ALL YOUR BASE ARE BELONG TO US! ''
On June 12, 2014, Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla Motors, released a blog posting titled "All our Patent Are Belong to You ''. In the posting, Musk stated that "Tesla will not initiate patent lawsuits against anyone who, in good faith, wants to use our technology. ''
With the 2017 release of The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, pedestals that gave Link (the main protagonist of the game) magic runes or map information in his Sheikah Slate showed letters of the Sheikah Alphabet, a mythical language in The Legend of Zelda series. Some of the text reads: "All Your Base Are ''.
On episode 5 of the first season of Steins; Gate (TV series), 2 of the main characters share an argument about an "IBN 5100 '' computer (part of the story 's lore), in which they mention a modified version of the phrase by one character saying "All his base... '' and the other interrupting with "are not belong to me ''.
In the Sid Meier video game, Civilization III, when the game ends in the player 's defeat, the other civilization leaders have pop - up phrases that heckle the losing player, one of them being, "All your base are belong to us. ''
In the video game Tropico 4 by Kalypso Media, an event window can appear telling the player one of his buildings has a bomb in it. The text simulates a note written in broken English that includes "All your base are belong to us '' as a threat from the supposed rebels on your island
In Hiveswap, a character named Trizza Tethis, known as the heiress of the planet Alternia, is shown in a portrait in Xefros Tritoh 's hive (or house), with the caption "All your hives are belong to us '' in Alternian.
In the video game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3, a song from the official soundtrack is titled "All Your Base Are Belong to Us. ''
In the video game Command & Conquer: Generals, the trailer to the GLA faction shouts at the end "All Your Base Are Belong to Us. ''
In the video game World of Warships, a limited time challenge for ships Tier V or higher was titled "All Your Base Are Belong to Us. ''
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how to find rms value of sine wave | Root mean square - wikipedia
In statistics and its applications, the root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms) is defined as the square root of mean square (the arithmetic mean of the squares of a set of numbers). The RMS is also known as the quadratic mean and is a particular case of the generalized mean with exponent 2. RMS can also be defined for a continuously varying function in terms of an integral of the squares of the instantaneous values during a cycle.
For a cyclically alternating electric current, RMS is equal to the value of the direct current that would produce the same average power dissipation in a resistive load. In Estimation theory the root mean square error of an estimator is a measure of the imperfection of the fit of the estimator to the data.
The RMS value of a set of values (or a continuous - time waveform) is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the values, or the square of the function that defines the continuous waveform. In Physics, the RMS current is the "value of the direct current that dissipates power in a resistor. ''
In the case of a set of n values (x 1, x 2,..., x n) (\ displaystyle \ (x_ (1), x_ (2), \ dots, x_ (n) \)), the RMS
The corresponding formula for a continuous function (or waveform) f (t) defined over the interval T 1 ≤ t ≤ T 2 (\ displaystyle T_ (1) \ leq t \ leq T_ (2)) is
and the RMS for a function over all time is
The RMS over all time of a periodic function is equal to the RMS of one period of the function. The RMS value of a continuous function or signal can be approximated by taking the RMS of a sequence of equally spaced samples. Additionally, the RMS value of various waveforms can also be determined without calculus, as shown by Cartwright.
In the case of the RMS statistic of a random process, the expected value is used instead of the mean.
If the waveform is a pure sine wave, the relationships between amplitudes (peak - to - peak, peak) and RMS are fixed and known, as they are for any continuous periodic wave. However, this is not true for an arbitrary waveform which may or may not be periodic or continuous. For a zero - mean sine wave, the relationship between RMS and peak - to - peak amplitude is:
For other waveforms the relationships are not the same as they are for sine waves.
Waveforms made by summing known simple waveforms have an RMS that is the root of the sum of squares of the component RMS values, if the component waveforms are orthogonal (that is, if the average of the product of one simple waveform with another is zero for all pairs other than a waveform times itself).
A special case of this, particularly helpful in electrical engineering, is given # In electrical engineering below. Another special case, useful in statistics, is given in # Relationship to other statistics.
(If the waveforms are in phase, then their RMS amplitudes sum directly.)
In electrical engineering, a special case of # RMS of waveform combinations (see also # Relationship to other statistics) is:
where R M S DC (\ displaystyle RMS_ (\ text (DC))) refers to the direct current component of the signal and R M S AC (\ displaystyle RMS_ (\ text (AC))) is the alternating current component of the signal.
Electrical engineers often need to know the power, P, dissipated by an electrical resistance, R. It is easy to do the calculation when there is a constant current, I, through the resistance. For a load of R ohms, power is defined simply as:
However, if the current is a time - varying function, I (t), this formula must be extended to reflect the fact that the current (and thus the instantaneous power) is varying over time. If the function is periodic (such as household AC power), it is still meaningful to discuss the average power dissipated over time, which is calculated by taking the average power dissipation:
So, the RMS value, I, of the function I (t) is the constant current that yields the same power dissipation as the time - averaged power dissipation of the current I (t).
Average power can also be found using the same method that in the case of a time - varying voltage, V (t), with RMS value V,
This equation can be used for any periodic waveform, such as a sinusoidal or sawtooth waveform, allowing us to calculate the mean power delivered into a specified load.
By taking the square root of both these equations and multiplying them together, the power is found to be:
Both derivations depend on voltage and current being proportional (i.e., the load, R, is purely resistive). Reactive loads (i.e., loads capable of not just dissipating energy but also storing it) are discussed under the topic of AC power.
In the common case of alternating current when I (t) is a sinusoidal current, as is approximately true for mains power, the RMS value is easy to calculate from the continuous case equation above. If I is defined to be the peak current, then:
where t is time and ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2π / T, where T is the period of the wave).
Since I is a positive constant:
Using a trigonometric identity to eliminate squaring of trig function:
but since the interval is a whole number of complete cycles (per definition of RMS), the sin terms will cancel out, leaving:
A similar analysis leads to the analogous equation for sinusoidal voltage:
Where I represents the peak current and V represents the peak voltage.
Because of their usefulness in carrying out power calculations, listed voltages for power outlets (e.g., 120 V in the USA, or 230 V in Europe) are almost always quoted in RMS values, and not peak values. Peak values can be calculated from RMS values from the above formula, which implies V = V × √ 2, assuming the source is a pure sine wave. Thus the peak value of the mains voltage in the USA is about 120 × √ 2, or about 170 volts. The peak - to - peak voltage, being double this, is about 340 volts. A similar calculation indicates that the peak mains voltage in Europe is about 325 volts, and the peak - to - peak mains voltage, about 650 volts.
RMS quantities such as electric current are usually calculated over one cycle. However, for some purposes the RMS current over a longer period is required when calculating transmission power losses. The same principle applies, and (for example) a current of 10 amps used for 12 hours each day represents an RMS current of 5 amps in the long term.
The term "RMS power '' is sometimes erroneously used in the audio industry as a synonym for "mean power '' or "average power '' (it is proportional to the square of the RMS voltage or RMS current in a resistive load). For a discussion of audio power measurements and their shortcomings, see Audio power.
In the physics of gas molecules, the root - mean - square speed is defined as the square root of the average squared - speed. The RMS speed of an ideal gas is calculated using the following equation:
where R represents the ideal gas constant, 8.314 J / (mol K), T is the temperature of the gas in kelvins, and M is the molar mass of the gas in kilograms. The generally accepted terminology for speed as compared to velocity is that the former is the scalar magnitude of the latter. Therefore, although the average speed is between zero and the RMS speed, the average velocity for a stationary gas is zero.
When two data sets -- one set from theoretical prediction and the other from actual measurement of some physical variable, for instance -- are compared, the RMS of the pairwise differences of the two data sets can serve as a measure how far on average the error is from 0. The mean of the pairwise differences does not measure the variability of the difference, and the variability as indicated by the standard deviation is around the mean instead of 0. Therefore, the RMS of the differences is a meaningful measure of the error.
The RMS can be computed in the frequency domain, using Parseval 's theorem. For a sampled signal x (n) = x (t = n T) (\ displaystyle x (n) = x (t = nT)), where T (\ displaystyle T) is the sampling period,
where X (m) = FFT (x (n)) (\ displaystyle X (m) = \ operatorname (FFT) \ (x (n) \)) and N is number of samples and FFT coefficients.
In this case, the RMS computed in the time domain is the same as in the frequency domain:
If x _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (x))) is the arithmetic mean and σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)) is the standard deviation of a population or a waveform then:
From this it is clear that the RMS value is always greater than or equal to the average, in that the RMS includes the "error '' / square deviation as well.
Physical scientists often use the term "root mean square '' as a synonym for standard deviation when it can be assumed the input signal has zero mean, i.e., referring to the square root of the mean squared deviation of a signal from a given baseline or fit. This is useful for electrical engineers in calculating the "AC only '' RMS of a signal. Standard deviation being the root mean square of a signal 's variation about the mean, rather than about 0, the DC component is removed (i.e. RMS (signal) = Stdev (signal) if the mean signal is 0). A special case of this, particularly helpful in electrical engineering, is given above.
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who wrote the book the count of monte cristo from 1844 | The Count of Monte Cristo - wikipedia
The Count of Monte Cristo (French: Le Comte de Monte - Cristo) is an adventure novel by French author Alexandre Dumas (père) completed in 1844. It is one of the author 's most popular works, along with The Three Musketeers. Like many of his novels, it was expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. Another important work by Dumas, written prior to his work with Maquet, was the short novel "Georges ''; this novel is of particular interest to scholars because Dumas reused many of the ideas and plot devices later in The Count of Monte Cristo.
The story takes place in France, Italy, and islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815 -- 1839: the era of the Bourbon Restoration through the reign of Louis - Philippe of France. It begins just before the Hundred Days period (when Napoleon returned to power after his exile). The historical setting is a fundamental element of the book, an adventure story primarily concerned with themes of hope, justice, vengeance, mercy, and forgiveness. It centres on a man who is wrongfully imprisoned, escapes from jail, acquires a fortune, and sets about exacting revenge on those responsible for his imprisonment. His plans have devastating consequences for both the innocent and the guilty. The book is a story of romance, loyalty, betrayal, vengeance, selfishness, and justice.
The book is considered a literary classic today. According to Luc Sante, "The Count of Monte Cristo has become a fixture of Western civilization 's literature, as inescapable and immediately identifiable as Mickey Mouse, Noah 's flood, and the story of Little Red Riding Hood. ''
Dumas wrote that the idea of revenge in The Count of Monte Cristo came from a story in a book compiled by Jacques Peuchet, a French police archivist, published in 1838 after the death of the author. Dumas included this essay in one of the editions from 1846. Peuchet told of a shoemaker, Pierre Picaud, living in Nîmes in 1807, who was engaged to marry a rich woman when three jealous friends falsely accused him of being a spy for England. Picaud was placed under a form of house arrest in the Fenestrelle Fort, where he served as a servant to a rich Italian cleric. When the man died, he left his fortune to Picaud, whom he had begun to treat as a son. Picaud then spent years plotting his revenge on the three men who were responsible for his misfortune. He stabbed the first with a dagger on which were printed the words "Number One '', and then he poisoned the second. The third man 's son he lured into crime and his daughter into prostitution, finally stabbing the man himself. This third man, named Loupian, had married Picaud 's fiancée while Picaud was under arrest.
In another of the "True Stories '', Peuchet describes a poisoning in a family. This story, also quoted in the Pleiade edition, has obviously served as model for the chapter of the murders inside the Villefort family. The introduction to the Pleiade edition mentions other sources from real life: Abbé Faria existed and died in 1819 after a life with much resemblance to that of the Faria in the novel. As for Dantès, his fate is quite different from his model in Peuchet 's book, since the latter is murdered by the "Caderousse '' of the plot. But Dantès has "alter egos '' in two other Dumas works; in "Pauline '' from 1838, and more significantly in "Georges '' from 1843, where a young man with black ancestry is preparing a revenge against white people who had humiliated him.
On the day of his wedding to Mercédès, Edmond Dantès, first mate of the Pharaon, is falsely accused of treason, arrested, and imprisoned without trial in the Château d'If, a grim island fortress off Marseilles. A fellow prisoner, Abbé Faria, correctly deduces that his jealous rival Fernand Mondego, envious crewmate Danglars, and double - dealing Magistrate De Villefort framed him. Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure. As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo, he arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him.
In 1815, Edmond Dantès, a young merchant sailor who has recently been granted the succession of his captain Leclère, returns to Marseille to marry his Catalan fiancée Mercédès. Leclère, a supporter of the exiled Napoléon I, found himself dying at sea and charged Dantès to deliver two objects: a package to General Bertrand (exiled with Napoleon Bonaparte on Elba), and a letter from Elba to an unknown man in Paris. On the eve of Dantès ' wedding to Mercédès, Fernand Mondego (Mercédès ' cousin and a rival for her affections) is given advice by Dantès ' colleague Danglars (who is jealous of Dantès ' rapid rise to captain) to send an anonymous note accusing Dantès of being a Bonapartist traitor. Caderousse (Dantès ' cowardly and selfish neighbor) is drunk while the two conspirators set the trap for Dantès and stays quiet as Dantès is arrested, then sentenced. Villefort, the deputy crown prosecutor in Marseille, destroys the letter from Elba when he discovers that it is addressed to his own father, Noirtier (who is a Bonapartist), since if this letter came into official hands, it would destroy his ambitions and reputation as a staunch Royalist. To silence Dantès, he condemns him without trial to life imprisonment.
After six years of imprisonment in the Château d'If, Dantès is on the verge of suicide when he befriends the Abbé Faria ("The Mad Priest ''), a fellow prisoner who had dug an escape tunnel that ended up in Dantès ' cell. Over the next eight years, Faria gives Dantès an extensive education in language, culture, and science. Knowing himself to be close to death, Faria tells Dantès the location of a treasure on the island of Monte Cristo. When Faria dies, Dantès takes his place in the burial sack. When the guards throw the sack into the sea, Dantès breaks through and swims to a nearby island. He is rescued by a smuggling ship that stops at Monte Cristo. After recovering the treasure, Dantès returns to Marseille. He later purchases the island of Monte Cristo and the title of Count from the Tuscan government.
Traveling as the Abbé Busoni, Dantès meets Caderousse, now living in poverty, who regrets not intervening and possibly saving Dantès from prison. He gives Caderousse a diamond that can be either a chance to redeem himself or a trap that will lead to his ruin. Learning that his old employer Morrel is on the verge of bankruptcy, Dantès buys Morrel 's debts and gives Morrel three months to fulfill his obligations. At the end of the three months and with no way to repay his debts, Morrel is about to commit suicide when he learns that his debts have been mysteriously paid and that one of his lost ships has returned with a full cargo, secretly rebuilt and laden by Dantès.
Reappearing as the rich Count of Monte Cristo, Dantès begins his revenge on the three men responsible for his unjust imprisonment: Fernand, now Count de Morcerf and Mercédès ' husband; Danglars, now a baron and a wealthy banker; and Villefort, now procureur du roi. The Count appears first in Rome, where he becomes acquainted with the Baron Franz d'Épinay, and Viscount Albert de Morcerf, the son of Mercédès and Fernand. Dantès arranges for the young Morcerf to be captured by the bandit Luigi Vampa and then seemingly rescues him from Vampa 's gang. The Count then moves to Paris and dazzles Danglars with his wealth, persuading him to extend him a credit of six million francs. The Count manipulates the bond market and quickly destroys a large portion of Danglars ' fortune. The rest of it begins to rapidly disappear through mysterious bankruptcies, suspensions of payment, and more bad luck in the Stock Exchange.
Villefort had once conducted an affair with Madame Danglars. She became pregnant and delivered the child in the house that the Count has now purchased. To cover up the affair, Villefort told Madame Danglars that the infant was stillborn, smothered the child, and thinking him to be dead, buried him in the garden. While Villefort was burying the child, he was stabbed by the smuggler Bertuccio, who unearthed the child and resuscitated him. Bertuccio 's sister - in - law brought the child up, giving him the name "Benedetto. '' Benedetto takes up a life of crime as he grows into adolescence. He robs his adoptive mother (Bertuccio 's sister - in - law) and ends up killing her, then runs away. Bertuccio later becomes the Count 's servant and informs him of this history.
Benedetto is sentenced to the galleys with Caderousse, who had sold the diamond but killed both his wife and the buyer out of greed. After Benedetto and Caderousse are freed by Dantès, using the alias "Lord Wilmore, '' the Count induces Benedetto to take the identity of "Viscount Andrea Cavalcanti '' and introduces him into Parisian society. Andrea ingratiates himself to Danglars, who betroths his daughter Eugénie to Andrea (not knowing they are half - siblings) after cancelling her engagement to Albert. Meanwhile, Caderousse blackmails Andrea, threatening to reveal his past if he does n't share his new - found wealth. Cornered by "Abbé Busoni '' while attempting to rob the Count 's house, Caderousse begs to be given another chance. Dantès forces him to write a letter to Danglars exposing Cavalcanti as an impostor and allows Caderousse to leave the house. The moment Caderousse leaves the estate, he is stabbed by Andrea. Caderousse dictates a deathbed statement identifying his killer, and the Count reveals his true identity to Caderousse moments before he dies.
Years before, Ali Pasha of Janina had been betrayed to the Turks by Fernand. After Ali 's death, Fernand sold Ali 's wife Vasiliki and his daughter Haydée into slavery. While Vasiliki died shortly thereafter, Dantès purchased Haydée. The Count manipulates Danglars into researching the event, which is published in a newspaper. As a result, Fernand is investigated by his peers and disgraced. When Albert blames the Count for his father 's downfall and challenges him to a duel, Mercédès, having already recognized Monte Cristo as Dantès, goes to the Count and begs him to spare her son. During this interview, she learns the truth of his arrest and imprisonment but still convinces the Count not to kill her son. Realizing that Edmond now intends to let Albert kill him, she reveals the truth to Albert, which causes Albert to make a public apology to the Count. Albert and Mercédès disown Fernand, who is confronted with Dantès ' true identity and commits suicide. Albert and Mercédès renounce their titles and wealth and depart to begin new lives.
Valentine, Villefort 's daughter by his late first wife, stands to inherit the fortune of her grandfather (Noirtier) and of her mother 's parents (the Saint - Mérans), while Villefort 's second wife Héloïse seeks the fortune for her son Édouard. The Count is aware of Héloïse 's intentions and introduces her to the technique of poison. Héloïse fatally poisons the Saint - Mérans, so that Valentine inherits their fortune. Valentine is disinherited by Noirtier in an attempt to prevent Valentine 's impending marriage with Franz d'Épinay, whom she does not love. The marriage is cancelled when d'Épinay learns that his father (believed assassinated by Bonapartists) was actually killed by Noirtier in a fair duel. Afterwards, Valentine is reinstated in Noirtier 's will. After a failed attempt on Noirtier 's life, Héloïse targets Valentine so that Édouard will get the fortune. However, Valentine is the prime suspect in her father 's eyes in the deaths of the Saint - Mérans and Noirtier 's servant, Barrois. On learning that Morrel 's son Maximilien is in love with Valentine, the Count saves her by making it appear as though Héloïse 's plan to poison Valentine has succeeded and that Valentine is dead. Villefort learns from Noirtier that Héloïse is the real murderer and confronts her, giving her the choice of a public execution or committing suicide.
Fleeing after Caderousse 's letter exposes him, Andrea is arrested and returned to Paris, where Villefort prosecutes him. While in prison awaiting trial, Andrea is visited by Bertuccio, who tells him the truth about his father. At his trial, Andrea reveals that he is Villefort 's son and was rescued after Villefort buried him alive. Villefort admits his guilt and flees the court. He rushes home to stop his wife 's suicide but is too late; she has poisoned her son as well. Dantès confronts Villefort, revealing his true identity, but this drives Villefort insane. Dantès tries but fails to resuscitate Édouard, causing him to question if he has gone too far.
After the Count 's manipulation of the bond market, Danglars is left with a destroyed reputation and 5,000,000 francs he has been holding in deposit for hospitals. The Count demands this sum to fulfil their credit agreement, and Danglars embezzles the hospital fund. Abandoning his wife, Danglars flees to Italy with the Count 's receipt and 50,000 francs. While leaving Rome, he is kidnapped by the Count 's agent Luigi Vampa and is imprisoned. Forced to pay exorbitant prices for food and nearly starved to death, Danglars signs away his ill - gotten gains. Dantès anonymously returns the stolen money to the hospitals. Danglars finally repents his crimes, and a softened Dantès forgives him and allows him to leave with his freedom and 50,000 francs.
Maximilien Morrel, believing Valentine to be dead, contemplates suicide after her funeral. Dantès reveals his true identity and explains that he rescued Morrel 's father from bankruptcy years earlier; he then tells Maximilien to reconsider his suicide. On the island of Monte Cristo, Dantès presents Valentine to Maximilien and reveals the true sequence of events. Having found peace, Dantès leaves the newly reunited couple part of his fortune and departs for an unknown destination to find comfort and a new life with Haydée, who has declared her love for him. The reader is left with a final thought: "all human wisdom is contained in these two words, ' Wait and Hope ' ''.
The Count of Monte Cristo was originally published in the Journal des Débats in eighteen parts. Serialization ran from August 28, 1844 to January 15, 1846. The first edition in book form was published in Paris by Pétion in 18 volumes with the first two issued in 1844 and the remaining sixteen in 1845. Most of the Belgian pirated editions, the first Paris edition and many others up to the Lécrivain et Toubon illustrated edition of 1860 feature a misspelling of the title with "Christo '' used instead of "Cristo ''. The first edition to feature the correct spelling was the L'Écho des Feuilletons illustrated edition, Paris 1846. This edition featured plates by Paul Gavarni and Tony Johannot and was said to be "revised '' and "corrected '', although only the chapter structure appears to have been altered with an additional chapter entitled La Maison des Allées de Meilhan having been created by splitting Le Départ into two.
The first appearance of The Count of Monte Cristo in English was the first part of a serialization by W. Francis Ainsworth in volume VII of Ainsworth 's Magazine published in 1845, although this was an abridged summary of the first part of the novel only and was entitled The Prisoner of If. Ainsworth translated the remaining chapters of the novel, again in abridged form, and issued these in volumes VIII and IX of the magazine in 1845 and 1846 respectively. Another abridged serialisation appeared in The London Journal between 1846 and 1847.
The first single volume translation in English was an abridged edition with woodcuts published by Geo Pierce in January 1846 entitled The Prisoner of If or The Revenge of Monte Christo.
In April 1846, volume three of the Parlour Novelist, Belfast, Ireland: Simms and M'Intyre, London: WS Orr and Company, featured the first part of an unabridged translation of the novel by Emma Hardy. The remaining two parts would be issued as the Count of Monte Christo volumes I and II in volumes 8 and 9 of the Parlour Novelist respectively.
The most common English translation is an anonymous one originally published in 1846 by Chapman and Hall. This was originally released in ten weekly installments from March 1846 with six pages of letterpress and two illustrations by M Valentin. The translation was released in book form with all twenty illustrations in two volumes in May 1846, a month after the release of the first part of the above - mentioned translation by Emma Hardy. The translation follows the revised French edition of 1846, with the correct spelling of "Cristo '' and the extra chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan.
Most English editions of the novel follow the anonymous translation. In 1889 two of the major American publishers Little Brown and T.Y Crowell updated the translation, correcting mistakes and revising the text to reflect the original serialised version. This resulted in the removal of the chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan, with the text restored to the end of the chapter called The Departure.
In 1955 Collins published an updated version of the anonymous translation which cut several passages including a whole chapter entitled The Past and renamed others. This abridgement was republished by many Collins imprints and other publishers including the Modern Library, Vintage, the 1998 Oxford World 's Classics edition (later editions restored the text) and the 2009 Everyman 's Library edition.
In 1996 Penguin Classics published a new translation by Robin Buss. Buss 's translation updated the language, making the text more accessible to modern readers, and restored content that was modified in the 1846 translation because of Victorian English social restrictions (for example, references to Eugénie 's lesbian traits and behaviour) to reflect Dumas ' original version.
In addition to the above there have also been many abridged translations such as an 1892 edition published by F.M Lupton, translated by Henry L. Williams (this translation was also released by M.J Ivers in 1892 with Williams using the pseudonym of Professor William Thiese). A more recent abridgement is the translation by Lowell Blair for Bantam Classics in 1956.
The first Japanese translation by Kuroiwa Shūroku was entitled "Shigai Shiden Gankutsu - ou '' (史 外 史伝 巌 窟王, "a historical story from outside history, the King of the Cavern ''), and serialized from 1901 -- 1902 in the Yorozu Chouhou newspaper, and released in book form in four volumes by publisher Aoki Suusandou in 1905. Though later translations use the title "Monte Cristo - haku '' (モンテ ・ クリスト 伯, the Count of Monte Cristo), the "Gankutsu - ou '' title remains highly associated with the novel and is often used as an alternative. As of March 2016, all movie adaptations of the novel brought to Japan used the title "Gankutsu - ou '', with the exception of the 2002 film, which has it as a subtitle (with the title itself simply being "Monte Cristo '').
The novel is popular in Japan, and has spawned numerous adaptations, the most notable of which are the novels Meiji Gankutsu - ou by Taijirou Murasame and Shin Gankutsu - ou by Kaitarō Hasegawa. Its influence can also be seen in how one of the first prominent cases of miscarriage of justice in Japan, in which an innocent man was charged with murder and imprisoned for half a century, is known in Japanese as the "Yoshida Gankutsu - ou incident '' (吉田 岩窟 王 事件).
The original work was published in serial form in the Journal des Débats in 1844. Carlos Javier Villafane Mercado described the effect in Europe:
George Saintsbury stated: "Monte Cristo is said to have been at its first appearance, and for some time subsequently, the most popular book in Europe. Perhaps no novel within a given number of years had so many readers and penetrated into so many different countries. '' This popularity has extended into modern times as well. The book was "translated into virtually all modern languages and has never been out of print in most of them. There have been at least twenty - nine motion pictures based on it... as well as several television series, and many movies (have) worked the name ' Monte Cristo ' into their titles. '' The title Monte Cristo lives on in a "famous gold mine, a line of luxury Cuban cigars, a sandwich, and any number of bars and casinos -- it even lurks in the name of the street - corner hustle three - card monte. ''
Modern Russian writer and philologist Vadim Nikolayev determined The Count of Monte - Cristo as a megapolyphonic novel.
The novel has been the inspiration for many other works, from Lew Wallace 's Ben - Hur (1880), a science fiction retelling in Alfred Bester 's The Stars My Destination, to Stephen Fry 's contemporary The Stars ' Tennis Balls.
The success of Monte Cristo coincides with France 's Second Empire. In the book, Dumas tells of the 1815 return of Napoleon I, and alludes to contemporary events when the governor at the Château d'If is promoted to a position at the castle of Ham. The attitude of Dumas towards "bonapartisme '' was conflicted. His father, Thomas - Alexandre Dumas, a Haitian of mixed descent, became a successful general during the French Revolution. New racial - discrimination laws were applied in 1802, and the general was dismissed from the army and became profoundly bitter toward Napoleon. In 1840, the ashes of Napoleon I were brought to France and became an object of veneration in the church of Les Invalides, renewing popular patriotic support for the Bonaparte family.
In "Causeries '' (1860), Dumas published a short paper, "État civil du Comte de Monte - Cristo '', on the genesis of the Count of Monte - Cristo. It appears that Dumas had close contacts with members of the Bonaparte family while living in Florence in 1841. In a small boat he sailed around the island of Monte - Cristo accompanied by a young prince, a cousin to Louis Bonaparte, who was to become Emperor of the French ten years later. During this trip he promised the prince that he would write a novel with the island 's name in the title. At that time the future emperor was imprisoned at the citadel of Ham -- a name that is mentioned in the novel. Dumas did visit him there, although he does not mention it in "Etat civil ''.
During the life of Thomas - Alexandre Dumas:
During the life of Alexandre Dumas:
Alexandre Dumas and Auguste Maquet wrote a set of four plays that collectively told the story of The Count of Monte Cristo: Monte Cristo Part I (1848); Monte Cristo Part II (1848); Le Comte de Morcerf (1851) and Villefort (1851). The first two plays were first performed at Dumas ' own Théâtre Historique in February 1848, with the performance spread over two nights, each with a long duration (the first evening ran from 18: 00 until 00: 00). The play was also unsuccessfully performed at Drury Lane in London later that year where rioting erupted in protest at French companies performing in England.
The adaptation differs from the novel in many respects: several characters, such as Luigi Vampa, are excluded; Whereas the novel includes many different plot threads that are brought together at the conclusion, the third and fourth plays deal only with the fate of Mondego and Villefort respectively (Danglars fate is not featured at all); the play is the first to feature Dantès shouting "the world is mine! '', an iconic line that would be used in many future adaptations.
Two English adaptations of the novel were published in 1868. The first, by Hailes Lacy, differs only slightly from Dumas ' version with the main change being that Fernand Mondego is killed in a duel with the Count rather than committing suicide. Much more radical was the version by Charles Fechter, a notable French - Anglo actor. The play faithfully follows the first part of the novel, omits the Rome section and makes several sweeping changes to the third part, among the most significant being that Albert is actually the son of Dantès. The fates of the three main antagonists are also altered: Villefort, whose fate is dealt with quite early on in the play, kills himself after being foiled by The Count trying to kill Noirtier (Villefort 's half brother in this version); Mondego kills himself after being confronted by Mercedes; Danglars is killed by The Count in a duel. The ending sees Dantès and Mercedes reunited and the character of Haydee is not featured at all. The play was first performed at the Adelphi in London in October 1868. The original duration was five hours, resulting in Fechter abridging the play, which, despite negative reviews, had a respectable sixteen - week run. Fechter moved to the United States in 1869 and Monte Cristo was chosen for the inaugural play at the opening of the Globe Theatre, Boston in 1870. Fechter last performed the role in 1878. In 1883 John Stetson, manager of the Booth Theatre and The Globe Theatre, wanted to revive the play and asked James O'Neill to perform the lead role. O'Neill, who had never seen Fechter perform, made the role his own and the play became a commercial, if not an artistic success. O'Neill made several abridgements to the play and eventually bought it from Stetson. A motion picture based on Fechter 's play, with O'Neill in the title role, was released in 1913 but was not a huge success. O'Neill died in 1920, two years before a more successful motion picture, produced by Fox and partially based on Fechter 's version, was released.
The Count of Monte Cristo is a musical based on the novel, with influences from the 2002 film adaptation of the book. The music is written by Frank Wildhorn and the lyrics and book are by Jack Murphy. It debuted in Switzerland in 2009.
Reis, Tom, The Black Count: Glory, Revolution, Betrayal, and the Real Count of Monte Cristo
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it's all because of you 98 degrees | Because of You (98 Degrees song) - wikipedia
"Because of You '' is a 1998 song by 98 Degrees, released as the second single from their album 98 Degrees and Rising. It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum in December 1998.
The video directed by Wayne Isham takes place in San Francisco, where it follows a girl holding a postcard of the Golden Gate Bridge, while looking around the city by bus, taxi and trolley. The boys are seen on billboards. They are also seen on the beach, in a garden of flowers, and on the Golden Gate Bridge. The video utilized a special visual effect that combined quick zooming and morphing, an effect Isham had used in a previous video for Will Smith and would use in later music videos for Bon Jovi, Ricky Martin, NSYNC, and Metallica.
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who did not receive the right to vote in the constitution of 1869 | Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia
The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history.
Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 18; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards.
Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias.
In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice.
The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Women were largely prohibited from voting, as were men without property. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand, several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period.
Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following:
Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation (e.g., the Voting Rights Act of 1965).
The "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications. In other words, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots.
A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor.
The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, states that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. However, as described in the sections below, voting rights reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old.
Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population.
From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use.
Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship.
Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages.
In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections.
The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''.
With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States.
In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828.
At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified:
Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.
When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South.
After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s.
In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction.
African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy.
Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright.
From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test.
Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office.
In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised.
Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases.
From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful.
But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination.
As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters.
The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities.
The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for both state and federal elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience.
A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.
In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860.
When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women.
Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose.
During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.
Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition.
Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended.
Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801.
In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections.
D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C.
No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress.
A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election.
Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only three states, Florida, Kentucky and Virginia, continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.
In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions.
In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole.
Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections.
Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002.
The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions.
According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities.
The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny.
In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register.
In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address.
States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process.
Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting.
One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black in New York. The US district court ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause found in the Fourteenth Amendment.
Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters:
Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district.
The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986))
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later.
Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons.
District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.
As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37.
On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature.
U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.
U.S. citizens who reside in Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but are not part of the United States. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law.
A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights.
Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ".
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States.
Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote.
In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws.
Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation.
Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities.
Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed.
In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene.
The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes.
More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.
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most clean sheets in premier league this season | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold.
Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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who had the best record in the wnba | WNBA records - wikipedia
The following shows a list of records held by certain players and teams in the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA).
Minimum 20 bench appearances
Minimum 400 field goals
Minimum 10 field goals made
Minimum 100 field goals
Minimum 50 attempts
Minimum 200 free throws
Minimum 100 games
Minimum 100 games
Minimum 100 games
Minimum 100 games
Least Team Turnovers, Half
0 -- New York at Minnesota, July 15, 2016
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who was heading the army during bangladesh liberation war 1971 | Bangladesh Liberation war - wikipedia
Decisive Indian and Bangladeshi victory
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (President of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) Tajuddin Ahmad (Prime Minister of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) M.A.G. Osmani (Cdr - in - C, Bangladesh Forces) Maj. K.M. Shafiullah (Commander, S Force) Maj. Ziaur Rahman (Commander, Z Force) Maj. Khaled Mosharraf (Commander, K Force)
Abdul Motaleb Malik (Governor of East Pakistan) Ghulam Azam (Chair, Nagorik Shanti Committee) Motiur Rahman Nizami (Emir of Jamaat - e-Islami) Abdul Quader Molla (Leader, Al - Badr) Abul Kalam Azad (Leader, Razakar) Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry (Leader, Al - Shams)
Systematic events
§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo - Pakistani War. ‡ indicates events in the Indo - Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.
The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self - determination movement in what was then East Pakistan and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. It resulted in the independence of the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971. It pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime minister - designate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The war ended on 16 December 1971 after West Pakistan surrendered.
Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias -- the Razakars, Al - Badr and Al - Shams -- to assist it during raids on the local populace. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced. Sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu - speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the atrocities committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide.
The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini -- the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians. The East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M.A.G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the Bangladesh Forces waged a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military. They liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon. Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases. By November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside.
The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government. Thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station. The plight of millions of war - ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to Bangladeshi nationalists. British, Indian and American musicians organised the world 's first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. Senator Ted Kennedy in the United States led a congressional campaign for an end to Pakistani military persecution; while US diplomats in East Pakistan strongly dissented with the Nixon administration 's close ties to the Pakistani military dictator Yahya Khan.
India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India. The subsequent Indo - Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971.
The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Prior to the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim - majority states in the eastern and northwestern zones of British India. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946, but was opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India. Eventually, political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India, giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus respectively following the departure of the British. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west with India in between. The western zone was popularly (and for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern - day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge. On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight. The violent crackdown by Pakistan Army led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan 's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971. Most Bengalis threw their support behind this move although Islamists and Biharis opposed this and sided with the Pakistan Army instead. Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government 's authority, beginning the civil war. The war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million) flooding into the eastern provinces of India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.
In 1948, Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu '' would be the federal language of Pakistan. However, Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western region of the subcontinent; whereas in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo - European languages. The Bengali - speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30 % of the country 's population. The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj. The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. Later, in memory of the deaths in 1952, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999.
Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.
Bengalis were under - represented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5 % of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts. West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined '' unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "Martial races '' notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis. Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under - strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.
The only common bond between the two Pakistani wings was religion. But there were differences even in religious practices. Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal, and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours despite some communal clashes. Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm imposed by the Pakistani state. Most members of West Pakistan 's ruling elite also belonged to a liberal society, yet understood a common faith as the mobilising factor behind Pakistan 's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan 's multiple identities into one.
Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The Bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which with its Devnagari script and Sanskrit vocabulary was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite who considered it to smack of Hindu culture.
The Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders. With this reality and the feeling of Islamic solidarity in the background, Islamists in East Pakistan viewed Bengali nationalism as unacceptable and instead sided with the Pakistani Army 's efforts to crush the Bengali independence movement. Secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion - centred Pakistani nationalism.
Most of the politically - active ulama of East Pakistan either remained neutral or sided with the Pakistani state, since they perceived the break - up of Pakistan as a loss for Islam.
Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country 's population, political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit '' scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing 's votes.
After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan 's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve to the new President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.
The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 -- 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 -- 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme ''. Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman 's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan. A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto. Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as Premier and Bhutto as President. However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.
On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four - point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:
He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence. '' This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East - Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.
Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "government passengers '' to Dacca. These "government passengers '' were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.
The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips '' and "mistakes '' in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.
A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference ''. They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage. On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government 's response. Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.
As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long - term planning was curtailed. This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.
A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army -- codenamed Operation Searchlight -- started on 25 March to curb the Bengali independence movement by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military, within one month. The Pakistani state claimed to justify starting Operation Searchlight on the basis of anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March.
Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.
The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000 -- 35,000 in Dacca, and 200,000 -- 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, although independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward the figure ranging from between 125,000 and 505,000. American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million. The atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.
According to the Asia Times,
At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands. '' Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush '' Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able - bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.
Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall -- Jagannath Hall -- was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.
The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan 's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas ' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role '', with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas ' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India 's armed intervention ''.
Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dacca was burning, especially the Hindu - dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three - fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred. ''
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal 's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.
The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:
Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla (May Bangladesh be victorious).
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25 -- 26 March 1971 at about 1: 30 am (as per Radio Pakistan 's news on 29 March 1971).
A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. However, the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by some rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security of the station and he also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971. Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People 's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.
The Kalurghat Radio Station 's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.
M.A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.
26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh. Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan '' until 16 December 1971.
At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged. However, when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army ''. These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al - Badrs and Al - Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.
On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmad as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander - in - Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.
Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M.A.G. Osmani as commander - in - chief (C - in - C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain AK Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major AR Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).
General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate the eventual Indian intervention, but with the Bangladesh government in exile, General Osmani favoured a different strategy:
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July, each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly placed under the Commander in Chief (C - in - C) General M.A.G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and C - in - C 's special force. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.
Three brigades (eight infantry battalions and three artillery batteries) were put into action between July and September. During June and July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2000 -- 5000 guerrillas across the border, the so - called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives. Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near - accurate observation.
Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.
Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar. Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan. As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan ''. Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India 's decision to intervene in Pakistan 's civil war. Resultantly, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini. For this, RAW, helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full - scale Indian military intervention in early December. Thus, wary of the growing involvement of India, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force 's Operation Focus during the Six - Day War, and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo - Pakistani War.
As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries '', even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.
Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions. The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.
The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near - total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No. 14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladesh airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lal Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox 's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.
On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces & Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II, although the Pakistani Army had fought gallantly according to Indian Army Chief Sam Manekshaw. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months. Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back 13,000 km (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace '' and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. However, some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis.
Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan 's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan 's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan ''.
During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities -- including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights began with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat e Islami killed an estimated 300,000 to 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Some Islamic clerics issued fatwas in support of raping Bengali women, especially Hindu women, as they considered the conflict a holy war. During the war, a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali freedom fighters were Hindus and that their women could be taken as "the booty of war ''.
A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al - Shams and Al - Badr forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.
Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh. The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians. Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex - slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dacca University and private homes. There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army, but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis. In June 1971, Bihari representatives stated that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis. R.J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.
On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University 's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide '' and "genocide '' (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh, although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.
Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world 's context of the war and to justify military action by India. Also, following Pakistan 's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.
Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.
Following India 's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease - fire and withdrawal of troops ''. While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.
On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan 's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan 's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.
Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.
As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.
The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan both politically and materially. US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People 's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America 's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress - imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.
Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan 's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.
The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals -- the United States and China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo - Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.
At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.
As a long - standing ally of Pakistan, the People 's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani - controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino - Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino - Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.
Notes
Citations
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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when was the last time winnipeg jets were in the playoffs | List of Winnipeg Jets seasons - wikipedia
The Winnipeg Jets are a professional ice hockey team based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The team, owned by True North Sports & Entertainment, plays its home games at the MTS Centre.
The franchise was founded in 1999, and played eleven seasons in Atlanta, Georgia as the Atlanta Thrashers before moving to Winnipeg in 2011. The team has played seven seasons in Winnipeg. They first qualified for the playoffs in 2015, losing in the first round to the Anaheim Ducks four games to none.
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which of the gauges is used by railway in the hilly areas | Narrow - gauge railway - wikipedia
North America South America Europe Australia
A narrow - gauge railway (or narrow - gauge railroad in the US) is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) standard - gauge railways. Most existing narrow - gauge railways are between 600 mm (1 ft 11 ⁄ in) and 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in).
Since narrow - gauge railways are usually built with smaller radius curves, smaller structure gauges, lighter rails, etc., they can be substantially less costly to build, equip, and operate than standard gauge or broad gauge railways, particularly in mountainous or difficult terrain. The lower costs of narrow - gauge railways mean they are often built to serve industries and communities where the traffic potential would not justify the cost of building a standard or broad gauge line.
Narrow - gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow - gauge railways also have more general applications. Non-industrial narrow - gauge mountain railways are or were common in the Rocky Mountains of the United States and the Pacific Cordillera of Canada, in Mexico, Switzerland, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, and Costa Rica. In some countries, narrow gauge is the standard, like the 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge in Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, New Zealand, South Africa, the Australian states of Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania, and the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) metre gauge in Malaysia and Thailand.
Many narrow - gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) metre gauge tramways are common.
In general, a narrow - gauge railway has a track gauge less than standard gauge. However, due to historical and local circumstances, the definition of a narrow - gauge railway can be different.
The earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft (610 mm) gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand - pushed narrow - gauge lines in mines throughout Europe. During the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points, usually canals or other waterways. These railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed.
The world 's first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, ran on a 3 ft (914 mm) plateway. During the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow - gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow - gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm (3 ft 7 ⁄ in) gauge Antwerp - Ghent Railway in Belgium. The first use of steam locomotives on a public, passenger - carrying narrow - gauge railway came in 1865 when the Ffestiniog Railway introduced its passenger service, after receiving its first locomotives two years prior.
Historically, many narrow - gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow - gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, and the conveying of agricultural products. Extensive narrow - gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow - gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market. Significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow - gauge railway equipment remains in common use for the construction of tunnels.
Extensive narrow - gauge railway systems served the front - line trenches of both sides in World War I. They were a short - lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow - gauge railway building in Europe.
Narrow - gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are usually lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives (smaller loading gauge), as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels (smaller structure gauge) and tighter curves. Narrow gauge is thus often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in sparsely populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, where extremely poor soils have led to population densities too low for standard gauge to be viable.
For temporary railways that will be removed after short - term use, such as for construction, the logging industry, the mining industry, or large - scale construction projects, especially in confined spaces, such as the Channel Tunnel, a narrow - gauge railway is substantially cheaper and easier to install and remove. The use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks.
In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as "feeder '' or "branch '' lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, due to their lower construction costs. The choice was often not between a narrow - gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow - gauge railway and none at all.
Narrow - gauge railways can not interchange rolling stock such as freight and passenger cars freely with the standard gauge or broad gauge railways with which they link, and the transfers of passengers and freight require time - consuming manual labour or substantial capital expenditure. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be mechanically transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties and the equipment required for the transfer is often complex to maintain.
If rail lines with other gauges coexist in the network, in times of peak demand, it is very difficult to move rolling stock to where it is needed when a break of gauge exists, so enough rolling stock must be available to meet a narrow - gauge railways ' own peak demand, which might be much more than needed when compared to a network with only one gauge, and the surplus equipment generates no cash flow during periods of low demand. In regions where narrow gauge forms only a small part of the rail network, like the Sakhalin railway in Soviet Russia, extra cost is needed to specifically design, produce or import narrow - gauge equipment which increases the cost of narrow - gauge vehicle compared to regular vehicles.
Another problem commonly faced by narrow - gauge railways was that they lack the physical space to grow: their cheap construction meant they were engineered only for their initial traffic demands. While a standard or broad gauge railway can be more easily be upgraded to handle heavier, faster traffic, many narrow - gauge railways were impractical to improve. Speeds and loads hauled could not increase, so traffic density was significantly limited. In the case of Queensland, Australia, the Queensland Rail passenger network has nearly reached its capacity due to the narrow gauge and an ever - increasing population, as such, new lines are to be built, thus negating the original cost savings. In Japan, a few narrow gauge lines have been upgraded to standard gauge mini-shinkansen to allow through service by standard gauge high - speed vehicles, but due to the alignment of those lines and minimum curve radius of those lines, the maximum speed of those through service is still the same as the original narrow - gauge rail line.
If a narrow - gauge line is built to higher standard like the proposed Super Tokkyū concept in Japan, its problem can be reduced.
Solutions to interchangeability problems of transshipment are bogie exchange between cars, a rollbock system, variable gauge, dual gauge, or even gauge conversion. European standard gauge trains normally use buffers and chain couplers, which do not allow such tight curves, a main reason to have narrow gauge. Therefore, narrow - gauge trains normally use other couplers, which makes bogie exchange meaningless.
Alternatively, a rail network comprises only narrow - gauge network could also eliminate the interchangeability problem.
If narrow - gauge rails are designed with potential growth in mind, or with same standard as standard gauge rails, then the obstacles to be faced in future growth of those rail lines would be similar to other rail gauges.
For those lines constructed to a lower standard, speed can be increased via numerous methods including realigning rail lines to increase the minimum curve radius, reducing the number of intersections, or introducing tilting trains to improve the speed of trains running on those lines.
The heavy duty 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) narrow - gauge railways in Australia (e.g. Queensland), South Africa, and New Zealand show that if the track is built to a heavy - duty standard, performance almost as good as a standard gauge line is possible. Some 200 - car trains operate on the Sishen - Saldanha railway in South Africa, and high - speed Tilt Trains run in Queensland. Another example of a heavy - duty narrow - gauge line is EFVM in Brazil. 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) gauge, it has over-100 - pound rail (100 lb / yd or 49.6 kg / m) and a loading gauge almost as large as US nonexcess - height lines. It has multiple 4,000 hp (3,000 kW) locomotives and 200 + car trains. In South Africa and New Zealand, the loading gauge is similar to the restricted British loading gauge, and in New Zealand some British Rail Mark 2 carriages have been rebuilt with new bogies for use by Tranz Scenic (Wellington - Palmerston North service), Tranz Metro (Wellington - Masterton service), and Transdev Auckland (Auckland suburban services).
The reduced stability of narrow gauge means its trains can not run at the same high speeds as on broader gauges. For instance, if a curve with standard gauge rail can allow speed up to 145 km / h (90 mph), the same curve with narrow - gauge rail can only allow speed up to 130 km / h (81 mph).
In Japan and Queensland, recent permanent way improvements have allowed trains on 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge tracks to run at 160 km / h (99 mph) and faster. Queensland Rail 's Electric Tilt Train is currently the fastest train in Australia and the fastest 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge train in the world, setting a record at 210 km / h (130 mph). The current speed record for 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) narrow - gauge rail is 245 km / h (152 mph), set in South Africa, 1978.
A special 2 ft (610 mm) gauge railcar was built for the Otavi Mining and Railway Company with a design speed of 137 km / h.
Curve radius is also important for high speeds: narrow - gauge railways allow sharper curves, which limits the speed at which a vehicle can safely proceed along the track.
Many narrow gauges are in use or formerly used between 15 in (381 mm) gauge and 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) gauge. They fall into several broad categories:
4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm) track gauge also called Scotch gauge was adopted by early 19th - century railways mainly in the Lanarkshire area of Scotland. 4 ft 6 ⁄ in (1,384 mm) lines were also constructed. Both gauges were eventually converted to standard gauge.
1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) between the inside of the rail heads. The name and classification varies throughout the world. It has installations of around 112,000 kilometres (70,000 mi).
Similar gauges are:
Metre gauge is the system of narrow - gauge railways and tramways with a track gauge of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in). It has installations of around 95,000 km (59,000 mi).
As a result of Italian law, track gauges in Italy were defined from the centres of each rail, rather than the inside edges of the rails. This gauge was measured 950 mm (3 ft 1 ⁄ in) between the edges of the rails and is known as Italian metre gauge.
Three - foot gauge railways have a track gauge of 3 ft (914 mm) and are generally found throughout North and South America, as well as Ireland and the Isle of Man.
900 mm (2 ft 11 ⁄ in) gauge railways are generally found in Europe. Swedish three - foot gauge railways (891 mm or 2 ft 11 ⁄ in) can only be found in Sweden.
800 mm (2 ft 7 ⁄ in) gauge railways are commonly used for rack railways.
The imperial 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) gauge railways were generally constructed in the former British colonies.
(760 mm or 2 ft 5 ⁄ in) Bosnian gauge and 750 mm (2 ft 5 ⁄ in) railways are predominantly found in Russia and Eastern Europe.
Gauges: 2 ft (610 mm) gauge railways were generally constructed in the former British colonies. 1 ft 11 ⁄ in (603 mm), 600 mm (1 ft 11 ⁄ in), and 1 ft 11 ⁄ in (597 mm) were present in Europe
Gauges below 1 ft 11 ⁄ in (597 mm) were rare, but did exist. In Britain, Sir Arthur Heywood developed 15 in (381 mm) gauge estate railways, while in France Decauville produced a range of industrial railways running on 500 mm (19 ⁄ in) and 400 mm (15 ⁄ in) tracks, most commonly in restricted environments such as underground mine railways, parks and farms. Several 18 in (457 mm) gauge railways were built in Britain to serve ammunition depots and other military facilities, particularly during World War I.
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when did the song linger from the cranberries come out | Linger (song) - wikipedia
"Linger '' is a song composed by Irish musicians Dolores O'Riordan and Noel Hogan of the rock band The Cranberries, released in 1993. The song, which has an acoustic arrangement featuring a string section, became the band 's first major hit, peaking at # 3 in the Republic of Ireland, # 8 in the United States, and # 14 in the United Kingdom. The song remained in the Billboard Hot 100 for 24 weeks. The song was voted by Triple J listeners as # 3 on the Triple J Hottest 100, 1993 chart. In 2017, the song was released as an acoustic, stripped - down version on the band 's lead single for Something Else album.
In the documentary ' 99 Love Life & Rock ' n ' Roll, O'Riordan says that the song is about her first serious kiss. Originally, the lyrics were written by Cranberries ' first singer Niall Quinn. After O'Riordan was hired as the lead singer for the band, she wrote her own set of lyrics, turning it into a song of regret and based on a soldier she once fell in love with.
The music video for "Linger '', shot in grayscale, is a tribute to Jean - Luc Godard 's 1965 noir film Alphaville. In one of the rooms of the hotel a silent film is being shown which features 1950s stripper Blaze Starr.
The song was used in episode 18 of the second season of ABC 's show Do n't Trust the B -- -- in Apartment 23 where one of the main characters June called it "her breakup song ''. "Linger '' also appeared on an episode of Hindsight.
The song was also used in the 2006 movie Click where it first played during the bar scene. In addition, Dolores O'Riordan made an appearance performing "Linger '' in the wedding reception scene.
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when was the first god of war made | God of War (2005 video game) - Wikipedia
God of War is a third - person hack and slash action - adventure video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE). First released on March 22, 2005, for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) console, it is the first installment in the series of the same name and the third chronologically. Loosely based on Greek mythology, it is set in ancient Greece with vengeance as its central motif. The player controls the protagonist Kratos, a Spartan warrior who serves the Olympian Gods. The goddess Athena tasks Kratos with killing Ares, the God of War and Kratos ' former mentor who tricked Kratos into killing his wife and daughter. As Ares besieges Athens out of hatred for Athena, Kratos embarks on a quest to find the one object capable of stopping the god once and for all: Pandora 's Box.
The gameplay of God of War focuses on combo - based combat, achieved through the player 's main weapon -- the Blades of Chaos -- and a secondary weapon acquired later in the game. It features quick time events that require the player to complete various game controller actions in a timed sequence to defeat stronger enemies and bosses. The player can use up to four magical attacks and a power - enhancing ability as alternative combat options. It also features puzzles and platforming elements.
God of War sold more than 4.6 million copies worldwide, making it the eleventh best - selling PlayStation 2 game of all time. Regarded as one of the best action - adventure games for the platform, it won several "Game of the Year '' awards. In 2009, entertainment website IGN named God of War the seventh - best PlayStation 2 game of all time. It has been highly praised for its graphics, sound, story, and gameplay and has been hailed as one of the greatest video games ever made. Success of the game led to the development of seven more games and expansion into other media. The game and its first sequel, God of War II, were remastered and released in November 2009 as part of the God of War Collection, and in 2012, the remastered version was re-released as part of the God of War Saga, both for the PlayStation 3 (PS3). A novelization of the game was published in May 2010 and a film adaptation has been in development since 2005.
God of War is a third - person single player action - adventure video game with hack and slash elements, viewed from a fixed camera perspective. The player controls the character Kratos in combo - based combat, platforming, and puzzle game elements, and battles Greek mythologyical foes that include undead soldiers, harpies, minotaurs, Medusa and the Gorgons, cyclopes, wraiths, Sirens, satyrs, centaurs, cerberuses, and boss opponents -- the Hydra and a giant minotaur known as Pandora 's Guardian. Platforming elements require the player to climb walls and ladders, jump across chasms, swing on ropes, and balance across beams to proceed through sections of the game. Some puzzles are simple, such as moving a box so that the player can use it as a jumping - off point to access a pathway unreachable with normal jumping, but others are more complex, such as finding several items across different areas of the game to unlock one door.
Throughout the game world, the player finds green, red, and blue chests that contain orbs of the corresponding color. Green orbs replenish the player 's health, blue orbs replenish magic, and red orbs provide experience for upgrading weapons and magic and replenish the Rage meter, which, if full, allows for the usage of the Rage of the Gods ability. Red orbs are also collected by killing foes and destroying certain inanimate objects. The player can also find Gorgon Eyes and Phoenix Feathers that increase the length of the Health and Magic Meters, respectively.
Kratos ' main weapon is the Blades of Chaos: a pair of blades attached to chains wrapped around the character 's wrists and forearms. In gameplay, the blades can be swung in various maneuvers. Later in the game, Kratos acquires a secondary weapon called the Blade of Artemis: a large sword that offers alternative combat options. Kratos also learns to use four magical abilities (like Zeus ' Fury, which allows him to throw lightning bolts at distant targets) which allow him to kill individual and multiple targets. Other magical abilities include Medusa 's Gaze, Poseidon 's Rage, and Army of Hades. A relic called Poseidon 's Trident allows Kratos to breathe underwater and navigate through this environment. Early in the game, Kratos acquires a special ability called Rage of the Gods, which provides temporary invulnerability and increased attack damage.
In combat, a quick time event (QTE) is initiated when the player has weakened a strong foe. The player performs a sequence of actions on the game controller shortly after an image of its circle button appears as an on - screen prompt. This allows for limited control of Kratos during a QTE cinematic sequence, which, if successful, ends the battle; failure usually results in damaging Kratos. Similar in function is a quick time sex mini-game that occurs when Kratos encounters female twins; this became a regular feature throughout the series until God of War: Ghost of Sparta (2010).
When the game is completed, a challenge mode -- ten trials called the Challenge of the Gods -- is unlocked; this requires players to complete a series of specific tasks. The player may unlock bonus costumes for Kratos, behind - the - scenes videos, and concept art of the characters and environments, as rewards. Completion of each difficulty level unlocks additional rewards.
God of War is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece populated by the Olympian gods, Titans, and other Greek mythological beings. With the exception of flashbacks, the events of the game are set between those of the games Chains of Olympus (2008) and Ghost of Sparta (2010). There are six locations explored, including fictional versions of the real - world Aegean Sea and Athens, and fictional locations of the Desert of Lost Souls, the Temple of Pandora, the Underworld, and a brief scene on Mount Olympus.
The Aegean Sea setting includes a mass of shipwrecked vessels. Athens is a war - torn city under assault by Ares, the God of War; beyond the city is the Desert of Lost Souls, a vast and windy desert of ancient ruins. The majority of the game occurs in Pandora 's Temple, which is chained to the back of the Titan Cronos, who crawls through the desert. The massive temple, constructed by the architect Pathos Verdes III, is filled with traps and monsters, and has three sections dedicated to the Titan Atlas and gods Poseidon and Hades, respectively. The Underworld is a fiery realm with spiked pillars full of souls and flaming versions of previously encountered enemies. Athens is the scene of the final battle before a denouement on Mount Olympus in the God of War 's throne room.
The protagonist of the game is Kratos (voiced by Terrence C. Carson), a Spartan warrior who serves the Olympian Gods. Other characters include a host of Greek gods, such as Athena (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Wisdom and Kratos ' ally and mentor; Ares (Steven Blum), the God of War and main antagonist; Poseidon (Fred Tatasciore), the God of the Sea; Aphrodite (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Love and Sexuality; Zeus (Paul Eiding), the King of the Gods; Artemis (Claudia Black), the Goddess of the Hunt; and Hades (Nolan North), the God of the Underworld. Several of the gods aid Kratos with magic or weapons. Minor characters include the Oracle of Athens (Susan Blakeslee), the gravedigger (Paul Eiding), the body burner (Christopher Corey Smith), and the boat captain (Keith Ferguson). Other characters appear in flashbacks, including Kratos ' wife Lysandra (Gwendoline Yeo), his daughter Calliope, the Barbarian King, and a Village Oracle (Susan Blakeslee). The game is narrated by Linda Hunt.
Kratos is a warrior who serves the Greek gods of Olympus. Flashbacks reveal that he was once a successful captain in the Spartan army and led his men to several victories before being defeated by a barbarian king. Facing death, Kratos called on the God of War, Ares, whom he promised to serve if the god would spare his men and provide the power to destroy their enemies. Ares agreed and bonded the Blades of Chaos, a pair of chained blades forged in the depths of Tartarus, to his new servant. Kratos, equipped with the blades, then decapitated the barbarian king.
Kratos waged war at the behest of Ares, eventually leading an attack on a village occupied by worshipers of Athena. Unknown to Kratos, Ares had secretly transported Kratos ' wife and daughter to the village; during his frenzied attack on its temple, Kratos accidentally killed them. Although Ares believed this act would free Kratos to become the perfect warrior, the Spartan instead renounced his pledge of servitude to the god. The oracle of the destroyed village cursed Kratos by bonding the ashes of his dead family to his skin, turning it ash - white and earning him the nickname, "Ghost of Sparta ''. Plagued by nightmares of his horrible deed, Kratos vowed to serve the other gods in hope of ridding himself of the visions.
When the game starts, Kratos has been serving the gods for ten years. He kills the Hydra on behalf of Poseidon, but he has grown tired of his service and suffering. He summons Athena, who states that if Kratos performs one final act -- the murder of Ares -- he will be forgiven for killing his family. Ares is waging war on the city of Athens out of hatred and jealousy of his sister Athena, who assigns Kratos to destroy Ares because Zeus has forbidden divine intervention. Athena guides Kratos to the war - torn Athens. After a strange encounter with a gravedigger who encourages him to continue his task, Kratos battles his way to Athens 's oracle, finds her, and learns that the only way to defeat Ares is with Pandora 's Box, a mythical artifact that grants the power to kill a god.
Kratos enters the Desert of Lost Souls, and Athena tells him Pandora 's Box is hidden in a temple chained to the back of the Titan Cronos -- a punishment by Zeus for Cronos ' role in the Great War. Kratos summons Cronos, climbs for three days before reaching the Temple entrance, overcomes an array of deadly traps and an army of monsters, and eventually finds the Box. But Ares, aware of his former servant 's success, kills Kratos as he is leaving the Temple. While harpies take the Box to Ares, Kratos falls into the Underworld. He battles his way through the fiery realm, and with help from the mysterious gravedigger, who tells him Athena is not the only god watching over him, he escapes and returns to Athens.
Kratos recovers Pandora 's Box from Ares, opens it, and uses its power to become godlike. Despite Ares ' best efforts to destroy Kratos physically and mentally, including stripping him of the Blades of Chaos and all magic, he survives and kills Ares with the Blade of the Gods. Athens is saved, and although Athena tells Kratos his sins are forgiven, the gods can not erase his nightmares. Forsaken by the gods, he tries to commit suicide by casting himself into the Aegean Sea, but Athena intervenes and transports him to Mount Olympus. As a reward for his services to the gods, she provides Kratos with a new set of blades and the seat as the new God of War.
Santa Monica began development of God of War in 2002, under the working title Dark Odyssey, and unveiled it two years later at SCEA Santa Monica Gamers ' Day 2004. In a meeting with GameSpot at the 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the developers said there would be 15 to 25 different attacks with the player 's main weapon in the final game, with a free - form combo system that would allow players to combine moves in almost any order. GameSpot said the developers described the gameplay "as merging the action of Devil May Cry with the puzzle - solving of Ico '' and noted that players would be able to "sunder enemies with a single move, such as by ripping them in half ''.
Game Director and creator David Jaffe confirmed the game would be a cinematic presentation. He said that at E3, they got to see where players were having issues with the camera system and said, "we are doing extensive focus tests, and using data compiled from E3, to find and fix the problem areas '' of the cameras. He said he had the confidence that the team would fix the problems before the game 's release. However, he said if players "hate cinematic camera systems, nothing we can do will help you like the God of War cameras ''. The game uses Santa Monica 's Kinetica engine, which they developed for their previous game, Kinetica (2001).
Although the game is based on Greek mythology, the development team gave themselves "lots of freedom '' to modify the myths, and Jaffe said they took the "coolest aspects of the subject '' and wrote a story using those elements. In an interview for Eurogamer, he said while the idea for God of War was his own, the concept owed a debt to Capcom because he had played Onimusha and said "let 's do that with Greek Mythology ''. He was inspired in part by the 1981 feature film, Clash of the Titans, saying, "the real high concept for me was... merging it with Heavy Metal magazine ''. He said he liked both "the kids stuff... with Greek Mythology '' and the idea of adding more adult themes such as sex and violence.
After E3 2004, Jaffe told IGN that the creative team 's goal was to "make the player feel brutal, letting their inner beast free and just going nuts ''. He said the game 's combat system would have an unparalleled degree of freedom. The team designed two systems of combat: a "macro '' system, which gives players the choice between normal combat, magical attacks, or using the QTE feature to kill a foe; and a "micro '' system, where players press a sequence of buttons to perform different attacks. Puzzles were implemented, including self - contained ones that incorporate up to three rooms of the game, and global puzzles that spread across four or five areas. Jaffe compared the game to the popular Prince of Persia series -- which also incorporates puzzle and platforming elements -- and said that while each puzzle in that series is a slight variation of the last, "each puzzle in God of War is its own beast ''.
Frank Cifaldi of Gamasutra covered a speech by Jaffe on the development of God of War at the 2006 D.I.C.E. Summit in Las Vegas. Cifaldi said "God of War was a rare opportunity for a game designer '' because Sony gave Jaffe nearly complete creative control to develop a game on his terms with a substantial budget. He stated that Jaffe wanted to make the game "out of passion, not fear, and that it would be a game that (Jaffe) himself, as a game player, would want to play ''. Jaffe said the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark also inspired the development of God of War; he wanted to make players feel like he felt as a child watching that film, but did not want to put the player in the role of an adventurer, referencing The Legend of Zelda games. He elaborated that God of War was designed to be simplistic and forward - moving, but the game "is not innovative or unique, and that 's intentional ''. Jaffe said that their system was shallow and "it forced the team to constantly create new content to trapeze the player from one area of interest to the next ''. He said he understood modular game design -- the need to have great looking, high - detail levels without having to build and texture every minuscule piece of the environment -- but "(he) was going to get bored '' if they did not step outside of those boundaries.
The demo of God of War, entitled God of War: The Hydra Battle, was released on January 1, 2005. It featured Kratos battling various opponents and ended with a portion of the Hydra battle that opens the main game. The game was released on March 22 in North America, July 8 in the United Kingdom, and November 17 in Japan. By the end of July, it was the sixth - best - selling game of 2005 up to that point. In 2006, it became available in the PlayStation 2 lineup of Greatest Hits. By July 2006, the game had sold 1 million copies and earned $43 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 50th highest - selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. In June 2012, Sony reported that the game sold more than 4.6 million copies worldwide.
The game and its sequel, God of War II, were released in North America on November 17, 2009, as part of the God of War Collection, featuring remastered ports of both games for the PlayStation 3 platform, with upscaled graphics and support for PlayStation 3 Trophies. It became available in Japan on March 18, 2010, Australia on April 29, and the UK on April 30. The God of War Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store on November 2, 2010, and was the first product containing PlayStation 2 software available via download. PlayStation Plus subscribers can download a one - hour trial of each game. By June 2012, God of War Collection had sold more than 2.4 million copies worldwide. A PlayStation Vita version of God of War Collection was released on May 6, 2014. On August 28, 2012, God of War Collection, God of War III, and God of War: Origins Collection were included in the God of War Saga, under Sony 's line of PlayStation Collections for the PlayStation 3 in North America.
God of War: Original Soundtrack from the Video Game, composed by Gerard K. Marino, Ron Fish, Winifred Phillips, Mike Reagan, Cris Velasco, Winnie Waldron, and Marcello De Francisci, was released on CD by Sony Computer Entertainment as an exclusive product for the Sony Connect Music Store on March 1, 2005. The soundtrack was also made available for free to customers who purchased the game via a voucher code included with the game. Several of the tracks feature voice - over passages from the video game. Dave Valentine of Square Enix Music Online rated it 8 out of 10 and praised the composers for avoiding the production of "a neverending dullness of action themes ''. He complimented the soundtrack for having "a large number of well - developed orchestral themes, with a noticeable creative use of ancient and ethnic instrumentation ''. Spence D. of IGN gave the soundtrack 6.9 out of 10 and also praised the use of ancient and ethnic instrumentation, but criticized the uneven transitions between tracks. In March 2010, the soundtrack was released as downloadable content as part of the God of War Trilogy Soundtrack in the God of War III Ultimate Edition.
God of War received "universal acclaim '' according to review aggregator Metacritic with a score of 94 out of 100, and a score of 93.58 % from GameRankings. Tom Lane of CNN wrote, "God of War is the type of game that makes you remember why you play games in the first place. '' He said it is addictive and the action is balanced with a modest amount of puzzle and platforming elements. He praised how quickly it progresses and said it "is one of the most violent (games) on the market ''.
Raymond Padilla of GameSpy said the gameplay is "excellent '' and it has "some of the goriest, most exaggerated, and over-the - top violence I 've ever seen ''. He praised the combo system for being generous, with players easily able to execute attack combinations, but added that it can challenge players who "throw themselves into the system ''. Chris Sell of PAL Gaming Network wrote that the most enjoyable aspect of the combat is its simplicity. He said the QTEs are "superbly enjoyable '', "highly satisfying '', and most entertaining during boss fights. In regards to combining combat with platforming, Sell said, "God of War pulls it off perfectly. ''
Lane said the story is "compelling '', while Sell stated that it is well laid out and rarely stalls. Padilla wrote, "God of War is the best thing to happen to Greek mythology '' since Harry Hamlin played Perseus in Clash of the Titans. He praised the sound as very strong, but felt that some of the voice acting and music tracks are overstated. Kristan Reed of Eurogamer said the audio is "a stunningly evocative example of a well - judged dramatic soundtrack and thunderous effects ''.
Sell stated that the graphics are "quite possibly the best on the PS2 '' and rival games on the Xbox. He said the character models are "excellent '' and each level has its own distinctive feel. Eric Blattberg of PlayStation Universe praised the graphics for being seamless, realistic, and capable of being able to run at 480p on a widescreen television. He said the textures are "great '', and the environments are "stunning and unbelievably detailed. '' Mikel Reparaz of GamesRadar noted the amount of detail, elaborating that as a consequence of the aging hardware of the PS2, "the graphics occasionally stutter or even slow down. '' He still gave the game a perfect score, concluding, "these problems are minor nits next to God of War 's creative design, riveting plot and sheer balls - out fun. One of the best action titles on the PS2, God of War stands out as an ultraviolent masterpiece. ''
Sell said God of War has very few flaws and that the only one worth mentioning is the camera system: he said that although the cameras do a great job of following Kratos, "there are a fair few annoying moments when you 're attacked by something off - screen, or you fail to make a jump because you could n't really see the jump properly ''. Other minor complaints from Sell include its lack of replayability, the amount of time it takes to upgrade items, and the final fight with Ares, which he said is "a little disappointing ''. Reed wrote that in a few notable occasions, he found some of the platforming balancing acts "a little bothersome ''. He said players may be overwhelmed by the number of enemies, but they will eventually get their "brain and reactions in gear and move onto the next gripping section and feel hugely satisfied ''.
God of War won several "Game of the Year '' awards. At the 2005 Spike Video Game Awards, it was named "Best Action Game '' and David Jaffe won "Designer of the Year '' for the game. It was also a nominee for "Game of the Year '', "Best Performance by a Human Male '' (TC Carson as Kratos), and "Best Original Score ''. At the 2006 Interactive Achievement Awards, it won several awards, including "Overall Game of the Year '', "Console Game of the Year '', and "Action / Adventure Game of the Year ''. In 2009, IGN named God of War the seventh - best PlayStation 2 game of all time. In November 2012, Complex magazine named God of War the eleventh - best PlayStation 2 game of all time.
An official novelization of the game, titled God of War, was announced in July 2009, along with a novelization of God of War II. It was written by Matthew Stover and Robert E. Vardeman, and was published on May 25, 2010, by Del Rey Books. In an interview for Play magazine, Vardeman said a mythology book written in the 1930s got him interested in Greek mythology, and the chance to work on the God of War novel "was an opportunity not to be missed ''. He said giving the readers a solid plot foundation was necessary and the novel required extra material so that it did not simply follow the action of the game. Although he has not played the game, he said God of War was based on the traditional Edith Hamilton Greek mythology, essentially "the accepted mythology on steroids ''. Vardeman called Kratos a substantial character, continuing, "This conflict of motives makes him a great, if troubled, hero. '' He confirmed his work on the second God of War novel, saying there are many potential story ideas for Kratos and that "it would be a shame '' if there were not additional books to fill in the details of his quests, such as stories of the time while he was a minion of Ares or before he met the Barbarian King.
The novel recounts the events of the game and offers deeper insights into its story, explaining that Athena wanted Kratos to kill Ares and explaining how she manipulated the other gods, with the exception of Zeus, into aiding Kratos. After learning of Athena 's plans, Zeus decides to aid Kratos (with magic and as the gravedigger) with the intention of Kratos becoming the new God of War after killing Ares. Poseidon is persuaded by Athena when she convinces him that Ares brought the Hydra into his domain. Artemis is persuaded because Ares and his minions are destroying her wilderness and its wildlife, and by aiding Kratos she will prevent future destruction. Athena manipulates Aphrodite into believing that Medusa is plotting against her. Hades, however, is omitted from the book, as Kratos does not meet him or gain his magic. Another omission from the book is the part where Kratos receives a new set of blades from Athena, and the Blades of Chaos is revealed to have been forged by Hephaestus in Tartarus.
The god Hermes is not in the game, but in the novel, he is responsible for informing Athena that Kratos is committing suicide. New characters include Coeus, the First Officer of Kratos ' ship, and the two servants of Medusa: Jurr and a blind man. The twins encountered in the sex mini-game are revealed to be the daughters of Aphrodite named Zora and Lora. The book also explains how certain creatures of the mythology that were slain by heroes are, apparently, still alive. For example, Zeus recollects that Hercules slew the Hydra, and Athena confirms this, but informs Zeus that the new Hydra is a newborn spawn of the Titans Typhon and Echidna, and was released by Ares.
A film adaptation was announced in 2005. Jaffe confirmed that a script had been completed by David Self and they were looking for a director. He confirmed that Universal Studios is committed to making the God of War film, but he was unaware of its status, and later expressed doubt the film would be released. In September 2008, Brett Ratner told UGO that he would direct the film, but in February 2009, it was confirmed that he had left the project to direct Tower Heist. In March 2010, Santa Monica confirmed that they have no creative control over the film. During the God of War -- Game Directors Live documentary, filmed on September 1, 2010, Jaffe said the "script went out a year and a half ago to Daniel Craig, who plays (James) Bond, but he turned it down ''. He indicated an actor had since signed on for the role of Kratos, and said, "this new person is pretty good, if that ends up true ''. In July 2012, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that the writers of Pacific Rim, Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan, had been hired to adapt God of War into a film.
On August 30, 2012, Melton and Dunstan stated in an IGN interview that they were hired to rework Self 's screenplay as they considered it outdated, being written before recent films in the same genre, such as Clash of the Titans (2010) and its sequel, Wrath of the Titans (2012). The first step will be to apparently humanize Kratos, who will begin as a mortal and still have his family, with the pivotal change being the barbarian attack. Melton added, "We 're going to learn about (Kratos) and understand how he operates. So it 's potentially 30 minutes... of building up this character so that, when he... becomes the Ghost of Sparta, we understand him as a human and... the journey that he 's going to take. '' According to Dunstan, "with a bigger movie like God of War, you have to go quite a bit deeper into the character as opposed to a horror film ''. Melton and Dunstan also have "big plans '' for Ares. Melton said they are "trying to build (Ares) up a bit more... so that he can become a true villain '' beyond his raid of Athens.
In November 2012, the writers told GameSpot that God of War will "improve on films like Clash of the Titans and Immortals by taking a step in a bolder direction. '' Melton said that Sony has "encouraged '' them to make it different from other films in the same genre. It was confirmed that Charles Roven and Alex Gartner, who are producing the Uncharted film, will be producing the movie via Atlas Entertainment. In early 2013, God of War: Ascension 's Game Director, Todd Papy, said he did not know the status of the film. The writer behind the God of War video games, Marianne Krawczyk, said her main worry with the movie adaptation is casting Kratos: "The player has a personal experience with him, and then he 's going to be embodied by a different actor, he 's going to have a different voice, he 's going to say a lot more words. So I think it will be hard to get that across, '' but she is hopeful that it can be done. As of May 30, 2018, the movie is without a director, no actors have been confirmed, a release date has not been set, but the script has been "turned in ''. It has a budget of $150 million USD.
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who was the first woman appointed to the supreme court | Sandra Day O'Connor - wikipedia
Sandra Day O'Connor (born March 26, 1930) is a retired Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving from her appointment in 1981 by Ronald Reagan to 2006. She was the first woman to serve on the Court.
Prior to O'Connor's tenure on the Court, she was an elected official and judge in Arizona serving as the first female Majority Leader of a state senate as the Republican leader in the Arizona Senate. Upon her nomination to the Court, O'Connor was confirmed unanimously by the Senate. On July 1, 2005, she announced her intention to retire effective upon the confirmation of a successor. Samuel Alito was nominated to take her seat in October 2005, and joined the Court on January 31, 2006.
Considered a federalist and a moderate Republican, O'Connor tended to approach each case narrowly without arguing for sweeping precedents. She most frequently sided with the Court 's conservative bloc, although in the latter years of her tenure, she was regarded as having the swing opinion in many cases. She often wrote concurring opinions that limited the reach of the majority holding. Her majority opinions in landmark cases include Grutter v. Bollinger and Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. She also wrote in part the per curiam majority opinions in Planned Parenthood v. Casey and Bush v. Gore.
O'Connor was Chancellor of The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, and served on the board of trustees of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She also served on the Board of Trustees for Colonial Williamsburg. Several publications have named O'Connor among the most powerful women in the world. On August 12, 2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, by President Barack Obama.
Sandra Day was born in El Paso, Texas, the daughter of Harry Alfred Day, a rancher, and Ada Mae (Wilkey). She grew up on a cattle ranch near Duncan, Arizona. The ranch was 9 miles from the nearest paved road. The family home did not have running water nor electricity until Sandra was seven years old. She hunted from a young age, using a. 22 - caliber rifle to shoot jackrabbits for food. She began driving as soon as she could see over the dashboard and had to learn to change automobile flat tires herself. Sandra had two younger siblings, a sister and a brother, respectively eight and ten years her junior. Her sister was Ann Day, who served in the Arizona Legislature. She later wrote a book with her brother, H. Alan Day, Lazy B: Growing up on a Cattle Ranch in the American West (2002), about her childhood experiences on the ranch.
For most of her early schooling, O'Connor lived in El Paso with her maternal grandmother, and attended school at the Radford School for Girls, a private school. The family cattle ranch was too far from schools, although O'Connor was able return to the ranch for holidays and the summer. O'Connor spent her eighth - grade year living at the ranch and riding a bus 32 miles to school. She graduated sixth in her class at Austin High School in El Paso in 1946. She attended Stanford University where she received her B.A. in economics in 1950. She continued at the Stanford Law School for her LL. B... There, she served on the Stanford Law Review with its presiding editor - in - chief, future Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist, who was the class valedictorian and whom she briefly dated during law school. She has stated that she graduated third in her law school class, though Stanford 's official position is that the law school did not rank students in 1952.
On December 20, 1952, six months after graduating from law school, she married John Jay O'Connor III. The pair had met as students at Stanford Law School.
After graduation from law school, at least forty law firms refused to interview her for a position as an attorney because she was a woman. She eventually found employment as a deputy county attorney in San Mateo, California after she offered to work for no salary and without an office, sharing space with a secretary.
When her husband was drafted, she decided to pick up and go with him to work in Germany as a civilian attorney for the Army 's Quartermaster Corps. They remained there for three years before returning to the states where they settled in Maricopa County, Arizona to begin their family. They had three sons: Scott (born 1958), Brian (born 1960), and Jay (born 1962). Following Brian 's birth, O'Connor took at five - year hiatus from the practice of law.
She volunteered in various political organizations like the Maricopa County Young Republicans and served on the presidential campaign for Arizona Senator Barry M. Goldwater in 1964.
O'Connor served as assistant Attorney General of Arizona from 1965 to 1969 until she was appointed to fill a vacancy in the Arizona Senate. She ran for and won the election for the seat the following year. By 1973, she became the first woman to serve as Arizona 's or any state 's Majority Leader. She developed a reputation as a skilled negotiator and a moderate. After serving two full terms, O'Connor decided to leave the Senate.
In 1974, she was elected to the Maricopa County Superior Court serving from 1975 to 1979 when she was elevated to the Arizona State Court of Appeals. She served on the Court of Appeals - Division One until 1981 when she was appointed to the Supreme Court by President Ronald Reagan.
On July 7, 1981, Reagan -- who had pledged during his 1980 presidential campaign to appoint the first woman to the Court -- announced he would nominate O'Connor as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court to replace the retiring Potter Stewart. O'Connor received notification from President Reagan of her nomination on the day prior to the announcement and did not know that she was a finalist for the position.
Reagan wrote in his diary on July 6, 1981: "Called Judge O'Connor and told her she was my nominee for supreme court. Already the flak is starting and from my own supporters. Right to Life people say she is pro abortion. She declares abortion is personally repugnant to her. I think she 'll make a good justice. '' O'Connor told Reagan she did not remember whether she had supported the view of repealing Arizona 's law banning abortion. However, she had cast a preliminary vote in the Arizona State Senate in 1970 in favor of a bill to repeal the state 's criminal - abortion statute. In 1974, O'Connor had opined against a measure to prohibit abortions in some Arizona hospitals. Pro-life and religious groups opposed O'Connor's nomination because they suspected, correctly, she would not be willing to overturn Roe v Wade. U.S. Senate Republicans, including Don Nickles of Oklahoma, Steve Symms of Idaho, and Jesse Helms of North Carolina called the White House to express their discontent over the nomination; Nickles said he and "other profamily Republican senators would not support '' O'Connor. Helms, Nickles, and Symms nevertheless voted for confirmation.
Reagan formally nominated O'Connor on August 19, 1981.
Conservative activists such as the Reverend Jerry Falwell, Howard Phillips, and Peter Gemma, also spoke out against the nomination. Gemma called the nomination "a direct contradiction of the Republican platform to everything that candidate Reagan said and even President Reagan has said in regard to social issues. '' Gemma, the executive director of the National Pro-Life Political Action Committee, had sought to delay O'Connor's confirmation by challenging her record, including support for the Equal Rights Amendment.
O'Connor's confirmation hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee began on September 9, 1981. It was the first televised confirmation hearing for a Supreme Court Justice. The confirmation hearing lasted three days and largely focused on the issue of abortion. When asked, O'Connor refused to telegraph her views on abortion, and she was careful not to leave the impression that she supported abortion rights. The Judiciary Committee approved O'Connor with seventeen votes in favor and one vote of present.
On September 21, O'Connor was confirmed by the U.S. Senate with a vote of 99 -- 0; Senator Max Baucus of Montana was absent from the vote, and sent O'Connor a copy of A River Runs Through It by way of apology. In her first year on the Court she received over 60,000 letters from the public, more than any other justice in history.
O'Connor was part of the federalism movement and approached each case as narrowly as possible, avoiding generalizations that might later "paint her into a corner '' for future cases. Initially, her voting record aligned closely with the conservative William Rehnquist (voting with him 87 % of the time her first three years at the Court). From that time until 1998 O'Connor's alignment with Rehnquist ranged from 93.4 % to 63.2 %, hitting above 90 % in three of those years. In nine of her first sixteen years on the Court, O'Connor voted with Rehnquist more than with any other justice.
Later on, as the Court 's make - up became more conservative (e.g., Anthony Kennedy replacing Lewis Powell, and Clarence Thomas replacing Thurgood Marshall), O'Connor often became the swing vote on the Court. However, she usually disappointed the Court 's more liberal bloc in contentious 5 -- 4 decisions: from 1994 to 2004, she joined the traditional conservative bloc of Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, and Thomas 82 times; she joined the liberal bloc of John Paul Stevens, David Souter, Ginsburg, and Stephen Breyer only 28 times.
O'Connor's relatively small shift away from conservatives on the Court seems to have been due at least in part to Thomas 's views. When Thomas and O'Connor were voting on the same side, she would typically write a separate opinion of her own, refusing to join his. In the 1992 term, O'Connor did not join a single one of Thomas ' dissents.
Some of the cases in which O'Connor was the deciding vote include:
O'Connor played an important role in other notable cases, such as:
On February 22, 2005, with Rehnquist and Stevens (who were senior to her) absent, she became the senior justice presiding over oral arguments in the case of Kelo v. City of New London and becoming the first woman to do so before the Court.
Sandra Day O'Connor was unpredictable in many of her court decisions, especially those regarding First Amendment Establishment Cause issues. This might be due to the fact that instead of letting herself be guided by her conservative ideologies, she decided on a case - by - case basis and voted with careful deliberation in a way that she felt benefited individual rights and the Constitution (which she viewed to be "an ever changing work in progress. '') Barry Lynn, executive director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State, said, "O'Connor was a conservative, but she saw the complexity of church - state issues and tried to choose a course that respected the country 's religious diversity '' (Hudson 2005). O'Connor voted in favor of religious institutions, such as in Zelman v. Simmons - Harris, Mitchell v. Helms, and Rosenberger v. University of Virginia. Conversly, in Lee v. Weisman she was part of the majority in the case that saw religious prayer and pressure to stand in silence at a graduation ceremony as part of a religious act that coerced people to support / participate in religion, which is strictly prohibited by the Establishment Clause. This is consistent with a similar case, Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, involving prayer at a school football game. In this case O'Connor joined the majority opinion that stated prayer at school football games violates the Establishment Clause (Oyez, 2016). O'Connor was the first justice to articulate the "no endorsement '' standard for the Establishment Clause. In Lynch v. Donnelly, O'Connor wrote for a 5 -- 4 majority that a nativity scene in a public Christmas display did not violate the First Amendment because it was not expressing an endorsement or disapproval of any religion.
According to George Washington University law professor Jeffrey Rosen, "O'Connor was an eloquent opponent of intrusive group searches that threatened privacy without increasing security. In a 1983 opinion upholding searches by drug - sniffing dogs, she recognized that a search is most likely to be considered constitutionally reasonable if it is very effective at discovering contraband without revealing innocent but embarrassing information. '' Washington College of Law law professor Andrew Taslitz, referencing O'Connor's dissent in a 2001 case, said of her Fourth Amendment jurisprudence: "O'Connor recognizes that needless humiliation of an individual is an important factor in determining Fourth Amendment reasonableness. '' O'Connor once quoted the social contract theory of John Locke as influencing her views on the reasonableness and constitutionality of government action.
In the 1990 and 1995 Missouri v. Jenkins rulings, O'Connor voted with the majority that district courts had no authority to require the state of Missouri to increase school funding in order to counteract racial inequality. In the 1991 Freeman v. Pitts case, O'Connor joined a concurring opinion in a plurality, agreeing that a school district that had formerly been under judicial review for racial segregation could be freed of this review, even though not all desegregation targets had been met. Law professor Herman Schwartz criticized these rulings, writing that in both cases "both the fact and effects of segregation were still present. ''
In 1987 's McCleskey v. Kemp, O'Connor joined a 5 -- 4 majority that voted to uphold the death penalty for an African American man, Warren McCleskey, convicted of killing a white police officer, despite statistical evidence that black defendants were more likely to receive the death penalty than others both in Georgia and in the U.S. as a whole.
In 1996 's Shaw v. Hunt and Shaw v. Reno, O'Connor joined a Rehnquist opinion, following an earlier precedent from an opinion she authored in 1993, in which the Court struck down an electoral districting plan designed to facilitate the election of two black representatives out of twelve from North Carolina, a state that had not had any black representative since Reconstruction, despite being approximately 20 % black -- the Court held that the districts were unacceptably gerrymandered and O'Connor called the odd shape of the district in question, North Carolina 's 12th, "bizarre ''.
Law Professor Herman Schwartz called O'Connor "the Court 's leader in its assault on racially oriented affirmative action, '' although she joined with the Court in upholding the constitutionality of race - based admissions to universities.
In late 2008, O'Connor said she believed racial affirmative action should continue to help heal the inequalities created by racial discrimination. She stressed this would not be a cure - all but rather a bandage and that society has to do much more to correct our racial imbalance. In 2003 Justice O'Connor authored a majority Supreme Court opinion (Grutter v. Bollinger) saying racial affirmative action would n't be constitutional permanently but long enough to correct past discrimination - an approximation limit of around 25 years, or until 2028.
In her confirmation hearings and early days on the Court, O'Connor was carefully ambiguous on the issue of abortion, as some conservatives questioned her pro-life credentials on the basis of some of her votes in the Arizona legislature. O'Connor generally dissented from 1980s opinions which took an expansive view of Roe v. Wade; she criticized that decision 's "trimester approach '' sharply in her dissent in 1983 's City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health. She criticized Roe in Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: "... I dispute not only the wisdom but also the legitimacy of the Court 's attempt to discredit and pre-empt state abortion regulation regardless of the interests it serves and the impact it has. '' In 1989, O'Connor stated during the deliberations over the Webster case that she would not overrule Roe. While on the Court, O'Connor did not vote to strike down any restrictions on abortion until Hodgson v. Minnesota in 1990.
O'Connor allowed certain limits to be placed on access to abortion, but supported the fundamental right to abortion protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey, O'Connor used a test she had originally developed in City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health to limit the holding of Roe v. Wade, opening up a legislative portal where a State could enact measures so long as they did not place an "undue burden '' on a woman 's right to an abortion. Casey revised downward the standard of scrutiny federal courts would apply to state abortion restrictions, a major departure from Roe. However it preserved Roe 's core constitutional precept: that the Fourteenth Amendment implies and protects a fundamental right to control the outcomes of one 's reproductive actions. Writing the plurality opinion for the Court, O'Connor, along with Justices Kennedy and Souter, famously declared: "At the heart of liberty is the right to define one 's own concept of existence, of meaning, of the universe, and of the mystery of human life. Beliefs about these matters could not define the attributes of personhood were they formed under compulsion of the State. ''
O'Connor was a vigorous defender of the citing of foreign laws in judicial decisions. In a well - publicized October 28, 2003, speech at the Southern Center for International Studies, O'Connor said:
The impressions we create in this world are important and can leave their mark... (T) here is talk today about the "internationalization of legal relations ''. We are already seeing this in American courts, and should see it increasingly in the future. This does not mean, of course, that our courts can or should abandon their character as domestic institutions. But conclusions reached by other countries and by the international community, although not formally binding upon our decisions, should at times constitute persuasive authority in American courts -- what is sometimes called "transjudicialism ''.
In the speech she noted the 2002 Court case, Atkins v. Virginia, in which the majority decision (which included her) cited disapproval of the death penalty in Europe as part of its argument. This speech, and the general concept of relying on foreign law and opinion, was widely criticized by conservatives. In May 2004, the U.S. House of Representatives responded by passing a non-binding resolution, the "Reaffirmation of American Independence Resolution '', stating that "U.S. judicial decisions should not be based on any foreign laws, court decisions, or pronouncements of foreign governments unless they are relevant to determining the meaning of American constitutional and statutory law. ''
O'Connor once quoted the constitution of the Middle Eastern nation of Bahrain, which states that "(n) o authority shall prevail over the judgement of a judge, and under no circumstances may the course of justice be interfered with. '' Further, "(i) t is in everyone 's interest to foster the rule - of - law evolution. '' O'Connor proposed that such ideas be taught in American law schools, high schools and universities. Critics contend that such thinking is contrary to the U.S. Constitution and establishes a rule of man, rather than law. In her retirement, she has continued to speak and organize conferences on the issue of judicial independence.
O'Connor's case - by - case approach routinely placed her in the center of the Court and drew both criticism and praise. The Washington Post columnist Charles Krauthammer for instance described her as lacking a judicial philosophy and instead displaying "political positioning embedded in a social agenda ''. Conservative commentator, Ramesh Ponnuru, wrote that, even though O'Connor "has voted reasonably well '', her tendency to issue very case - specific rulings "undermines the predictability of the law and aggrandizes the judicial role ''.
O'Connor has said she felt a responsibility to demonstrate women could do the job of justice. She faced some practical concerns, including the lack of a woman 's restroom near the Courtroom.
Two years after O'Connor joined the Court, The New York Times published an editorial which mentioned the "nine men '' of the "SCOTUS '', or Supreme Court of the United States. O'Connor responded with a letter to the editor reminding the Times that the Court was no longer composed of nine men and referred to herself as FWOTSC (First Woman On The Supreme Court).
In several speeches broadcast nationally on the cable network C - SPAN, she mentioned feeling some relief from the media clamor when Ruth Bader Ginsburg joined her as an Associate Justice of the Court in 1993. In May 2010, O'Connor warned female Supreme Court nominee Elena Kagan about the "unpleasant '' process of confirmation hearings.
On December 12, 2000, The Wall Street Journal reported that O'Connor was reluctant to retire with a Democrat in the presidency: "At an Election Night party at the Washington, D.C. home of Mary Ann Stoessel, widow of former Ambassador Walter Stoessel, the justice 's husband, John O'Connor, mentioned to others her desire to step down, according to three witnesses. But Mr. O'Connor said his wife would be reluctant to retire if a Democrat were in the White House and would choose her replacement. Justice O'Connor declined to comment. ''
By 2005, the membership of the Court had been static for eleven years, the second - longest period without a change in the Court 's composition in American history. Rehnquist was widely expected to be the first justice to retire during Bush 's term, because of his age and his battle with cancer, although rumors of O'Connor's possible retirement circulated as well. Before deciding to retire, O'Connor consulted Rehnquist on his plans in an attempt to avoid having two retirements at the same time.
On July 1, 2005, O'Connor announced her intention to retire. In her letter to Bush she stated that her retirement from active service would take effect upon the confirmation of her successor. O'Connor's letter did not provide a reason for her retirement, however, a Supreme Court spokeswoman confirmed O'Connor was leaving to spend time with her husband, who was suffering from Alzheimer 's disease. O'Connor herself was still in good health, a break from the usual practice of justices serving until death or nearly incapacitated.
On July 19, Bush nominated D.C. Circuit Judge John Roberts to succeed O'Connor. O'Connor heard the news over the car radio on the way back from a fishing trip. She felt he was an excellent and highly qualified choice -- he had argued numerous cases before the Court during her tenure. However, she was disappointed her replacement was not a woman.
O'Connor had expected to leave the Court before the next term started on October 3, 2005. However, Rehnquist died on September 3 (she spoke at his funeral), creating an immediate vacancy on the Court. Two days later, Bush withdrew Roberts as his nominee for her seat and instead appointed him to fill the vacant office of Chief Justice. O'Connor agreed to stay on the Court until her replacement was named and confirmed. On October 3, Bush nominated White House Counsel Harriet Miers to replace O'Connor. After much criticism and controversy over her nomination, on October 27, Miers asked Bush to withdraw her nomination. Bush accepted, reopening the search for O'Connor's successor.
The continued delays in confirming a successor further extended O'Connor's time on the Court. She continued to hear oral argument on cases, including cases dealing with controversial issues such as physician - assisted suicide and abortion. O'Connor's last Court opinion, Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of New England, written for a unanimous court, was a procedural decision that involved a challenge to a New Hampshire abortion law.
On October 31, Bush nominated Third Circuit Judge Samuel Alito to replace O'Connor; Alito was confirmed and sworn in on January 31, 2006. Since retiring, she has continued to hear cases and rendered over a dozen opinions in federal appellate courts across the country, filling in as a substitute judge when vacations or vacancies leave their three - member panels understaffed.
During a March 2006 speech at Georgetown University, O'Connor said some political attacks on the independence of the Courts pose a direct threat to the constitutional freedoms of Americans. She said "any reform of the system is debatable as long as it is not motivated by ' nakedly partisan reasoning ' retaliation because congressmen or senators dislike the result of the cases. Courts interpret the law as it was written, not as the congressmen might have wished it was written '', and "it takes a lot of degeneration before a country falls into dictatorship, but we should avoid these ends by avoiding these beginnings. '' She echoed her concerns for an independent judiciary during the dedication address at the Elon University School of Law in September of that same year.
On November 19, 2008, O'Connor published an introductory essay to a themed issue on judicial accountability in the Denver University Law Review. She calls for a better public understanding of judicial accountability. On November 7, 2007, at a conference on her landmark opinion in Strickland v. Washington (1984) sponsored by the Constitution Project, O'Connor urged the creation of a system for "merit selection for judges ''. She also highlighted the lack of proper legal representation for many of the poorest defendants.
On August 7, 2008, O'Connor and Abdurrahman Wahid, former President of Indonesia, wrote an editorial in the Financial Times stating concerns about the threatened imprisonment of Malaysian opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim.
Following the Court 's Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission decision on corporate political spending, O'Connor offered measured criticism of the decision, telling Georgetown law students and lawyers, "that the Court has created an unwelcome new path for wealthy interests to exert influence on judicial elections. ''
O'Connor argued in favor of President Barack Obama naming the replacement for Antonin Scalia in February 2016, mere days after Scalia 's death, opposing Republican arguments that the next president should get to fill the vacancy. She said, "I think we need somebody there to do the job now and let 's get on with it ''; and that "(y) ou just have to pick the best person you can under the circumstances, as the appointing authority must do. It 's an important position and one that we care about as a nation and as a people. And I wish the president well as he makes choices and goes down that line. It 's hard. ''
Judge William H. Pryor, Jr., a conservative jurist, has criticized O'Connor's speeches and op - eds for hyperbole and factual inaccuracy, based in part on O'Connor's opinions as to whether judges face a rougher time in the public eye today than in the past.
O'Connor has reflected on her time on the Supreme Court by saying that she regrets the Court hearing the Bush v. Gore case in 2000 because it "stirred up the public '' and "gave the Court a less - than - perfect reputation. '' The former justice told the Chicago Tribune that "Maybe the Court should have said, ' We 're not going to take it, goodbye, '... It turned out the election authorities in Florida had n't done a real good job there and kind of messed it up. And probably the Supreme Court added to the problem at the end of the day. ''
As a Retired Supreme Court Justice (roughly equivalent to senior status for judges of lower federal courts), O'Connor has continued to receive a full salary, maintain a staffed office with at least one law clerk, and to hear cases on a part - time basis in federal district courts and courts of appeals as a visiting judge.
She stated that she planned to travel, spend time with family, and, because of her fear of the attacks on judges by legislators, would work with the American Bar Association on a commission to help explain the separation of powers and the role of judges. She also announced that she was working on a new book, which will focus on the early history of the Court. She is a trustee on the board of the Rockefeller Foundation.
In 2003, she wrote a book titled The Majesty of the Law: Reflections of a Supreme Court Justice (ISBN 0 - 375 - 50925 - 9).
On October 4, 2005, President Gene Nichol of the College of William & Mary announced that O'Connor had accepted the largely ceremonial role of becoming the 23rd Chancellor of the College, replacing Henry Kissinger, and following in the position held by Margaret Thatcher, Chief Justice Warren Burger, and President George Washington. The Investiture Ceremony was held April 7, 2006. O'Connor continued to make semi-regular visits to the college until she was succeeded in that post by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates.
In 2005, she wrote a children 's book, Chico (ISBN 0 - 525 - 47452 - 8), which gives an autobiographical description of her childhood.
O'Connor was a member of the 2006 Iraq Study Group, appointed by the U.S. Congress.
On May 15, 2006, O'Connor gave the commencement address at the William & Mary School of Law, where she said that judicial independence is "under serious attack at both the state and national level ''.
As of Spring 2006, O'Connor teaches a two - week course called "The Supreme Court '' at the University of Arizona 's James E. Rogers College of Law every spring semester.
In October 2006, O'Connor sat as a member of panels of the United States Courts of Appeals for the Second, Eighth, and Ninth Circuits, to hear arguments in one - day 's cases in each court.
O'Connor chaired the Jamestown 2007 celebration, commemorating the 400th anniversary of the founding of the colony at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Her appearances in Jamestown dovetailed with her appearances and speeches as chancellor at The College of William & Mary nearby. In the fall of 2007, O'Connor and W. Scott Bales taught a course at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University.
In 2008, O'Connor was named an inaugural Harry Rathbun Visiting Fellow by the Office for Religious Life at Stanford University. On April 22, 2008, she gave "Harry 's Last Lecture on a Meaningful Life '' in honor of the former Stanford Law professor who shaped her undergraduate and law careers.
In 2009, O'Connor founded the 501 (c) 3 non-profit organization, O'Connor House, dedicated to solving complex issues through civil discourse and collaborative action.
In February 2009, O'Connor launched Our Courts, a website she created to offer interactive civics lessons to students and teachers because she was concerned about the lack of knowledge among most young Americans about how their government works. She also serves as a co-chair with Lee H. Hamilton for the Campaign for the Civic Mission of Schools. On March 3, 2009, O'Connor appeared on the satirical television program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart to promote the website. In August 2009, http://ourcourts.org/ added two online interactive games. The initiative expanded, becoming iCivics in May 2010, and continues to offer free lessons plans, games, and interactive videogames for middle and high school educators. During the inauguration of Mesa Municipal Court on April 16, 2010, she gracefully received a blessed garland -- along with a copy of Bhagavad - Gita As It Is from Dr. Prayag Narayan Misra -- a Hare Krishna devotee.
She currently serves on the Board of Trustees of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, which is a museum dedicated to the U.S. Constitution.
She wrote the 2013 book Out of Order: Stories from the History of the Supreme Court.
In April 2013, the Board of Directors of Justice at Stake, a national judicial reform advocacy organization, announced that O'Connor would be joining the organization as Honorary Chair. ''
On September 17, 2014 O'Connor appeared on the television show Jeopardy! and provided a couple of video answers to the category ' Supreme Court ' which appeared on the show. On the same day in Concord, New Hampshire, she gave a talk alongside her former colleague Justice David Souter about the importance of meaningful civics education in the United States.
In March 2015, O'Connor's non-profit organization, O'Connor House, became the Sandra Day O'Connor Institute. The Institute 's focus is to create an environment where important policy decisions are made through a process of civil discussion, critical analysis of facts and informed participation of all citizens. O'Connor serves as Founder and Advisor to the O'Connor Institute.
O'Connor is the Co-Chair of the National Advisory Board at the National Institute for Civil Discourse (NICD). The institute was created at the University of Arizona after the tragic shooting of former Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords in 2011, that killed 6 people and wounded 13 others.
Upon her appointment to the Supreme Court, O'Connor and her husband moved to the Kalorama area of Washington, D.C. The O'Connors became active parts of the Washington D.C. social scene. Sandra Day O'Connor played tennis and golf in her spare time.
O'Connor was successfully treated for breast cancer in 1988 (she also had her appendix removed that year). That same year, John O'Connor left the Washington, D.C. law firm of Miller & Chevalier for a practice which required him to split his time between Washington, D.C. and Phoenix.
Her husband suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for nearly twenty years until his death in 2009, and she has become involved in raising awareness of the disease. After retiring from the Court, O'Connor moved to Phoenix, Arizona.
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which of these musical instruments was widely used in ancient greece | Music of Ancient Greece - wikipedia
The music of ancient Greece was almost universally present in ancient Greek society, from marriages, funerals, and religious ceremonies to theatre, folk music, and the ballad - like reciting of epic poetry. It thus played an integral role in the lives of ancient Greeks. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music, such that some things can be known -- or reasonably surmised -- about what the music sounded like, the general role of music in society, the economics of music, the importance of a professional caste of musicians, etc. Even archaeological remains reveal an abundance of depictions on ceramics, for example, of music being performed.
The word music comes from the Muses, the daughters of Zeus and patron goddesses of creative and intellectual endeavours.
Music played an integral role in ancient Greek society. Pericles ' teacher Damon said, according to Plato in the Republic, "when fundamental modes of music change, the fundamental mores of the state change with them. '' Music and gymnastics comprised the main divisions in one 's schooling. "The word ' music ' expressed the entire education ''.
In Greek mythology: Amphion learned music from Hermes and then with a golden lyre built Thebes by moving the stones into place with the sound of his playing; Orpheus, the master - musician and lyre - player, played so magically that he could soothe wild beasts; the Orphic creation myths have Rhea "playing on a brazen drum, and compelling man 's attention to the oracles of the goddess ''; or Hermes (showing to Apollo) "... his newly - invented tortoise - shell lyre and (playing) such a ravishing tune on it with the plectrum he had also invented, at the same time singing to praise Apollo 's nobility that he was forgiven at once... ''; or Apollo 's musical victories over Marsyas and Pan.
There are many such references that indicate that music was an integral part of the Greek perception of how their race had even come into existence and how their destinies continued to be watched over and controlled by the Gods. It is no wonder, then, that music was omnipresent at the Pythian Games, the Olympic Games, religious ceremonies, leisure activities, and even the beginnings of drama as an outgrowth of the dithyrambs performed in honor of Dionysus.
It may be that the actual sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas, etc. underwent a change after the traumatic fall of Athens in 404 B.C. at the end of the first Peloponnesian War. Indeed, one reads of the "revolution '' in Greek culture, and Plato 's lament that the new music "... used high musical talent, showmanship and virtuosity... consciously rejecting educated standards of judgement. '' Although instrumental virtuosity was prized, this complaint included excessive attention to instrumental music such as to interfere with accompanying the human voice, and the falling away from the traditional ethos in music.
The following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece:
The lyre, kithara, aulos, hydraulis and salpinx all found their way into the music of ancient Rome.
The enigmatic Ancient Greek figure of Pythagoras with mathematical devotion laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study of harmonics -- how strings and columns of air vibrate, how they produce overtones, how the overtones are related arithmetically to one another, etc. It was common to hear of the "music of the spheres '' from the Pythagoreans.
At a certain point, Plato complained about the new music:
Our music was once divided into its proper forms... It was not permitted to exchange the melodic styles of these established forms and others. Knowledge and informed judgment penalized disobedience. There were no whistles, unmusical mob - noises, or clapping for applause. The rule was to listen silently and learn; boys, teachers, and the crowd were kept in order by threat of the stick... But later, an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music... Through foolishness they deceived themselves into thinking that there was no right or wrong way in music, that it was to be judged good or bad by the pleasure it gave. By their works and their theories they infected the masses with the presumption to think themselves adequate judges. So our theatres, once silent, grew vocal, and aristocracy of music gave way to a pernicious theatrocracy... the criterion was not music, but a reputation for promiscuous cleverness and a spirit of law - breaking.
From his references to "established forms '' and "laws of music '' we can assume that at least some of the formality of the Pythagorean system of harmonics and consonance had taken hold of Greek music, at least as it was performed by professional musicians in public, and that Plato was complaining about the falling away from such principles into a "spirit of law - breaking ''.
Playing what "sounded good '' violated the established ethos of modes that the Greeks had developed by the time of Plato: a complex system of relating certain emotional and spiritual characteristics to certain modes (scales). The names for the various modes derived from the names of Greek tribes and peoples, the temperament and emotions of which were said to be characterized by the unique sound of each mode. Thus, Dorian modes were "harsh '', Phrygian modes "sensual '', and so forth. In his Republic, Plato talks about the proper use of various modes, the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc. It is difficult for the modern listener to relate to that concept of ethos in music except by comparing our own perceptions that a minor scale is used for melancholy and a major scale for virtually everything else, from happy to heroic music. (Today, one might look at the system of scales known as ragas in India for a better comparison, a system that prescribes certain scales for the morning, others for the evening, and so on.)
The sounds of scales vary depending on the placement of tones. Modern Western scales use the placement of whole tones, such as C to D on a modern piano keyboard, and half tones, such as C to C - sharp, but not quarter - tones ("in the cracks '' on a modern keyboard) at all. This limit on tone types creates relatively few kinds of scales in modern Western music compared to that of the Greeks, who used the placement of whole - tones, half - tones, and even quarter - tones (or still smaller intervals) to develop a large repertoire of scales, each with a unique ethos. The Greek concepts of scales (including the names) found its way into later Roman music and then the European Middle Ages to the extent that one can find references to, for example, a "Lydian church mode '', although name is simply a historical reference with no relationship to the original Greek sound or ethos.
From the descriptions that have come down to us through the writings of those such as Plato, Aristoxenus and, later, Boethius, we can say with some caution that the ancient Greeks, at least before Plato, heard music that was primarily monophonic; that is, music built on single melodies based on a system of modes / scales, themselves built on the concept that notes should be placed between consonant intervals. It is a commonplace of musicology to say that harmony, in the sense of a developed system of composition, in which many tones at once contribute to the listener 's expectation of resolution, was invented in the European Middle Ages and that ancient cultures had no developed system of harmony -- that is, for example, playing the third and seventh above the dominant, in order to create the expectation for the listener that the tritone will resolve to the third.
Plato 's Republic notes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. The Orestes fragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once. Research in the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean -- decipherings of cuneiform music script -- argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a "scale '' many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All we can say from the available evidence is that, while Greek musicians clearly employed the technique of sounding more than one note at the same time, the most basic, common texture of Greek music was monophonic.
That much seems evident from another passage from Plato:
... The lyre should be used together with the voices... the player and the pupil producing note for note in unison, Heterophony and embroidery by the lyre -- the strings throwing out melodic lines different from the melodia which the poet composed; crowded notes where his are sparse, quick time to his slow... and similarly all sorts of rhythmic complications against the voices -- none of this should be imposed upon pupils...
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who sings the song whatever tomorrow brings i'll be there | Drive (Incubus song) - wikipedia
"Drive '' is a song recorded by American rock band Incubus. It was released in November 2000 as a single from their third album Make Yourself. It is considered the band 's biggest hit and breakthrough single, eventually reaching the top of Billboard 's modern rock charts on March 3, 2001 and # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 28. In 2001, "Drive '' won Billboard 's award for Modern Rock Single of the Year. Director Bill Draheim documented the making of "Drive ''. ' Save Me from my Half - Life Drive ' is the result of that edited EPK footage.
The song is featured in the video games Donkey Konga 2 and Guitar Hero Live in addition to the film Surf 's Up. This single was also certified gold in Australia in the year 2001.
According to lead singer, Brandon Boyd, "The lyric is basically about fear, about being driven all your life by it and making decisions from fear. It 's about imagining what life would be like if you did n't live it that way ''.
The song 's main lyric is "I 'll Be There '', but because there was a song by that name by The Jackson 5, the song 's final title ended up being "Drive ''.
The song is what is widely described as mellow, featuring mostly acoustic instruments and grounded both musically and lyrically in a very relaxing and positive ambiance making the song a departure and exception from their original alternative metal, nu metal and funk metal roots.
When played live, the song is performed in a number of different ways; unplugged with Mike and Brandon, the full band with Mike playing guitar, or the remixed version, centering on Ben Kenney 's amplified and reconstructed bass melodies, with Mike playing an electric piano (as seen on the Alive at Red Rocks DVD).
The music video is based on M.C. Escher 's Drawing Hands. Directed by Phil Harder, it features a simple musical session intercut with a rotoscoped animation of Brandon Boyd drawing himself. The animation was handled by both Boyd and drummer Jose Pasillas. The scenes from the official music video were shot in the McNamara Alumni Center on the University of Minnesota. The video was nominated for Best Group Video at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards but lost to ' N Sync.
US Chillum promo single record
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the first hominin species to migrate out of africa was | Early human migrations - wikipedia
Earliest human migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents began 2 million years ago with the migration out of Africa of Homo erectus. This was followed by the migrations of other pre-modern humans including H. heidelbergensis, the likely ancestor of both anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals. Finally, the recent African origin paradigm suggests that Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa around 100,000 years ago, spread across Asia approximately 60,000 years ago, and subsequently populated other continents and islands.
Knowledge of early human migrations, a major topic of archeology, has been achieved by the study of human fossils, occasionally by stone - age artifacts and more recently has been assisted by archaeogenetics. Cultural and ethnic migrations are estimated by combining archaeogenetics and comparative linguistics.
Homo erectus migrated from out of Africa via the Levantine corridor and Horn of Africa to Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene, possibly as a result of the operation of the Saharan pump, around 1.9 million years ago. They dispersed throughout most of the Old World, reaching as far as Southeast Asia. The date of original dispersal beyond Africa virtually coincides with the appearance of Homo ergaster in the fossil record, and about half a million years after the appearance of the Homo genus itself and the first stone tools of the Oldowan industry. Key sites for this early migration out of Africa are Riwat in Pakistan (~ 2 Ma?), Ubeidiya in the Levant (1.5 Ma) and Dmanisi in the Caucasus (1.81 ± 0.03 Ma, p = 0.05).
China was populated as early as 1.66 Mya based on stone artifacts found in the Nihewan Basin. The archaeological site of Xihoudu (西 侯 渡) in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago.
Southeast Asia (Java) was reached about 1.7 million years ago (Meganthropus). Western Europe was first populated around 1.2 million years ago (Atapuerca).
Robert G. Bednarik has suggested that Homo erectus may have built rafts and sailed oceans, a theory that has raised some controversy.
The expansion of H. erectus was followed by the arrival of H. antecessor in Europe around 800,000 years ago, which was in turn followed by migration from Africa to Europe of H. heidelbergensis, the likely ancestor of both modern humans and Neanderthals, around 600,000 years ago. The presence of a third homo species, h. denisova (Denisovans) in Siberia (via archeological evidence) and East / South East Asia (via DNA evidence) is now well accepted. Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals and modern humans (including ancestors of Papuans, Melanesians and Australian aboriginals) as recently as 50,000 ya. The evolutionary ancestor of Denisovans is likely to be shared with h. sapiens and h. neandertal by way of h. heidlebergensis, though the scant archaeological evidence makes a history of Denisovans largely a matter of assumptions based on DNA data.
Neanderthal gene flow has also been observed among various populations in Africa. Additionally, among certain groups below the Sahara, there is DNA evidence of archaic admixture from hominins that broke away from the modern human lineage around 700,000 years ago. This genetic introgression has been estimated to date to 35 - 40,000 years before present.
Ethiopia is considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, the Omo remains, were excavated in the southwestern Omo Kibish area and have been dated to the Middle Paleolithic, around 200,000 years ago. Additionally, skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in the Middle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens, or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans. Fossils excavated at the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago.
Current dating of human fossils indicates that modern humans migrating Out of Africa between 125 - 18 kya (thousand years ago) moved into lands occupied by at least four known homo species. These are (species / place / most recent date alive): h. erectus, Eurasia, 27kya; h. neanderthalensis, Europe 30kya / Central Asia 40kya; h. sp. altai (or Denisovans), Siberia / Asia / SE Asia, 30kya), h. floresiensis (or ' Hobbits ', note controversy whether this is a homo species), SE Asia, 18kya. There is genetic evidence from Melanesian and Australian Aboriginal DNA, of another unidentified homo species from around 400kya to a time when interbreeding with modern humans migrating OoA could have occurred (70 - 30kya?). Plus, early humans could have interacted with any number of hybrid groups that became extinct, as indicated by examples such as: Lapedo Child, Europe, 24kya; Red Deer Cave People, China, 11kya; h. tsaichangensis, Taiwan, 10kya.
When modern humans reached the Near East or Levantine corridor 125,000 years ago, evidence suggests they were forced out, as their settlements were replaced by Neanderthals between 80 - 47kys. This same reference shows support for the probability that multiple Out of Africa (OoA) migrations occurred from as early as 125kya to as far as China, but "died out '' and did not contribute to the DNA of living modern humans. One well supported view is that the first modern humans that contributed to the DNA of living modern humans, spread east across Asia from Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Southern Route of Bab el Mandib connecting Ethiopia and Yemen. A recent review has shown support for both the Northern Route through Sinai / Israel / Syria (Levant), and, that both routes may have been used. From the Near East, some of these people went east to South Asia by 50,000 years ago, and on to Australia by 46,000 years ago at the latest, when for the first time H. sapiens reached territory never reached by H. erectus. H. sapiens reached Europe around 43,000 years ago, eventually replacing the Neanderthal population by 40,000 years ago East Asia was reached by 30,000 years ago. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover. The date of migration to North America, and whether humans had previously inhabited the Americas is disputed; it may have taken place around 130 thousand years ago, or considerably later, around 14 thousand years ago. The oldest radiocarbon dated carbonized plant remains were determined to be 50,300 years old and were discovered at the Topper site in Allendale South Carolina in May 2004 alongside stone tools similar to those of pre-Clovis era humans. The oldest DNA evidence of human habitation in North America however, has been radiocarbon dated to 14,300 years ago, and was found in fossilized human coprolites uncovered in the Paisley Five Mile Point Caves in south - central Oregon. Colonization of the Pacific islands of Polynesia began around 1300 BC, and was completed by 1280 AD (New Zealand). The ancestors of Polynesians left Taiwan around 5,200 years ago.
More recent migrations of language and culture groups within the modern species are also studied and hypothetised. The African Epipaleolithic Kebaran culture is believed to have reached Eurasia about 18,000 years ago, introducing the bow and arrow to the Middle East, and may have been responsible for the spread of the Nostratic languages. The people of the Afro - Asiatic language family seem to have reached Africa in 6,200 BC, introducing the Semitic languages to the Middle East.
From there they spread around the world. An initial venture out of Africa 125,000 years ago was followed by a flood out of Africa via the Arabian Peninsula into Eurasia around 60,000 years ago, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia.
There is evidence from mitochondrial DNA that modern humans have passed through at least one genetic bottleneck, in which genome diversity was drastically reduced. Henry Harpending has proposed that humans spread from a geographically restricted area about 100,000 years ago, the passage through the geographic bottleneck and then with a dramatic growth amongst geographically dispersed populations about 50,000 years ago, beginning first in Africa and thence spreading elsewhere. Climatological and geological evidence suggests evidence for the bottleneck. The explosion of Lake Toba created a 1,000 year cold period, as a result of the largest volcanic eruption of the Quaternary, potentially reducing human populations to a few tropical refugia. It has been estimated that as few as 15,000 humans survived. In such circumstances genetic drift and founder effects may have been maximised. The greater diversity amongst African genomes may be in part due to the greater prevalence of African refugia during the Toba incident. However, a recent review highlights that the single - source hypothesis of non-African populations is less supported by ancient DNA analysis than multiple sources plus genetic mixing across Eurasia.
The most recent common ancestor shared by all living human beings, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve, probably lived roughly 120 -- 150 millennia ago, the time of Homo sapiens idaltu, probably in East Africa.
The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters. '' The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south - western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.
Around 100,000 - 80,000 years ago, three main lines of Homo sapiens diverged. Bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) / A (Y - DNA) colonized Southern Africa (the ancestors of the Khoisan (peoples), bearers of haplogroup L1 (mtDNA) / B (Y - DNA) settled Central and West Africa (the ancestors of western pygmies), and bearers of haplogroups L2, L3, and others mtDNA remained in East Africa (the ancestors of Niger -- Congo - and Nilo - Saharan - speaking peoples). (see L - mtDNA)
There is some evidence for the argument that modern humans left Africa at least 125,000 years ago using two different routes: the Nile Valley heading to the Middle East, at least into modern Israel (Qafzeh: 120,000 -- 100,000 years ago); and a second one through the present - day Bab - el - Mandeb Strait on the Red Sea (at that time, with a much lower sea level and narrower extension), crossing it into the Arabian Peninsula, settling in places like the present - day United Arab Emirates (125,000 years ago) and Oman (106,000 years ago) and then possibly going into the Indian Subcontinent (Jwalapuram: 75,000 years ago). Despite the fact that no human remains have yet been found in these three places, the apparent similarities between the stone tools found at Jebel Faya, the ones from Jwalapuram and some African ones suggest that their creators were all modern humans. These findings might give some support to the claim that modern humans from Africa arrived at southern China about 100,000 years ago (Zhiren Cave, Zhirendong, Chongzuo City: 100,000 years ago; and the Liujiang hominid (Liujiang County): controversially dated at 139,000 -- 111,000 years ago). Dating results of the Lunadong (Bubing Basin, Guangxi, southern China) teeth, which include a right upper second molar and a left lower second molar, indicate that the molars may be as old as 126,000 years.
Since these previous exits from Africa did not leave traces in the results of genetic analyses based on the Y chromosome and on MtDNA (which represent only a small part of the human genetic material), it seems that those modern humans did not survive or survived in small numbers and were assimilated by our major antecessors. An explanation for their extinction (or small genetic imprint) may be the Toba catastrophe theory (74,000 years ago). However, some argue that its impact on human population was not dramatic.
According to the Recent African Origin theory a small group of the L3 Haplogroup bearers living in East Africa migrated north east, possibly searching for food or escaping adverse conditions, crossing the Red Sea about 70 millennia ago, and in the process going on to populate the rest of the world. According to some authors, based in the fact that only descents of L3 are found outside Africa, only a few people left Africa in a single migration to a settlement in the Arabian peninsula. From that settlement, some others point to the possibility of several waves of expansion close in time.
Nonetheless, in July 2017, evidence suggests that Homo sapiens may have migrated from Africa as early as 270,000 years ago, much earlier than the 70,000 years ago thought previously.
Dating of teeth from China provides evidence of an early migration of modern humans from Africa into Southeast Asia before 80,000 - 120,000 years ago.
The later major migration from Africa traveled along the coast of Arabia and Persia to India and the rest of South Asia. Along the way H. sapiens interbred with Neanderthals and Denisovans, with Denisovan DNA making 0.2 % of mainland Asian and Native American DNA. David Reich of Harvard University and Mark Stoneking of the Planck Institute team, found genetic evidence that Denisovan ancestry is shared by Melanesians, Australian Aborigines, and smaller scattered groups of people in Southeast Asia, such as the Mamanwa, a Negrito people in the Philippines suggesting the interbreeding took place in Eastern Asia where the Denisovans lived. Denisovans may have crossed the Wallace Line, with Wallacea serving as their last refugium. Homo erectus crossed the Lombok gap reaching as far as Flores, but never made it to Australia.
During this time sea level was much lower and most of Maritime Southeast Asia formed one land mass known as Sunda. Migration continued Southeast on the coastal route to the straits between Sunda and Sahul, the continental land mass of present - day Australia and New Guinea. The gaps on the Weber Line are up to 90 km wide, so the migration to Australia and New Guinea would have required seafaring skills. Migration also continued along the coast eventually turning northeast to China and finally reaching Japan before turning inland. This is evidenced by the pattern of mitochondrial haplogroups descended from haplogroup M, and in Y - chromosome haplogroup C.
Sequencing of one Aboriginal genome from an old hair sample in Western Australia, revealed that the individual was descended from people who migrated into East Asia between 62,000 and 75,000 years ago. This supports the theory of a single migration into Australia and New Guinea before the arrival of Modern Asians (between 25,000 to 38,000 years ago) and their later migration into North America. This migration is believed to have happened around 50,000 years ago, before Australia and New Guinea were separated by rising sea levels approximately 8,000 years ago. This is supported by a date of 50,000 - 60,000 years ago for the oldest evidence of settlement in Australia, around 40,000 years ago for the oldest human remains The earliest humans artefacts are at least 65,000 years old and the extinction Australian megafauna by humans between 46,000 and 15,000 years ago advocated by Tim Flannery, which is similar to what happened in the Americas. The continued use of stone age tools in Australia has been much debated.
Europe is thought to have been colonized by northwest - bound migrants from Central Asia and the Middle East, as a result of cultural adaption to big game hunting of sub-glacial steppe fauna. When the first anatomically modern humans entered Europe, Neanderthals were already settled there. Debate exists whether modern human populations interbred with Neanderthal populations, most of the evidence suggesting that it happened to a small degree rather than complete absorption. Populations of modern humans and Neanderthal overlapped in various regions such as in Iberian peninsula and in the Middle East. Interbreeding may have contributed Neanderthal genes to palaeolithic and ultimately modern Eurasians and Oceanians.
An important difference between Europe and other parts of the inhabited world was the northern latitude. Archaeological evidence suggests humans, whether Neanderthal or Cro - Magnon, reached sites in Arctic Russia by 40,000 years ago.
Around 20,000 BC, approximately 5,000 years after the Neanderthal extinction, the Last Glacial Maximum took place, forcing northern hemisphere inhabitants to migrate to several shelters (known as refugia) until the end of this period. The resulting populations, whether interbred with Neanderthals or not, are then presumed to have resided in those hypothetical refuges during the LGM to ultimately reoccupy Europe where archaic historical populations are considered their descendants. An alternate view is that modern European populations have descended from Neolithic populations in the Middle East that have been well documented in this area. The debate surrounding the origin of Europeans has been worded in terms of cultural diffusion versus demic diffusion. Archeological evidence and genetic evidence strongly support demic diffusion, that a population spread from the Middle East over the last 12,000 years. A scientific genetic concept called the Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor or TMRCA has been used to refute the demic diffusion in favour of cultural diffusion.
Cro - Magnon are considered the first anatomically modern humans in Europe. They entered Eurasia by the Zagros Mountains (near present - day Iran and eastern Turkey) around 50,000 years ago, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia. Modern human remains dating to 43 - 45,000 years ago have been discovered in Italy and Britain, with the remains found of those that reached the European Russian Arctic 40,000 years ago.
Humans colonised the environment west of the Urals, hunting reindeer especially, but were faced with adaptive challenges; winter temperatures averaged from − 20 to − 30 ° C (− 4 to − 22 ° F) while fuel and shelter were scarce. They travelled on foot and relied on hunting highly mobile herds for food. These challenges were overcome through technological innovations: production of tailored clothing from the pelts of fur - bearing animals; construction of shelters with hearths using bones as fuel; and digging of "ice cellars '' into the permafrost for storing meat and bones.
A mitochondrial DNA sequence of two Cro - Magnons from the Paglicci Cave in Italy, dated to 23,000 and 24,000 years old (Paglicci 52 and 12), identified the mtDNA as Haplogroup N, typical of the latter group. The inland group is the founder of both North - and East Asians, Caucasoids and large sections of the Middle East population. Migration from the Black Sea area into Europe started sometime around 45,000 years ago, probably across the Bosphorus and along the Danubian corridor. By 20,000 years ago, the whole of Continental Europe had been settled.
The expansion of modern human population is thought to have begun 45,000 years ago, and may have taken 15,000 - 20,000 years for Europe to be colonized.
During this time the Neanderthals were slowly being displaced. Because it took so long for Europe to be occupied, it appears that humans and Neanderthals may have been constantly competing for territory. The Neanderthals had larger brains, and were larger overall, with a more robust or heavily built frame, which suggests that they were physically stronger than modern Homo sapiens. Having lived in Europe for 200,000 years, they would have been better adapted to the cold weather. The anatomically modern humans known as the Cro - Magnons, with widespread trade networks, superior technology and bodies likely better suited to running, would eventually completely displace the Neanderthals, whose last refuge was in the Iberian peninsula. After about 25,000 years ago the fossil record of the Neanderthals ends, indicating that they had become extinct. The last known population lived around a cave system on the remote south - facing coast of Gibraltar from 30,000 to 24,000 years ago.
From the extent of linkage disequilibrium, it was estimated that the last Neanderthal gene flow into early ancestors of Europeans occurred 47,000 -- 65,000 years BP. In conjunction with archaeological and fossil evidence, the gene flow is thought likely to have occurred somewhere in Western Eurasia, possibly the Middle East. Studies show a higher Neanderthal admixture in East Asians than in Europeans. North African groups share a similar excess of derived alleles with Neanderthals as do non-African populations, whereas Sub-Saharan African groups are the only modern human populations that generally did not experience Neanderthal admixture. The Neanderthal - linked haplotype B006 of the dystrophin gene has also been found among nomad pastoralist groups in the Sahel and Horn of Africa, who are associated with northern populations. Consequently, the presence of this B006 haplotype on the northern and northeastern perimeter of Sub-Saharan Africa is attributed to gene flow from a non-African point of origin.
Evidence published in 2014 from genome analysis of ancient human remains suggests that the modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lines: Hunter - gatherers who lived 45,000 years ago and most probably originated in the second human migration out of Africa into Europe, early agriculturists who moved into Europe about 9,000 years ago and mixed in, and finally a population of pontic - caspian steppe nomads who contributed DNA (and Indo - European languages) to a wide range of modern humans including native Americans.
Mitochondrial haplogroups A, B and G originated about 50,000 years ago, and bearers subsequently colonized Siberia, Korea and Japan, by about 35,000 years ago. Parts of these populations migrated to North America.
A Paleolithic site on the Yana River, Siberia, at 71 ° N, lies well above the Arctic circle and dates to 27,000 radiocarbon years before present, during glacial times. This site shows that people adapted to this harsh, high - latitude, Late Pleistocene environment much earlier than previously thought.
Paleo - Indians originated from Central Asia, crossing the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present - day Alaska. Humans lived throughout the Americas by the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, no earlier than 23,000 years before present. Details of Paleo - Indian migration to and throughout the American continent, including the dates and the routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.
Dates for Paleo - Indian migration out of Beringia are a matter of current debate. Estimates range from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago.
The routes of migration are also debated. The traditional theory is that these early migrants moved when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation, following herds of now - extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice - free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America as far as Chile. Any archaeological evidence of coastal occupation during the last Ice Age would now have been covered by the sea level rise, up to a hundred metres since then. The recent finding of Australoid genetic markers in Amazonia supports the coastal route hypothesis.
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where are the basilar membrane and the organ of corti located | Organ of Corti - wikipedia
The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. This highly varied strip of epithelial cells allows for transduction of auditory signals into nerve impulses ' action potential. Transduction occurs through vibrations of structures in the inner ear causing displacement of cochlear fluid and movement of hair cells at the organ of Corti to produce electrochemical signals.
Italian anatomist Alfonso Giacomo Gaspare Corti (1822 -- 1876) discovered the organ of Corti in 1851. The structure evolved from the basilar papilla and is crucial for mechanotransduction in mammals.
The organ of Corti is located in the scala media of the cochlea of the inner ear between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct and is composed of mechanosensory cells, known as hair cells. Strategically positioned on the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti are three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row of inner hair cells (IHCs). Separating these hair cells are supporting cells: Deiters cells, also called phalangeal cells, which separate and support both the OHCs and the IHCs.
Projecting from the tops of the hair cells are tiny finger like projections called stereocilia, which are arranged in a graduated fashion with the shortest stereocilia on the outer rows and the longest in the center. This gradation is thought to be the most important anatomic feature of the organ of Corti because this allows the sensory cells superior tuning capability.
If the cochlea were uncoiled it would roll out to be about 33 mm long in women and 34mm in men, with about 2.28 mm of standard deviation for the population. The cochlea is also tonotopically organized, meaning that different frequencies of sound waves interact with different locations on the structure. The base of the cochlea, closest to the outer ear, is the most stiff and narrow and is where the high frequency sounds are transduced. The apex, or top, of the cochlea is wider and much more flexible and loose and functions as the transduction site for low frequency sounds.
The function of the organ of Corti is to transduce auditory signals and maximize the hair cells ' extraction of sound energy. It is the auricle and middle ear that act as mechanical transformers and amplifiers so that the sound waves end up with amplitudes 22 times greater than when they entered the ear.
In normal hearing subjects, the majority of the auditory signals that reach the organ of Corti in the first place come from the outer ear. Sound waves enter through the auditory canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, which vibrates three small bones called the ossicles. As a result, the attached oval window moves and causes movement of the round window, which leads to displacement of the cochlear fluid. However, the stimulation can happen also via direct vibration of the cochlea from the skull. The latter is referred to as Bone Conduction (or BC) hearing, as complementary to the first one described, which is instead called Air Conduction (or AC) hearing. Both AC and BC stimulate the basilar membrane in the same way (Békésy, G.v., Experiments in Hearing. 1960).
The basilar membrane on the tympanic duct presses against the hair cells of the organ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. The stereocilia atop the IHCs move with this fluid displacement and in response their cation, or positive ion selective, channels are pulled open by cadherin structures called tip links that connect adjacent stereocilia. The organ of Corti, surrounded in potassium rich fluid endolymph, lies on the basilar membrane at the base of the scala media. Under the organ of Corti is the scala tympani and above it, the scala vestibuli. Both structures exist in a low potassium fluid called perilymph. Because those stereocilia are in the midst of a high concentration of potassium, once their cation channels are pulled open, potassium ions as well as calcium ions flow into the top of the hair cell. With this influx of positive ions the IHC becomes depolarized, opening voltage - gated calcium channels at the basolateral region of the hair cells and triggering the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. An electrical signal is then sent through the auditory nerve and into the auditory cortex of the brain as a neural message.
The organ of Corti is also capable of modulating the auditory signal. The outer hair cells (OHCs) can amplify the signal through a process called electromotility where they increase movement of the basilar and tectorial membrases and therefore increase deflection of stereocilia in the IHCs.
A crucial piece to this cochlear amplification is the motor protein prestin, which changes shape based on the voltage potential inside of the hair cell. When the cell is depolarized prestin shortens, and because it is located on the membrane of OHCs it then pulls on the basilar membrane and increasing how much the membrane is deflected, creating a more intense effect on the inner hair cells (IHCs). When the cell hyperpolarizes prestin lengthens and eases tension on the IHCs, which decreases the neural impulses to the brain. In this way, the hair cell itself is able to modify the auditory signal before it even reaches the brain.
The organ of Corti, in between the scala tympani and the scala media, develops after the formation and growth of the cochlear duct. The inner and outer hair cells then differentiate into their appropriate positions and are followed by the organization of the supporting cells. The topology of the supporting cells lends itself to the actual mechanical properties that are needed for the highly specialized sound - induced movements within the organ of Corti.
Development and growth of the organ of Corti relies on specific genes, many of which have been identified in previous research (SOX2, GATA3, EYA1, FOXG1, BMP4, RAC1 and more), to undergo such differentiation. Specifically, the cochlear duct growth and the formation of hair cells within the organ of Corti.
Mutations in the genes expressed in or near the organ of Corti before the differentiation of hair cells will result in a disruption in the differentiation, and potential malfunction of, the organ of Corti.
The organ of Corti can be damaged by excessive sound levels, leading to noise - induced impairment.
The most common kind of hearing impairment, sensorineural hearing loss, includes as one major cause the reduction of function in the organ of Corti. Specifically, the active amplification function of the outer hair cells is very sensitive to damage from exposure to trauma from overly - loud sounds or to certain ototoxic drugs. Once outer hair cells are damaged, they do not regenerate, and the result is a loss of sensitivity and an abnormally large growth of loudness (known as recruitment) in the part of the spectrum that the damaged cells serve.
While hearing loss has always been considered irreversible in mammals, fish and birds routinely repair such damage. A 2013 study has shown that the use of particular drugs may reactivate genes normally expressed only during hair cell development. The research was carried out at Harvard Medical School, the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, and the Keio University School of Medicine in Japan.
Transverse section of the cochlear duct of a fetal cat.
Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the cochlea.
Floor of ductus cochlearis.
Limbus laminæ spiralis and membrana basilaris.
Section through the spiral organ of Corti. Magnified.
History. (n.d.).
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when does the next season of adventure time come out | Adventure Time (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth and final season of Adventure Time, an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward, premiered on Cartoon Network on March 10, 2010 and is set to conclude on September 3, 2018. The season was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios. The season follows the final adventures of Finn, a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the other main characters of the show: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess.
The season debuted with the episode "The Wild Hunt '', which was viewed by 0.77 million viewers (this marked a decrease from the previous season finale, "Three Buckets '', which was viewed by 0.85 million). The tenth season is slated to conclude with "Come Along with Me '', a four - part episode that will also serve as the series finale. Critical reception to the season has been mostly positive, and the episode "Ring of Fire '' was nominated for a Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2018. Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios produced the season. A DVD set containing the entire season is scheduled to be released on September 4, 2018.
The series follows the adventures of Finn the Human, a human boy, and his best friend Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape, grow, and shrink at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, wherein they interact with the other major characters, including: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess. Common storylines revolve around Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures, dealing with the antagonistic but misunderstood Ice King, and battling monsters in order to help others. Multi-episode story arcs for this season include Princess Bubblegum confronting her antagonistic Uncle Gumbald, Finn dealing with Fern 's embrace of the dark side, and Betty trying to turn the Ice King back into Simon Petrikov.
On July 21, 2016, lead writer Kent Osborne posted an image on Twitter that suggested Adventure Time had been renewed for an additional season. At the time, the season was intended to be the show 's ninth. However, the season divisions were later re-arranged by Cartoon Network, and "The Wild Hunt '' became the first episode of season ten. This season 's episodes were produced in a process similar to previous seasons. First, the episodes began as simple two - to - three - page outlines that contained the necessary plot information. These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists, who then expanded the rough outline into a full storyboard. The episodes ' design and coloring were done in Burbank, California. Animation was handled overseas in South Korea, by Rough Draft Korea and by Saerom Animation.
Storyboard artists who worked on this season include (but are not limited to) Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Steve Wolfhard, Tom Herpich, Graham Falk, Kent Osborne, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Erik Fountain, and Patrick McHale. In regards to other aspects of production, Ghostshrimp -- the series ' former lead background designer -- returned to the series to work on episodes comprising the "final story arc of Adventure Time ''. Ghostshrimp had retired from the show after the fourth season, but had previously returned to draw backgrounds for the seventh - season miniseries Stakes and the ninth - season episodes "Abstract '', "Fionna and Cake and Fionna '', and "Whispers ''. Additionally, Andy Ristaino (a former character designer, storyboard artist, and background designer for the show) returned as a revisionist for this season. Finally, former storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar returned to contribute the song "Time Adventure '' for the series finale.
In November 17, 2017, it was announced that an episode entitled "Diamonds and Lemons '' would be produced by Microsoft 's gaming studio Mojang and air sometime in the summer of 2018. The episode will be based on the sandbox video game Minecraft. According to Adam Muto, "Diamonds and Lemons '' was produced separately from the show 's final season and is considered a "bonus episode. '' It is scheduled to air between the season ten episodes "Gumbaldia '' and the series finale "Come Along With Me '', making it the show 's 279th episode.
During the latter few seasons of Adventure Time, there had been talk at Cartoon Network about wrapping up the series. According to Olivia Olson, since this discussion wore on for awhile, "the ending of the show was getting stretched and stretched and stretched ''. In regards to the decision to end the series, executive vice president and chief content officer at Cartoon Network Rob Sorcher told Los Angeles Times:
Adventure Time was playing less and less on Cartoon Network, yet we were moving towards a large volume of episodes. And I really began thinking "(The end) ca n't come quickly as a sudden company decision, it needs to be a conversation over a period of time. '' And it did also strike me that if we do n't wind this up soon, we 're going to have a generation of fans graduate through the demo and we wo n't have completed a thought for them.
Consequently, on September 29, 2016, Cartoon Network confirmed that the show 's tenth season would be its last. When asked in an interview with Skwigly about his feelings concerning the end of the series, Osborne said:
It 's weird because I 've never been on a show this long, and I do n't think Cartoon Network has done a show with this many episodes -- for the past few seasons we 've been surprised... every time it gets picked up. And I think a lot of us were thinking in the back of our minds, "When is this going to end? Am I gon na be 80 and still writing this?! '' It is sad, and everyone 's kind of grieving, but it 's hard to feel too bad about it, because... they have so many episodes in the bank that it 's gon na play for another couple years.
Osborne did note that Cartoon Network provided the writers with "an opportunity to spend a lot of time thinking about the finale. '' According to a speech given by Pendarvis, storyline writing for the series wrapped up mid-November 2016, with the last storyline meeting being held on November 21. A tweet by Osborne revealed that the show 's final script was pitched to storyboarders Sam Alden and Hanna K. Nyström on November 28. This episode was then pitched to the show 's producers during the third week of December 2016. Voice recording for the season and series ended on January 31, 2017, as confirmed by a number of voice actors, including Maria Bamford and Andy Milonakis.
Production on the series officially ended with a wrap party hosted by Cartoon Network on November 16, 2017. Cast and crew members who had worked on the show since its beginning were invited to the festivities, which, among other things, featured a DJ booth shaped like Finn and Jake 's tree fort, a live band, and Adventure Time - related food items. Following the season 's completion, several crewmembers were hired to work on the upcoming Cartoon Network series Summer Camp Island, which was created by Adventure Time storyline writer Julia Pott.
The voice actors for the season include: Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog), Tom Kenny (The Ice King), Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters, including Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO in English, as well as Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother, Bettie Ward, plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks. Jessica DiCicco voices Flame Princess, Finn 's ex-girlfriend and the sovereign of the Fire Kingdom. Andy Milonakis voices N.E.P.T.R., a sentient robot who makes and throws pies. The Lich, the series ' principal antagonist, is portrayed by Ron Perlman in his demonic form. The Adventure Time cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to "doing a play reading -- a really, really out there play. ''
In addition to the regular cast members, episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions, including actors, musicians, and artists. "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', "Seventeen '', and "Gumbaldia '' feature Fred Melamed voicing Princess Bubblegum 's Uncle Gumbald. In "The Wild Hunt '', Jenny Slate reprises her role as Huntress Wizard. "Son of Rap Bear '' sees Dumbfoundead voices the titular character, Rekstizzy voices Rap Bear, Keith David reprise his role as Flame King, Paul Scheer reprises his role as Toronto, and Open Mike Eagle voices a gingerbread man. In "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', Livvy Stubenrauch voices the younger Princess Bubblegum, and former supervising director Andres Salaff reprises his role as Neddy.
In "Seventeen '' and "Gumbaldia '' Brad Neely plays the Green Knight. "Ring of Fire '' features David Herman as Randy, Raza Jaffrey as Danny, and Andy Daly as Wyatt. In, "Marcy & Hunson '', Martin Olson reprises his role as Hunson Abadeer, the father of Marceline. In "The First Investigation '', Marc Evan Jackson reprises his role as Kim Kil Whan, and Dave Foley voices Warren Ampersand. Foley would reprise this role in the episode "Jake the Starchild ''. The episode "Temple of Mars '' features Felicia Day reprising her role as Betty; the episode also sees the return of Tom Scharpling as Jermaine the dog.
Various other characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Maria Bamford, Steve Little, and Melissa Villaseñor.
Much like the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth seasons, the tenth season of Adventure Time featured several episode "bombs '', or instances wherein large amounts of episodes debuted within a relatively short timeframe. The first of these occurred on September 17, 2017, when "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Son of Rap Bear '', and "Bonnibel Bubblegum '' aired. The second of these occurred on December 17, 2017 when "Seventeen '', "Ring of Fire '', "Marcy and Hunson '' and "The First Investigation '' aired. The third of these occurred on March 18, 2018, when "Blenanas '', "Jake the Starchild '', "Temple of Mars '', and "Gumbaldia '' aired.
= = = Ratings = = = s
The tenth season of Adventure Time debuted on television on September 17, 2017, with the episode "The Wild Hunt ''. It was watched by 0.77 million viewers and scored a 0.24 Nielsen rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States, which means that the episodes were seen by 0.24 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old at the time of the episode 's airing. In terms of viewers, this marked a decrease when compared to the season nine finale, "Three Buckets '' (which was seen by 0.85 million individuals), but an increase when compared to the previous season 's premiere, "Orb '' (which was viewed by 0.71 million).
While the tenth season was airing, Entertainment Weekly named Adventure Time the tenth - best series of 2018, writing, "All the episodes (that aired in 2018) shined with Adventure Time 's eccentric trademarks: sweet fairy - tale logic, twisted dark humor, full - blown cosmic adventure, an ability to create and puncture myths in under 11 minutes. ''
In July 2018, the episode "Ring of Fire '' was nominated for a Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short - format Animated Program.
A DVD set that includes season ten along with seasons eight and nine is scheduled for release on September 4, 2018.
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who does nick kroll play in big mouth | Big Mouth (tv series) - wikipedia
Big Mouth is an American adult animated sitcom created by Nick Kroll, Andrew Goldberg, Mark Levin, and Jennifer Flackett based on Kroll and Goldberg 's tweenage years growing up in Westchester County, New York, with Kroll voicing his fictional self. The first season consisting of ten episodes premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017. On October 24, 2017, it was confirmed that a second season has been ordered to air in 2018.
The series follows 7th grade best friends Nick Birch and Andrew Glouberman as they navigate their way through puberty, masturbation, and sexual arousal. Acting as sex - based shoulder angels are the hormone monsters; Maurice (who pesters Andrew and occasionally Nick and Jay, and strongly resembles Pan), and Connie (who pesters Jessi and occasionally Missy). Throughout the series, the kids interact with people and objects who are personified in one way or another and offer helpful, albeit confusing, advice in their puberty - filled lives including the ghost of Duke Ellington, a French accented Statue of Liberty, a pillow capable of getting pregnant, and even Jessi 's own vagina.
Big Mouth has received critical acclaim since its official release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100 % based on 18 reviews, with the critical consensus reading, "Big Mouth 's simplistic animation and scatological humor belie its finely sketched characters and smart, empathetic approach to the messiness of adolescence. '' At Metacritic, the show currently holds a rating of 80 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Vox described the show as sharp and jarring depicting the awkwardness of pubescence, postpubescence and prepubescence.
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who played the character mongo in the movie blazing saddles | Alex Karras - wikipedia
Alexander George Karras (July 15, 1935 -- October 10, 2012) was an American football player, professional wrestler, sportscaster, and actor. He was a four - time Pro Bowl player with the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL), where he played from 1958 to 1970. As an actor, Karras is noted for his role as Mongo in the 1974 comedy film Blazing Saddles. He was also known for starring as Webster Long 's (Emmanuel Lewis) adoptive father, George Papadopolis, in the ABC sitcom Webster (1983 -- 1989) alongside his wife Susan Clark. He was also featured prominently in Victor / Victoria, starring Julie Andrews and James Garner. He is a member of the College Football Hall of Fame.
Born and raised in Gary, Indiana, Karras was the son of Dr. George Karras, a Greek immigrant (from Chios) who graduated from the University of Chicago and got his medical degree in Canada. There, George Karras met and married a Canadian woman, Alex 's mother, Emmeline (née Wilson), a registered nurse. George Karras opened a medical practice in Gary, but he died when Alex was thirteen years old. By that time, Alex Karras had learned to play football in a parking lot near his home, and he blossomed into a four - time Indiana all - state selection at Gary 's Emerson High School.
His older brothers, Lou (a future member of the Redskins) and Ted (who later played with the Bears and Lions), had played at Purdue but later Ted transferred to Indiana. Because of this, Alex said, "Indiana had the inside track '' on recruiting him. Shortly after he graduated from high school, three coaches from the Iowa Hawkeyes met Karras at his brother Louie 's house with an airplane and flew him to Spencer, Iowa, where he remained incommunicado through the summer. Writing in the Detroit Free Press in 1971 (as reprinted in the Iowa City Press - Citizen), Karras said that "nobody knew where I was, not even my mom, although Louie told her not to worry... Obviously, Iowa came up with something, I have no intention of stirring up any mess. I 'll only say that, as Louie explained it, some accommodations were made by the people at Iowa that would make things easier for the family, and so away I went. It was the beginning of some awful years. ''
Karras struggled in the beginning at Iowa, with classwork, homesickness and with his coach, Forest Evashevski. He was a pledge at Sigma Nu fraternity during his first year in school. Karras probably would have left Iowa had he not befriended a Greek theater owner, Ernie Pannos, as well as fellow players Cal Jones and Bob Commings. Karras ' sophomore year with Iowa in 1955 got off to a rocky start when he showed up for practice twenty pounds (9 kg) overweight. Karras was also hampered that season by a cracked ankle bone. After being disappointed at not getting to play in the season finale, Karras threw a shoe at Evashevski and quit the team. Karras did not earn a football letter for the 1955 season.
Karras went to summer classes and later rejoined the football team, but a strained relationship resurfaced. Evashevski promised to start Alex Karras in the 1956 season opener against Indiana, when Alex would square off against his brother, Ted. But Evy played Karras off the bench instead, and Karras quit the team again. This time, Karras agreed to rejoin the team only after making Evashevski promise he would not talk to him other than in a purely coaching capacity. (Evashevski always denied any special agreement with Karras.) Iowa took the lead in the 1956 Big Ten title race with a 7 -- 0 victory over Minnesota. The Hawkeyes then clinched the Big Ten title and Iowa 's first ever Rose Bowl berth by defeating Ohio State, 6 -- 0. Karras sealed the game with a quarterback sack on the game 's final play.
Iowa 's final regular season game in 1956 was 48 -- 8 win at home over a struggling Notre Dame team. Karras called it his biggest college win, saying, "The Karrases have always had a rivalry with Notre Dame. The school was just sixty miles (97 km) down the road from our home and we wanted to beat ' em at anything. '' However, after the game, Karras got into a physical battle with Evashevski. Karras did not enjoy his trip to the Rose Bowl, either. "Pasadena was the most boring town I 've ever been in, '' said Karras. Karras helped the Hawkeyes win the Rose Bowl over Oregon State, 35 -- 19. He was a first team All - American in 1956
Karras spent the summer of 1957 with an American track team of Greek descent. He participated in the shot put, throwing a respectable 52 feet (16 m). In his senior season in 1957, Karras was the most dominant lineman in the nation, won the Outland Trophy, and was the runner - up in the voting for the Heisman Trophy. Karras and Ohio State tackle John Hicks (in 1973) are two of only three linemen ever finishing so high in the Heisman Trophy voting. (Leon Hart, a Notre Dame end, was the only lineman ever to win the Heisman Trophy in 1949.) In addition, Karras was a consensus first team All - American in 1957. Hawkeye teammate Randy Duncan said,
Karras hated Evashevski, and he still does. I think Karras hated Evy for a lot of reasons. Evy was on everybody 's back, and he was on Karras ' back big time. Karras was a great football player, but he did n't really like offense and, in those days, you had to go both ways. So he did n't block anybody. What he wanted to do was chase down quarterbacks and play defense.
Before his NFL career got under way, Karras signed a contract as a professional wrestler on December 13, 1957, earning $ 25,000 during the six - month off - season. Karras was the tenth selection of the 1958 NFL draft, taken by the Detroit Lions (in December 1957). He signed with the Lions, spurning an offer from the Canadian Football League 's Winnipeg Blue Bombers. He quickly became one of the dominant defensive tackles in the NFL, playing for 12 seasons (1958 -- 1962, 1964 -- 1970) with the same team.
On January 7, 1963, Karras 's ownership in Detroit 's Lindell AC Bar became a source of controversy when league officials urged him to sell his financial interests in the place because of reports of gambling and organized crime influence. After first threatening to retire rather than give it up, Karras admitted placing bets on NFL games and was suspended by the league, along with Green Bay Packers ' running back Paul Hornung, for one season (1963). During his exile, Karras returned to pro wrestling, taking on such memorable characters as Dick the Bruiser. He was reinstated, along with Hornung, on March 16, 1964 by NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle. Upon returning to action in 1964, Karras once refused when an official asked him to call the pregame coin toss. "I 'm sorry, sir, '' Karras replied. "I 'm not permitted to gamble. '' During his first year back, player discontent with head coach George Wilson resulted in Karras asking to be traded. However, the Lions settled the issue when they fired Wilson after the 1964 NFL season.
From 1960 to 1966, except for the year of his suspension in 1963, he played next to Roger Brown, a formidable pair of defensive tackles, until the latter was traded to the Los Angeles Rams. After another season of controversy under new head coach Harry Gilmer, Karras was rumored to be ready to play out his option and sign with the expansion Miami Dolphins of the American Football League under his former coach Wilson. Instead, Karras signed a seven - year contract with the Lions on May 20, 1966, with Wilson stating that Karras had used the threat of signing with Miami to garner the large deal with Detroit. Despite the new contract, controversy remained, as Karras and Gilmer sparred in midseason, with the coach reportedly ready to release the veteran defensive tackle. As before, it would be the coach who would depart, with Karras 's former teammate Joe Schmidt taking over. On June 4, 1967, Karras once again hinted he would retire to work at a new business venture; once training camp began, though, Karras was back with the Lions. During that preseason, he jokingly commented that he would walk back from Denver if the AFL Broncos defeated the Lions. When that actually happened, Karras backtracked and flew home on the team plane. He was still an All - Pro selection in 1967 to 1969. Despite not allowing a touchdown in the divisional round of the 1970 NFL playoffs, the Lions lost to the Dallas Cowboys 5 -- 0, his first playoff game and his final game. After the 1971 preseason, while rehabing a knee injury suffered the previous year, Karras was released, ending his playing career at age 35.
From 1958 to 1970, the Lions were over. 500 six of the 13 years, making the playoffs only once, 1970, with a 10 -- 4 record in Karras ' final year. Aside from 1970, their best years were 1962 (11 -- 3) and 1969 (9 -- 4 -- 1). In 1962, the Lion defense allowed 177 points (12.6 points / game), 188 (13.4 ppg) in 1969, and 202 (14.4 ppg) in 1970; for all three years they were second - least in the NFL, thanks in large part to a tough and rugged defensive line led by Karras. He was called an "iron man '', and missed only one game due to injury in his 12 NFL seasons and his 161 games played are the fifteenth most in Lions history. He made the Pro Bowl four times, and the Hall of Fame named him a member of the 1960s All - Decade team. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Karras to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2006
In 1968, he made his film debut playing himself in the film adaptation of George Plimpton 's nonfiction sports book Paper Lion. As in Plimpton 's book, Karras delights his teammates with impromptu monologues about a fanciful past, including his marriage to Hitler.
Following his release by the Lions in 1971, he made several appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and also played a bit part in The Mary Tyler Moore Show, appearing in the farewell party scene where Rhoda moves back to New York (1972). Karras soon began acting on a full - time basis, playing a Tennessee boy turned Olympic weightlifter named Hugh Ray Feather in 1973 's The 500 Pound Jerk. He played a hulking villain who menaced Clint Walker in the ABC TV film Hardcase. A minor but memorable role came one year later in the western parody Blazing Saddles (1974): the very strong and slow - witted thug Mongo, who rode into town on a huge brahman (marked with "yes '' and "no '' passing signals), knocked out a horse with one punch, and famously responded to a question from Sheriff Bart with, "Do n't know... '' (looking straight into the camera) "... Mongo only pawn in game of life. '' That same year, he was quickly brought in by ABC in September to replace Fred Williamson as a commentator for the network 's Monday Night Football. He served three years in that role until leaving after the 1976 season, with his most memorable comment coming in his first game, when he joked that bald Oakland Raiders ' lineman Otis Sistrunk, who never attended college, was from "the University of Mars ''.
In 1972, Karras hosted a local weekly football program for Windsor, Ontario CBC affiliate CKLW - TV, The Alex Karras Football Show; his program generally preceded the CBC 's Wednesday night CFL telecasts.. In 1973, Alex made several cameo appearances on the January 8th broadcast of Rowan and Martin 's Laugh - In '.
Karras returned to acting with roles that included playing Sheriff Wallace in Porky 's (in which his wife, Susan Clark, also starred), and as western settler Hans Brumbaugh in Centennial. He played James Garner 's closeted gay bodyguard in the 1982 Blake Edwards ' film Victor Victoria. Karras played a darker role as Hank Sully, the right - hand - man of villain Jake Wise (played by James Woods) in the 1984 film, Against All Odds. Karras ' most memorable role was in the 1975 made - for - TV movie Babe, where he played the hulking ex-wrestler George Zaharias, loyally caring for his cancer - stricken wife, the legendary athlete Babe Didrikson Zaharias.
In 1975, Karras appeared on MNF colleauge Howard Cosell 's ill - fated variety show Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell wearing a wig (a la Mongo) and performing "Already Gone '' on the beach with The Eagles who were dubbed the "Alex Karras Blues Band '' due to tee - shirts the band members wore bearing that moniker.
Karras ' television appearances included guest roles on Daniel Boone in the episode "The Cache '', M * A * S * H in the episode "Springtime '', The Odd Couple and a brief run on Match Game ' 75. He also signed on to play the character "Super Jock '' in commercials for a line of sports action toys named Super Jock, produced by Schaper (1975). In 1977, he was cast in the lead of the TV movie Mad Bull.
In 1979, he had the role of Hans "Potato '' Brumbaugh, a potato farmer, on the TV miniseries Centennial. He was known for his humorous endorsement of La - Z - Boy recliners, in an ad campaign which also featured NFL greats such as Miami Dolphins Coach Don Shula, and New York Jets legend Joe Namath. In the 1980s, Karras had memorable success in the TV sitcom Webster, playing George Papadapolis, the title character 's adoptive father, in a role that showcased his softer side. His real - life wife, Susan Clark, played his fictional wife in the series; Karras and Clark produced the series through their Georgian Bay Entertainment production company. The two met in 1975 while filming the made - for - television biopic Babe for CBS.
Besides being one of the subjects of George Plimpton 's nonfiction book Paper Lion (published in 1966), he was one of the two principal subjects of Plimpton 's follow - up book, Mad Ducks and Bears (1973) (fellow Detroit Lion John Gordy was the "bear '' to Karras ' "mad duck. '') Karras named one of his sons after Plimpton. During his last years as a Detroit Lion, Karras wrote a journal of his experiences that was published in the Detroit Free Press. He subsequently wrote a memoir, Even Big Guys Cry (1978), and a novel, Tuesday Night Football (1991).
In conjunction with the 100 Years of Hawkeye Football celebration in 1989, Iowa Hawkeye fans selected an all - time team. The squad featured 11 players on offense and defense, two kickers, and 15 special - mention players who received strong fan support. Alex Karras was voted to the team as a defensive lineman. Karras was elected to the Iowa Sports Hall of Fame in 1977 and the College Football Hall of Fame in 1991.
On December 12, 2014 the Big Ten Network included Karras on "The Mount Rushmore of Iowa Football '', as chosen by online fan voting. Karras was joined in the honor by Nile Kinnick, Chuck Long and Tim Dwight.
Karras also worked briefly as a football coach in 2007 and 2008. He worked for the SIL as an assistant coach to Bob Lombardi. He owned an ice cream parlor in Surfside Beach, South Carolina called The Cow.
Karras was married twice. He married Joan Jurgensen in 1958, with whom he had five children. The marriage ended in divorce in 1975. He married actress Susan Clark on March 21, 1980, and they had a daughter together.
In his later years, Karras suffered several serious health problems, including dementia, heart disease, and cancer.
Karras was among 3,500 former NFL players to have filed lawsuits against the NFL in early 2012, over the long - term damage caused by concussions and repeated hits to the head.
On October 8, 2012, it was revealed by friend Tom McInerney that Karras had been diagnosed with kidney failure. He was treated at the Saint John 's Health Center in Santa Monica, California, before being released into hospice care. After returning to his Los Angeles home with family, Karras died in the morning hours of October 10.
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where is the main campus of penn state located | Pennsylvania State University - Wikipedia
The Pennsylvania State University (commonly referred to as Penn State or PSU) is a state - related, land - grant, doctoral university with campuses and facilities throughout Pennsylvania. Founded in 1855, the university has a stated threefold mission of teaching, research, and public service. Its instructional mission includes undergraduate, graduate, professional and continuing education offered through resident instruction and online delivery. Its University Park campus, the flagship campus, lies within the Borough of State College and College Township. It has two law schools: Penn State Law, on the school 's University Park campus, and Dickinson Law, located in Carlisle, 90 miles south of State College. The College of Medicine is located in Hershey. Penn State has another 19 commonwealth campuses and 5 special mission campuses located across the state. Penn State has been labeled one of the "Public Ivies, '' a publicly funded university considered as providing a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League.
Annual enrollment at the University Park campus totals more than 46,800 graduate and undergraduate students, making it one of the largest universities in the United States. It has the world 's largest dues - paying alumni association. The university 's total enrollment in 2015 -- 16 was approximately 97,500 across its 24 campuses and online through its World Campus.
The university offers more than 160 majors among all its campuses and administers $3.62 billion (as of June 30, 2016) in endowment and similar funds. The university 's research expenditures totaled $836 million during the 2016 fiscal year.
Annually, the university hosts the Penn State IFC / Panhellenic Dance Marathon (THON), which is the world 's largest student - run philanthropy. This event is held at the Bryce Jordan Center on the University Park campus. In 2014, THON raised a program record of $13.3 million. The university 's athletics teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are collectively known as the Penn State Nittany Lions. They compete in the Big Ten Conference for most sports.
The school was founded as a degree - granting institution on February 22, 1855, by act P.L. 46, No. 50 of the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as the Farmers ' High School of Pennsylvania. Centre County, Pennsylvania, became the home of the new school when James Irvin of Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, donated 200 acres (0.8 km) of land -- the first of 10,101 acres (41 km) the school would eventually acquire. In 1862, the school 's name was changed to the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and with the passage of the Morrill Land - Grant Acts, Pennsylvania selected the school in 1863 to be the state 's sole land - grant college. The school 's name changed to the Pennsylvania State College in 1874; enrollment fell to 64 undergraduates the following year as the school tried to balance purely agricultural studies with a more classic education.
George W. Atherton became president of the school in 1882, and broadened the curriculum. Shortly after he introduced engineering studies, Penn State became one of the ten largest engineering schools in the nation. Atherton also expanded the liberal arts and agriculture programs, for which the school began receiving regular appropriations from the state in 1887. A major road in State College has been named in Atherton 's honor. Additionally, Penn State 's Atherton Hall, a well - furnished and centrally located residence hall, is named not after George Atherton himself, but after his wife, Frances Washburn Atherton. His grave is in front of Schwab Auditorium near Old Main, marked by an engraved marble block in front of his statue.
In the years that followed, Penn State grew significantly, becoming the state 's largest grantor of baccalaureate degrees and reaching an enrollment of 5,000 in 1936. Around that time, a system of commonwealth campuses was started by President Ralph Dorn Hetzel to provide an alternative for Depression - era students who were economically unable to leave home to attend college.
In 1953, President Milton S. Eisenhower, brother of then - U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, sought and won permission to elevate the school to university status as The Pennsylvania State University. Under his successor Eric A. Walker (1956 -- 1970), the university acquired hundreds of acres of surrounding land, and enrollment nearly tripled. In addition, in 1967, the Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, a college of medicine and hospital, was established in Hershey with a $50 million gift from the Hershey Trust Company.
In the 1970s, the university became a state - related institution. As such, it now belongs to the Commonwealth System of Higher Education. In 1975, the lyrics in Penn State 's alma mater song were revised to be gender - neutral in honor of International Women 's Year; the revised lyrics were taken from the posthumously - published autobiography of the writer of the original lyrics, Fred Lewis Pattee, and Professor Patricia Farrell acted as a spokesperson for those who wanted the change.
In 1989, the Pennsylvania College of Technology in Williamsport joined ranks with the university, and in 2000, so did the Dickinson School of Law. The university is now the largest in Pennsylvania, and in 2003, it was credited with having the second - largest impact on the state economy of any organization, generating an economic effect of over $17 billion on a budget of $2.5 billion. To offset the lack of funding due to the limited growth in state appropriations to Penn State, the university has concentrated its efforts on philanthropy (2003 marked the end of the Grand Destiny campaign -- a seven - year effort that raised over $1.3 billion).
In 2011, the university and its football team garnered major international media attention and criticism due to a sex abuse scandal in which university officials were alleged to have covered up incidents of child sexual abuse by former football team defensive coordinator Jerry Sandusky. Athletic director Timothy Curley and Gary Schultz, Senior Vice President for Finance and Business, were indicted for perjury. In the wake of the scandal, coach Joe Paterno was fired and school president Graham B. Spanier was forced to resign by the Board of Trustees. Sandusky, who maintained his innocence, was indicted and subsequently convicted in June 2012 on 45 counts for the abuse.
A subcommittee of the Board of Trustees engaged former FBI director Louis Freeh to head an independent investigation on the university 's handling of the incidents. Freeh released his findings in July 2012, announcing that Paterno, along with Spanier, Curley and Schultz "conceal (ed) Sandusky 's activities from the Board of Trustees, the University community and authorities '' and "failed to protect against a child sexual predator harming children for over a decade ''. On July 23, 2012, the National Collegiate Athletic Association announced a series of sanctions against Penn State and the Nittany Lions football team for the role of their leadership in the Penn State sex abuse scandal. The NCAA penalized Penn State football with a $60 million fine, a ban from bowl games and post-season play for 4 years, a reduction in scholarships from 25 to 15 per year for four years, the vacating of all wins from 1998 to 2011 and a 5 - year probationary period.
The validity of the sanctions later came into question, and emails surfaced that indicated highly ranked officials within the NCAA did not believe the organization had the jurisdiction to pass down the original sanctions. Subsequent emails, brought forward under subpoena, quoted Mark Emmert, the NCAA President, as agreeing the original sanctions were possible due to a bluff by the NCAA. On September 8, 2014, the sanctions, following a report by former U.S. Senator and athletics integrity monitor George J. Mitchell citing progress by Penn State in implementing reforms, were officially repealed by the NCAA and all previous records were restored.
An investigation led by former U.S. Attorney General Richard Thornburgh, who was retained by the Paterno family to review the Freeh report, concluded that the report that placed so much blame on Penn State and Paterno was a "rush to injustice '' that could not be relied upon. He found that not only did the evidence "fall far short '' of showing Paterno attempted to conceal the Sandusky scandal, but rather that "the contrary is true ''. In November 2014, state Sen. Jake Corman released emails showing "regular and substantive '' contact between NCAA officials and Freeh 's investigators, suggesting that the Freeh conclusions were orchestrated.
Paterno was posthumously honored by Penn State during the September 17, 2016 football game that marked the 50th anniversary of his first game as head coach. The controversial tribute was met with both a standing ovation by fans and protests inside and outside of the stadium.
The largest of the university 's 24 campuses, University Park is almost entirely within the boundaries of State College borough, a site chosen because it is near the geographic center of the state. With an undergraduate acceptance rate of 23 percent, it is the most selective campus in the Penn State system, due primarily to the fact that students select University Park as their first - choice campus at a far greater rate than the university 's other undergraduate campuses. During the fall 2016 semester, 41,359 undergraduate students and 8,955 graduate students were enrolled at University Park. Of those, 46.3 percent were female and 40.5 percent were not Pennsylvania residents.
Transportation access:
The University Park campus is centrally located at the junction of Interstate 99 and U.S. Route 322, and is due south of Interstate 80. Before the arrival of the Interstates, University Park was a short distance from the Lock Haven -- Altoona branch line of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The last run of long distance trains from Buffalo or Harrisburg through Lock Haven was in 1971. Today, the nearest passenger rail access is in Lewistown, 31 miles to the southeast. The University Park Airport, serving four regional airlines, is near University Park.
In addition to the University Park campus, 19 campus locations throughout the state offer enrollment for undergraduate students. Over 60 percent of Penn State first - year students begin their education at a location other than University Park. Each of these commonwealth campuses offer a unique set of degree programs based on the student demographics. Any student in good academic standing is guaranteed a spot at University Park to finish his or her degree if required or desired, known as "change of campus '' or more accurately "the 2 + 2 program ''; where a Penn State student may start at any Penn State campus, including University Park, for 2 years and finish at any Penn State the final 2 years.
In 1998, the university launched Penn State World Campus, or Penn State Online, which offers more than 60 online education programs, degrees, and certificates. Distance education has a long history at Penn State, one of the first universities in the country to offer a correspondence course for remote farmers in 1892. Examples of online programs include an MBA, master of professional studies in homeland security, a bachelor of science in nursing, and post-baccalaureate certificates in geographic information systems and applied behavior analysis. Penn State 's World Campus offers 18 graduate degrees, 21 graduate certificates, 17 undergraduate degrees, and 11 undergraduate certificates. World Campus students come from all 50 U.S. states, more than 40 countries, and six continents.
Penn State is a "state - related '' university, part of Pennsylvania 's Commonwealth System of Higher Education. As such, although it receives funding from the Commonwealth and is connected to the state through its board of trustees, it is otherwise independent and not subject to the state 's direct control. For the 2006 -- 2007 fiscal year, the university received 9.7 percent of its budget from state appropriations, the lowest of the four state - related institutions in Pennsylvania. Initial reports concerning the 2007 -- 2008 fiscal year indicated that Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell is recommending a 1.6 percent increase in state appropriations. Penn State 's appropriation request, submitted to the Pennsylvania Department of Education in September, requested a 6.8 percent increase in funding.
Penn State has eighteen colleges, including three at special - mission campuses. The University Park campus is organized into fourteen distinct colleges, plus the Graduate School and the Division of Undergraduate Studies:
In addition, the university 's Board of Trustees voted in January 2007 to create a School of International Affairs, with the first classes admitted in the fall 2008 semester. The school is part of Penn State Law.
Formerly the School of Nursing, on September 25, 2013, the Board of Trustees granted the nursing program college status.
The university is governed by the 32 - member board of trustees. Its members include the university 's president, the Governor of the Commonwealth, and the state Secretaries of Agriculture, Conservation and Natural Resources, and Education. The other members include six trustees appointed by the Governor, nine elected by alumni, and six elected by Pennsylvania agricultural societies. Six additional trustees are elected by a board representing business and industry enterprises. Undergraduate students do not elect any trustees; the court case Benner v. Oswald ruled that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment did not require the undergraduate students be allowed to participate in the selection of trustees.
As of 2013, the chair of the board of trustees is Keith E. Masser, a graduate of Penn State and the Chairman & Chief Executive Officer of Sterman Masser, Inc.
The main responsibilities of the board are to select the president of Penn State, to determine the goals and strategic direction of the University, and to approve the annual budget. Regular meetings of the board are held bi-monthly and take place primarily on the University Park campus, although on occasion meetings are held at other locations within the Commonwealth.
The president of the University is selected by the board and is given the authority for actual control of the university, including day - to - day management. In practice, part of this responsibility is delegated by the president to other departments of the administration, to the faculty, and to the student body. Eric J. Barron became the university 's 18th and current president on May 12, 2014, upon the departure of Rodney Erickson.
The executive vice president and provost is the chief academic officer of the University. The current provost, Nicholas P. Jones, assumed office on July 1, 2013. The current Associate Vice President and Senior Associate Dean For Undergraduate Education is Robert N. Pangborn
Penn State has a long history of student governance. Elected student leaders remain directly involved in the decision - making of the University administration, as provided for in the Board of Trustee 's Standing Orders. Currently, there are three Student Governments recognized by the University administration: the University Park Undergraduate Association (UPUA), the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA), and the Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG).
The University Park Undergraduate Association (UPUA) is the representative student government of the 39,102 undergraduate students at Penn State 's University Park campus, which was established in 2006 after the former student government, Undergraduate Student Government (USG), lost its recognition by way of a student referendum.
The UPUA is composed of an Assembly of Student Representatives, an Executive Board, and a Judicial Board. The Executive Board is the bureaucratic branch of the UPUA and is led by Student Body President Katie Jordan. The Assembly, which is led by Chair Brent Rice, is the legislative body of UPUA and is composed of elected representatives whose constituencies include the academic units of Penn State, Greek Life, Freshmen Representatives, and At - Large Representatives. The UPUA meets every Wednesday at 8: 00 pm in 233A HUB. These meetings are open to the public. Additionally, students are able to reach out to the UPUA regarding issues at the University through its "What to Fix PSU (WTFPSU) '' social media campaign.
The graduate and professional students of the University are governed by the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA), which is the oldest continuously existing student governance organization at Penn State. GPSA "work (s) on the behalf of the students to make sure that the graduate voice is heard by all levels of the administration and faculty at Penn State and to put on events geared towards graduate and professional students. ''
The 19 commonwealth campuses of the university are governed by the Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG), formerly known as the Council of Branch Campus Student Governments (CBCSG).
Penn State is regionally accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.
As of September 2009, only 24 Pennsylvania colleges and universities held Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business accreditation in business and only four in accounting. The Smeal College of Business, The Sam and Irene Black School of Business, Penn State Harrisburg, and Penn State Great Valley were among the institutions accredited.
The university offers an accelerated Premedical - Medical Program in cooperation with Sidney Kimmel Medical College. Students in the program spend two or three years at the university before attending medical school at Jefferson.
Recently, a joint venture between the Eberly College of Science and the Smeal College of Business created an integrated undergraduate / graduate program to give highly motivated students the opportunity to receive a bachelor 's degree in Science and an MBA two to five years sooner than those pursuing a traditional path. The BS / MBA Program prepares individuals to be future leaders of the world 's scientific organizations and is led by Mr. Peter Tombros and Dr. James Gardner.
As of fall 2010, the racial makeup of the Penn State system including all campuses and special - mission colleges, was 75.4 percent white, 5.5 percent black, 4.3 percent Asian, 4.4 percent Hispanic, 0.2 percent Native American, 0.1 percent Native Hawaiian / Pac Island, 1.7 percent two or more races, 5.8 percent international students and 3.1 percent of an unknown race. Over the period 2000 -- 2010, minority enrollment as a percentage of total enrollments has risen 5.3 percentage points, while minorities as a percentage of total teaching positions rose 2.0 percentage points from 1997 to 2002.
Penn State has been the subject of controversy for several issues of discrimination. Following some violent attacks on African - Americans in downtown State College in 1988 and complaints that Penn State was not adequately recruiting African - American faculty and students to representative population levels, student activists occupied Old Main and demanded that Penn State do more to recruit minority students and address intolerance toward minority students on campus, as well as in the local community. After President Bryce Jordan canceled a promised meeting with students and organizations in the Paul Robeson Cultural Center on April 8, 1988, 250 students and activists nonviolently occupied Penn State 's Telecommunications building on campus. The following morning, 50 state troopers and 45 local and campus police, equipped with helmets, batons, and rubber gloves, entered the building as the crowd outside sang "We Shall Overcome '', arresting 89 individuals for trespassing. All charges were later dismissed.
In 1990 a vice provost for educational equity was appointed to lead a five - year strategic plan to "create an environment characterized by equal access and respected participation for all groups and individuals irrespective of cultural differences. '' Since then, discrimination issues include the handling of death threats in 1992 and 2001, controversy around LGBT issues, and the investigation of a 2006 sexual discrimination lawsuit filed by former Lady Lions basketball player Jennifer Harris, alleging that head coach Rene Portland dismissed her from the team in part due to her perceived sexual orientation.
Six - year graduation rates for the 2004 cohort at University Park was 85.3 percent. Graduation rates by race among this group are 86.6 percent white, 75.0 percent black, 81.9 percent Asian, 77.4 percent Hispanic, 57.1 percent Native American and 76.1 percent international students. According to a 2006 survey by USA Today, the university 's flagship campus, University Park, has the highest in - state tuition rates among comparable institutions nationwide. While a task force formed in 2001 to study options for tuition projections determined that the university 's operating efficiency is among the highest in postsecondary education, it found that tuition increases at Penn State still consistently outpaced increases at other Big Ten Conference institutions. Student leaders of The Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG) have led annual rallies to support lower rate hikes at each of the nineteen commonwealth campuses and at the Pennsylvania state capitol in Harrisburg. In 2005, the board of trustees proposed a tuition freeze at the commonwealth campus locations as part of its state appropriation request.
The 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranks the university 77th among universities worldwide and 41st nationally. U.S. News & World Report ranks the university 's undergraduate program 50th in its 2017 American 's Best College and 14th among Top Public Schools in the United States. In 2015, the university was also ranked 101st in the QS World University Rankings. A more updated 2013 -- 2014 World University Ranking by Times Higher Education ranks Penn State as the 49th best university in the world. Similarly, the 2013 report by the Center for World University Rankings ranks the university as Top 50 in the world.
According to a Wall Street Journal survey released in September 2010, the university was ranked number 1 by 479 corporate recruiting executives who were asked to identify "whose bachelor degree graduates were the best - trained and educated, and best able to succeed once hired. ''
According to the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the university is a research university with very high research activity. Over 10,000 students are enrolled in the university 's graduate school (including the law and medical schools), and over 70,000 degrees have been awarded since the school was founded in 1922.
Penn State 's research and development expenditure has been on the rise in recent years. For fiscal year 2013, according to institutional rankings of total research expenditures for science and engineering released by the National Science Foundation, Penn State stands second in the nation, behind only Johns Hopkins and tied with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the number of fields in which it is ranked in the top ten. Overall, Penn State ranked 17th nationally in total research expenditures across the board. In 12 individual fields, however, the University achieved rankings in the top ten nationally. The fields and sub-fields in which Penn State ranked in the top ten are materials (1st), psychology (2nd), mechanical engineering (3rd), sociology (3rd), electrical engineering (4th), total engineering (5th), aerospace engineering (8th), computer science (8th), agricultural sciences (8th), civil engineering (9th), atmospheric sciences (9th), and earth sciences (9th). In eleven of these fields, moreover, the University has repeated top - ten status every year since at least 2008. For fiscal year 2011, the National Science Foundation reported that Penn State had spent $794,846,000 on R&D and ranked 15th among U.S. universities and colleges in R&D spending. For the 2008 -- 2009 fiscal year, Penn State was ranked ninth among U.S. universities by the National Science Foundation, with $753 million in research and development spending for science and engineering. During the 2015 -- 2016 fiscal year, Penn State received $836 million in research expenditures.
The Applied Research Lab (ARL), located near the University Park campus, has been a research partner with the United States Department of Defense since 1945 and conducts research primarily in support of the United States Navy. It is the largest component of Penn State 's research efforts statewide, with over 1,000 researchers and other staff members.
The Materials Research Institute was created to coordinate the highly diverse and growing materials activities across Penn State 's University Park campus. With more than 200 faculty in 15 departments, 4 colleges, and 2 Department of Defense research laboratories, MRI was designed to break down the academic walls that traditionally divide disciplines and thereby enable faculty to collaborate across departmental and even college boundaries. MRI has become a model for this interdisciplinary approach to research, both within and outside the university. Dr Richard E. Tressler, was an international leader in the development of high temperature materials. He pioneered high temperature fiber testing and use, advanced instrumentation and test methodologies for thermostructural materials, and design and performance verification of ceramics and composites in high temperature aerospace, industrial and energy applications. He was founding director of the Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) which supported many faculty and students from the College of Earth and Mineral Science, the Eberly College of Science, the College of Engineering, the Materials Research Laboratory and the Applied Research Laboratories at Penn State on high temperature materials. His vision for Interdisciplinary research played a key role in the creation of the Materials Research Institute, and the establishment of Penn State as an acknowledged leader among major universities in materials education and research.
The university was one of the founding members of the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN), a partnership that includes 17 research - led universities in the United States, Asia, and Europe. The network provides funding, facilitates collaboration between universities, and coordinates exchanges of faculty members and graduate students among institutions. Former Penn State president Graham Spanier is a former vice-chair of the WUN.
The Pennsylvania State University Libraries were ranked 14th among research libraries in North America in the 2003 -- 2004 survey released by The Chronicle of Higher Education. The university 's library system began with a 1,500 - book library in Old Main. In 2009, its holdings had grown to 5.2 million volumes, in addition to 500,000 maps, five million microforms, and 180,000 films and videos.
The university 's College of Information Sciences and Technology is the home of CiteSeerX, an open - access repository and search engine for scholarly publications. The university is also the host to the Radiation Science & Engineering Center, which houses the oldest operating university research reactor. Additionally, University Park houses the Graduate Program in Acoustics, the only freestanding acoustics program in the United States. The university also houses the Center for Medieval Studies, a program that was founded to research and study the European Middle Ages, and the Center for the Study of Higher Education (CSHE), one of the first centers established to research postsecondary education.
Penn State is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance. The Big Ten Academic Alliance (BTAA) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference. Engaging in $10 billion in research in 2014 -- 2015, BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine, technology, agriculture, and communities. Students at participating schools are also allowed "in - house '' borrowing privileges at other schools ' libraries. The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing, and has saved member institutions $19 million to date. Course sharing, professional development programs, study abroad and international collaborations, and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA.
There are seven housing complexes located on campus for students attending the University Park campus: East Halls, North Halls, Pollock Halls, South Halls, West Halls, Eastview Terrace, and Nittany Apartments. Each complex consists of a few separate buildings that are dormitories and a commons building, which has: lounges, the help desk for the complex, mailboxes for each dormitory room, a convenience store, a food court, and all - you - care - to - eat buffet. Different floors within a building may be designated as a Special Living Option (SLO). SLOs are offered to members of certain student groups (such as sororities), students studying particular majors, students who wish to engage in a particular life style (such as the alcohol - free LIFE House), or other groups who wish to pursue similar goals.
As of September 2014, 864 student organizations were recognized at the University Park campus. In addition, the university has one of the largest Greek systems in the country, with approximately 12 percent of the University Park population affiliated. Additional organizations on campus include Thespians, Blue Band, Chabad, Glee Club, Aish HaTorah, Student Programming Association (SPA), Lion 's Pantry, Boulevard, Apollo, 3D Printer Club, and the Anime Organization, which hosts a Centre County anime convention, Setsucon.
Every February, thousands of students participate in the Penn State IFC / Panhellenic Dance Marathon (THON), which has been "dubbed by supporters as the world 's largest student - run philanthropy. '' In previous years, participants stood for 48 hours nonstop and performed a line dance at least once every hour to stay alert. In 2007, THON was moved to the Jordan Center and now lasts 46 hours. THON raises millions of dollars annually for pediatric cancer care and research, generally through the Four Diamonds Fund. In 2014, THON raised a program record of $13.3 million.
The Lion 's Pantry is an undergraduate student run on - campus food pantry (and a registered student organization). The Lion 's Pantry serves undergraduate, graduate, and professional students. With an increase awareness of hunger on college campuses, the Lion 's Pantry is one of the most successful startup food pantries in the nation. They partner with groups ranging from Boulevard, UPUA, Greek Life, and more to receive over 8,000 food donations a year. The club was also awarded the Class Gift of 2017 in the form of an endowment.
Student media on campus includes La Vie, the university 's annual student yearbook; the student - run radio station The LION 90.7 FM (WKPS - FM); Com Radio, independently programmed and operated by university undergraduates; The Daily Collegian, a student - run newspaper; Onward State, a student - run independent news website covering the Penn State community; and Phroth, a student - run humor magazine. For additional information on media related to Penn State -- including Penn State Live, the official news source of the University -- see the Media section below.
Penn State Live is the official news source of the university published by its public relations team. The student - run newspaper is The Daily Collegian, which is published every weekday while classes are in session. Since the summer of 1996, the traditional paper publication has been supplemented by an online edition, known as The Digital Collegian. Onward State, was founded in November 2008 by Davis Shaver, Evan Kalikow, and Eli Glazier. In addition, Penn State 's newspaper readership program provides free copies of USA Today, The New York Times, as well as local and regional newspapers depending on the campus location (for example, the Centre Daily Times in University Park). This program, initiated by then - President Graham Spanier in 1997, has since been instituted on several other universities across the country.
La Vie (the Life), the university 's annual student yearbook, has been in production documenting student life continuously since 1890. La Vie 1987, edited by David Beagin, won a College Gold Crown for Yearbooks award from the Columbia Scholastic Press Association.
The student - run radio station is The LION 90.7 fm (WKPS - FM). Founded in 1995 as a replacement for Penn State 's original student radio station WDFM, The LION broadcasts from the ground floor of the HUB -- Robeson Center, serving the Penn State and State College communities with alternative music and talk programming, including live coverage of home Penn State football games. In the early 1990s, students who belonged to a sports radio journalism club covered sporting events and produced and anchored weekly sports segments for WPSU, which eventually became solely an NPR affiliate.
In addition, the Penn State College of Communications operates ComRadio. It was founded in the spring of 2003 as an internet - based audio laboratory and co-curricular training environment for aspiring student broadcasters. ComRadio is most well known for its coverage of most major Penn State sporting events. ComRadio also airs student - produced Penn State news. Other programming includes student talk shows, political coverage, AP syndicated news and soft rock music. In recent years, ComRadio broadcasters have won numerous state awards for their on - air work. The station 's sports department prides itself on the broadcasts of every home and away football game, including bowl games, and its coverage of the NFL Draft live from New York City.
Onward State is a student - run blog geared towards members of the university 's community. The blog provides news, features, and event - listings. Founded in November 2008, U.S. News & World Report named the blog the "Best Alternative Media Outlet '' in February 2009. Alison Go, a blogger of U.S. News & World Report organized the contest "Best Alternative Media Outlet '' at the beginning of 2009. Onward State, still a fledgling organization, was surprisingly nominated. Pitted against Onward State were seasoned blogs from UC Berkeley, Vassar, Wesleyan, Columbia, Georgetown, Middlebury, Yale, and an Ivy League conglomerate. Snatching 24.76 percent of the vote, Onward State finished in first place, pleasantly surprising the Penn State bloggers. The Daily Collegian first acknowledged Onward State at the time of the blog 's victory. The two Collegian articles brought greater awareness of the blog to the university 's community. In an interview with The Collegian about next year 's contest, Davis Shaver explained "We have big ambitions... I think that we 're just going to be more established, more of a name within the Penn State community by then. There is a strong possibility of being Alternative Media repeat champions. ''
The student - run humor magazine is Phroth, which publishes two to four issues each year. Its roots date back to 1909 when it was called Froth. Several Froth writers and editors have gone on to win fame: Julius J. Epstein wrote the screenplay for the film Casablanca (1942) and won three Academy Awards; Jimmy Dugan wrote for the Saturday Evening Post, National Geographic, and The New York Times; and Ronald Bonn was a producer with NBC Nightly News and CBS Evening News.
Kalliope is an undergraduate literary magazine produced by students and sponsored by the university 's English Department. Kalliope includes works of fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and visual art. The student - run life and style magazine is Valley.
The Underground, a multicultural student - run media site was founded in 2015 and serves as another alternative media news site.
The Underground is a multicultural student - run media site devoted to telling the untold stories within the Penn State community. The publication seeks to foster the multicultural student voice through creating an open forum of discussion and promoting diversity and community involvement.
The idea of The Underground was discussed on Wednesday, February 11, 2015, after an inspiring presentation from Soledad O'Brien on the Penn State University Park campus. The project began as a simple idea by two freshmen in Ritner Hall. After discussion with other students, a website was created. We hope to grow as a site, engage with more members of the community, and continue to promote the sharing of diverse stories.
The Underground is produced by students at Penn State and was put into play by Candice Crutchfield and Adriana Lacy. The first contributors included a great group of friends: Candice Crutchfield, Adriana Lacy, Matthew Lamas, and Adam Tidball.
Penn State 's mascot is the Nittany Lion, a representation of a type of mountain lion that once roamed what is now University Park. The school 's official colors, now blue and white, were originally black and dark pink. Penn State participates in the NCAA Division I FBS and in the Big Ten Conference for most sports.
Two sports participate in different conferences: men 's volleyball in the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA) and women 's hockey in College Hockey America (CHA). The fencing teams operate as independents.
Athletic teams at Penn State have won 77 national collegiate team championships (49 NCAA, 2 consensus Division I football titles, 6 AIAW, 3 USWLA, 1 WIBC, and 4 national titles in boxing, 11 in men 's soccer and one in wrestling in years prior to NCAA sponsorship). The 49 NCAA Championships ranks fifth all time in NCAA Division I, and is the most of any Big Ten school.
Since joining the Big Ten in 1991, Penn State teams have won 103 conference regular season and tournament titles.
Penn State has one of the most successful overall athletic programs in the country, as evidenced by its rankings in the NACDA Director 's Cup, a list compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics that charts institutions ' overall success in college sports. From the Cup 's inception in the 1993 -- 1994 season, the Nittany Lions have finished in the top 25 every year.
Despite widespread success in the overall athletic program, however, the school is best known for its football team, which draws a very large following. Penn State 's Beaver Stadium has the second largest seating capacity of any stadium in the nation, with an official capacity of 106,572 slightly behind Michigan Stadium with an official capacity of 107,601. For decades, the football team was led by coach Joe Paterno. Paterno was in a close competition with Bobby Bowden, the head coach for Florida State, for the most wins ever in Division I-A (now the FBS) history. This competition effectively ended with Paterno still leading following Bowden 's retirement after the 2010 Gator Bowl. In 2007, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Paterno amassed 409 victories over his career, the most in NCAA Division 1 history. Paterno died on January 22, 2012, at the age of 85.
The school 's wrestling team has also become noticed. Under Cael Sanderson, the Nittany Lions won six national titles in a seven - year span, from 2011 to 2017.
The university opened a new Penn State All - Sports Museum in February 2002. This two - level 10,000 - square - foot (1,000 m) museum is located inside Beaver Stadium. In addition to the school funded athletics, club sports also play a major role in the University, with over 68 club sport organizations meeting regularly to date. Many club teams compete nationally in their respective sports. The Penn State Ski Team, which competes as part of the United States Collegiate Ski and Snowboard Association (USCSA) in the Allegheny Conference, as well as the Penn State Swim Club, which competes in the American Swimming Association -- University League (ASAU), are just a few examples. Some other clubs include baseball, squash, karate, crew, and sailing.
Penn State 's most well known athletic cheer is "We are... Penn State. '' Typically, the students and cheerleaders shout, "We are, '' followed by a response of "Penn State '' from the rest of the fans. By tradition, this is done three times, and followed by "Thank you... '' "... You 're welcome! ''
The list of eminent past and present individuals associated with Penn State -- as alumni, faculty, and athletic staff -- can be found in the list of Pennsylvania State University people.
Established in 1870, nine years after the university 's first commencement exercises, the Penn State Alumni Association has the stated mission "to connect alumni to the University and to each other, provide valuable benefits to members and support the University 's mission of teaching, research and service. '' The Alumni Association supports a number of educational and extracurricular missions of Penn State through financial support and is the network that connects alumni through over 280 "alumni groups '', many of which are designated based on geographical, academic, or professional affiliation.
As of July 1, 2010, the Alumni Association counts 496,969 members within the United States, with an additional 16,180 in countries around the globe. About half the United States alumni reside in Pennsylvania, primarily in the urban areas of Philadelphia (and the surrounding counties), the Pittsburgh Area and in the Centre County region surrounding State College, although alumni can be found in every region of the country and abroad. About 34 percent of United States alumni and 21 percent of international alumni are members of the Alumni Association. With membership totaling 176,426 as of FY2016, the Penn State Alumni Association is the largest dues - paying alumni association in the world, a distinction it has held since 1995.
Since 2001, the university, along with all schools in the Big Ten, has participated in the "Big Ten Challenge '' website, which is a "competitive '' clearinghouse of alumni donation statistics for member schools. Results are tracked to determine a percentage of each school 's alumni from the previous decade who gave to their alma mater each calendar year (during the 2005 -- 2006 year, alumni donations from 1996 to 2005 were tallied). With the exception of 2005 -- 2006, when Penn State fell to second behind Northwestern University, Penn State has won the challenge each year since its inception.
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which countries does not need visa from india | Visa requirements for Indian citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Indian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of India. As of 13 February 2018, Indian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 56 countries and territories, ranking the Indian passport 81st in terms of travel freedom (tied with Ivory Coast, Senegal and Togo passports) according to the Henley & Partners Passport Index. Visitors engaging in activities other than tourism, including unpaid work, require a visa or work permit except for Nepal and Bhutan. Indian citizens who are not natives of the following states also require an Inner Line Permit (ILP) if they are travelling to Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, or Mizoram. ILPs can be obtained online or at the airports of these states on arrival.
Requirements for Indian citizens to have visas were recently lifted by Indonesia, Serbia (September 2017), Qatar (August 2017), Ukraine (July 2017) and Tunisia (October 2017).
Starting 8 August 2017, Indian citizens get visa - free access to Primorye and rest of Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka and Kamchatka regions from 2018 in the Russian Far East for tourism, business and humanitarian purposes.
Indian citizens are eligible for the Australia online visitor visa (e600), effective from 1 July 2017.
Indian citizens also became eligible for Armenia visa on arrival and eVisa on 22 November 2017.
Indian citizens can apply for electronic visa for Kyrgyzstan for tourism and business purposes from September 2017.
Gabon introduced visa on arrival to Indian citizens in October 2017.
Starting January 2018, Indian nationals coming to Rwanda will be issued 30 day visa on arrival.
Vietnam has introduced e-Visa facility for Indian citizens visiting as tourists.
The Sultanate of Oman has begun to allow Citizens of India with valid visas from the US, Canada and Schengan zone to receive visa on arrival.
In February 2018, Zimbabwe announced visa on arrival for Indian citizens with immediate effect.
Eligible Indian travellers can now participate in the Global Entry program for expedited entry into the United States.
Angola announced visa on arrival facility for Indian citizens.
Jordan announced visa on arrival facility for Indian citizens on 28 February 2018.
Visa requirements for Indian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognised countries and restricted zones:
Indian Government has not drafted any laws to mandate reciprocity in visa agreements with other countries. While a very small number of bilateral agreements have ended in reciprocity in visa arrangements, a large number of visa relationships continue to be highly skewed on one side or the other.
In 2015, Iran revoked visa - on - arrival for Indian citizens after it was included as one of the eight countries in India 's Prior Reference Category, which would be excluded from India 's visa liberalisation plans for foreign tourists. The other countries on the list at the time were Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria and Sudan.
India has by default achieved full reciprocity in Visa free / e-Visa Privileges with following countries:
India has achieved partial reciprocity with following countries, where Indian Immigration rules afford the citizens of the following countries a bit lesser visa privileges than what the following countries provide for Indian Citizens:
Visa privileges provided by Indian immigration for citizens of these countries are considerably far less than Visa Privileges provided by these countries to the Indian Citizens:
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from a vulnerable area.
Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages.
Visitors holding Israeli passport or any passports showing evidence of travel to Israel are denied entry to the Arab League countries due to Arab League boycott of Israel.
Kuwait allows visitors holding Israeli visa to transit via Kuwait airport provided the passenger is in the transit area and does not cross the immigration check. Malaysia provides visitor visa even if visitors hold Israeli visas.
Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival.
According to the statistics these are the numbers of Indian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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which region is called the store house of minerals | Negros Occidental - wikipedia
Negros Occidental (Hiligaynon: Negros Nakatundan; Cebuano: Kasadpang Negros; Filipino: Kanlurang Negros), also known as Occidental Negros or Western Negros, is a province located in the region of Western Visayas, in the Philippines. It occupies the northwestern half of the large island of Negros, with Negros Oriental comprising the southeastern half. Known as the "Sugarbowl of the Philippines '', Negros Occidental produces more than half the nation 's sugar output.
Negros Occidental faces the island - province of Guimaras and the province of Iloilo on Panay Island to the northwest across the Panay Gulf and the Guimaras Strait. The primary spoken language is Hiligaynon and the predominant religious denomination is Roman Catholicism. Bacolod City is the capital, seat of government and the most populous city of the province, but is governed independently as a highly urbanized city. With a population of 2,497,261 inhabitants, it is the most populated province in Western Visayas, the second most - populous province in the Visayas after Cebu and the 8th most - populous province of the Philippines.
Negros was originally known to the natives as "Buglas '', meaning "cut off '' in old Hiligaynon. When the Spaniards arrived in April 1565, they named it "Negros '' because of the dark - skinned natives they found. Two of the earliest native settlements were Binalbagan and Ilog which later became towns in 1572 and 1584, respectively. Other settlements were Hinigaran, Bago, Marayo (now Pontevedra), Mamalan (now Himamaylan) and Candaguit (now a sitio of San Enrique).
Ilog was made the first capital of the province in 1743. This was later transferred to Himamaylan. Bacolod finally became the capital in 1849. The island was divided into Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental in 1890. The two provinces were briefly united as an independent Republic of Negros with Bacolod as the capital on November 27, 1898. It became a protectorate of the United States until 1901, when the republic was dissolved, with the two provinces annexed back to the Philippines.
During the succeeding decades between 1901 and the 1930s, Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental were both under Insular Government of the United States of America as with the rest of the nation and later under the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Economic growth continued especially with Philippine sugar having a part of the US market. The socio - economic lives of the island of Negros, from the 1950s up to the late 1980s, depended as before, mainly on the sugar industry.
During World War II, both Negros provinces were invaded by Imperial Japanese forces, resorting many residents to flee to the inland mountains. Negros Island was liberated by combined Philippine & American troops with the local Negrense guerillas attacking the Japanese on August 6, 1945. The 7th, 73rd, 74th and 75th Infantry Divisions of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were established from January 3, 1942 to June 30, 1946 and the 7th Infantry Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was active from October 28, 1944 to June 30, 1946 at the Military General Headquarters in Negros Occidental. They started the engagements of the Anti-Japanese Imperial Military Operations in Negros from 1942 to 1945 against the Japanese Imperial forces.
Global sugar prices dropped during the 1970s and 1980s, which negatively impacted the production of sugar in the island. Quality of life and sugar production were intertwined, so lower production meant lower quality of life for thousands that relied on the industry for sustenance and financial stability. The province saw a dangerous spike in the percentage of malnourished infants which was as high as 78 %. Negros Occidental 's problem on malnourished infants gained global prominence among the press in 1985, as they ran covers on both, local and international newspapers. During the 1970s and 1980s, atrocities against peasants were committed, with one such harrowing example being the Escalante Massacre. Negros del Norte was created from Negros Occidental on January 3, 1986, but its creation was declared unconstitutional on July 11, 1986, and was immediately abolished on August 18, 1986.
Towards the end of 1987, after the successful overthrow of the Marcos regime, the overall economic situation started to show a positive upturn. The campaign for agricultural diversification had been gaining momentum, paving the way for more landowners to invest in prawn and fish farming, seafood catching, raising of livestock and high - value organic produce such as fruits and vegetables, as well as other cash crops. Investments ' upswing became apparent by 1988. The participation of the industrial sector accelerated the consumer - led economic growth and development manifested with the increase in sales of consumer goods and by - products. Today, Negros Occidental remains one of the most progressive and largely developed Philippine provinces, in large due to the profits from the sugar industry, but also due to economic diversification in other fields.
In May 29 of 2015, Negros Island Region was formed when Negros Occidental and its capital was separated from Western Visayas and transferred to the new region along with Negros Oriental, when President Benigno Aquino III signed Executive Order No. 183, s. 2015. But it was abolished on August 9, 2017 when President Rodrigo Duterte revoked Executive Order No. 183, s. 2015 through the signage of Executive Order No. 38, citing the reason of the lack of funds to fully establish the NIR according to Benjamin Diokno, the Secretary of Budget and Management, reverting Negros Occidental back into Western Visayas.
Negros Occidental is located in the western side of Negros Island, the fourth largest island in the Philippines, with a total land area of 7,802.54 square kilometres (3,012.58 sq mi). If Bacolod City is included for geographical purposes, the province has an area of 7,965.21 square kilometres (3,075.38 sq mi). The province is approximately 375 kilometres (233 mi) long from north to south. It is bounded by the Visayan Sea in the north, Panay Gulf on the west, Negros Oriental province and Tañon Strait on the east and Sulu Sea on the south. Negros is basically volcanic, making its soil ideal for agriculture. Eighty percent of all arable land in the island region is cultivated.
The north and western parts of the province are largely composed of plains and gentle slopes. A mountain range lines the eastern part of the province, forming the basis of the border with Negros Oriental. Kanlaon Volcano, which is partially located in Negros Oriental, rises to a height of 2,465 m (8,087 ft) and is the highest peak in the Visayas.
The population of Negros Occidental in the 2015 census was 2,497,261 people, with a density of 320 inhabitants per square kilometre or 830 inhabitants per square mile. If Bacolod City is included for geographical and statistical purposes, the total population is 3,059,136 people, with a density of 384 / km (995 / sq mi).
Most residents are of either pure or mixed Austronesian heritage, while the minority have foreign / mixed ancestry (i.e. Chinese or Spanish). Residents of Negros are called "Negrenses '' (or less often "Negrosanons ''). Negros Occidental is predominantly a Hiligaynon - speaking province by 84 %, because of its linguistic ties with Iloilo. However, cities and towns facing the Tañon Strait are Cebuano - speaking by only 16 %, due to their proximity to the island - province of Cebu. Sagay City and surrounding places, which are facing both Iloilo and Cebu, speaks a hybrid language composed of Hiligaynon and Cebuano. Filipino and English, though seldom used, are widely spoken and used on both sides of the island for educational, literary and official purposes.
Negros Occidental is the second most - populous province in the Visayas after Cebu, having the second largest number of congressional districts and the 7th most - populous (4th if highly urbanized cities and independent component cities are included in the population of corresponding provinces) in the Philippines based on the 2015 Census. As of 2010, the population of registered voters are 1,478,260.
Christianity is the predominant religion in the province with Roman Catholicism as the largest singular denomination by 85.71 % (The Roman Catholic Dioceses of Bacolod, San Carlos & Kabankalan) of the population. The remaining Christian faiths are usually divided by various Protestant faiths such Aglipayan Church with 10 % of the population making it the second largest Christian group in the province, the Iglesia Ni Cristo and Members Church of God International also having a significant presence, while Baptist, Methodist, Church of Christ of Latter Day saints (Mormons), Jehovah 's Witnesses, Seventh - Day Adventist and other Evangelical Christians are also present in the province in a minor percentage. The rest of the non-Christian population are adherents of Islam and Buddhism.
Negros Occidental has long been a center of culture and arts; the wealth brought about by the sugar industry made sure that the Negrense principalía enjoyed an above - average standard of living.
Silay City, to the north of the capital of Bacolod City, nicknamed the "Paris of Negros '', is the cultural and artistic center of Negros Island Region. It has 30 heritage houses declared by the national historical institute, most notable of which is Balay Negrense; it is also the hometown of National Artist of the Philippines for Architecture Leandro Locsin and international mezzo - soprano Conchita Gaston.
This blossoming in art was due to the economical importance of the area during the Spanish era, Negros became probably the most hispanized and pro-Spanish area, due to the enormous investments of Spain in the sugar business.
Another famous treasure of Negrense art heritage can be found in Victorias City, within the confines of the Victorias Milling Company in its chapel is the world - famous mural of the Angry Christ, painted by artist Alfonso Ossorio, a scion of the Ossorio family who owned the mill.
The Negrenses ' joie de vivre is manifest in the various festivals all over the province, foremost being the famous MassKara Festival of Bacolod, Pasalamat Festival of La Carlota, Bailes de Luces of La Castellana and Pintaflores Festival of San Carlos. These and other local festivals are featured during the Pana - ad sa Negros Festival staged every April at the 25 - hectare tree - lined Panaad Stadium in Bacolod City. Dubbed as the "Festival of Festivals '', Pana - ad brings together the 13 cities and 19 towns in a showcase of history, arts and culture, tourism, trade, commerce and industry, beauty and talent as well as games and sports.
Negros Occidental is rich in structures and buildings that are remnants of a once affluent lifestyle. The Palacio Episcopal (1930), San Sebastian Cathedral (1876), and the Capitol Building (1931) are popular landmarks. In most towns, steam locomotives that used to cart sugarcane from the fields to refineries attract steam - engine enthusiasts from all over the world. There are also impressive churches all over the province, both built recently and during the Spanish era.
Modern communication facilities, as well as radio, television and newspapers, are available in the province. Most are provided by dominant national players in the industry like PLDT, Globe Telecom and their subsidiaries. For television and radio, the major providers are network giants ABS - CBN, GMA, TV5 and CNN. Cable TV provides access to BBC, ESPN and other international programs. National and international newspapers are available on the same day of issue in Manila.
Bacolod City is noted for being the home of the Negros Summer Workshops, founded by multi-award - winning filmmaker and Negrense Peque Gallaga. Founded in 1991, Workshops has long been training students from different parts of the country who wish to learn courses in film - making, acting, writing, and more. Some of its alumni include actors in mainstream Philippine show business.
Negros Occidental has also been used as a setting and location shoot for various films and television shows, most notable of which is the 1981 epic Oro, Plata, Mata where Hacienda Rosalia is the setting. Recent films that were set and filmed in Negros are Ligaw Liham (2007), Namets! (2008), and Everyday I Love You (2015).
There is one regional newscast program in Bacolod: TV Patrol Negros (ABS - CBN Bacolod).
Negros Occidental has produced a large number of athletes that have achieved success in both national and international circuits. The province is also well known for hosting national and international athletic events, which has given it a reputation as the sports capital of the Philippines.
Negros Occidental has a long, entrenched history when it comes to football. The first ever Filipino to play in the European football circuit was Bacolod - born Manuel Amechazurra, who joined FC Barcelona from 1905 to 1915.
The Panaad Stadium in Bacolod City has been a venue for national and international athletic events; such as the 23rd Southeast Asian Games men 's football and the 2006 ASEAN football qualifiers. On February 9, 2011, the stadium hosted a match between the Philippines national football team and Mongolia in the 2012 AFC Challenge Cup qualification with an attendance of 20,000 people.
Bacolod City has been christened as a Philippine "football city '' for its patronage of the sport in the country. A few members of the Philippine football team are from Negros: most notable is goalkeeper Eduard Sacapaño, a native of Bago City; Tating Pasilan and Jinggoy Valmayor of San Carlos City; and ace striker Joshua Beloya of Bacolod.
Negros Occidental has its own football association: Negros Occidental F.A. It works under the Philippine Football Federation as provincial football association for the Negros Occidental area. The Negros Occidental FA sends a team to represent the region in the yearly PFF National Men 's Open Championship and PFF National Women 's Open Championship. In the 2011 season of the PFF Suzuki Cup U-23 National Championship, the Negros team were crowned as champions where they defeated their fierce football rival Iloilo (IFA) in the finals.
Negros Occidental is also home of the 2013 PFF National Men 's Club Champions, Ceres F.C., who represented the province in the said tournament. They battled UFL Cup Champions Stallion in the Round of 16 and won 1 -- 0. They battled 2012 UFL Champions Global in the quarterfinals and also won 1 -- 0. In the semifinals, Ceres FC topped Kaya with 3 -- 1 scoreline to enter finals of 2013 PFF National Men 's Club Championship. Ceres FC eventually won the 2013 PFF National Men 's Club Championship trophy after they beaten the other finalist PSG with 1 -- 0 score.
Aside from hosting sporting events Negros Occidental has produced many of the nation 's finest athletes, particularly in boxing. The likes of 1923 World Flyweight boxing champion, Francisco Guilledo a.k.a. Pancho Villa, current WBO minimum weight champion Donnie Nietes, 1970 's WBA world junior lightweight champion Ben Villaflor, all hail from Negros Occidental.
It is also notable for producing Olympiads, Silver Medalist Mansueto Velasco in the 1996 Summer Olympics, his brother Roel Velasco who in turn won a bronze medal in the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Bacolod City has two major golf courses. These are the Bacolod Golf and Country Club and the Negros Occidental Golf and Country Club. The city hosted the 61st Philippine Airlines Inter-club Golf Tournament and the 2008 Philippine Amateur Golf Championship.
Bacolod City hosted two major karatedo championships, the 1996 Philippine Karatedo Federation National Championship and the 2007 20th PKF National Open. Both tournaments were held at the La Salle Coliseum of USLS. The tournaments were participated by hundreds of karatedo practitioners all over the country.
Bacolod City hosted the 2008 PBA All - Star Weekend. The city is also a regular venue for the Philippine Basketball Association out - of - town games. Another major sports team in the past is the Negros Slashers, arguably the most successful team of the now defunct Metropolitan Basketball Association
Bacolod City and its neighboring cities and towns are home to many mixed martial arts competitions including quarterly fights hosted by the Universal Reality Combat Championship (URCC).
Known as the "Sugarbowl of the Philippines '', the sugar industry is the lifeblood of the economy of Negros Occidental, producing more than half of the country 's sugar. There are 15 sugar centrals located throughout the lowland areas the north and west of the island, stretching from northwest along the coasts of the Visayan Sea and Guimaras Strait. Among the larger mills are in San Carlos, La Carlota, Bago, Binalbagan, Kabankalan, Sagay, Silay, Murcia and Victorias. Victorias Mill in Victorias City is the largest sugar mill in the country, and the world 's largest integrated sugar mill and refinery. Sugar is transported from plantations to refineries by large trucks that use the national highway.
A fishing industry is found in Cadiz City, and other fishponds that dot the province. One of the country 's largest copper mines is located in Sipalay City. There also exists a cottage industry which produced handicrafts made from indigenous materials.
Bacolod City is the center of commerce and finance in Negros Occidental. It has oil companies, factories, bottling plants, allied industrial businesses, steel fabrication, power generation, agri - businesses, prawn culture and other aqua - culture ventures.
It is also the Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) hub of the Negros Island Region of the Philippines. Among the notable BPO companies operating in the city are Convergys, Teleperformance, TeleTech, Focus Direct International, Inc. -- Bacolod, Panasiatic Solutions, Ubiquity Global Services, Transcom Asia and iQor.
In 2012, a two - hectare portion of the four - hectare Paglaum Sports Complex was partitioned for the construction of the provincial government - owned Negros First CyberCentre (NFCC) as an IT - BPO Outsourcing Hub with a budget of P674 - million. It is located at Lacson corner Hernaez Streets in Bacolod City and offers up to 22,000 square meters of mixed IT - BPO and commercial spaces. Its facilities are divided into three sections -- Information Technology, Commercial Support Facilities, and Common IT Facilities. It was inaugurated in April 2015 in rites led by President Benigno S. Aquino III. The area was initially a residential zone and has been reclassified as a commercial zone as approved by the Comprehensive Zoning Ordinance.
By 2014, Negros Occidental is the province with the highest income in all of the Philippines, earning an average of P3. 332 billion.
Through its capital, Bacolod City, Negros Occidental is only 50 minutes from Manila and 30 minutes from Cebu by air. By sea, it is an 18 - hour cruise from Manila and an hour by fast ferries from Iloilo. It is also accessible by sea and land trip from Cebu via Escalante City, San Carlos City and Dumaguete City in Negros Oriental. Travel from Bacolod to Dumaguete is only 5 to 6 hours by land. Seven airline companies, including Philippine Airlines, Cebu Pacific and Air Philippines, serve the province. Four inter-island shipping lines call on nine seaports of Negros Occidental
On January 18, 2008, the new airport was inaugurated in Silay City, 16 kilometers north of Bacolod. The new airport replaced the Bacolod City Domestic Airport. The new airport runway is of international standards and was constructed to facilitate future landings of international flights to serve the growing number of tourists visiting Negros Occidental each year.
A new airport designed to serve the general area of Kabankalan City. The airport would be the second airport in Negros Occidental, after the Bacolod - Silay International Airport and the third airport on Negros Island Region. It is located four kilometers northeast of Kabankalan City proper on a 100 - hectare site in Barangay Hilamonan. Completion of the airport is still undergoing.
On August 3, 2017, Air Juan started to open flights to Sipalay City from Cebu and Iloilo. Flights from Cebu to Sipalay will be every Wednesday while Sipalay to Cebu on Sundays; Iloilo to Sipalay on Mondays and return on Thursdays. Sipalay Mayor Oscar C. Montilla, Jr. had been looking forward to having an airline company operate in the city to boost tourism. The small Sipalay airport with a 1,400 - meter runway is located in a 10 - hectare property of the local government. Negros Occidental Governor Alfredo G. Marañon, Jr. has committed to support the planned concreting of the runway.
All cities and municipalities are linked by an extensive road and bridge network stretching more than 1,500 kilometers crisscrossing the province with seven alternative scenic routes to the nearby province of Negros Oriental. Within the province, travel is also easy, comfortable and even enjoyable with air - conditioned and non-aircon buses or metered taxis. Car rental services are also available. However, the jeepney is still the most common means of transport among the towns and cities. For accommodations, visitors may choose from a wide range of about 67 hotels, pension and lodging houses and tourist inns. The better known hotels are L ' Fisher, Bacolod Convention Plaza, Pagcor Hotel, and Business Inn, Sugarland Hotel, all in Bacolod City.
The province has adequate power and water supplies. It is currently interconnected to the Visayas Power Grid whose main sources of power are geothermal. Aside from its existing 170 megawatts capacity, Negros Island by the year 2006 has an additional 105 megawatts of locally produced power from geothermal plants in Bago City and in barangay Palinpinon, Valencia, Negros Oriental, and from bagasse co-generation facility of First Farmers Sugar Mill. Ample water supply for household, commercial, industrial and agricultural uses is assured by 73 thousand hectares of proclaimed and protected major watersheds, regular rainfall and six major river systems.
San Carlos City is going to play a major role in renewable energy as it will be the site of San Carlos Solar Energy INC. It is a solar farm with an initial capacity of 13 MW in Phase 1, and a provision for an addition of 7 MW in Phase 2. It is intended to provide power to the grid throughout the year, at pre-determined Feed - In - Tariff rates set by the ERC. It is a DOE approved stand - alone solar power plant consisting of approximately 52,000 modules.
International direct dialing, fiber optic data lines and internet services are accessible in most areas of the province. Also, GSM, digital and analog cellular networks provide good coverage in Bacolod City and other areas, including international roaming. The medical and health care needs of the people of Negros Occidental and its guests are presently being met by 20 government hospitals and 10 private hospitals, as well as several city and municipal health centers, barangay health stations and day - care centers. Doctors, nurses and other medical personnel serving these facilities are not only competent but also very caring towards their patients.
Banking and finance is likewise a thriving industry in Negros Occidental. According to the latest count, there are 389 financial institutions competing for businesses in the province. 149 of these are banks. Negros Occidental offers several advantages for those who are doing business in the province. It is strategically located near Metro Manila, Metro Cebu and Metro Davao, all major international gateways with maximum travel time of only about 4 hours between the Philippines and its neighbors in Southeast Asia. It is equipped with major infrastructure facilities for easy travel and shipment of goods within and outside of Negros.
It has information and communication facilities with connection capabilities necessary for, among others, call center operations for business communication and transmission of data. The province has abundant water supply and dependable power supply. Modern health care facilities with medical services are available, as well as academic institutions.
The Panaad Park and Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in the province. It is currently used mostly for football matches, and was used for the 2005 South East Asian Games. It was the venue of the pre-qualifiers of the 2007 ASEAN Football Championship or ASEAN Cup, in which the Philippines, Cambodia, Timor Leste, Brunei and Laos participated. The stadium has a seating capacity of 15,500, but holds around 20,000 people with standing areas. It is unofficially designated as the home stadium of the Philippines national football team. Aside from the association football field, it also has a rubberized track oval, an Olympic - size swimming pool and other sports facilities.
The stadium is also the home of Panaad sa Negros Festival, a week - long celebration participated in by all cities and municipalities in the province held annually every summer. The festival is highlighted by merry - making and field demonstrations at the stadium. The stadium itself features replicas of the landmarks of the 13 cities and municipalities of Negros Occidental.
The Capitol Park and Lagoon is a provincial park located right in the heart of Bacolod City, Negros Occidental, in the Philippines. One of the landmarks of the park is the statue of a carabao (water buffalo) being pulled by a woman. This statue is located at the northern end of the lagoon. On the other end, there is also another carabao sculpture but the figure is being pulled by a man.
Local everyday activities in the park include jogging, aerobics, school dance rehearsals, promenaders, arnisadors, and martial arts practitioners.
The Fountain of Justice is a historic landmark in Bacolod City, Negros Occidental, Philippines. It marks the location where the house of Jose Ruiz de Luzurriaga used to stand. It was in this house that the surrender of Bacolod by Spanish authorities to the Filipino forces of General Aniceto Lacson took place on November 6, 1898, during the Negros Revolution.
The Bacolod Public Plaza is one of the notable landmarks of Bacolod City, the capital of Negros Occidental, Philippines. It is located in the heart of the downtown area, near the city hall and across from the San Sebastian Cathedral. The plaza is a trapezoidal park with a belt of trees around the periphery and a gazebo at the center. Scattered within the trees are four circular fountains.
The plaza was constructed in 1927 as a place for recreation, political, spiritual and cultural activities. It is quite a popular site for outdoor picnics and concerts. The gazebo is often used to house a bandstand.
The Balay Negrense was originally the ancestral house of Victor F. Gaston, a son of Yves Leopold Germain Gaston and Prudencia Fernandez. The elder Gaston is credited as one of the pioneers of sugarcane cultivation in this portion of the Philippine archipelago. A native of Normandy in France, he married a Filipina from Batangas where he initially began experimenting with sugar production before relocating to Negros.
Built in 1897, the structure housed Victor Gaston and his twelve children from 1901 until his death in 1927. Left unused by the family, the structure was abandoned in the mid-1970s and fell into disrepair until a group of concerned Negrenses formed what would later become the Negros Cultural Foundation and managed to acquire the house from the heirs of Gaston through a donation. With donations from prominent individuals and later the Department of Tourism, the structure was repaired and furnished with period furniture and fixtures. The museum was officially inaugurated on October 6, 1990.
The Mariano Ramos Ancestral House is the home of the late Don Mariano V. Ramos, the son of Agaton Ramos and Dolores Varela, was the first appointed Presidente Municipal of Bacolod City, Philippines. It was built in the 1930s and its architecture is a combination of Castilian and Tuscan and has three storeys, including the tower room, known as the torre.
During World War II, Don Mariano 's Ancestral house was the most prominent structure with a view over the whole city. The commanding Japanese general was disguised as a family gardener. As the war broke, the Japanese seized the Mariano Ramos Ancestral house in order to use it as a watchtower and as a headquarters.
The San Diego Pro-cathedral, formerly known as the San Diego Parish Church or the St. Didacus Parish Church before its declaration as a pro-cathedral in 1994, is an early 20th - century church in Silay City, Negros Occidental in the Philippines. It is the only pro-cathedral outside of the national capital of Manila, and is unique in Negros Occidental for being the only church in the province featuring a cupola or dome.
The mansion dates back to the 1900s when it was built by sugar baron Don Mariano Ledesma Lacson for his first wife, Maria Braga, a Portuguese from Macau whom he met in his vacations in Hong Kong. The mansion 's structure is of Italianate architecture enhanced by a belvedere complete with renaissance - type balustrading typical of the homes of English ship captains. It was burned down in World War II to prevent the Japanese from using it. It was opened to the public by descendants of the original owner and is listed as among the World 's 12 most fascinating ruins.
The Paglaum Sports Complex is a provincial - owned sports venue adjacent to the Negros Occidental High School established during the 1970s that hosted various football events, such as the 1991 Philippines International Cup and the football event of the 2005 Southeast Asian Games. It also hosted three editions of the Palarong Pambansa (1971, 1974, 1979). However, the stadium became unfit to host football matches following the erection of business establishments around the area. In 2012, a two - hectare portion of the four - hectare complex was partitioned for the construction of the Capitol - owned Negros First CyberCentre (NFCC) as an IT - BPO Outsourcing Hub. As of 2013, the provincial government has been proposing for a renovation of the stadium to serve as alternative venue to Panaad Park and Stadium, particularly for football competition. Recently, the Paglaum Sports Complex also serves as an alternative venue to the Bacolod Public Plaza for the MassKara Festival celebration.
The Negros Occidental Multi-Purpose Activity Center (NOMPAC) is a provincial - owned multi-use gym located in Bacolod City, adjacent to the Capitol Park and Lagoon. It is currently used mostly for basketball, karatedo and boxing matches. Aside from the gym, it also serves as evacuation site of the city and province during disasters and likewise also serves as cultural facilities in many events and celebrations.
There are 1,318 schools in the province; 53 are registered technical schools including the Technological University of the Philippines -- Visayas and Carlos Hilado Memorial State College in Talisay City. Of these, 158 are private schools, including University of Saint La Salle, STI West Negros University, Colegio San Agustin - Bacolod, La Consolacion College - Bacolod, VMA Global College, University of Negros Occidental - Recoletos, Central Philippines State University, Philippine Normal University -- Visayas and Central Philippine Adventist College.
Negros Occidental 's output of more than 1 million metric tons for crop year 2002 -- 2003 accounts for nearly half of the country 's sugar production in an industry that generates an estimated annual revenue of more than ₱ 18 billion. There are 12 sugar mills in the province, of which only 10 are presently operational. Victorias Milling Company has the highest rated capacity with 15,000 tonnes cane per day.
However, the volatility of the sugar industry forced the province to shift, albeit slowly, to other high - value crops and alternative industries. The diversification has proven to be highly successful. Production of rice, the basic commodity for food security, has been increasing. By 2003, annual output of 437 thousand metric tons of palay was 33 % better than two years ago. This allowed the province to significantly raise its sufficiency level from 65 % to more than 84 %. The improvement could be attributed to the introduction and promotion of hybrid rice, which increased rice yields to 3.8 metric tons per hectare. Because of the success of the program, area planted to hybrid rice has increased nearly fivefold. The highest hybrid yield was recorded at 10.3 tons per hectare.
Corn also registered increasing gains. Production for 2003 of 42 thousand metric tons outperformed 2001 output by 18 %. Average yield per hectare has also grown by 18 %. Other fruit and vegetable crops, except for banana and cassava, likewise improved their harvest. Harvested coconut was placed at 139 million nuts, while production of banana; fruit and vegetable crops totaled 110 million kilograms. Livestock and poultry are industries where Negros Occidental has strongly diversified.
With the province successfully quarantined from the foot and mouth disease and bird flu, as well as with other endemic diseases under control, total production of livestock and poultry in 2003 of 49 thousand metric tons exceeded estimated local demand by 18 %. Fishing is likewise an industry where the province has remained focused. After all, 9 of its cities and 16 of its municipalities are located along the coastline and a great portion of the population depends on fishing for their livelihood.
The area for exploitation by this industry is huge, covering most of the coastal areas and the rich fishing grounds of the Visayan Sea on the north, Sulu Sea on the south, Tañon Strait on the east and Guimaras Strait and Panay Gulf at the west. These rich coastal areas and fishing grounds continue to be generous to the people of Negros Occidental. In 2003, products from deep - sea fishing, municipal marine and inland waters, and aquaculture reached 87 thousand metric tons, 30 % better than 2001 production.
The province is rich in mineral deposits. Minerals that abound in the province are primary copper with estimated reserve of 591 million metric tons and gold ore with estimated reserve of 25 million tons. Silver and molybdenum deposits are also abundant, as well as non-metallic minerals suitable for agricultural and industrial uses. Notwithstanding its great potential, the mining industry in Negros Occidental has remained virtually dormant since the biggest copper mine in Sipalay suspended its operation in the year 2000.
Negros Occidental comprises 19 municipalities and 13 cities, further subdivided into 662 barangays. It has the most chartered cities among all the provinces in the Philippines. Although Bacolod City serves as the capital, it is governed independently from the province as a highly urbanized city.
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with the use of electricity what was learned about the composition of water | Electrolysis of water - wikipedia
Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas due to an electric current passed through the water. The reaction has a standard potential of − 1.23 V, meaning it ideally requires a potential difference of 1.23 volts to split water.
This technique can be used to make hydrogen fuel (hydrogen gas) and breathable oxygen; though currently most industrial methods make hydrogen fuel from natural gas instead.
Jan Rudolph Deiman and Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk used, in 1789, an electrostatic machine to make electricity which was discharged on gold electrodes in a Leyden jar with water. In 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, and a few weeks later William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used it for the electrolysis of water. When Zénobe Gramme invented the Gramme machine in 1869 electrolysis of water became a cheap method for the production of hydrogen. A method of industrial synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis was developed by Dmitry Lachinov in 1888.
A DC electrical power source is connected to two electrodes, or two plates (typically made from some inert metal such as platinum, stainless steel or iridium) which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will appear at the cathode (where electrons enter the water), and oxygen will appear at the anode. Assuming ideal faradaic efficiency, the amount of hydrogen generated is twice the amount of oxygen, and both are proportional to the total electrical charge conducted by the solution. However, in many cells competing side reactions occur, resulting in different products and less than ideal faradaic efficiency.
Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy in the form of overpotential to overcome various activation barriers. Without the excess energy the electrolysis of pure water occurs very slowly or not at all. This is in part due to the limited self - ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one millionth that of seawater. Many electrolytic cells may also lack the requisite electrocatalysts. The efficiency of electrolysis is increased through the addition of an electrolyte (such as a salt, an acid or a base) and the use of electrocatalysts.
Currently the electrolytic process is rarely used in industrial applications since hydrogen can currently be produced more affordably from fossil fuels.
In pure water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with electrons (e) from the cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas. The half reaction, balanced with acid, is:
At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and giving electrons to the anode to complete the circuit:
The same half reactions can also be balanced with base as listed below. Not all half reactions must be balanced with acid or base. Many do, like the oxidation or reduction of water listed here. To add half reactions they must both be balanced with either acid or base. The acid - balanced reactions predominate in acidic (low pH) solutions, while the base - balanced reactions predominate in basic (high pH) solutions.
Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen:
The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen molecules. Assuming equal temperature and pressure for both gases, the produced hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of the produced oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of generated hydrogen molecules and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules.
Decomposition of pure water into hydrogen and oxygen at standard temperature and pressure is not favorable in thermodynamic terms.
Thus, the standard potential of the water electrolysis cell (E = E − E) is − 1.23 V at 25 ° C at pH 0 ((H) = 1.0 M). At 25 ° C with pH 7 ((H) = 1.0 × 10 M), the potential is unchanged based on the Nernst equation. The thermodynamic standard cell potential can be obtained from standard - state free energy calculations to find ΔG ° and then using the equation: ΔG ° = - nFE ° (where E ° is the cell potential). In practice when an electrochemical cell is "driven '' toward completion by applying reasonable potential, it is kinetically controlled. Therefore, activation energy, ion mobility (diffusion) and concentration, wire resistance, surface hindrance including bubble formation (causes electrode area blockage), and entropy, require a greater applied potential to overcome these factors. The amount of increase in potential required is termed the overpotential.
If the above described processes occur in pure water, H cations will be consumed / reduced at the cathode and OH anions will consumed / oxidised at the anode. This can be verified by adding a pH indicator to the water: the water near the cathode is basic while the water near the anode is acidic. The negative hydroxide ions that approach the anode mostly combine with the positive hydronium ions (H O) to form water. The positive hydronium ions that approach the cathode mostly combine with negative hydroxide ions to form water. Relatively few hydronium / hydroxide ions reach the cathode / anode. This can cause a concentration overpotential at both electrodes.
Pure water is a fairly good insulator since it has a low autoionization, K = 1.0 × 10 at room temperature and thus pure water conducts current poorly, 0.055 μS cm. Unless a very large potential is applied to cause an increase in the autoionization of water the electrolysis of pure water proceeds very slowly limited by the overall conductivity.
If a water - soluble electrolyte is added, the conductivity of the water rises considerably. The electrolyte disassociates into cations and anions; the anions rush towards the anode and neutralize the buildup of positively charged H there; similarly, the cations rush towards the cathode and neutralize the buildup of negatively charged OH there. This allows the continued flow of electricity.
Care must be taken in choosing an electrolyte, since an anion from the electrolyte is in competition with the hydroxide ions to give up an electron. An electrolyte anion with less standard electrode potential than hydroxide will be oxidized instead of the hydroxide, and no oxygen gas will be produced. A cation with a greater standard electrode potential than a hydrogen ion will be reduced instead, and no hydrogen gas will be produced.
The following cations have lower electrode potential than H and are therefore suitable for use as electrolyte cations: Li, Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, and Mg. Sodium and lithium are frequently used, as they form inexpensive, soluble salts.
If an acid is used as the electrolyte, the cation is H, and there is no competitor for the H created by disassociating water. The most commonly used anion is sulfate (SO), as it is very difficult to oxidize, with the standard potential for oxidation of this ion to the peroxydisulfate ion being − 2.05 volts.
Strong acids such as sulfuric acid (H SO), and strong bases such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are frequently used as electrolytes due to their strong conducting abilities.
A solid polymer electrolyte can also be used such as Nafion and when applied with a special catalyst on each side of the membrane can efficiently split the water molecule with as little as 1.5 Volts. There are also a number of other solid electrolyte systems that have been trialled and developed with a number of electrolysis systems now available commercially that use solid electrolytes.
Two leads, running from the terminals of a battery, are placed in a cup of water with a quantity of electrolyte to establish conductivity in the solution. Using NaCl (table salt) in an electrolyte solution results in chlorine gas rather than oxygen due to a competing half - reaction. With the correct electrodes and correct electrolyte, such as baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), hydrogen and oxygen gases will stream from the oppositely charged electrodes. Oxygen will collect at the positively charged electrode (anode) and hydrogen will collect at the negatively charged electrode (cathode). Note that hydrogen is positively charged in the H O molecule, so it ends up at the negative electrode. (And vice versa for oxygen.)
Note that an aqueous solution of water with chloride ions, when electrolysed, will result in either OH if the concentration of Cl is low, or in chlorine gas being preferentially discharged if the concentration of Cl is greater than 25 % by mass in the solution.
The Hofmann voltameter is often used as a small - scale electrolytic cell. It consists of three joined upright cylinders. The inner cylinder is open at the top to allow the addition of water and the electrolyte. A platinum electrode is placed at the bottom of each of the two side cylinders, connected to the positive and negative terminals of a source of electricity. When current is run through the Hofmann voltameter, gaseous oxygen forms at the anode (positive) and gaseous hydrogen at the cathode (negative). Each gas displaces water and collects at the top of the two outer tubes, where it can be drawn off with a stopcock.
Many industrial electrolysis cells are very similar to Hofmann voltameters, with complex platinum plates or honeycombs as electrodes. Generally the only time hydrogen is intentionally produced from electrolysis is for specific point of use application such as is the case with oxyhydrogen torches or when extremely high purity hydrogen or oxygen is desired. The vast majority of hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons and as a result contains trace amounts of carbon monoxide among other impurities. The carbon monoxide impurity can be detrimental to various systems including many fuel cells.
High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water with a compressed hydrogen output around 120 -- 200 Bar (1740 -- 2900 psi). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated; the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3 %.
High - temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a method currently being investigated for water electrolysis with a heat engine. High temperature electrolysis may be preferable to traditional room - temperature electrolysis because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity, and because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures.
In 2014, researchers announced an electrolysis system made of inexpensive, abundant nickel and iron rather than precious metal catalysts, such as platinum or iridium. The nickel - metal / nickel - oxide structure is more active than pure nickel metal or pure nickel oxide alone. The catalyst significantly lowers the required voltage. Also nickel -- iron batteries are being investigated for use as combined batteries and electrolysis for hydrogen production. Those "battolysers '' could be charged and discharged like conventional batteries, and would produce hydrogen when fully charged.
About five percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis. The majority of this hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine and caustic soda. This is a prime example of a competing side reaction.
The electrolysis of brine, a water / sodium chloride mixture, is only half the electrolysis of water since the chloride ions are oxidized to chlorine rather than water being oxidized to oxygen. Thermodynamically, this would not be expected since the oxidation potential of the chloride ion is less than that of water, but the rate of the chloride reaction is much greater than that of water, causing it to predominate. The hydrogen produced from this process is either burned (converting it back to water), used for the production of specialty chemicals, or various other small - scale applications.
Water electrolysis is also used to generate oxygen for the International Space Station.
Hydrogen may later be used in a fuel cell as a storage method of energy and water.
Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by energy consumed per standard volume of hydrogen (MJ / m), assuming standard temperature and pressure of the H. The lower the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100 % - efficient electrolyser would consume 39.4 kilowatt - hours per kilogram (142 MJ / kg) of hydrogen, 12,749 joules per litre (12.75 MJ / m). Practical electrolysis (using a rotating electrolyser at 15 bar pressure) may consume 50 kilowatt - hours per kilogram (180 MJ / kg), and a further 15 kilowatt - hours (54 MJ) if the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars.
Electrolyser vendors provide efficiencies based on enthalpy. To assess the claimed efficiency of an electrolyser it is important to establish how it was defined by the vendor (i.e. what enthalpy value, what current density, etc.).
There are two main technologies available on the market, alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers. Alkaline electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but less efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive platinum - group metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher current densities, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough.
Conventional alkaline electrolysis has an efficiency of about 70 %. Accounting for the accepted use of the higher heat value (because inefficiency via heat can be redirected back into the system to create the steam required by the catalyst), average working efficiencies for PEM electrolysis are around 80 %. This is expected to increase to between 82 - 86 % before 2030. Theoretical efficiency for PEM electrolysers are predicted up to 94 %.
Considering the industrial production of hydrogen, and using current best processes for water electrolysis (PEM or alkaline electrolysis) which have an effective electrical efficiency of 70 - 80 %, producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a specific energy of 143 MJ / kg or about 40 kWh / kg) requires 50 -- 55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $0.06 / kWh, as set out in the Department of Energy hydrogen production targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $3 / kg. With the range of natural gas prices from 2016 as shown in the graph (Hydrogen Production Tech Team Roadmap, November 2017) putting the cost of SMR hydrogen at between $1.20 and $1.50, the cost price of hydrogen via electrolysis is still over double 2015 DOE hydrogen target prices. The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $2.30 / kg, requiring an electricity cost of $0.037 / kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many regions. This puts the $4 / gge H2 dispensed objective well within reach, and close to a slightly elevated natural gas production cost for SMR.
In other parts of the world, steam methane reforming is between $1 - 3 / kg on average. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel Hydrogen and others, including an article by the IEA examining the conditions which could lead to a competitive advantage for electrolysis.
Real water electrolysers require higher voltages for the reaction to proceed. The part that exceeds 1.23 V is called overpotential or overvoltage, and represents any kind of loss and nonideality in the electrochemical process.
For a well designed cell the largest overpotential is the reaction overpotential for the four - electron oxidation of water to oxygen at the anode; electrocatalysts can facilitate this reaction, and platinum alloys are the state of the art for this oxidation. Developing a cheap, effective electrocatalyst for this reaction would be a great advance, and is a topic of current research; there are many approaches, among them a 30 - year - old recipe for molybdenum sulfide, graphene quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, perovskite, and nickel / nickel - oxide. The simpler two - electron reaction to produce hydrogen at the cathode can be electrocatalyzed with almost no overpotential by platinum, or in theory a hydrogenase enzyme. If other, less effective, materials are used for the cathode (e.g. graphite), large overpotentials will appear.
The electrolysis of water in standard conditions requires a theoretical minimum of 237 kJ of electrical energy input to dissociate each mole of water, which is the standard Gibbs free energy of formation of water. It also requires energy to overcome the change in entropy of the reaction. Therefore, the process can not proceed below 286 kJ per mol if no external heat / energy is added.
Since each mole of water requires two moles of electrons, and given that the Faraday constant F represents the charge of a mole of electrons (96485 C / mol), it follows that the minimum voltage necessary for electrolysis is about 1.23 V. If electrolysis is carried out at high temperature, this voltage reduces. This effectively allows the electrolyser to operate at more than 100 % electrical efficiency. In electrochemical systems this means that heat must be supplied to the reactor to sustain the reaction. In this way thermal energy can be used for part of the electrolysis energy requirement. In a similar way the required voltage can be reduced (below 1 V) if fuels (such as carbon, alcohol, biomass) are reacted with water (PEM based electrolyzer in low temperature) or oxygen ions (solid oxide electrolyte based electrolyzer in high temperature). This results in some of the fuel 's energy being used to "assist '' the electrolysis process and can reduce the overall cost of hydrogen produced.
However, observing the entropy component (and other losses), voltages over 1.48 V are required for the reaction to proceed at practical current densities (the thermoneutral voltage).
In the case of water electrolysis, Gibbs free energy represents the minimum work necessary for the reaction to proceed, and the reaction enthalpy is the amount of energy (both work and heat) that has to be provided so the reaction products are at the same temperature as the reactant (i.e. standard temperature for the values given above). Potentially, an electrolyser operating at 1.48 V would be 100 % efficient.
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in what episode of lab rats does leo get his bionic arm | List of Lab Rats episodes - wikipedia
Lab Rats, also known as Lab Rats: Bionic Island for the fourth season, is an American television sitcom that premiered on February 27, 2012, on Disney XD. It focuses on the life of teenager Leo Dooley, whose mother, Tasha, marries billionaire genius Donald Davenport. He meets Adam, Bree, and Chase, three bionic superhumans, with whom he develops an immediate friendship.
When Leo and his mom, Tasha, move in with Donald Davenport, Leo 's step - father, Leo discovers three bionic superhuman teenagers named Adam, Bree, and Chase living in a secret underground lab in Donald 's high - tech home. He takes them to school, where their lack of experience with the outside world causes chaos, prompting Donald to ban them from ever leaving the lab. However, Leo, in appreciation for making him more popular by using their bionics, throws a party for the Lab Rats in Donald 's house, only to get caught when Donald and Tasha walk in during the festivities.
After the Lab Rats disobey Donald 's orders, Donald decides it is best they are sent to a top secret facility in the arctic. To replace them, Donald creates robot versions of them to hang out with Leo, but the Lab Rats switch places with the robots. However, Tasha decides that she does not want Leo to hang out with robots and tells Donald to recycle them, not knowing they were the real children. Once at the recycling plant, the Lab Rats use their bionics to avoid the various hazards, but must go back when Leo jumps in, hoping to rescue them, before Adam finds the off button. When Donald sees the children risk their lives for each other, he decides to let them stay, as long as they can control their glitches.
On the Lab Rats ' first day at school, all goes awry when Chase is confronted by a football player and his "Commando App '' is triggered, transforming him into Spike, a loud - mouthed, insulting bully with an enormous temper. When Spike stands up to Principal Perry, she puts the Lab Rats up against the football team to battle it out for the coveted cafeteria table. While the Lab Rats ' bionics and Spike 's aggression get them close to winning, Spike reverts to Chase at the last minute. While Chase tries to compute the perfect winning pass, he becomes confused by too many targets, causing them to lose. Meanwhile, Donald tries to work, but is constantly interrupted by Eddy.
When Leo needs help asking a girl to the school dance, Adam and Chase step in to help, but the plan backfires when she falls for Adam instead. The boys decide to settle their differences on the dance floor and they each show off their best moves. Meanwhile, Bree gets to know her crush, Ethan, but he gets to know that Bree is one weird girl.
Guest stars: Angel Parker as Tasha, Garrett Backstrom as Ethan, Ginny Gardner as Danielle
The Lab Rats get their first mission to stop Donald 's high - tech, super fast train from speeding out of control. Leo sneaks along, but when the Lab Rats discover he accidentally discarded the braking system they were supposed to install, they must improvise a way to stop the train before it crashes into a nearby town. Meanwhile, Tasha is given her big break at the TV news station when her boss asks her to cover the runaway train. She passes the opportunity to see the train and fails the report. After Leo stops the train, Tasha finds out and grounds Leo for two weeks in his room without television, video games, and leaving the house, but Leo shortens his grounding to one week without Tasha knowing.
When Chase refuses to admit that Adam has good ideas, Adam decides to run against him for Student of the Semester. Meanwhile, Leo takes advantage of Bree 's super speed and starts using her as his personal taxi.
Guest star: Garrett Backstrom as Ethan
Tasha 's mother, Rose, comes to visit the family. Tasha must pretend that the Lab Rats are her staff. Meanwhile Donald 's prized invention, a super strength and laser empowered exoskeleton suit, malfunctions, after Chase reverses its controls, to get back at Leo for stealing his presenting job. However, it ends up unleashing destructive power on the household, making Leo 's grandma even more suspicious of the family. While Rose is not looking, the Lab Rats use their powers to stop the exoskeleton. Afterwards, Rose demands answers, and Donald tells her that Adam, Bree, and Chase are his brother 's children, who he says he adopted after his brother fell into a volcano.
Guest stars: Angel Parker as Tasha, Telma Hopkins as Grandma Rose
When the Lab Rats forget to invite Leo to his own surprise birthday party, they must make it up to him, so they take Leo into the ultra-cool virtual mission simulator and show him what it is like to be bionic.
Leo teams up with Adam in the school fitness challenge Death Spiral Smackdown, hoping that Adam 's bionic powers will be his secret weapon; the plan backfires when they end up going head - to - head in the finals. Meanwhile, Bree and Chase use their bionic abilities against one another when Chase tries to sabotage Bree when she is with her friends by making her speak French, Swedish, and many other languages and making her slap her face.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Tucker Albrizzi as Gordo
Leo borrows Donald 's helicopter to take his crush, Janelle, on a flight date. Meanwhile, Bree gets her own bedroom and Adam and Chase are excited to have the lab to themselves; however, things get out of hand and Chase decides to divide the lab in half.
Future Leo travels seven years into the past to tell Leo that the Lab Rats will not make it to the future and that the only way to save them is to not let them go on their ultra-collider mission. The Lab Rats go anyway, since the whole world is in their hands. After young Leo goes after them and saves their life by pushing them aside when the dome collides, Adam digs up Leo who ended up saving every one of them. Leo misses his date with Janelle and Future Leo ends up with a dog instead of Janelle.
Special guest star: Tyler James Williams as Future Leo
The Lab Rats switch their bionic chips after Leo mentions such an idea. Adam has Bree 's speed, Bree has Chase 's intelligence, and Chase has Adam 's strength. Ignoring Donald 's warning, they go to school and Chase, not used to heat vision, accidentally traps Leo and Principal Perry inside an elevator during a drill as part of Emergency Preparedness Week at the school after Bree complains about the noise the fire alarm bell makes. Chase is unable to do anything, so the Lab Rats race home and try to switch back their chips, but it backfires -- Chase ends up with Bree 's speed, Bree ends up with Adam 's strength, and Adam ends up with Chase 's intelligence. Adam figures out that Bree can pull the elevator cables, lifting Leo and Principal Perry to safety. This works, but Donald busts them, though he is glad that they learned their lesson about chip switching.
When Donald and Tasha go on vacation, it is up to Leo to make sure that nothing happens to Donald 's prized possessions. Leo and the Lab Rats all promise to behave, but once they leave, the Lab Rats start to fool around in the lab. At night, Leo turns on the LEMP, a "glitch machine, '' thinking it is a nightlight. In the morning, Leo wakes up to find that Adam is talking backward and Chase can only see pixels. They tell Leo that Bree began running in the night and that they do not know where she went. Chase uses the computer to track Bree. They fix their glitches, Bree runs home by using a map, and Chase finds out he tracked one of Donald 's drones, forcing Eddy to steer the plane back. In the end, Donald grounds Leo and the Lab Rats.
The Lab Rats learn about chores and earn an allowance for the first time. In hopes of raising more money, the Lab Rats decide to host a yard sale, but they accidentally sell an antique jewelry box that Donald was restoring for Tasha. Meanwhile, Leo and Donald bond over the latest Pig Zombie movie. When Tasha finds out about her son disobeying her rule and lying to her and Donald, she grounds Leo and forbids him to watch television for a week, but Tasha later lets Leo watch the Pig Zombie movie marathon and she extends Leo 's grounding to a month. Donald finds out about the jewelry box 's disappearance and punishes the Lab Rats by making them do every filthy, disgusting chore in the house without their bionics for a month.
Tasha takes the entire family on a nice technology free beach weekend in the RV, but when Donald discovers a solar flare headed toward Earth, he secretly enlists the help of the Lab Rats. While Donald distracts Tasha, the Lab Rats are forced to wait in the RV for their rocket launch window. Cooped up inside during their first summer vacation, Leo and the Lab Rats sneak out for a quick jaunt on the boardwalk, but when they return the RV is gone. A policeman tells them he had the RV towed and the Lab Rats perform to get money so they can get the RV back, but they land in jail when they realize they do not have a license to perform.
When Leo wants to impress Janelle by beating school bully Trent in basketball, Chase lends him Donald 's anti-gravity boots. However, when Trent steals the shoes, Chase gets a gadget that makes the shoes dance with Trent in them. Trent takes the shoes off, and in the second round, Leo scores a goal by himself. Meanwhile, Bree and Adam compete for a spot on the cheer - leading squad. Adam wins, but when Stephanie makes fun of Bree, Adam quits, and he and Bree make their own cheer and shame Stephanie and the cheerleaders out of the court.
Guest stars: Madison Pettis as Janelle, Eddie Perino as Trent, Oana Gregory as Stephanie
Leo desperately wants to be Donald 's lab assistant, but he accidentally corrupts the smart - home system, turning Eddy into an evil demonic virus named Teddy. Meanwhile, Bree holds a sleepover with her friends, unaware that they only wanted to come because of the house she lives in, while Adam and Chase try to pull a prank on the girls.
After using their bionics to save Leo from a falling air conditioning unit, a suspicious Principal Perry catches the Lab Rats on video using their bionics, but she has not viewed the footage yet. In order to stop her from showing Donald and Tasha the film on parent - teacher night, Leo uses Donald 's invisibility cloak to sneak into her office. However, after Leo gets caught, the Lab Rats must think of a new plan.
Adam and Chase befriend a new child, Marcus, from school. They form a band, but when Leo gets suspicious he joins the band, only to get blamed for breaking Marcus ' guitar. Meanwhile, Bree plans to bond with Donald on Career Day, but gets upset when she finds out Donald had been planning something with the boys. Leo brings along a tablet with Eddy 's home system recording installed on it, showing that he did not break Marcus ' guitar, but before he shows everyone Marcus confesses and finally tells everyone the "truth. '' After a pretend breakdown, he then tells Leo to never tell on him again or else.
The Lab Rats are at school when Marcus asks them if he can stay at their house for the weekend because his dad is out of town and he does not want to stay with his grandma. They agree to let him stay. The Lab Rats discover they have secret abilities, but when they confront Donald, they find out that he does not know the type of ability they will have or the time it will come. When Marcus comes over, they have to go into space because Donald 's satellite is about to get hit by a meteor shower due to a breach. They get there and fix the breach, but Adam accidentally breaks his tether with his heat vision. Marcus infiltrates the lab and places a microscopic spy camera inside. Later, Marcus notifies a mysterious man about his infiltration in Donald 's lab.
The Lab Rats sneak out in Donald 's new self - driving sports car. When Leo tries to stop them, his nemesis Marcus traps him inside the car and programs it to take him on a wild, high - speed ride bound for the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. In the end, Marcus reveals to Leo he is bionic like the Lab Rats and that if Leo tells anyone, Marcus will tell the world about the Lab Rats ' secret. Meanwhile, Donald and Tasha try to celebrate their one - year anniversary, but Eddy keeps interrupting them.
Leo uses a robotic fly to mess with Bree, but he goes too far when he uses it to cheat off Bree 's test. When Bree scolds Leo for copying, Principal Perry gives her an F for talking during a test. However, when Principal Perry finds and keeps Leo 's robotic fly, she accidentally releases a swarm of them, which all paralyze the students, but the only way Bree will help is if Leo confesses he cheated. Leo confesses and Bree creates a tornado with her speed to capture the flies in the container. Meanwhile, Adam and Chase must take care of baby dolls for a class, but it ends up in a battle between them, with them hurting each other 's babies in various ways.
Guest star: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry
Leo wants to be a part of the team, but Donald will not let him. When Donald discovers a gas leak, he calls the Lab Rats, but they are stuck in detention with Principal Perry for missing school during their other missions. Leo goes instead, much to Donald 's dismay. Leo soon proves to be worthy when he saves the day. In the end, Leo is officially a member of the team as someone who watches over the mission and gives ideas and advice. Meanwhile, Donald gives Eddy a body, which is broken on the mission.
While going on a mission to receive samples to bust criminals, Bree is exposed to some of the chemicals she is collecting when she is not paying attention. Adam, Chase, and Donald try to figure out what is wrong with her and how to undo it. Leo tries to make sure Bree does not reveal her bionics when she sneaks out to see her crush 's art. At the art show, the side effects of the chemical Bree was exposed to begin to manifest.
Chase and Leo decide to enter a build - your - own - bot Robot Throwdown. When Donald wants to join their team, they let him, but they kick him off when he wrecks their robot. He then enters the competition himself, going head - to - head against Chase and Leo. Meanwhile, Bree accidentally exposes her bionics to Caitlin, who then leaves in a fluster. Caitlin confesses she has a crush on Adam and he becomes her boyfriend so that he can convince her she did not see anything. When Adam and Caitlin are on their date, Caitlin confesses she was wearing glasses and therefore did not see anything. Adam, who does not like Caitlin, becomes upset, which activates his bionics and Bree tackles Caitlin to the ground, both to protect her and to stop her from seeing Adam 's heat vision. Later, Adam finally gets Caitlin off his back by showing her who her true crush is; however, her true crush does not really want to cooperate.
Chase pulls a prank on Adam, ending with Adam dislocating his arm. Adam then gets worried because the world is so dangerous. He quits the team because he does not want to get hurt. Chase and Bree realize they can not do it alone, so Chase and Donald come up with a plan to get Adam back on the team, but things go wrong and Chase gets hurt. Meanwhile, Bree discovers her secret ability and gets grounded for using it to make fun of Principal Perry. Leo and Bree later get grounded at home.
Leo and the Lab Rats go on strike due to Donald 's refusal to give them a day off. When he needs them for a special presentation, he must admit that he is wrong or risk his entire career, but he instead gets Leo to be his pilot for the presentation. However, little does Leo know that Donald is using him to get the Lab Rats to cave. In the end, Donald 's presentation is blown and the Lab Rats forgive Leo.
One of Donald 's inventions accidentally sucks Leo into a parallel universe, where the Lab Rats are powerless and Leo is the one with bionics and everything is backward. Tasha is a technology genius, Donald is her assistant, Principal Perry is nice, Adam is a nerd, Chase is a jock, and Bree is popular. The Lab Rats do not know Leo; when he exposes his bionics to them, which freaks them out, they tell the FBI. He and Donald have to get him back to his universe before Leo ends up in government lockdown.
Leo decides to enter the school talent show by performing a magic act. When Chase is not pictured on the yearbook, he uses his molecularkinesis in the talent show auditions to show everyone he is popular, but takes Leo 's spot. Eddy gives Leo a device to interrupt Chase 's bionics during the show. Chase gets booed, causing his Commando App to activate. Leo calms him down, but induces Spike again by insulting Chase. Leo tries using the device to shut Spike down, but ends up causing Spike 's aggression levels to soar. Principal Perry then takes Spike down, reverting him to Chase. Meanwhile, Adam and Owen try to use butter as art, much to Bree 's chagrin. Bree melts their butter statue of Principal Perry, upsetting Owen. She makes it up to him by making him a new statue out of popcorn.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Ben Stillwell as Owen, Will Forte as the voice of Eddy
After seeing Marcus at school, Leo follows him to his house. He gets photographic evidence that not only proves that Marcus is evil, but that he also wants the Lab Rats. Unfortunately, he is captured by Marcus and he orders his robot to kill him. Leo escapes by out - thinking Marcus with a move Chase used to beat Adam at arm wrestling. Meanwhile, the Lab Rats try out a teleporter, but accidentally teleport Tasha to Fresno and must fix the teleporter to bring her back. Adam reveals that instead of depending on the broken teleporter, he called Tasha and told her to ride a bus home. When Leo tries to bust Marcus, his phone is destroyed by the broken teleporter. Marcus 's house appears normal except for a camera that Donald suspiciously notices, but does not mention. Marcus 's dad reveals himself and says that Marcus has failed him and he will take care of Donald and the Lab Rats.
When Donald shows Leo and the Lab Rats his one - million dollar painting, they do not approve of it. While Donald is at work, Leo and the Lab Rats put the painting in Donald 's art vault, which has a bunch of other paintings. When Adam sneezes, it triggers his heat vision which burns a hole into the painting. Leo and the Lab Rats then try to cover it up by painting a new one that looks exactly like the original. All does not go according to plan when the FBI shows up and accuses Donald of forging art and almost discovers the lab when looking for more forged art.
Adam gets his driver 's license and Donald takes him to get a car; however, when Donald has to leave early, Adam gets a monster truck instead of the intended car. Donald is about to take back the truck, but he and Adam decide to keep it and take a joyride. Meanwhile, Leo is bragging about how he was invited to a party, but when Tasha runs for PTA president and embarrasses him, he worries he will be uninvited, so Bree uses her voice manipulation powers to make Tasha seem like she is making fun of Principal Perry, and Perry then decides to run against Tasha. In the end, Perry wins the vote when Adam and Donald accidentally crash the monster truck into the school.
Leo wants the corner locker at school, only to find out it has been taken by his neighbor Clayton Harrington. Meanwhile Donald has grown tired of Clayton 's obnoxious ultra-rich father, Pierce, and decides to end their feud with a stock car race. However, he quickly finds out that he will need the help of Leo and the Lab Rats when his neighbor enlists the help of Joey Logano to win the race. Donald fires his pit crew, who have been paid by Pierce to sabotage his car, and Leo and the Lab Rats become his new pit crew. Joey later leaves because Pierce and Clayton sabotaged Donald 's car and says he does not work for cheaters. Joey helps Donald win as well. Donald has a plan to stay behind and then slingshot past Pierce 's car. In the end, Donald wins, Pierce and Clayton move out of the neighborhood, and Leo gets the corner locker.
After Donald only seems to point out what they do wrong, the Lab Rats get annoyed with him. Meanwhile, Marcus disables Eddy and he and his dad, Douglas, who is Donald 's brother, capture Donald. Using Donald as bait, they lure the Lab Rats to their lair. Marcus, who has enhanced forms of all their powers, defeats Adam and Bree easily. Chase uses a new ability, levitation, and Marcus feigns defeat. Douglas transports them into Donald 's cage and says that he is their father. Donald and Douglas jointly founded Davenport Industries, but had a falling out after Douglas went behind Donald 's back and implanted bionics which they had designed for robots into human subjects (Adam, Bree, and Chase). Douglas then built Marcus, an android. Douglas created Adam, Bree, and Chase with a Triton App so that he could control them, but Donald disabled the app shortly after he took the bionic siblings away from him. While Douglas works on an override to reactive the Triton App, Leo arrives and Marcus seemingly kills him with an electric bolt. The Lab Rats deactivate the cage using a granola bar wrapper and Donald 's custom belt buckle. Donald and Douglas fight over the Triton App remote. Marcus defeats the Lab Rats, but Leo arrives in the exoskeleton, having been wearing a Davenport suit which saved him from Marcus 's earlier attack. Donald crushes the remote, while Marcus knocks Leo down and prepares to kill him. Adam gets angry and unlocks a hidden ability, a bionic blast wave, which destroys the lair and knocks Marcus down. Douglas escapes, but Marcus is crushed by a mountain of rubble, and the Lab Rats help each other get out. Donald says he is proud of them and Chase says that Donald is their real father.
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas Davenport, Mateus Ward as Marcus, Will Forte as the voice of Eddy
After Donald catches Leo and the Lab Rats coming home two hours past curfew and grounds them for three weeks, they use Donald 's memory - erasing device to make him forget that he grounded them. However, Leo goes too far and accidentally erases 24 years instead of 24 hours, rendering him a teenager. When Chase tries to fix it, he wipes Donald 's memory again to 24 years as a four - and - a-half - year old. When Donald discovers that Leo and the Lab Rats were using his memory - erasing device after he returns to normal, he grounds them "forever ''.
Adam and Bree are always saying that super speed and super strength always make a good team, so Chase tries to prove to them and Donald that super smarts can be good on its own. Meanwhile, Leo accidentally freezes Janelle and Tasha with Donald 's freezing gun. Donald arranges for the Lab Rats to go on a mission in Antarctica, but calls it off because he thinks that it is going to be too dangerous. Chase goes, anyway, wanting to prove to Adam and Bree that he can complete a mission by himself and ends up getting trapped by an avalanche. He is rescued by Douglas, who presents him with a tempting offer to work together. Chase pretends to agree, but freezes Douglas in the end.
When the Lab Rats are completing their training, Adam gets bored of training and wants to have fun. He creates a duplicate of himself with Donald 's cellular duplicator; however, things get out of hand when the duplicate learns how to multiply himself. Meanwhile, Bree and Chase have to babysit Principal Perry 's niece who acts nice, but is actually blackmailing them.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Grace Kaufman as Kerry Perry, Will Forte as the voice of Eddy
When the school mascot 's Dingo costume is stolen by the rival team, Adam seeks revenge by taking their mascot, a llama. When Chase and Adam try to return the llama, they discover that the animal has swallowed hundreds of Donald 's mechanical nanobots, causing it to shoot acidic bionic spit. Meanwhile, Caitlin gets Leo and Bree to help her win the school 's domino contest, but she is too hard on them and Bree and Leo decide to compete against her.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Michaela Carrozzo as Caitlin
After Principal Perry tells everyone a ghost story, Adam, Chase, and Leo decide to take advantage of Trent 's fear of ghosts for a little revenge. However, they soon start to believe that the ghost is real. Meanwhile, Bree and Owen have different opinions on how to decorate the gym for the homecoming dance. In the end, it turns out that Principal Perry was behind the whole thing.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Eddie Perino as Trent, Ben Stillwell as Owen
Davenport makes a deal with Principal Perry to improve the school technology, even though Chase and Leo tell him not to. In the end, his ego ruins everything when he makes a robotic version of Principal Perry. Leo and Chase are mad at him, so they make the robot Perry unfocused while unknowingly restoring the robot to its original factory settings: seek and destroy. Meanwhile, an Irish foreign exchange student named Alistair arrives at the school, and Adam and Bree become convinced that he is another android like Marcus who has been sent to spy on them.
When Chase inadvertently causes Adam to shrink down to two inches, he takes advantage of the situation to get back at Adam for all the times he called him short. However, he begins to regret it when he loses him. Meanwhile, Bree gets control of the school for a day, but finds it hard to handle when Principal Perry decides to act like a student. Later, Bree calls Principal Perry 's mom and it is revealed that whenever Principal Perry sees her mom she acts like a child.
Guest star: Maile Flanagan as Principal Perry, Peggy Miley as Mother Perry
When Bree gets tired of always being pranked by Adam and Chase, she asks Donald for help. Chase and Adam 's pranks get out of hand when Tasha gets sprayed in the face with ketchup and mustard. Tasha and Bree later prank them back. Grandma Rose comes to visit and begins to interfere with Leo and Janelle 's relationship.
The Lab Rats go on a mission to save Dr. Evans on Christmas Eve due to a large volcanic eruption in the frozen tundra. After aiding Dr. Evans in stabilizing several of his machinery, an aftershock causes his gamma - sphere to crack. Chase has to use his force - field to contain the highly dangerous gamma rays. Meanwhile, Principal Perry stays in Donald 's mansion and makes Christmas miserable for Leo. In the end, she makes up for it by making a beautiful dinner for them.
Trent asks for help on his test from Chase and Leo, and they decide it is a good chance to get back at him for picking on them. They program Donald 's educational Daven - glasses with fake information and Trent fails the test. Principal Perry tells them that Trent would have graduated if he passed the test and they convince her to let him take it again. They help him study for real this time, using Leo 's pain as inspiration. In the end, they find out Trent is now their gym teacher. Meanwhile, Bree wants to look good in her yearbook photo, so she goes to the hair salon. Adam accidentally burns off half of her hair, and they ask Donald to fix it. Adam causes another mess by putting too much hair growth cream on Bree. On Picture Day, her bangs grow over her face when Principal Perry takes the photo.
The Lab Rats are forced to expose their bionics to save Principal Perry 's life. Meanwhile, Donald is attacked by a mysterious hacker. The hacker later uses all of Donald 's credit cards and hacks his computer networks. When Donald loses the house, the Lab Rats then run off to hide from the FBI. It is later revealed that Douglas is the hacker and that he was released by a mysterious masked man with bionics. Later, Douglas sets off explosives in the lab. Leo and Donald escape, but are stuck in the elevator with no way out.
Leo and Donald escape the elevator. Principal Perry lets them stay at the school temporarily in order to get her money from Donald quicker. The Lab Rats stow away on a cargo ship to hide from the FBI and must choose to either keep quiet or help stop a submarine that will crash into the ship and risk being caught. The Lab Rats decide to stop the submarine, with Chase activating his GPS, revealing the Lab Rats ' location. Douglas ends up capturing them, disguised as Donald. Douglas reveals that his new bionic partner is a billionaire named Victor Krane, who wants to destroy the Lab Rats permanently. When Donald calls the Lab Rats and tells them that Principal Perry kept their secret, they return home, only for them to get crazy as a result of the Triton App and attack the family, Leo manages to disable Chase 's Triton App when he talks to him and Chase manages to disable Adam and Bree 's apps. The Lab Rats and the family later see the demolition that happened to the lab and are upset.
Since the lab is destroyed, the Lab Rats go without their capsules. This causes glitches in their bionics. In order to prevent this, Donald pulls off a huge stunt in a fiberglass jet wing he invented. Things go wrong when the jet wing runs out of fuel. Meanwhile, knowing the Lab Rats ' bionic secret, Principal Perry uses Adam and Bree as her bionic servants for the day.
Since Principal Perry knows that the Lab Rats are bionic, she wants to get in the action and go on a mission with them. When they stage a fake mission and take her down to the newly built lab, things do n't go as planned, and they have to save Mission Creek High from a speeding rocket. Meanwhile, Janelle goes on a date with Leo, but is beginning to see him as a jinx because she always gets hurt when he is around.
Bree gets a part - time job at a tech - support store with Caitlin, but gets out - shined by Chase while he is talking to the manager of Tech Town, Scott. Chase sees how she feels later and they agree to treat each other with respect. Meanwhile, while Tasha is away visiting Grandma Rose, Leo and Adam make a turbo zip - line instead of doing the chores that Tasha gave them, with Donald joining them later. When Tasha finds out about the zip - line, she makes the boys do the chores and she hangs out on the turbo zip - line instead, much to the dismay of Adam, Leo, and Donald.
Chase loses the phone with a bowling video of him and Adam doing bionic bowling stunts at Tech Town while working. Leo and Bree try to get Principal Perry to spend her money when she retires after Donald gives her money and Trent becomes the principal and makes Leo 's life miserable. It works in the end, but Principal Perry is broke and Scott fires Caitlin after she destroys an ePhone 7, the one that had Adam and Chase 's bowling stunts on it, while giving them to the customers as revenge. Leo makes Trent wear a different uniform, but to Bree and Leo 's shock, he loves it, much to their dismay.
Leo invents his first high - end technological creation, a pair of attack orbs meant to protect the family, but when they ca n't differentiate between friend and enemy, they create more bad than good. Meanwhile, Chase steals Donald 's Eddy technology to make a Cheddy application to win a Tech Town employee contest and beat Scott, but things go wrong when the technology does n't work as expected. Leo and Tasha go to see Janelle 's play which Adam is starring in, but when Trent steals Leo 's ticket, Leo and Trent ruin her play, much to Adam and Janelle 's dismay.
During a lunar eclipse, Principal Perry arrives at the house to inform everyone that aliens are on the planet, much to the cha Bree, Chase, and Donald 's chagrin, but Adam and Leo 's shock. She insists that Chase 's upset stomach is due to an alien growing inside him and chases him. However, they notice green goop leaking out of Principal Perry 's ears and mouth. Donald then admits that she 's an alien. Principal Perry chases everyone, while Leo records the whole thing, and eventually tires herself out. Leo accidentally wakes her and she runs off with him to the school. Adam 's heat vision destroys the alien pods Principal Perry laid and Leo is freed. The mother ship beams Principal Perry away just as Donald arrives. Thinking that they will miss Principal Perry, they are sadly mistaken when the mother ship beams alien-less Principal Perry back down. It is then revealed the whole thing was Leo 's entrant in a contest.
Donald shows a new motorcycle to the Lab Rats when they get a video message from Douglas that Krane has lost it and implanted himself with more bionic abilities, abilities even he does n't know about. The Lab Rats instead believe this to be a trap, leading Donald to activate a new security system that only he can bypass. While Leo is at Mission Creek High School, Douglas arrives and tries to appeal to Leo by reminding him that he knew about Douglas and Marcus before the rest of them. Douglas then shows Leo video footage of Krane implanting himself with bionics and asks him to call his brother to prove his honesty. Back at the lab, a transmission comes in and shows Leo and Tasha captured. While Donald thinks it 's Douglas, Krane reveals himself on - screen as the captor and demands that the Lab Rats arrive in 10 minutes. While the Lab Rats want to rescue them, Donald heads out alone with an extremely powerful thermal blaster. Donald arrives at Krane 's lair, only for Krane to siphon the power from the blaster, rendering it useless and quickly beating Donald with super strength and molecularkinesis. During the battle, Leo and Tasha are trapped in an exothermic energy field to fry them. Afterward, Krane geo - leaps to the lab, allowing Donald to use the thermal blaster to suck in the heat to set Leo and Tasha free. As Chase works to deactivate the security system, Krane arrives and easily beats the Lab Rats with his more advanced bionics. Before Krane can finish them off, Douglas arrives and blasts Krane with a laser blaster. Although he saves the Lab Rats, Krane quickly recovers and knocks him down with another force wave. As he once again prepares to attack, Chase repels his blast back at him with a force - field, defeating him for good. Douglas plans to capture the unconscious Krane, but Donald arrives and blames the entire mess on him. Unfortunately, Krane geo - leaps out of the house and Donald demands that Douglas leaves.
Bree is accepted for a semester abroad program in Australia, but when Donald learns about it, he refuses to let her go. When Donald again refuses to let her go to a concert with her friends in favor of bionic chip maintenance, she decides she 's had enough and smashes her bionic chip, much to Adam, Chase, and Donald 's horror. At first, Bree relishes her new freedom and even begins bragging to a disgruntled Leo. During a mission, Bree feels helpless as Adam and Chase are gone for hours. Chase reveals that they barely made it out alive and because Bree is no longer bionic, the mission took twice as long. Bree realizes she was selfish and apologizes to Adam and Chase. She 's ready to become bionic again, but Donald sadly tells her that since Douglas built the chips, he is n't sure if Bree will ever be bionic again. Meanwhile, Tasha is sick, so Leo decides to use his new pill invention on her to see if her diagnosis will reveal the problem, but when he takes some of the software from Eddy, Eddy is stuck in Tasha 's body. Eddy spends the day dressing her horribly and getting her kicked out of every spot in town. Donald finally uses his nasal vacuum on Eddy and the pill is extracted. However, Eddy reveals he did a news report as Tasha, and much to her shock, he made her look like a complete buffoon.
As Donald attempts to repair Bree 's damaged chip, the replacement chip keeps malfunctioning, much to Donald 's frustration. Although Leo believes Douglas can help since he was the original creator, Donald refuses to even see his brother again. Realizing Donald wo n't change his mind, Leo finds Douglas, anyway, who reluctantly agrees to help. While Donald is away, Douglas creates a new chip as close to the original as possible, and though it seems to work, it also malfunctions by causing Bree to run uncontrollably. Donald finds Leo with Douglas at the lab, but helps out and all three manage to keep Bree still; however, they still ca n't find a solution. After several minutes, they finally find the error and collaborate for the first time in years, fixing Bree 's chip and saving her life. Meanwhile, Adam and Chase try to find a way to replace Bree 's speed. While Chase manages to power up Donald 's motorcycle to go 350 - 400 MPH, it runs out of gas almost instantly. After Bree 's chip is fixed, Donald still kicks out his brother. While watching Bree apologize for her mistake, Donald realizes everyone deserves a second chance. The next morning, Donald offers his brother a chance to move in with them temporarily, and he accepts.
Leo 's scared by a shark movie, so Adam and Chase use one of Donald 's sharks to scare him, but it goes haywire and Adam, Chase, Leo, and Janelle end up stuck in the house. In the end, Leo turns the sharks off. Meanwhile, Principal Perry enlists Bree and Donald 's help to get into a country club, but when she lies that Donald is her husband and Bree is her daughter and they have pottery around the world, Bree must use super speed to go places without the country club owner knowing about her bionics. Eventually, Principal Perry does n't get in after the manager figures out the lies, but she decides to spend the summer with the Davenports.
When the Lab Rats are on a mission, it is revealed that a girl was secretly recording them behind a bush. The next day, the Lab Rats go to school and everyone is looking at a viral video called The World 's First Bionic Humans. They go back home to tell Donald, but he says he already knows. Meanwhile, Chase is confused that he did n't notice the girl who filmed them behind the bush, even though he thermal scanned the whole place. He then looks at a chip log and finds out that the girl was in the exact spot he scanned. Chase then goes to tell Donald, but a swarm of government agents surrounds them. Leo and Douglas are still in the lab, but they use a trap door to escape and go to school to stay safe. It is then revealed that the mission the Lab Rats were on was a setup. Krane then shows up with the girl who filmed the Lab Rats, whose name is revealed to be S - 1. It is also revealed that she is bionic. Krane electrocutes Principal Perry and Douglas while S - 1 crushes Leo 's arm. Later, Douglas and Principal Perry help Leo to get his arm fixed and take him to the hospital. Tasha later shows up, only to realize that Leo is gone. While the Lab Rats are saying their goodbyes, Special Agent Graham tells them it 's time to leave, but Adam refuses. Agent Graham orders his agents to take them down, but Adam uses his wave blast ability to knock them down. When they run to the hospital, Principal Perry tells them Krane is responsible for exposing their bionics. Meanwhile, Leo is in Douglas and Krane 's old warehouse and Douglas tells him to take his bandage off and pretend to throw a ball. He then realizes that Douglas upgraded his right arm with bionics. Krane then shows up and knocks down Leo and Douglas. The Lab Rats then show up with Donald, as Krane uses a powerful bionic ability that knocks out Leo, Donald, and the Lab Rats. Krane then paralyzes Donald with his choking ability. Bree battles S - 1 while Adam and Chase battle Krane, but he easily takes them down with his newly upgraded Triton App that he uses on S - 1. Leo then uses his bionic arm to take down Krane. As Agent Graham arrives, Douglas reveals that Krane and S - 1 are the bionic villains. Agent Graham is then saved by Bree as Krane tries to attack him and he takes Krane and S - 1 into custody and locks them in a prison with a bionic signal interrupter, preventing them from using their bionics to get out. Later, the Lab Rats are at a press conference and reveal that they are bionic superhumans. While watching it, Principal Perry makes new friends with the Lab Rats. In the end, Agent Graham tells Donald he 's now in charge of the Lab Rats. It is also revealed that Krane has an army of bionic soldiers, which he will use to destroy the Lab Rats.
Leo tries to show off his bionic arm to Janelle. Meanwhile, Agent Graham promotes the Lab Rats as bionic celebrities, but when they realize they missed a mission because of him, they decide to get Donald back as their leader by pretending to have glitches in their bionics to humiliate Graham in front of the President of the United States when he comes to visit them. In the end, Donald is back as their leader after Agent Graham is fired by the president, arrested by the Secret Service, and sent to prison.
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Madison Pettis as Janelle, Ben Bodé as Agent Graham, John Eric Bentley as President
Donald and the Lab Rats attend a fan convention about the movie, Alien Gladiators. The Lab Rats queue up to meet Andre Ethier, but Caitlin comes and makes them let her cut in line in front of them, getting the lost spot and meeting Andre Ethier. They fight with Caitlin and are thrown in a security holding area with a fanboy. Meanwhile, Leo and Donald are taking part in the Fire Staff Competition to get the walk - in role in the next Alien Gladiators movie.
Chase feels that it is unfair to be picked on by Adam every time and tells Donald. Douglas overhears and unlocks a new ability for Chase, upsetting the balance in the house. Douglas tries to fix things by giving Adam a new ability as well, but Adam and Chase end up fighting with one another. Meanwhile, Bree tells Leo about a contest at Tech Town as they are about to hit their one - millionth customer and Leo competes to ride on the first anti-gravity roller coaster and meet the owner of Tech Town. Principal Perry tries to compete to crush Leo 's dream. In the end, Chase and Adam have a death battle, but eventually forgive each other and find out that Douglas gave Bree the ability to go invisible, scaring everyone in the lab.
Chase gets a girl interested in him, but Adam gets jealous and tries to ruin their date by having Chase turn back into Spike. Meanwhile, Leo and Bree suspect that Principal Perry has murdered a cook from the cafeteria and Donald. They then find out it was about a hamburger truck and they misunderstood everything.
Bree wants to get revenge on Adam for embarrassing her in front of her boyfriend, Jake. Working with Chase, she puts on a cyber cloak that makes her look and sound exactly like Principal Perry and embarrasses Adam in front of the whole school. However, when she shows Adam the cyber cloak right before the dance that night, it glitches and wo n't come off. Bree then makes Chase wear a cyber cloak of herself and go to the dance with Jake. While that 's going on, Leo and Douglas snoop in Donald 's briefcase and compete for what they think is to be his new vice-president, only to find out it was for the Davenport Industries softball team. Donald then finds out that he had two cyber cloaks missing and deactivates them. This embarrasses Chase and gets Bree into trouble with Jake. She then thinks she 's patched things up with Jake, but it 's really Principal Perry wearing a cyber cloak.
During Christmas, when the Lab Rats discover that their new action figures are being outsold by another toy, The Nerble, they attempt to improve their toys by adding special features. After adding them they decide that the toys are too dangerous for kids and put them in a box to be destroyed. Tasha is running a toy drive at the school and is collecting gifts. She finds the action figures and hands them out. When the Lab Rats find out, they rush to school and try to catch the action figures. After destroying the toy drive, they find a way to make it up to Tasha and the kids. Leo and Donald have a snowball fight in the house and Grandma Rose shows up just as Leo uses his bionic arm. Rose gets mad and calls Donald a bad father. Donald tries to makes it up to Rose by giving her a Bree action figure, but it promptly explodes.
The Lab Rats plan to gain good publicity by having cameramen film them during a mission, but it turns into a disaster when they fight for screen time. After the mission, the president orders the team to stay away from the public in order to let him settle things down. However, it goes wrong when Leo and Principal Perry are holding back angry protesters who want the Lab Rats gone, and Leo accidentally uses his bionic arm. As the protesters become even more enraged, they try to storm the house; Adam panics and uses his bionic super breath to blow everyone off the premises. However, Chase criticizes Adam 's actions and the Lab Rats start fighting. They eventually decide to break the team. Three weeks later, the Lab Rats refuse to talk to each other, but they are forced into action when Krane plans to use his Triton App on everyone in the world. A large battle ensues, pitting Leo, Donald, Douglas, and the Lab Rats against Krane and his bionic army. Most of the soldiers attack Adam and Bree, who manage to take them out. Chase has a one - on - one battle with S - 3 and Leo has one - on - one battle against S - 1. Donald and Douglas attack the soldiers surrounding the satellite, but Krane keeps them from getting too close. Eventually, the Lab Rats and the rest of the team manage to hold back many of the soldiers, but they are running out of time to stop Krane. Douglas then reveals that the Lab Rats can fuse their abilities to stop Krane. They succeed, blasting Krane into the sky and breaking his control over the soldiers. However, their victory is cut short when they find out that Donald is in serious condition after the battle. Later they find out that after the surgery, Donald is still in a very delicate condition. Leo is made an official member of the Lab Rats and gets an upgrade to his bionic arm.
Donald is in critical condition after the battle with Krane and his soldiers; Leo visits him in the hospital and in an attempt to save him, he risks his life to perform a dangerous bionic process, accelerating his aging process, thus turning him into an old man. Meanwhile, after being deactivated from the Triton App, Krane 's former bionic soldiers have nowhere to go and follow Adam home. The Lab Rats try to protect them because they are n't evil anymore. However, the president does n't get this and tries to have them arrested, but changes his mind when the soldiers use their powers to heal and save Leo who almost died of old age. Right when they are going to be taken into custody, a newly healed Donald strikes up a deal with the president to build an academy for the soldiers.
Leo finds out that he will be a student at the bionic academy, not a mentor like Adam, Bree and Chase. Chase engages in a battle against a former nemesis and Adam mentors a younger student.
Donald leaves the Lab Rats in charge of the bionic academy while he celebrates his anniversary with Tasha. Leo invites Janelle to the island, but gets distracted by his nemesis, Spin. Spin challenges Leo to a bionic battle. Meanwhile, Adam tells Bob to do all the things he ca n't do when Donald is around. Bob goes ahead and steals Donald 's plane, but he then hits a button that deactivates the auto - pilot. Sebastian and the Lab Rats work together to save Bob. Back at the bionic battle, Leo tries to impress Janelle by battling with Spin. Spin gets the first attack and knocks Leo over. Leo then fights back and hits Spin in the leg. Janelle rushes over to Spin, who is crying, and helps him up. Janelle gets upset at Leo and takes Spin to get a smoothie. It is then revealed that Spin faked the injury so Janelle would spend time with him. Leo tries to prove that Spin is faking it by taking his crutches. Janelle then yells at Leo and carries Spin away. Leo tries again by filming Spin admitting faking the injury, but Spin then smashes Leo 's tablet. Janelle walks in and yells at Leo and Spin. Leo and Spin then become her servants and they must give her the vacation that she deserves. Later, Adam uses Donald 's jet wing to fly up to the jet and save Bob. When Adam tries re-activating the auto - pilot, the plane begins to fall. Adam helps Bob conquer his fear of heights by jumping out of the jet. Bob takes Adam 's parachute and Adam jumps out to try to get it from Bob. At Donald 's house, just as Donald finishes setting up the table, Adam and Bob fall through the ceiling. Donald is disappointed with the Lab Rats. Adam confesses and tells him that he was n't a good mentor. Bob tells Donald that Adam was a good mentor by boosting his confidence. Donald then tells him that his plane was a smart plane that even without the auto - pilot the plane would land itself automatically.
When Leo is chosen for a mission over Spin, Spin recruits Bob to join him on an unauthorized mission to prove themselves. They both end up stuck in quicksand and call Leo to save them. After Leo rescues them, Donald decides to move Leo up a color. Meanwhile, Principal Perry returns saying that she wants a job as head of security at the academy. After countless attempts, Donald agrees, leaving Leo in a particular despair. Meanwhile, Sebastian tries to help Chase get revenge on Adam with a virtual reality machine. After that, Chase tells him about his creator and how they took him out. Later, Sebastian injures Donald with the machine used to prank Adam. When the Lab Rats take Donald to the medic, Sebastian turns evil and says that if they took away his father, then he is going to take away theirs.
Sebastian has secretly formed an evil rebellion to get revenge on the Lab Rats for destroying his father. Meanwhile, Leo is trapped with the other bionic people who also want revenge, but Leo manages to convince Spin and Bob to help him, and, in the end, Sebastian is defeated, his rebellion is brought down, and he and his comrades are taken to a facility. Meanwhile, Donald successfully convinces the others that he has the best interest for them at heart while Adam still blames Chase for everything that happened after the rebellion is over.
After sneaking some students off the island and to the mainland, the Lab Rats accidentally leave Spin and Bob behind and must retrieve them before Donald finds out. Meanwhile, Donald tries on Chase 's mission suit and he and Leo scramble to get it off before Chase gets home.
When suspicious events happen overnight on the bionic island, everyone is convinced a new threat has emerged. However, this threat is revealed to be Leo, when his bionics glitch because Douglas never gave Leo a capsule.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Perry, Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Grace Kaufman as Kerry Perry
Adam brings a dog back to the island and Douglas reveals that it 's his old dog, Otis, who Douglas made bionic in order to save his life when Otis was injured. Chase turns out to be allergic to dogs as he starts sneezing, so Douglas says that Otis has to leave, but he and Adam actually hide the dog. Meanwhile, Leo gets a new smartphone application assistant named Shelly, with whom he has fallen in love. Bree finds out and tells Leo how unhealthy it is. When Leo leaves, Bree tries to delete Shelley, but accidentally changes the settings from Shelley to Liam and is soon seduced by him. Leo hears Liam talking and realizes that Bree changed Shelly into Liam, and gets mad. Suddenly, there is an explosion in the weapons storage area and Douglas is injured. Adam, Chase, and Otis go to the weapons storage area and help Douglas up and Chase finds a tripwire. Chase goes to review the footage of the weapons storage area and shows Douglas and Adam that it was Otis who set the tripwire. Douglas and Adam do n't believe him at first, saying that Chase is jealous of Otis and made the footage up. After a while, Otis goes to Adam and activates his Override App, which makes Otis able to control Adam. Douglas and Chase try to stop Adam from acting crazy. When Otis starts shooting heat rays from his eyes at Douglas and acting hostile, Chase scans Otis ' bionic chip and tells Douglas that he has an override ability. Douglas says it must have been Krane who reprogrammed Otis to destroy Douglas after he betrayed Krane. Douglas is able to extract the chip from Otis. Bree and Leo come out of a room still fighting and they accidentally drop the phone. Otis pees on the phone, which short circuits it and causes Bree and Leo to stop fighting and walk away from the phone.
Guest star: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas
The Lab Rats are on a mission to save people from a wildfire; when the people start to chant Adam, Bree, and Chase 's names, Leo gets jealous and wants to become known. Douglas gets put in charge to develop a new technology for the academy, but can only come up with things that can hurt the students. Douglas gets an idea for a lie - detecting chair. If a person lies, they are spun in the chair at mach speed. Bob then unintentionally annoys Douglas by suggesting ideas for things that have already been invented. Later, the Lab Rats get a mission alert. When they arrive at the site, they find an old lady who claims her cat ran up a tree, but it is actually a raccoon. Her cat is on the ground next to her. Then five more mission alerts come up. Back at the academy, after 15 straight missions and none of which were actual emergencies, Adam, Bree, and Chase find out that Leo had made 10,000 business cards and a commercial in English and Spanish for a bionic emergency rescue service. Getting mission alerts from all over the country, Chase decides not to go because at least half of the alerts are not emergencies. Leo feels he needs to fulfill his promises and save people, so he goes on a mission alone. As Bob continues to drive Douglas crazy, he and Spin see all the mission alerts and start answering calls. Arriving at the mission site, Leo finds a helicopter about to fall over a side of a building. Using his super strength, he tries to pull the helicopter back down, but it is too heavy. Calling Bob for help, Leo gets put on a 20 - minute hold. Adam starts to help Spin and Bob answer calls and picks up Leo 's second call, but hangs up. Chase finds out from Adam that Leo called and rushes to the site of Leo 's call. Arriving with Adam and Bree, Chase stabilizes the helicopter, while Bree helps the passengers out. When she goes back to check for anyone else, her suit gets stuck and the helicopter starts to fall. Leo grabs a hold of her just in time and realizes that it is not about the fame, but about saving lives. Douglas uses the technology from the lie - detecting chair to tell if the mission alerts are real or not.
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Max Charles as Spin, Brandon Salgado - Telis as Bob
When Leo is injured during a mission, Tasha rushes to the academy to take care of him. After finding out what happens on missions, she bans Leo from joining any more missions, but he disobeys her and goes on a mission with the rest of the team. When Tasha finds out, she kicks Leo off the team and tells him that he is moving back to Mission Creek. Meanwhile, Caitlin also appears and Bob immediately becomes attracted to her. Bree tells Chase that she is mature now, but she fights over Bob. In the end, Bob tells Bree he only liked Caitlin to see if Bree liked him. Later, Tasha and the Lab Rats are having a home - cooked dinner in the mentors ' quarters. Suddenly, a category five hurricane comes in. Bree and Chase rush down to help the students. Tasha thinks it is another trick and almost dies. Leo rescues her and proves that he has a place on the team.
Guest stars: Angel Parker as Tasha, Brandon Salgado - Telis as Bob, Michaela Carrozzo as Caitlin
Chase and Douglas reanimate a prehistoric sea spider. It escapes and bites Adam, which poisons him. It then grows and becomes 50 feet long due to growth hormones that had been given to it by Douglas. Everyone tries to stop the spider so they can create a cure for Adam.
Guest star: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas
Douglas finds out that there is a student named Kate with the Commando App. Chase tries to activate her Commando App, named Spikette by Douglas, so he can research her. When he starts fighting with Adam, she activates her Commando App and thinks Chase is her baby. While she destroys the bionic academy, Bree forces Chase to activate his Commando App by embarrassing him so he and Kate can battle. Unfortunately, he teams up with her. Douglas gives Bree a Commando App and she and Kate begin battling each other. Bree wins and Douglas extracts Kate 's chip. Chase apologizes to Kate and finds out that Douglas replaced her Commando App with sonic screaming.
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Liana Ramirez as Kate, Mar Mar as Reggie
Chase and Donald have invented a new technology that takes in energy from any environment. Chase feels that he does not get his share of spotlight when Donald sells the product without his approval. Meanwhile, Kaz comes to the bionic academy to get powers, bringing Oliver with him. Chase decides to make a deal with another company when its CEO comes to buy the product. The person turns out to be a villain called the Incapacitator, who wanted to steal the product for his own use. The Lab Rats find out that Kaz and Oliver are not bionic heroes. Tecton, Gamma Girl, and Grey Granite arrive when finding out that the Incapacitator has come here. Leo has the same energy transfer power as the Incapacitator. The Lab Rats later find out they are real superheroes. The Incapacitator blasts and injures Chase. Kaz, Oliver, and the other Lab Rats take him to Mighty Med. Kaz switches brains with Chase to find out what problems Chase has. Chase 's injury has created a hardware virus in his bionic chip, causing the chip to generate plutonic energy. He is stable for now, but if his blood pressure gets too high... he will explode. Meanwhile, the others go to find the Incapacitator. Skylar tries to get in the middle of the romance that Bree and Oliver form. They go to the Eiffel Tower to find that he is in Las Vegas. Kaz tricks the Incapacitator to absorb Chase 's virus and the Incapacitator explodes. Chase and Kaz switch brains back and Bree stops liking Oliver after she finds out that he resembles Chase. The Lab Rats then depart from Mighty Med hospital to go back home.
Starring: Billy Unger, Spencer Boldman, Kelli Berglund, Tyrel Jackson Williams, Hal Sparks, Bradley Steven Perry, Jake Short, Paris Berelc
Guest stars: Jilon Vanover as Tecton, Damion Poitier as Incapacitator, Carlos Lacámara as Horace
Donald 's top scientist, Dr. Ryan, arrives to test Chase 's invention. The two of them dislike each other and do n't get along. When Donald puts Dr. Ryan in charge of the space elevator, Chase immediately gets jealous. Donald then makes Chase Dr. Ryan 's assistant. Dr. Ryan puts Chase in charge of screwing in the lug nuts, but Chase refuses, and Dr. Ryan builds the space elevator without Chase. The day of the launch, Chase performs a bionic scan of the elevator and finds a major braking flaw on the elevator. Chase tells Leo and they agree to keep it to themselves. Donald then decides not to use the test dummy and says that he should test out the space elevator. Chase and Leo try to convince Donald to not go, but he ca n't hear them since the space elevator 's walls are soundproof. After the space elevator takes off, Chase tells Dr. Ryan that there is a design flaw with the braking system. The two of them work together to safely get Donald back on the ground. Working together they reversed the charge and the elevator begins coming down ten times as fast. Leo decides to stand under the elevator to stop it from hitting the ground and killing Donald. His plan works until Donald approaches all of them and tells them that he used the emergency parachute to escape. Leo then gets stuck holding the space elevator until he tries to escape and it drops, crushing his leg. His leg is broken so badly that he needed a titanium rod put in. Instead, Donald does the procedure himself and gives Leo a bionic leg.
Douglas tells the group that his old college ex-girlfriend, a film director named Giselle, will be making a film titled Bionic Action Hero based on all of them and starring an up - and - coming actor named Troy West. Giselle and Troy visit the island to learn about the bionic team. Bree immediately falls for Troy. Douglas mentions to Giselle who Marcus was and says he was Douglas ' greatest invention who had the combined abilities of Adam, Bree, and Chase. Giselle is intrigued and wants to meet him, but Douglas says she can see parts of him. In the mentors ' quarters, Troy explains to Bree that he needs to figure out how Chase 's abilities work or Giselle will fire him from the movie. Bree uses a computer to download all the information about Chase 's bionic chip and gives it to Troy. He leaves Bree behind to give the file to Giselle who conspires to eliminate the Lab Rats and start her own race of genetically modified androids. At the movie studio, Bree is still confused on why Troy blew her off. She enters his dressing room, but Giselle and Troy start to walk in. Bree turns invisible and overhears Giselle tell Troy about Chase 's schematics and that they can initiate their plan when the time is right. Bree switches the laptop that was opened with the one with Chase 's schematics and Giselle and Troy leave. During filming of the movie, Bree stops Troy before he can fire a blaster gun at Adam, Chase, and Leo. Bree explains to everyone that Giselle only lured them to the set to kill them. Giselle then explains to them that she wanted to get her hands on advanced android fighting machines until Adam, Bree, and Chase ruined her chances. Giselle also reveals that all of her film crew members are androids, including Troy. Giselle then mentions that, with Chase 's schematics, she can give all of them super intelligence. Troy gets a hold of the blaster gun, but Bree interrupts to say if he destroys them, he destroys the laptop with Chase 's schematics, though Giselle has already made backups all over her servers. Chase then hatches a plan to use a virus to destroy the servers. A battle ensues with Adam, Bree, and Leo trying to take down the androids, while Chase and Douglas manage to let the virus out and fry Giselle 's servers. The androids then surround the Lab Rats and Troy sneaks up, knocks Chase unconscious, and carries him away. Giselle then hatches a plan to rip out Chase 's chip. Giselle later tells them that the set is rigged with explosives. The android film crew starts geo - leaping away from the movie studio. Adam, Bree, Leo, and Douglas manage to escape by grabbing onto the androids. Douglas is unable to locate Chase because Giselle deactivated his Location App. In the lab, Giselle tells Chase that Troy is an old model and she created a newer version with androids taking the appearance of anyone of Giselle 's choosing so that they can blend in with society. Douglas calls Giselle so Leo can track her location. The academy is attacked by a new android warrior. Adam and Bree escape to rescue Chase. At the lab, Adam and Bree arrive and Troy wants to be the one to destroy them while an android warrior tries to rip out Chase 's chip. At the academy, Douglas reveals that the androids ' off switches are located inside of their noses. At the lab, Adam and Bree battle against Giselle and Troy. At the academy, Leo deactivates the android warrior. At the lab, Adam and Bree use their bionic abilities to knock out Giselle and Troy. Adam and Bree race to Chase 's side, but are too late. Adam feels guilty because all he has ever done to Chase is punch and make fun of him, but never told him that he loved him. Giselle enters and mockingly apologizes. Chase reveals to everyone that he is alive. Only Chase 's android replica is on the table. Giselle unleashes more android warriors, but they are quickly destroyed by Leo and Douglas. Troy awakens and double - crosses Giselle because she was planning to get rid of him. With her out of the way, he plans on not only destroying bionic humans but also all humans. He blasts Giselle, knocking her out, and then takes Bree hostage. Bree demands for Adam to use his blast wave to take Troy out, but he refuses, saying it would take her out as well. Bree tells him that if it means saving everyone else then it is worth it. After some hesitation, Adam, Chase, and Leo get ready to attack just as Troy backs away to a sink full of water. Bree then realizes that water would destroy him and manages to break free from him and dunk him into the sink, which short - circuits him. However, Giselle manages to escape. In the end, Giselle is looking for Marcus in Douglas ' old lair.
Special guest star: Leo Howard as Troy West
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Jessalyn Wanlim as Giselle
Adam, Bree, and Chase are looking for Leo because he is late for training and find out he is in Mission Creek because Janelle threatened to break up with him. S - 1 shows up unexpectedly and shocks everyone. She came to the island because, like everyone else, her memory is blank, but has continuing flashbacks of Krane. No one believes her until she suggests taking out her chip. Chase and Douglas realize that she has a doomsday virus in her because she was under the influence of the Triton App. Feeling it is worse than he thought, Chase uses his scan ability and finds out that the students, Adam, Bree, and himself also have the doomsday virus implanted in them. Bree accidentally blurts out that they are all going to die and everyone starts to panic. Chase and Douglas try to find a way to save everyone before they die. Leo comes out of the hydro - loop and attacks S - 1, unaware that she does not have any memories of their encounter, knocking her unconscious. Elsewhere, Adam and Bree are disappointed when they find out time is running out on them and they decide to have one last hurrah before they die. Adam wants to break the world record for blowing the most balloons with his pressurized lung capacity ability, while Bree wants to have a party with all of her friends from Mission Creek. S - 1 wakes up, and Leo knocks her out again out of fear. Adam does a webcast, in which he shows everyone he 's breaking the record for blowing the most balloons, but Bree walks in and is upset because instead of saying, "You 're all dear to me, so I 'm having a party, '' on an invite, she mistakenly writes, "You 're all dead to me, so I 'm having a party. '' S - 1 comes to again and relives the memory of Krane giving her the encryption code to try to destroy the virus, with Douglas playing Krane and Chase playing S - 1, to no avail. When Adam finds out how upset Bree was because she could not get her friends to come, Adam invites random strangers from the pier. Bree still wants her friends to come, but she is glad to know she has a brother who cares. Douglas and Chase are unable to find a way to stop the virus until Chase plans to have everyone temporarily die so he can give themselves doomsday viruses. Chase does not have time for Douglas ' backup plan, so he relies on Leo to finish the job. Chase starts to explain what Leo should do, until everyone dies. Douglas returns to synchronize his laptop 's firewall to the virus, but he instead follows Chase 's plan and saves everyone. Everyone is virus - free, and Leo and S - 1 decide to let bygones be bygones.
Guest stars: Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Ashley Argota as S - 1
Douglas creates a device that makes any bionic human as smart as Chase. After Douglas tests it on Bob, Bob starts spending time with Chase. This leaves Adam in envy. Meanwhile, Perry made the island officially her own, which makes Bree and Leo angry at her.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Perry, Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Brandon Salgado - Telis as Bob
Donald gives Eddy a human body and replaces his disrespectful personality to make him nicer. Perry restores his old personality, and he attempts to harm the students.
Special guest star: Will Forte as Eddy
Leo just finishes his movie marathon while everyone else is frustrated because they have nothing to do on Halloween. Bob intentionally stays behind while the other students are away with Davenport to a museum. Perry says she 's going to another island across from theirs, but Douglas says no because it 's deserted and has been uninhabited for years. When Douglas leaves, the group decides to go anyway. While on the deserted island they come across a metal skull. Perry wants to bring with her to the academy, but Chase and Bree refuse to have it there and tells Perry to put it back. When everyone leaves, Perry sneaks the skull back to the academy. Meanwhile at the academy Adam teaches Bob about the art of Halloween but fails when Bob tells the others that Adam is trying to scare them with a skeleton. Perry paints the skull black and tries to sell it online. Leo, Bree, and Chase see this and Leo is immediately afraid saying everyone is cursed. Chase decides to take the skull back to the island despite Leo 's paranoia. Bob tries to understand Halloween by showing Adam his most terrifying items such as a math test, a potato with eyes, and Santa Claus, but Adam is unimpressed. Perry runs into Bree and Leo saying that something is wrong. While trying to figure out what, a ceiling fan crashes down nearly killing them. Bree tries calm everyone down until a knives shoot across the room directly at Leo until he blocks it and a fireball hits Perry in the back of head, barely grazing her hair. Everyone is convinced that the skull is cursed and tells Bob and Adam, until Bob tells that everything was caused by Chase (with his skin turning pale and his eyes red). Bree decides to take it back to the island herself. Douglas arrives and tells him that skull is just a paperweight and virus was spilled on it and turns anyone evil for those who came into contact with it. Perry was uninfected when she touched it earlier because of the gloves she was wearing. Douglas decides to destroy it but ca n't because Bree left with it, and everyone sets out to find her, until she enters in the same condition as Chase. Bob is tied up when everyone returns, and Douglas uses Davenport 's nanobots in the shape of an injector to cure Chase and Bree. Bree and Chase attempt to destroy everyone until Adam pretends to be infected to get close enough to cure Bree and Chase. With everyone cured, Douglas finally attempts to rebury the skull until Bob and Adam touch the skull.
Guest stars: Maile Flanagan as Perry, Jeremy Kent Jackson as Douglas, Brandon Salgado - Telis as Bob
Donald tells the group that the president has decided to host an award ceremony because they have completed their one - thousandth mission and Leo wants his recognition, but it 's only for the original members. Disappointed, Leo forms his own team with S - 1, who calls herself Taylor now, and Logan. He shows the other Lab Rats that he and Taylor can fuse their abilities and can take out any power source, Chase demands they stop, but Leo pushes on. The blast becomes too much for Taylor and it incapacitates her. Leo feels completely guilty for what he 's done and decides to quit the academy and go back to Mission Creek to live with his mom. Meanwhile, Donald builds a limo to be indestructible, but Douglas easily destroys it. Taylor regains consciousness and will be okay, but because of the blast it renders her permanently blind. Douglas invents a gadget that allows Taylor to echo - locate to detect obstacles in her way. Elsewhere, Adam and Douglas successfully make Davenport 's limo completely indestructible. The family is on their way to the ceremony when the bridge begins to collapse, nearly sending the limo over the edge. The group becomes trapped as the limo locks down due to how it was built for emergencies. The students at the academy see them on the news and attempt to save them and the rest of the civilians still on the bridge. Taylor and Logan call Leo and ask him to help. They rush to the scene and manage to save everyone, but the limo is still sliding off the edge. Taylor, Leo, and Logan attempt to hit the fin of the limo so the lock down can be lifted and the others can escape. Bree opens the sunroof and uses her super speed to get the others out. She manages to get everyone except Chase, so Leo forces everyone off the bridge to so he can help him. Eventually, Leo manages to save Chase. Later at the academy, Donald decides to make Leo a mentor because he had proven to be a leader.
Tasha arrives on the Bionic Island informing everyone that she has tickets to a big football game of the Pioneers (mascot of a college that she went to) vs Vikings (mascot of a college that Perry went to) and Perry arrives stating that she has been trying to score tickets for weeks but it was sold out. When she asks Tasha if she has any tickets, Tasha lies saying that she has n't. When they are about to enter the game, Perry eventually finds out the truth, she becomes furious and destroys the tickets which causes Leo, Donald, and Tasha to try to get new tickets competing against her in The Ultimate Tailgate Challenge, hosted by NFL former linebacker Willie McGinest. Meanwhile, Bree attempts to achieve her college experience by fitting in with a couple of college students (who are football fans) and attempting to use her bionics to impress them. But when Chase tells her not because it is too rational and embarrassing, he does it himself anyway, which causes her to become angry and jealous. Adam and Bob on the other hand stay on the island and create a web show about breaking stuff, but they accidentally destroy the capsules while playing disk with a coffee table, they eventually fix it but are busted.
Everyone is shocked when Douglas introduces a fourth bionic sibling named Daniel who 's been living a normal life with an adopted family. Daniel later comes to the academy to meet his father, uncle, and cousins. After Daniel 's bionics are accidentally activated by the Lab Rats, Donald and Douglas find out what happened they have to come clean to Daniel about his power - replicating abilities. Daniel also finds out that his cousins are actually his biologic siblings. Filled with anger, Daniel goes out for air on the beach, where Leo and him have a conversation about Douglas. Not too long after, Daniel, using Leo 's abilities, accidentally causes a leak in the hydro - loop 's fuel tank. After Adam and Daniel combined their powers to stop it, Douglas apologizes to Daniel for lying and Daniel decides to give Douglas a second chance.
In the middle of a massive heat wave, the whole family is going to space to see Donald 's space colony, called "Davenportia ''. Adam annoys Chase while Chase tries to give his safety instructions and accidentally blasts them into space. After leaving the solar system, they initiate hyper - speed and land on the planet Lithios. In the dome, it 's discovered that Perry sneaked her way in with the rest of the colonists. In the command center, one of the satellites loses contact with Earth and the Lab Rats try to fix it. Leo and Donald find a punctured hole in the dome, releasing the oxygen within. Chase checks out the satellite, but ca n't seem to find anything wrong with it. He detects that it 's someone tampering with the system back on Davenportia. As Chase heads back to the ship, his jet pack malfunctions and drifts him off into space. Unable to reach him due to range, Perry plans to fly the ship to find Chase. Leo and Donald use their jet packs to seal the hole in the dome. On a deserted planet, they find Chase unharmed because of his force field. On the ship, Chase vows not to speak to Adam because of his reckless actions. Donald is nearly pulled out into space, but Leo pulls him back and patches the hole. When the Lab Rats and Perry come back, they find everyone missing. A person in a suit comes out and reveals himself as Krane and says everything was caused by him. He has come back to create a new army of bionic warriors with his new partner, Dr. Gao. He attacks Chase and implants the Triton App in Donald. Gao gives himself bionics and plans to give everyone liquid bionics. Leo gets his fire blaster to shoot the bins of liquid bionics and Bree takes off Krane 's oxygen tube. Gao escapes and Leo shoots the hole in the dome as everyone is escaping. On planning a way back to Earth, Gao enters the ship and implants Leo with the Triton App while covering his mouth to prevent him from calling for help. Leo attacks the group and is subdued by Adam and Bree. Gao explains that he will wipe out all human existence on Earth with a doomsday missile. Leo attacks again, but Bree tries to distract him by turning invisible. Leo then hits Gao, knocking him out, and Perry locks them up. Krane manages to survive and begins to attack the ship from one of the colonists ' space pods. Krane takes out their defense mechanism and their homing device. Chase manages to lock on to Krane with the missile and destroys him. However, the other missile is still heading toward Earth and Chase decides to use Donald 's high velocity escape suit, but Bree tells him he 'll die because of the force it has. Adam decides to do it instead because his strength will help his chances of surviving. Chase thinks it too risky, but Adam is willing to take the risk in order to save the world. After a while he becomes unresponsive due to blacking out. When he comes to, Adam destroys the rocket.
Donald and Douglas reveal that they have built an upgrade for all the students ' bionics, except for Leo 's. But the upgrade does n't work on Adam, Bree, and Chase because their systems are older. Adam, Bree, and Chase are therefore left at their level, while all the students are much more powerful. Meanwhile, Daniel is brought to the Academy because he had been using his bionics in the outside world. Douglas decides to enroll Daniel at the Academy, and he makes Leo his mentor. Leo steadily tries to teach Daniel, but Daniel proves to be unteachable, so Leo gives him the upgrade as well. The students steadily start to vanish, including Daniel. Giselle Vickers, Douglas ' old girlfriend, is revealed to have captured them. Daniel sends a video message to the Island, requesting help. Donald, Douglas, Adam, Bree, Chase, and Leo suit up and go to Giselle 's lab. There, Daniel draws them into a room that immediately locks itself. Giselle comes out, and shows them that the students are trapped in another room, including Daniel. Then the Daniel that drew them into the room reveals himself to be Marcus.
Giselle reveals she dug up Marcus from Douglas ' old lair and rebuilt him, piece - by - piece. Marcus wants revenge on Douglas for leaving him to die. Everyone rushes Giselle and Marcus, but Marcus knocks everyone unconscious. Donald and Douglas are tied together in chairs, while Adam, Bree, Chase, and Leo are put in the chamber with the students, while Daniel is pulled out. Giselle burns out the Lab Rats and the students chips but does n't tell them. Leo is the only one who can use his bionics, so he frees everyone from the chamber. Giselle leaves to stop them, but the Lab Rats let the students escape and they fight Giselle alone. Giselle attempts to use her whip to destroy Adam, Bree, and Chase, but her attack misses, causing the whip to tie around herself, cutting her in pieces. Meanwhile, Marcus tortures Daniel in front of Donald and Douglas, and after failed attempts to turn Marcus to their side, Douglas reveals that Daniel can replicate Marcus ' bionics. Daniel uses this ability to blow Marcus up. After everyone regroups, Donald tells the Lab Rats that in order to repair their bionics, they would have to go back to the old lab in Mission Creek. Once there, Donald and Douglas reveal that they created one universal bionic super chip, so they would all get the upgrade. Douglas also reveals that he brought Marcus ' parts from Giselle 's lab, and he expresses his desire to rebuild Marcus and reprogram him to be good. Everyone else disagrees. Tasha comes down and reveals that she is pregnant with a girl. Perry comes and reveals her relief that everyone 's okay. Everyone but Leo goes upstairs to eat, and Leo throws Marcus ' parts on the ground. As Leo is walking away, Marcus ' regenerates. Leo and Marcus stand off, and before either of them can attack, Douglas blasts Marcus, melting him. Later, as the Lab Rats are packing to go back to the Academy, Donald walks in and tells them that he 's splitting them up. It is decided that Adam and Leo would go back to the Academy, while Bree and Chase would stay with Donald to work on a mysterious new project, with a mysterious new team. When Adam and Leo leave, Donald asks Bree and Chase, "Are you ready to start your new adventure? ''
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usmc i never promised you a rose garden | Chuck Taliano - wikipedia
Charles "Chuck '' Taliano Jr. (May 9, 1945 -- June 4, 2010) was an American Marine Sergeant and drill instructor. Taliano was featured as a drill instructor in a well known Marine Corps recruitment poster using the slogan, "We do n't promise you a rose garden ''. Taliano was photographed for the poster in 1968 while waiting for an honorable discharge at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island in South Carolina.
Taliano was born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio. He enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in November 1963. In 1966, Taliano became a drill instructor at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot in Parris Island, South Carolina.
The famous poster photograph of Taliano, which features him giving a new Marine recruit an "attitude readjustment, '' was taken in 1968, less than one month before Taliano was honorably discharged from active duty. A reservist, who was writing a book about the Marine boot camp at Parris Island, took the photograph of Taliano. The picture, which shows Taliano just inches from a recruit 's face, would be adopted by the Marine Corps as a recruitment poster throughout the 1970s and 1980s. It added the caption, "We do n't promise you a rose garden '', for the poster.
Taliano was released from active duty in November 1968, less than one month after the photograph was taken. He was honorably discharged in November 1969. He worked in the publishing industry for more than 30 years. He retired to a home in Beaufort, South Carolina, in 2001.
Following his retirement, Taliano became the manager of the Parris Island Museum 's gift shop, Alexander Ship 's Store, in late 2002. Taliano quickly became an attraction himself, as visitors and active military personnel would stop at the museum to meet him. Stephen Wise, the curator of the Parris Island Museum told The Beaufort Gazette in 2010, "Everyone from generals to former privates would stop by to see him. ''
Chuck Taliano died of multiple myeloma on June 4, 2010, at his home in Beaufort, South Carolina, at the age of 65. His memorial service was held at the Recruit Chapel at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. He was buried at Beaufort National Cemetery.
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pretty cure all stars dx everyone's friends☆the collection of miracles | Pretty Cure All Stars - wikipedia
Pretty Cure All Stars (プリキュア オールスター ズ, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu) or PreCure All Stars is a series of Japanese anime films produced by Toei Animation based on Izumi Todo 's Pretty Cure anime television franchise. Each movie features a storyline which crosses over characters from all the Pretty Cure anime series to date. As of March 2016, there are currently eight main films in the series.
Pretty Cure All Stars DX: Everyone 's Friends ☆ the Collection of Miracles! (プリキュア オールスター ズ DX みんな ともだち っ ☆ 奇跡 の 全員 大 集合!, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu Dirakkusu: Minna Tomodachi ☆ Kiseki no Zenin Daishūgō) is the first crossover movie in the Pretty Cure series, released on March 20, 2009. It features all the Pretty Cures from Futari wa Pretty Cure Max Heart, Futari wa Pretty Cure Splash Star, Yes! Pretty Cure 5 GoGo! and Fresh Pretty Cure.
As Love, Miki and Inori head to a dance contest in Minato Mirai 21 from Yokohama with Tart and Chiffon, they are attacked by a strange being known as Fusion, though it disappears shortly after. As Chiffon suddenly goes missing, Tart goes to a meeting with the other fairies, which are then attacked by Fusion. As the fairies go to warn the other Pretty Cures, they engage with battles against Fusion, who leaves after absorbing their most powerful attacks. Having become more powerful, Fusion attacks the Fresh Pretty Cure again and attempts to absorb them, but they are saved by the arrival of the other Pretty Cures who meet each other for the first time. The Cures struggle in battle but are saved by the arrival of Chiffon, who delivers the Rainbow Miracle Lights, allowing the fairies to power up the Cures so they can defeat Fusion.
The opening theme is "Twinkle Cute! Pretty Cure All Together ♪ '' (キラキラ kawaii! プリキュア 大 集合 ♪, Kirakira Kawaii! Purikyua Dai Shugo ♪) by Mayumi Gojo whilst the ending theme is "PreCure, Miracle Deluxe '' (プリキュア 、 奇跡 デラックス, Purikyua, Kiseki Dirakkusu) by Mayu Kudou with Cure Deluxe.
Pretty Cure All Stars DX2: Light of Hope ☆ Protect the Rainbow Jewel! (プリキュア オールスター ズ DX2 希望 の 光 ☆ レインボー ジュエル を 守れ!, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu Dirakkusu Tsū: Kibō no Hikari ☆ Reinbō Jueru wo Mamore!) is the second in the crossover series, released on March 20, 2010, and stars all the Cures from the previous series, with the addition of those introduced in HeartCatch PreCure!
Once every thousand years, a mystical gem known as the Rainbow Jewel appears, bringing with it a magical amusement park known as Fairy Park. Tsubomi and Erika receive invitations to the park, where they meet up with Love and the other Cures. However, the Rainbow Jewel is targeted by a beast known as Bottom, who revives several of the Cures ' worst enemies in order to capture it. After becoming separated into the depths of the park, Tsubomi and Erika must strive to unite the Cures and stop Bottom before the Rainbow Jewel can reveal itself and Bottom can obtain its power.
The opening theme is "Twinkle Cute! Pretty Cure All Together ♪ ~ The Light of Hope ~ '' (キラキラ kawaii! プリキュア 大 集合 ♪ 〜 キボウ の 光 〜, Kirakira Kawaii! Purikyua Dai Shugo ♪ ~ Kibō no Hikari ~) performed by Aya Ikeda, whilst the ending theme is "17 Jewels - PreCure Medley 2010 '' (17jewels 〜 プリキュア メドレー 2010 〜, 17jewels ~ Purikyua Medorē 2010 ~), a medley of the series opening themes, performed by Aya Ikeda and Mayu Kudou.
Pretty Cure All Stars DX3: Deliver the Future! The Rainbow - Colored Flower That Connects the World (プリキュア オールスター ズ DX3 未来 に とどけ! 世界 を つなぐ ☆ 虹 色 の 花, Ōru Sutāzu Dirakkusu Surī: Mirai ni Todoke! Sekai o Tsunagu Niji - Iro no Hana) is the third movie in the series, released on March 19, 2011, starring all the Cures from the previous series, including those introduced in Suite PreCure, as well as various villains featured in previous Pretty Cure movies and the last planned title in the DX series. The theatrical release was edited in parts as a result of the 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami which occurred before the movie was due to be released. The movie was later released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on July 20, 2011, with the deleted scenes restored.
As Hibiki and Kanade end up meeting the other Cures, who were holding a fashion show at a flower mall, they soon find that their world and the various worlds of the Fairies have merged as a result of someone tampering with the Prism Flower, which links the worlds of humans and fairies. The culprit is soon revealed to be a group of villains revived by an evil force known as Black Hole, who is ultimately responsible for the creation of Fusion and Bottom. Whilst targeting the Prism Flower, the Cures are scattered by the villains into 3 respective battlefields, and recombined into 3 separate, respective teams, where they face off against their opponents. At first, they struggle to get themselves familiarized with their new settings, but eventually, they manage to overcome all of their trials, as they use their teamwork and strategies in order to defeat their foes. After managing to break free from these fields and defeating the revived villains, the Cures are overpowered by Black Hole, losing their transformation powers in the process. They are given the chance to transform again, but it would mean the sacrifice of the Prism Flower, meaning the Cures and Fairies would have to become separated. Reluctantly, the Cures say their goodbyes and use the Prism Flower 's power to defeat Black Hole. Thankfully, a new Prism Flower soon blooms, and the fairies are soon reunited with their friends.
The opening theme is "Twinkle Cute! Pretty Cure All Together ♪ ~ The Flower of Life ~ '' (キラキラ kawaii! プリキュア 大 集合 ♪ 〜 いのち の 花 〜, Kirakira Kawaii! Purikyua Dai Shugo ♪ ~ Inochi no Hana ~) performed by Mayu Kudou whilst the ending theme is "Many Thank Yous '' (ありがとう が いっぱい, Arigatou ga Ippai) by Mayumi Gojo, Yuko Uchida, Mayu Kudou, Kanako Miyamoto, Mizuki Moie, Momoko Hayashi and Aya Ikeda with the 21 Pretty Cures.
Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage: Friends of the Future (プリキュア オールスター ズ New Stage みらい の ともだち, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu Nyū Sutēji: Mirai no Tomodachi) is the fourth theatrical crossover film in the Pretty Cure series, which was released in Japanese theatres on March 17, 2012, starring all the Cures from the previous series, including those introduced in Smile PreCure!, and a movie exclusive Pretty Cure. The film was released on DVD and BD on July 18, 2012 and was aired as part of TV Asahi 's Super Hero and Heroine Summer Vacation special on August 25, 2013.
In Yokohama, Fusion reappears once again to threaten the city with great calamity and chaos, but the Pretty Cures once again assemble to defeat him, scattering its parts across the city. Meanwhile, a girl named Ayumi Sakagami, who admires the Pretty Cures and witnesses their battle against Fusion, is having problems of making friends at her new school. On her way back from school, Ayumi encounters a small creature, which unbeknownst to her is actually a fragment of Fusion, and decides to name it "Fū - chan '' (played by Sea Kumada) and become friends with it. Meanwhile, as the fairies discover that the loose fragments are looking to recombine, the Pretty Cures are tasked with finding the other fragments of Fusion in order to stop them recombining, during which Miyuki encounters the Suite Pretty Cures and helps them defeat one of the fragments. As Fū - chan starts to grow bigger and becomes aware of Ayumi 's troubles, he vows revenge on anyone who would make Ayumi suffer, absorbing power from the Smile PreCure to become bigger and more powerful. As the Suite Pretty Cures arrive to assist them, Ayumi stops them, not wanting Fū - chan to be hurt and running away with him. However, Fū - chan soon absorbs Ayumi 's mother, pledging to destroy the city, so that Ayumi 's wish can be granted. As the Pretty Cures decide to help Ayumi try to get Fū - chan back to his kind self, they are soon joined by the other Cures, who help the Smile and Suite Cures accompany Ayumi to where Fū - chan is. As Ayumi is suddenly caught by Fusion 's familiars and calls out her feelings to Fū - chan, she suddenly gains the power to become Cure Echo, who is then guided by the Miracle Lights to where Fū - chan is. There, she manages to rekindle her friendship with Fū - chan, who returns to his kind self. As the remaining fragments of Fusion prepare to attack Ayumi, Fū - chan sacrifices himself in order to give the Smile Pretty Cures the power to defeat its evil side. Afterwards, Ayumi grows more confident and starts making friends, especially with her fellow Pretty Cures.
The opening theme is "Pretty Cure ~ Eternal Friends ~ '' (プリキュア ~ 永遠 の ともだち ~, Purikyua ~ Eien no Tomodachi ~) performed by Mayu Kudou, the insert theme is "Friends '' (ともだち, Tomodachi) performed by Aya Ikeda and the ending theme is "Yay! Yay! Yay! '' (イェイ! イェイ! イェイ!, Iei! Iei! Iei!) by Hitomi Yoshida (also as the first ending theme seen in Smile PreCure!).
Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage 2: Friends of the Heart (プリキュア オールスター ズ New Stage 2 こころ の ともだち, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu Nyū Sutēji Tsū: Kokoro no Tomodachi) is the fifth movie in the series, and the sequel to New Stage which was released in theaters on March 16, 2013 and on Blu - ray Disc and DVD on July 26, 2013. It features all the present Cures including those introduced in Dokidoki! PreCure.
In a far off school called Fairy Academy, where Tarte is giving a lecture about the Pretty Cure, a rowdy fairy named Grell and a shy fairy named En - En are called towards a forbidden tree, where a being taking the form of Grell 's Shadow, who takes interest in hearing that the Cures are simply normal girls if they ca n't transform and convinces Grell he would be famous if he could obtain their transformation items. Shortly afterwards, the Cures receive invitations to come to Fairy Academy for a party. Meanwhile, Mana, Rikka, Alice and Makoto receive a call from Miyuki and Candy informing them of the party, inviting them to come along as well. Meanwhile, at Fairy Academy, Shadow coerces Grell into capturing the Cures ' fairy partners and transformation items, leaving them defenseless against attacking shadow monsters. After most of the Cures are defeated in this manner, Shadow turns his attention towards the Smile PreCures, using a PreCure guidebook to counter their every move and steal their Smile Pacts before imprisoning them in statues like the others. As En - En laments helping Shadow, Miyuki tells him not to worry and asks him to seek out help from the Dokidoki PreCure before being encapsulated herself. With assumedly no more Cures in his way, Shadow reveals his true intentions to destroy the academy and imprison all of its students, much to Grell 's shock. Grell and En - En manage to find the DokiDoki PreCures and ask for their help in stopping Shadow. As the Cures fight Shadow 's minions, Grell and En - En, assisted by Candy and Pop, manage to find the captured fairies and, with help from the fairy students who use the Miracle Lights, help return the stolen transformation items to the other Cures, allowing them to transform again and restore light to the fairy world. With support from the fairies, the Cures team up to fight against Shadow. As a last resort, Shadow combines all of his strength to become a giant spider, but he is ultimately defeated by the combined might of the Pretty Cure, reduced to his original size in the process. Realising the error of his ways, Grell befriends his shadow, who returns to his rightful place. As Grell and En - En become determined to become Precure fairies, the Cures help repair the academy before having a proper party.
The opening theme is "Pretty Cure ~ Eternal Friends ~ (2013 Version) '' (プリキュア ~ 永遠 の ともだち ~ (2013 Version), Purikyua ~ Eien no Tomodachi ~ (2013 Version)) performed by Mayu Kudou, Tomoyo Kurosawa and Hitomi Yoshida, the insert theme is "Everyone Friends '' (みんな ともだち, Minna Tomodachi) by Tomoyo Kurosawa and Hitomi Yoshida, and the ending theme is "Beyond the Sky '' (この 空 の 向こう, Kono Sora no Mukō) by Hitomi Yoshida (also as the first ending theme seen in Dokidoki! PreCure).
Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage 3: Eternal Friends (映画 プリキュア オールスター ズ New Stage 3 永遠 の ともだち, Eiga Purikyua Ōru Sutāzu Nyū Sutēji Surī: Eien no Tomodachi) is the franchise 's sixth crossover film and the last planned title in the New Stage series, featuring the Cures introduced in HappinessCharge PreCure!. The film was released in Japanese theaters on March 15, 2014 and on Blu - ray Disc and DVD on July 25, 2014. This film celebrates the 10th anniversary of Pretty Cure franchise since 2004.
En - En and Grell are tasked by the Fairy Academy 's principal to gather up information on the Happiness Charge Pretty Cure, getting in contact with Mana and the others to arrange a meeting. Approached by the fairy, Ribbon, the girls learn that Megumi, along with several other children, has ended up in a mysterious sleep, with the guardian Blue believing a fairy 's power is at work. With Blue 's help, the Cures, along with Megumi 's partner Hime, enter the world inside Megumi 's dreams, where they encounter Yumeta, a dream - eater fairy friend of Grell and En - En 's. Just as the girls realize all the children in this world are those who had fallen into comas, Yumeta 's mother, Maamu, appears before them, stating her determination to protect Yumeta, and forces them outside of the dream world before using the Pretty Cure guidebook to ensnare all of the other Cures, trapping them inside their dreams. Being the only ones unaffected, Megumi and Hime infiltrate the dream world with Grell and En - En to confront Maamu, only to wind up getting captured. Yumeta explains Maamu had been trapping children inside the dream world so they would n't leave and forget about him upon waking up, leaving them with the key to escape. Showing Yumeta the dreams the other Cures are having, the girls show him that the important thing about having dreams is to fulfil them with your own power. As Maamu sends nightmares to attack Megumi and Hime, the other Cures realize the importance of fulfilling their own goals and, with help from the power of the Miracle Lights, break free from their dreams and join the battle. Gaining courage from everyone 's words, Yumeta stands up to his mother and becomes a true dream - eater, showing Maamu the error of her ways. With Maamu too weak to overcome the nightmares she let loose, Yumeta joins the fight in her stead, giving the Cures the power to defeat the nightmares. The nightmares soon gather into a giant nightmare, which turns its attention towards the fairy. However, Grell and En - En 's Miracle Lights call forth Ayumi, who becomes their partner and once again becomes Cure Echo who, along with Cure Honey, help the Cures to defeat the nightmare, allowing the children to wake up again. As Yumeta aims to become a great dream - eater like his mother, Grell and En - En write about him in the Pretty Cure guidebook so he wo n't be forgotten.
The opening theme is "Pretty Cure - Eternal Friends - (2014 version) '' (プリキュア ~ 永遠 の ともだち ~ (2014 Version), Purikyua ~ Eien no Tomodachi ~ (2014 Version)) by Mayu Kudou, Hitomi Nabatame, and Megumi Nakajima, whilst the ending theme is "PreCure Memory (NewStage3 version) '' (プリキュア ・ メモリ (NewStage3 Version), Purikyua Memori (NewStage3 version)) by Yōko Honna, Orie Kimoto, Yuuko Sanpei, Kanae Oki, Nana Mizuki, Ami Koshimizu, Misato Fukuen, Hitomi Nabatame, and Megumi Nakajima.
Pretty Cure All Stars: Carnival of Spring ♪ (映画 プリキュア オールスター ズ 春の カーニバル ♪, Eiga Purikyua Ōru Sutāzu: Haru no Kānibaru ♪) is the franchise 's seventh crossover film in the series, released in 3D on March 14, 2015 and on DVD July 15, 2015. It is the first feature length Pretty Cure film to feature extended dance scenes, similar to the 2011 short film Pretty Cure All Stars DX: 3D Theatre. Like the six previous films, the film features the characters from all Pretty Cure television series, including those introduced in Go! Princess PreCure.
The Pretty Cures receive an invitation to a Spring Carnival taking place in the musical kingdom of Harmonia, unaware that a thief named Odoren has taken over the kingdom and is posing as its ruler. Upon their arrival, the Cures are asked to perform on stage to show their appreciation for the fairies, which puts pressure on Haruka, who is not good at singing in public. As each of the Pretty Cure groups perform, Odoren and his partner Utaen secretly capture their fairies and steal their transformation items. Near the end of the carnival, Odoren, having obtained everyone 's items, seals them away in a chest so they can no longer transform. However, Haruka, believing in the power of song, sings alongside Minami and Kirara, awakening Dress Up Keys that frees the locked away items. Working together, the Cures fight off Odoren 's minions and free the captured royal family, who reveal the festival was meant to appease a dragon who guards over Harmonia. Enraged by the festival being interrupted, the dragon awakens and unleashes its anger upon the kingdom. However, by using the keys formed from their song, the Princess PreCure use the power of all the Cures to transform into the Primevera Elegant Mode and calm down the dragon, allowing the carnival to finish.
The movie 's ending song was "Ima Koko Kara '' (イマココカラ, Starting From Here), performed by Morning Musume ' 15.
Pretty Cure All Stars: Singing with Everyone ♪ Miraculous Magic! (映画 プリキュア オールスター ズ: みんな で 歌う ♪ 奇跡 の 魔法!, Eiga Purikyua Ōru Sutāzu: Minna de Utau ♪ Kiseki no Mahō!) is the franchise 's eighth, the final All Stars film and the 20th film overall in the Pretty Cure franchise, featuring Cures from Maho Girls PreCure!. The musical film was released in Japan on March 19, 2016 and was released on Blu - ray Disc and DVD on July 20, 2016.
Mirai and Riko come across Haruka and her friends on their way to a flower viewing party. Just then, a sorceress named Solcieel uses Haruka 's memories to reawaken the Princess Precure 's enemy, Dyspear. As the Cures join forces to fight against Dyspear, she is suddenly dispelled by a girl 's singing. Solcieel and her servant Trauuma, who plot to use Pretty Cure tears for a potion, then capture the Cures, taking them to another world. Separated from each other, Mirai comes across the HappinessCharge Precure while Riko encounters the DokiDoki Precure, helping to protect them as they are targeted by Solcieel 's reincarnations of past foes, but end up getting captured alongside several other Cures. As Mirai comes across Love, Tsubomi, Hibiki, Miyuki, and Lulun, while Riko reunites with the Princess Precure, along with Cure Echo, Mofurun, Pafu, and Aroma come across the Miracle Lights that can be used to dispel evil. Struggling without their partners, Mirai and Riko come close to despairing but are encouraged by their fellow Cures to stand up and fight. Hearing the singing again, Mirai and Riko go off in search of its source, managing to reunite with each other and confront Solcieel, who has captured all the other Cures. Overcoming Solcieel 's attacks, the girls learn that she was once an magician 's apprentice who could never seem to get the admiration of her master before she passed away, seeking to use the Precure 's tears to revive her and learn how to perform the ultimate spell. Managing to obtain one of Mirai 's tears, Trauuma reveals that his true plan was never to make a resurrection potion but instead to restore himself to his true form and spread darkness all over the world. Hearing the song of Mirai and Riko despite their injuries, Solcieel sings the song taught to her by her master, which turns out to be the ultimate spell all along, healing everyone 's injuries and giving power to the Cures. With the power of Solcieel 's song and the Miracle Lights, the Cures combine forces and manage to defeat Trauuma. As Solcieel decides to follow her master 's footsteps and become a teacher, the Cures have their long - awaited flower viewing party.
Pretty Cure Dream Stars! (映画 プリキュア ドリーム スターズ!, Eiga Purikyua Dorīmu Sutāzu!) is the ninth crossover film in the series. Unlike the previous films, the series does not feature every current Pretty Cure and instead focuses on characters from Go! Princess PreCure, Maho Girls PreCure and Kirakira PreCure a la Mode. The film, which will feature an original character alongside recent Cures, was released in Japan on March 18, 2017.
Super Compilation - Pretty Cure All Stars GoGo Dream Live (ちょ 〜 短編 プリキュア オールスター ズ GoGo ドリーム ライブ, Cho ~ Tanpen - Purikyua Ōru Sutāzu GoGo Dorīmu Raibu) is a 5 - minute short released with the Yes! PreCure 5 GoGo movie DVD, featuring the cures from Max Heart, Splash Star and Yes! PreCure 5 GoGo series working together to fight off a mysterious enemy. Ultimately, this has led to the establishment of Pretty Cure All Stars series today.
Pretty Cure All Stars DX: 3D Theatre (プリキュア オールスター ズ DX 3D シアター, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu Dirakkusu: Surī Dī Shiatā) is a 14 - minute dance special shown in stereoscopic 3D, featuring a medley of songs from the series and movies, released on August 5, 2011. It consists all the cures from Cure Black to Cure Beat.
Everyone Gather! Pretty Cure festival: Pretty Cure ON Miracle ♡ Magical ☆ stage (みんな あつまれ! プリキュア フェスティバル プリキュア ON ミラクル ♡ マジカル ☆ ステージ, Minna Atsumare! Purikyua Fesutibaru Purikyua on Mirakuru ♡ Majikaru ☆ Sutēji) is a 3D Experience which is shown in Japanese Theaters between 2016 and 2017.
Certain video games in the Pretty Cure franchise produced by Bandai also feature cross-overs. Data Carddass arcade machines based on the franchise have been released since 2007, allowing players to use collectible cards. These machines are updated as new series are released. Yes! Pretty Cure 5 Go Go: Let 's Go Together! Dream Festival (Yes! プリキュア 5GoGo! 全員 しゅ ー Go! ドリーム フェスティバル, Iesu! PuriKyua Faibu GoGō!: Zenin ShūGo! Dorīmu Fesutibaru), released for Nintendo DS on October 30, 2008, is a side - scrolling beat ' em up featuring characters from Max Heart, Splash Star and Yes! PreCure 5 GoGo. PreCure All Stars: All Together ☆ Let 's Dance (プリキュア オールスター ズ ぜん いん しゅう ごう ☆ レッツ ダンス!, PuriKyua Ōru Sutāzu: Zenin Shūgo ☆ Rettsu Dansu!) is a music game released for the Wii on March 28, 2013. The game allows players to dance to theme songs from all of the Pretty Cure series up to Dokidoki! PreCure.
Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage 2: Friends of the Heart grossed US $10.1 million. By April 20, 2014, Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage 3: Eternal Friends had grossed US $8,526,335 in Japan. Pretty Cure All Stars: Spring Carnival ♪ grossed $1,073,800 on its opening weekend.
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a one-way hash function is also known as a fingerprint | Cryptographic hash function - wikipedia
A cryptographic hash function is a special class of hash function that has certain properties which make it suitable for use in cryptography. It is a mathematical algorithm that maps data of arbitrary size to a bit string of a fixed size (a hash) and is designed to be a one - way function, that is, a function which is infeasible to invert. The only way to recreate the input data from an ideal cryptographic hash function 's output is to attempt a brute - force search of possible inputs to see if they produce a match, or use a rainbow table of matched hashes. Bruce Schneier has called one - way hash functions "the workhorses of modern cryptography ''. The input data is often called the message, and the output (the hash value or hash) is often called the message digest or simply the digest.
The ideal cryptographic hash function has five main properties:
Cryptographic hash functions have many information - security applications, notably in digital signatures, message authentication codes (MACs), and other forms of authentication. They can also be used as ordinary hash functions, to index data in hash tables, for fingerprinting, to detect duplicate data or uniquely identify files, and as checksums to detect accidental data corruption. Indeed, in information - security contexts, cryptographic hash values are sometimes called (digital) fingerprints, checksums, or just hash values, even though all these terms stand for more general functions with rather different properties and purposes.
Most cryptographic hash functions are designed to take a string of any length as input and produce a fixed - length hash value.
A cryptographic hash function must be able to withstand all known types of cryptanalytic attack. In theoretical cryptography, the security level of a cryptographic hash function has been defined using the following properties:
Collision resistance implies second pre-image resistance, but does not imply pre-image resistance. The weaker assumption is always preferred in theoretical cryptography, but in practice, a hash - function which is only second pre-image resistant is considered insecure and is therefore not recommended for real applications.
Informally, these properties mean that a malicious adversary can not replace or modify the input data without changing its digest. Thus, if two strings have the same digest, one can be very confident that they are identical. Second pre-image resistance prevents an attacker from crafting a document with the same hash as a document the attacker can not control. Collision resistance prevents an attacker from creating two distinct documents with the same hash.
A function meeting these criteria may still have undesirable properties. Currently popular cryptographic hash functions are vulnerable to length - extension attacks: given hash (m) and len (m) but not m, by choosing a suitable m ' an attacker can calculate hash (m m ') where denotes concatenation. This property can be used to break naive authentication schemes based on hash functions. The HMAC construction works around these problems.
In practice, collision resistance is insufficient for many practical uses. In addition to collision resistance, it should be impossible for an adversary to find two messages with substantially similar digests; or to infer any useful information about the data, given only its digest. In particular, a hash function should behave as much as possible like a random function (often called a random oracle in proofs of security) while still being deterministic and efficiently computable. This rules out functions like the SWIFFT function, which can be rigorously proven to be collision resistant assuming that certain problems on ideal lattices are computationally difficult, but as a linear function, does not satisfy these additional properties.
Checksum algorithms, such as CRC32 and other cyclic redundancy checks, are designed to meet much weaker requirements, and are generally unsuitable as cryptographic hash functions. For example, a CRC was used for message integrity in the WEP encryption standard, but an attack was readily discovered which exploited the linearity of the checksum.
In cryptographic practice, "difficult '' generally means "almost certainly beyond the reach of any adversary who must be prevented from breaking the system for as long as the security of the system is deemed important ''. The meaning of the term is therefore somewhat dependent on the application since the effort that a malicious agent may put into the task is usually proportional to his expected gain. However, since the needed effort usually multiplies with the digest length, even a thousand-fold advantage in processing power can be neutralized by adding a few dozen bits to the latter.
For messages selected from a limited set of messages, for example passwords or other short messages, it can be feasible to invert a hash by trying all possible messages in the set. Because cryptographic hash functions are typically designed to be computed quickly, special key derivation functions that require greater computing resources have been developed that make such brute force attacks more difficult.
In some theoretical analyses "difficult '' has a specific mathematical meaning, such as "not solvable in asymptotic polynomial time ''. Such interpretations of difficulty are important in the study of provably secure cryptographic hash functions but do not usually have a strong connection to effective security. For example, an exponential time algorithm can sometimes still be fast enough to make a possible attack. Conversely, a polynomial time algorithm (e.g., one that requires n steps for n - digit keys) may be too slow for any practical use.
An illustration of the potential use of a cryptographic hash is as follows: Alice poses a tough math problem to Bob and claims she has solved it. Bob would like to try it himself, but would yet like to be sure that Alice is not bluffing. Therefore, Alice writes down her solution, computes its hash and tells Bob the hash value (whilst keeping the solution secret). Then, when Bob comes up with the solution himself a few days later, Alice can prove that she had the solution earlier by revealing it and having Bob hash it and check that it matches the hash value given to him before. (This is an example of a simple commitment scheme; in actual practice, Alice and Bob will often be computer programs, and the secret would be something less easily spoofed than a claimed puzzle solution).
An important application of secure hashes is verification of message integrity. Determining whether any changes have been made to a message (or a file), for example, can be accomplished by comparing message digests calculated before, and after, transmission (or any other event).
For this reason, most digital signature algorithms only confirm the authenticity of a hashed digest of the message to be "signed ''. Verifying the authenticity of a hashed digest of the message is considered proof that the message itself is authentic.
MD5, SHA1, or SHA2 hashes are sometimes posted along with files on websites or forums to allow verification of integrity. This practice establishes a chain of trust so long as the hashes are posted on a site authenticated by HTTPS.
A related application is password verification (first invented by Roger Needham). Storing all user passwords as cleartext can result in a massive security breach if the password file is compromised. One way to reduce this danger is to only store the hash digest of each password. To authenticate a user, the password presented by the user is hashed and compared with the stored hash. (Note that this approach prevents the original passwords from being retrieved if forgotten or lost, and they have to be replaced with new ones.) The password is often concatenated with a random, non-secret salt value before the hash function is applied. The salt is stored with the password hash. Because users will typically have different salts, it is not feasible to store tables of precomputed hash values for common passwords when salt is employed. On the other hand, standard cryptographic hash functions are designed to be computed quickly, and, as a result, it is possible to try guessed passwords at high rates. Common graphics processing units can try billions of possible passwords each second. Key stretching functions, such as PBKDF2, bcrypt or scrypt, typically use repeated invocations of a cryptographic hash to increase the time, and in some cases computer memory, required to perform brute force attacks on stored password digests.
In 2013 a Password Hashing Competition was announced to choose a new, standard algorithm for password hashing. The winner, selected in July 2015, was a new key stretching algorithm, Argon2. In June 2017, NIST issued a new revision of their digital authentication guidelines, NIST SP 800 - 63B - 3, stating: "Verifiers SHALL store memorized secrets (i.e. passwords) in a form that is resistant to offline attacks. Memorized secrets SHALL be salted and hashed using a suitable one - way key derivation function. ''
A proof - of - work system (or protocol, or function) is an economic measure to deter denial - of - service attacks and other service abuses such as spam on a network by requiring some work from the service requester, usually meaning processing time by a computer. A key feature of these schemes is their asymmetry: the work must be moderately hard (but feasible) on the requester side but easy to check for the service provider. One popular system -- used in Bitcoin mining and Hashcash -- uses partial hash inversions to prove that work was done, to unlock a mining reward in Bitcoin and as a good - will token to send an e-mail in Hashcash. The sender is required to find a message whose hash value begins with a number of zero bits. The average work that sender needs to perform in order to find a valid message is exponential in the number of zero bits required in the hash value, while the recipient can verify the validity of the message by executing a single hash function. For instance, in Hashcash, a sender is asked to generate a header whose 160 bit SHA - 1 hash value has the first 20 bits as zeros. The sender will on average have to try 2 times to find a valid header.
A message digest can also serve as a means of reliably identifying a file; several source code management systems, including Git, Mercurial and Monotone, use the sha1sum of various types of content (file content, directory trees, ancestry information, etc.) to uniquely identify them. Hashes are used to identify files on peer - to - peer filesharing networks. For example, in an ed2k link, an MD4 - variant hash is combined with the file size, providing sufficient information for locating file sources, downloading the file and verifying its contents. Magnet links are another example. Such file hashes are often the top hash of a hash list or a hash tree which allows for additional benefits.
One of the main applications of a hash function is to allow the fast look - up of a data in a hash table. Being hash functions of a particular kind, cryptographic hash functions lend themselves well to this application too.
However, compared with standard hash functions, cryptographic hash functions tend to be much more expensive computationally. For this reason, they tend to be used in contexts where it is necessary for users to protect themselves against the possibility of forgery (the creation of data with the same digest as the expected data) by potentially malicious participants.
Hash functions can also be used in the generation of pseudorandom bits, or to derive new keys or passwords from a single secure key or password.
There are several methods to use a block cipher to build a cryptographic hash function, specifically a one - way compression function.
The methods resemble the block cipher modes of operation usually used for encryption. Many well - known hash functions, including MD4, MD5, SHA - 1 and SHA - 2 are built from block - cipher - like components designed for the purpose, with feedback to ensure that the resulting function is not invertible. SHA - 3 finalists included functions with block - cipher - like components (e.g., Skein, BLAKE) though the function finally selected, Keccak, was built on a cryptographic sponge instead.
A standard block cipher such as AES can be used in place of these custom block ciphers; that might be useful when an embedded system needs to implement both encryption and hashing with minimal code size or hardware area. However, that approach can have costs in efficiency and security. The ciphers in hash functions are built for hashing: they use large keys and blocks, can efficiently change keys every block, and have been designed and vetted for resistance to related - key attacks. General - purpose ciphers tend to have different design goals. In particular, AES has key and block sizes that make it nontrivial to use to generate long hash values; AES encryption becomes less efficient when the key changes each block; and related - key attacks make it potentially less secure for use in a hash function than for encryption.
A hash function must be able to process an arbitrary - length message into a fixed - length output. This can be achieved by breaking the input up into a series of equal - sized blocks, and operating on them in sequence using a one - way compression function. The compression function can either be specially designed for hashing or be built from a block cipher. A hash function built with the Merkle -- Damgård construction is as resistant to collisions as is its compression function; any collision for the full hash function can be traced back to a collision in the compression function.
The last block processed should also be unambiguously length padded; this is crucial to the security of this construction. This construction is called the Merkle -- Damgård construction. Most common classical hash functions, including SHA - 1 and MD5, take this form.
A straightforward application of the Merkle -- Damgård construction, where the size of hash output is equal to the internal state size (between each compression step), results in a narrow - pipe hash design. This design causes many inherent flaws, including length - extension, multicollisions, long message attacks, generate - and - paste attacks, and also can not be parallelized. As a result, modern hash functions are built on wide - pipe constructions that have a larger internal state size -- which range from tweaks of the Merkle -- Damgård construction to new constructions such as the sponge construction and HAIFA construction. None of the entrants in the NIST hash function competition use a classical Merkle -- Damgård construction.
Meanwhile, truncating the output of a longer hash, such as used in SHA - 512 / 256, also defeats many of these attacks.
Hash functions can be used to build other cryptographic primitives. For these other primitives to be cryptographically secure, care must be taken to build them correctly.
Message authentication codes (MACs) (also called keyed hash functions) are often built from hash functions. HMAC is such a MAC.
Just as block ciphers can be used to build hash functions, hash functions can be used to build block ciphers. Luby - Rackoff constructions using hash functions can be provably secure if the underlying hash function is secure. Also, many hash functions (including SHA - 1 and SHA - 2) are built by using a special - purpose block cipher in a Davies -- Meyer or other construction. That cipher can also be used in a conventional mode of operation, without the same security guarantees. See SHACAL, BEAR and LION.
Pseudorandom number generators (PRNGs) can be built using hash functions. This is done by combining a (secret) random seed with a counter and hashing it.
Some hash functions, such as Skein, Keccak, and RadioGatún output an arbitrarily long stream and can be used as a stream cipher, and stream ciphers can also be built from fixed - length digest hash functions. Often this is done by first building a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator and then using its stream of random bytes as keystream. SEAL is a stream cipher that uses SHA - 1 to generate internal tables, which are then used in a keystream generator more or less unrelated to the hash algorithm. SEAL is not guaranteed to be as strong (or weak) as SHA - 1. Similarly, the key expansion of the HC - 128 and HC - 256 stream ciphers makes heavy use of the SHA - 256 hash function.
Concatenating outputs from multiple hash functions provides collision resistance as good as the strongest of the algorithms included in the concatenated result. For example, older versions of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) use concatenated MD5 and SHA - 1 sums. This ensures that a method to find collisions in one of the hash functions does not defeat data protected by both hash functions.
For Merkle -- Damgård construction hash functions, the concatenated function is as collision - resistant as its strongest component, but not more collision - resistant. Antoine Joux observed that 2 - collisions lead to n - collisions: if it is feasible for an attacker to find two messages with the same MD5 hash, the attacker can find as many messages as the attacker desires with identical MD5 hashes with no greater difficulty. Among the n messages with the same MD5 hash, there is likely to be a collision in SHA - 1. The additional work needed to find the SHA - 1 collision (beyond the exponential birthday search) requires only polynomial time.
There is a long list of cryptographic hash functions, although many have been found to be vulnerable and should not be used. Even if a hash function has never been broken, a successful attack against a weakened variant may undermine the experts ' confidence and lead to its abandonment. For instance, in August 2004 weaknesses were found in several then - popular hash functions, including SHA - 0, RIPEMD, and MD5. These weaknesses called into question the security of stronger algorithms derived from the weak hash functions -- in particular, SHA - 1 (a strengthened version of SHA - 0), RIPEMD - 128, and RIPEMD - 160 (both strengthened versions of RIPEMD). Neither SHA - 0 nor RIPEMD are widely used since they were replaced by their strengthened versions.
As of 2009, the two most commonly used cryptographic hash functions were MD5 and SHA - 1. However, a successful attack on MD5 broke Transport Layer Security in 2008.
The United States National Security Agency (NSA) developed SHA - 0 and SHA - 1.
On 12 August 2004, Joux, Carribault, Lemuet, and Jalby announced a collision for the full SHA - 0 algorithm. Joux et al. accomplished this using a generalization of the Chabaud and Joux attack. They found that the collision had complexity 2 and took about 80,000 CPU hours on a supercomputer with 256 Itanium 2 processors -- equivalent to 13 days of full - time use of the supercomputer.
In February 2005, an attack on SHA - 1 was reported that would find collision in about 2 hashing operations, rather than the 2 expected for a 160 - bit hash function. In August 2005, another attack on SHA - 1 was reported that would find collisions in 2 operations. Theoretical weaknesses of SHA - 1 exist, and in February 2017 Google announced a collision in SHA - 1. Security researchers recommend that new applications can avoid these problems by using later members of the SHA family, such as SHA - 2, or using techniques such as randomized hashing that do not require collision resistance.
However, to ensure the long - term robustness of applications that use hash functions, there was a competition to design a replacement for SHA - 2. On October 2, 2012, Keccak was selected as the winner of the NIST hash function competition. A version of this algorithm became a FIPS standard on August 5, 2015 under the name SHA - 3.
Another finalist from the NIST hash function competition, BLAKE, was optimized to produce BLAKE2 which is notable for being faster than SHA - 3, SHA - 2, SHA - 1, or MD5, and is used in numerous applications and libraries.
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who built the first and second temples in jerusalem | Temple in Jerusalem - wikipedia
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית ־ הַמִּקְדָּשׁ , Modern: Beit HaMikdash, Tiberian: Beiṯ HamMiqdāš, Ashkenazi: Beis HaMikdosh; Ge'ez: ቤተ መቅደስ: Betä Mäqdäs) was any of a series of structures which were located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock and Al - Aqsa Mosque. These successive temples stood at this location and functioned as a site of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship.
The Hebrew name given in the Hebrew Bible for the building complex is either Beit YHWH (House of Yahweh, or Jehovah), Beit HaElohim "House of God '', or simply Beiti "my house '', Beitekhah "your house '' etc. The term hekhal "hall '' or main building is often translated "temple '' in older English Bibles. In rabbinical literature the temple is Beit HaMikdash, "The Sanctified House '', and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name.
The Hebrew Bible says that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon. According to the Book of Deuteronomy, as the sole place of Israelite sacrifice (Deuteronomy 12: 2 - 27), the Temple replaced the Tabernacle constructed in the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. This temple was sacked a few decades later by Shoshenq I, Pharaoh of Egypt.
Although efforts were made at partial reconstruction, it was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib, King of Assyria c. 700 BCE. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE (425 BCE according to historical Jewish sources), when they sacked the city.
According to the Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple was authorized by Cyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE, after the fall of the Babylonian Empire the year before. It was completed 23 years later, on the third day of Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the Great (12 March 515 BCE), dedicated by the Jewish governor Zerubbabel. However, with a full reading of the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah, there were four edicts to build the Second Temple, which were issued by three kings. Cyrus in 536 BCE, which is recorded in the first chapter of Ezra. Next, Darius I of Persia in 519 BCE, which is recorded in the sixth chapter of Ezra. Third, Artaxerxes I of Persia in 457 BCE, which was the seventh year of his reign, and is recorded in the seventh chapter of Ezra. Finally, by Artaxerxes again in 444 BCE in the second chapter of Nehemiah. Also, despite the fact that the new temple was not as extravagant or imposing as its predecessor, it still dominated the Jerusalem skyline and remained an important structure throughout the time of Persian suzerainty. Moreover, the temple narrowly avoided being destroyed again in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Alexander was allegedly "turned from his anger '' at the last minute by astute diplomacy and flattery. Further, after the death of Alexander on 13 June 323 BCE, and the dismembering of his empire, the Ptolemies came to rule over Judea and the Temple. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were given many civil liberties and lived content under their rule. However, when the Ptolemaic army was defeated at Panium by Antiochus III of the Seleucids in 198 BCE, this policy changed. Antiochus wanted to Hellenize the Jews, attempting to introduce the Greek pantheon into the temple. Moreover, a rebellion ensued and was brutally crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken, and when Antiochus died in 187 BCE at Luristan, his son Seleucus IV Philopator succeeded him. However, his policies never took effect in Judea, since he was assassinated the year after his ascension.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his older brother to the Seleucid throne and immediately adopted his father 's previous policy of universal Hellenisation. The Jews rebelled again and Antiochus, in a rage, retaliated in force. Considering the previous episodes of discontent, the Jews became incensed when the religious observances of Sabbath and circumcision were officially outlawed. When Antiochus erected a statue of Zeus in their temple and Hellenic priests began sacrificing pigs (the usual sacrifice offered to the Greek gods in the Hellenic religion), their anger began to spiral. When a Greek official ordered a Jewish priest to perform a Hellenic sacrifice, the priest (Mattathias) killed him. In 167 BCE, the Jews rose up en masse behind Mattathias and his five sons to fight and win their freedom from Seleucid authority. Mattathias ' son Judas Maccabaeus, now called "The Hammer '', re-dedicated the temple in 165 BCE and the Jews celebrate this event to this day as a major part of the festival of Hanukkah.
The temple was rededicated under Judas Maccabaeus in 164 BCE. During the Roman era, Pompey entered (and thereby desecrated) the Holy of Holies in 63 BCE, but left the Temple intact. In 54 BCE, Crassus looted the Temple treasury, only for him to die the year after at the Battle of Carrhae against Parthia. According to folklore he was executed by having molten gold poured down his throat. When news of this reached the Jews, they revolted again, only to be put down in 43 BCE.
Around 20 BCE, the building was renovated and expanded by Herod the Great, and became known as Herod 's Temple. It was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE during the Siege of Jerusalem. During the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Romans in 132 -- 135 CE, Simon bar Kokhba and Rabbi Akiva wanted to rebuild the Temple, but bar Kokhba 's revolt failed and the Jews were banned from Jerusalem (except for Tisha B'Av) by the Roman Empire. The emperor Julian allowed to have the Temple rebuilt but the Galilee earthquake of 363 ended all attempts ever since.
After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in the 7th century, Umayyad Caliph Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan ordered the construction of an Islamic shrine, the Dome of the Rock, on the site of the Temple. The shrine has stood on the mount since 691 CE; the al - Aqsa Mosque, from roughly the same period, also stands in the Temple courtyard.
The Temple Mount, along with the entire Old City of Jerusalem, was captured from Jordan by Israel in 1967 during the Six - Day War, allowing Jews once again to pray at the holy site. Jordan had occupied East Jerusalem and the Temple Mount immediately following Israel 's declaration of independence on May 14, 1948. Israel officially unified East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, with the rest of Jerusalem in 1980 under the Jerusalem Law, though United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared the Jerusalem Law to be in violation of international law. The Muslim Waqf, based in Jordan, has administrative control of the Temple Mount.
There are four theories as to where the Temple stood; where the Dome of the Rock is now located, to the north of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Asher Kaufman), to the east of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Joseph Patrich of the Hebrew University). and to the south of the Temple Mount on Mount Ophel.
The Temple of Solomon or First Temple consisted of three main elements:
In the case of the last and most elaborate structure, the Herodian Temple, the structure consisted of the wider Temple precinct, the restricted Temple courts, and the Temple building itself:
According to the Talmud, the Women 's Court was to the east and the main area of the Temple to the west. The main area contained the butchering area for the sacrifices and the Outer Altar on which portions of most offerings were burned. An edifice contained the ulam (antechamber), the hekhal (the "sanctuary ''), and the Holy of Holies. The sanctuary and the Holy of Holies were separated by a wall in the First Temple and by two curtains in the Second Temple. The sanctuary contained the seven branched candlestick, the table of showbread and the Incense Altar.
The main courtyard had thirteen gates. On the south side, beginning with the southwest corner, there were four gates:
On the north side, beginning with the northwest corner, there were four gates:
On the east side was Shaar Nikanor, between the Women 's Courtyard and the main Temple Courtyard, which had two minor doorways, one on its right and one on its left. On the western wall, which was relatively unimportant, there were two gates that did not have any name.
The Mishnah lists concentric circles of holiness surrounding the Temple: Holy of Holies; Sanctuary; Vestibule; Court of the Priests; Court of the Israelites; Court of the Women; Temple Mount; the walled city of Jerusalem; all the walled cities of the Land of Israel; and the borders of the Land of Israel.
The Temple was the place where offerings described in the course of the Hebrew Bible were carried out, including daily morning and afternoon offerings and special offerings on Sabbath and Jewish holidays. Levites recited Psalms at appropriate moments during the offerings, including the Psalm of the Day, special psalms for the new month, and other occasions, the Hallel during major Jewish holidays, and psalms for special sacrifices such as the "Psalm for the Thanksgiving Offering '' (Psalm 100).
As part of the daily offering, a prayer service was performed in the Temple which was used as the basis of the traditional Jewish (morning) service recited to this day, including well - known prayers such as the Shema, and the Priestly Blessing. The Mishna describes it as follows:
The superintendent said to them, bless one benediction! and they blessed, and read the Ten Commandments, and the Shema, "And it shall come to pass if you will hearken '', and "And (God) spoke... ''. They pronounced three benedictions with the people present: "True and firm '', and the "Avodah '' "Accept, Lord our God, the service of your people Israel, and the fire - offerings of Israel and their prayer receive with favor. Blessed is He who receives the service of His people Israel with favor '' (similar to what is today the 17th blessing of the Amidah), and the Priestly Blessing, and on the Sabbath they recited one blessing; "May He who causes His name to dwell in this House, cause to dwell among you love and brotherliness, peace and friendship '' on behalf of the weekly Priestly Guard that departed.
The Talmud (Yoma 9b) provides traditional theological reasons for the destruction: "Why was the first Temple destroyed? Because the three cardinal sins were rampant in society: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder... And why then was the second Temple -- wherein the society was involved in Torah, commandments and acts of kindness -- destroyed? Because gratuitous hatred was rampant in society. This teaches you that gratuitous hatred is equal in severity to the three cardinal sins: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder. ''
Part of the traditional Jewish morning service, the part surrounding the Shema prayer, is essentially unchanged from the daily worship service performed in the Temple. In addition, the Amidah prayer traditionally replaces the Temple 's daily tamid and special - occasion Mussaf (additional) offerings (there are separate versions for the different types of sacrifices). They are recited during the times their corresponding offerings were performed in the Temple.
The Temple is mentioned extensively in Orthodox services. Conservative Judaism retains mentions of the Temple and its restoration, but removes references to the sacrifices. References to sacrifices on holidays are made in the past tense, and petitions for their restoration are removed. Mentions in Orthodox Jewish services include:
The destruction of the Temple is mourned on the Jewish fast day of Tisha B'Av. Three other minor fasts (Tenth of Tevet, 17th of Tammuz, and Third of Tishrei), also mourn events leading to or following the destruction of the Temple. There are also mourning practices which are observed at all times, for example, the requirement to leave part of the house unplastered.
Jesus predicts the destruction of the Second Temple (Matthew 24: 2) and allegorically compares his body to a Temple that will be torn down and raised up again in three days. This idea, of the Temple as the body of Christ, became a rich and multi-layered theme in medieval Christian thought (where Temple / body can be the heavenly body of Christ, the ecclesial body of the Church, and the Eucharistic body on the altar).
The Temple Mount bears significance in Islam as it acted as a sanctuary for many Hebrew prophets. Islamic tradition says that a temple was first built on the Temple Mount by Jacob and later renovated by Solomon, son of David. In addition, it is considered to be the site of Muhammad 's Night Journey and his ascent into Heaven (Isra and Mi'raj), one of the most significant events recounted in the Qur'an.
According to Muslim scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr, professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University, Jerusalem has the significance as a holy site for Muslims primarily in three ways. First, while in Mecca, Muhammad used the Temple in Jerusalem as his first qiblah (prayer direction); then, after Muhammad emigrated from Mecca to Medina, Allah permitted his prophet to turn towards Mecca in prayer sixteen months after he arrived (Sura 2: 144, 149 - 150). Second, while Muhammad was still living in Mecca, he reports that he took a Night Journey to Bait - ul - Maqdis (i.e. Temple in Jerusalem) which is considered as a very auspicious event in Islam known as Isra. The third factor, says Nasr, is the Muslim belief in the Second Coming of Christ to Bait - ul - Maqdis (i.e. Temple in Jerusalem).
Imam Abdul Hadi Palazzi, leader of Italian Muslim Assembly, quotes the Qur'an to support Judaism 's special connection to the Temple Mount. According to Palazzi, "The most authoritative Islamic sources affirm the Temples ''. He adds that Jerusalem is sacred to Muslims because of its prior holiness to Jews and its standing as home to the biblical prophets and kings David and Solomon, all of whom he says are sacred figures in Islam. He claims that the Qur'an "expressly recognizes that Jerusalem plays the same role for Jews that Mecca has for Muslims ''.
In his 2007 book, The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City, Dore Gold calls assertions that the Temple in Jerusalem never existed or was not located on the Mount "Temple Denial ''. David Hazony has described the phenomenon as "a campaign of intellectual erasure (by Palestinian leaders, writers, and scholars)... aimed at undermining the Jewish claim to any part of the land '' and compared the phenomenon to Holocaust denial.
Archaeological excavations have found remnants of both the First Temple and Second Temple. Among the artifacts of the First Temple are dozens of ritual immersion or baptismal pools in this area surrounding the Temple Mount, as well as a large square platform identified by architectural archaeologist Leen Ritmeye as likely being built by king Hezekiah c. 700 BCE as a gathering area in front of the Temple.
Possible Second Temple artifacts include the Trumpeting Place inscription and the Temple Warning inscription, which are surviving pieces of the Herodian expansion of the Temple Mount.
Ever since the Second Temple 's destruction, a prayer for the construction of a Third Temple has been a formal and, by some authorities, optional part of the thrice - daily Jewish prayer services. However, the question of whether and when to construct the Third Temple is disputed both within the Jewish community and without; groups within Judaism argue both for and against construction of a new Temple, while the expansion of Abrahamic religion since the 1st century CE has made the issue contentious within Christian and Islamic thought as well. Furthermore, the complicated political status of Jerusalem makes reconstruction difficult, while Al - Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock have been constructed at the traditional physical location of the Temple. When the Umayyad Caliph Abdel - Malik ibn Marwan built the Dome of the Rock, some reports indicated that the Jews were filled with elation. Some even believed that this Islamic shrine was the third temple. For a century, Jews had full access to this holiest of sites.
In 363 CE, the Roman emperor Julian had ordered Alypius of Antioch to rebuild the Temple as part of his campaign to strengthen non-Christian religions. The attempt failed, perhaps due to sabotage, an accidental fire, or an earthquake in Galilee.
The Book of Ezekiel prophesies what would be the Third Temple, noting it as an eternal house of prayer and describing it in detail.
Journalistic depiction of the controversies around the Jerusalem Temple was presented in the 2010 documentary Lost Temple by Serge Grankin. The film contains interviews with religious and academic authorities involved in the issue. German journalist Dirk - Martin Heinzelmann, featured in the film, presents the point of view of Prof. Joseph Patrich (the Hebrew University), stemming from the underground cistern mapping made by Charles William Wilson (1836 - 1905).
Coordinates: 31 ° 46 ′ 40 '' N 35 ° 14 ′ 08 '' E / 31.77765 ° N 35.23547 ° E / 31.77765; 35.23547
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how many episodes in designated survivor season 1 | Designated Survivor (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of the American political drama series Designated Survivor began airing on September 21, 2016 on ABC. The series was ordered straight to series by ABC in December 2015, with a formal announcement of 13 episodes in May 2016. Eight days after the premiere, on September 29, 2016, ABC gave the series a full season order. The series is produced by ABC Studios and The Mark Gordon Company, and is filmed in Toronto, Canada.
The series was renewed for a second season on May 11, 2017.
On the night of the State of the Union, an explosion claims the lives of the President and everyone in the line of succession except for Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Thomas Kirkman, who had been named the designated survivor. Kirkman is immediately sworn in as President, unaware that the attack is just the beginning of what is to come.
Designated Survivor was ordered straight to series by ABC in December 2015, with a formal announcement of 13 episodes in May 2016. A month later, ABC revealed that the series would premiere on September 21, 2016. Eight days after the premiere, on September 29, 2016, ABC gave the series a full season order.
Created by David Guggenheim, the series is executive produced by Simon Kinberg, Sutherland, Suzan Bymel, Aditya Sood, and Nick Pepper. Paul McGuigan directed the pilot episode. Amy B. Harris was set to be the showrunner in February 2016, but after the series ' official pick - up in May, it was announced she would be stepping down due to creative differences, and that Jon Harmon Feldman was in talks to replace her. In July 2016, Feldman was confirmed as showrunner / executive producer. In December 2016, Jeff Melvoin was hired as showrunner, replacing the departing Feldman. Kal Penn, formerly associate director in the White House 's Office of Public Engagement, serves as a consultant for the series as well as acting in the main cast.
Producers Jon Harmon Feldman and Guggenheim described the series as more than one genre, drawing inspiration from other thriller - dramas, with Guggenheim explaining, "There is a West Wing component of a man governing and his team governing our nation at this critical time. It 's also the Homeland aspect of investigating the conspiracy. It also has a House of Cards component, which is the characters and the business of government through the eyes of these characters. ''
Kiefer Sutherland joined the cast in December 2015, playing Tom Kirkman, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development who suddenly becomes President. Sutherland had previously no intention of doing television again, but changed his mind after reading the first script of the series, saying, "I remember getting to the end of the script and thinking I was potentially holding the next 10 years of my life in my hands. ''
In February 2016, it was announced that Kal Penn, Maggie Q, Natascha McElhone, and Italia Ricci had been cast as Kirkman 's speech writer; Hannah, the lead FBI agent on the bombing of the Capitol; Kirkman 's wife, an EEOC attorney; and Emily, Kirkman 's Chief of Staff, respectively. Shortly after, Adan Canto had joined the series as Aaron Shore, the White House Deputy Chief of Staff. In early March, LaMonica Garrett joined the cast as Mike Ritter, Kirkman 's Secret Service agent, and Tanner Buchanan and Mckenna Grace had been cast as Kirkman 's children.
In July 2016, Malik Yoba was announced for a recurring role as Jason Atwood, the seasoned Deputy Director of the FBI, to appear in seven episodes, while Virginia Madsen had been cast in the recurring role of Kimble Hookstraten, a conservative Congresswoman and the designated survivor for the rival political party. A month later, Ashley Zukerman joined the series in a recurring role as Peter MacLeish, an Afghan War veteran and popular third - term Congressman. In September 2016, Mykelti Williamson was cast as Admiral Chernow, a career military man and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On November 4, 2016, it was announced that Mariana Klaveno had been cast for the show as the Dark - Haired Woman, a clandestine operator in league with the people behind the Capitol attack.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 85 % based on 52 reviews, with an average rating of 6.98 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Kiefer Sutherland skillfully delivers the drama in Designated Survivor, a fast - paced, quickly engrossing escapist political action fantasy. '' Metacritic reported a score of 71 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Terri Schwartz from IGN gave the first episode a rating of 8.0 / 10, saying, "Designated Survivor is a strong debut for a show that will fit well alongside Quantico and Scandal in ABC 's government - set political drama lineup. '' Variety said that the episode "does everything it needs to, checking off the necessary boxes for the unwilling American hero - president in efficient, compelling scenes. '' Chuck Barney from Mercury News called the first episode "suspenseful ''. Writing for TV Insider, Matt Roush compared Designated Survivor with other series as he said "fall 's niftiest new drama has West Wing idealism, Homeland suspense and House of Cards political intrigue in its robust and compelling DNA. '' Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club wrote positively about the show and the premiere, praising Sutherland 's performance and commented on the symbol of Sutherland 's glasses as he said, "The glasses he 's wearing serve as a way to tell us this is a different kind of hero, but they 're also a form of camouflage, making it easier for us to understand why so many people would underestimate this man. ''
The editors of TV Guide placed Designated Survivor first among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016 -- 17 season. In writer Alexander Zalben 's overall review, he pointed out the keys to one of the strongest pilots he had seen so far: "Designated Survivor is the rare show that delivers on the hype, and surpasses it, '' and later stating "It 's shocking that a show can balance all of these elements, but credit a magnetic cast that hits the ground running, a crack script that makes the first hour feel like 10 minutes and, of course, Sutherland as the anchor that keeps it all grounded. '' Zalben 's review concluded with this recommendation: "There 's a reason Designated Survivor was n't just the top pick across all of our Editors ' lists, but also on the list compiled from TVGuide.com viewers ' Watchlist adds: this is a show that delivers on its premise, feels timely, and most importantly, is a ton of fun. ''
On the other hand, after watching the first episode of the first season, The Guardian 's Brian Moylan criticized the dialogue, writing in his review that "this drama needs dialogue that wo n't make the citizenry 's eyeballs roll '', adding that the show features "meaningless platitudes '' of a "we 're going to do this my way '' attitude, and concluded by writing, "All we 're left with is a really great concept without the backing of a real leader behind it. '' Moylan also wrote that "there 's not enough family tension for it to be a domestic drama, not enough government intrigue to make it a political show, and not enough investigation to make it a procedural. '' TVLine 's Dave Nemetz drew references between Kirkman and Jack Bauer, Kiefer Sutherland 's role in drama thriller 24, writing that "Sutherland does a good job portraying Kirkman 's deep ambivalence about the situation he 's been handed. But when he has to play hardball with an Iranian ambassador, the tough talk comes too easily to him. It 's like Kirkman has been possessed by the ghost of Jack Bauer ''. Nemetz also questioned the series ' longevity; "As compelling as Designated Survivor 's concept is, it 's hard to see how it will sustain itself as a weekly series ''.
The first episode set a record for DVR viewers with 7.67 million, surpassing the September 25, 2014, record of almost 7 million set by the pilot of How to Get Away with Murder.
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law & order special victims unit season 4 episodes | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the television series, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit premiered September 27, 2002 and ended May 16, 2003 on NBC. This was the last season of the series to air on Friday nights at 10pm / 9c.
Filming for Season 4 began while Season 3 was still airing as evidenced by reports that Sharon Lawrence would appear on SVU in time for May sweeps.
In a 2012 interview for the show Media Mayhem, Neal Baer cited "Juvenile '' as a script whose writing was relevant to still debated case law. In the episode, a well meaning boy is manipulated by a sociopathic classmate and charged with felony murder as a result -- a topic that was addressed by Miller v. Alabama in the Supreme Court. In the same interview, Baer talked about the detectives having differing opinions on grey areas of the law. He opined that this contributed to NBC 's willingness to let him delve into highly charged topics with no censorship and cited "Mercy '' as an example.
After two seasons of being a recurring guest star, B.D. Wong (Dr. George Huang) was added to the opening credits of the fourth season. This was also the last full season to star Stephanie March as ADA Alexandra Cabot. Previous seasons had shown Christopher Meloni and Mariska Hargitay in every episode. The first episode to break this trend was "Rotten '' which showed Detective Benson working primarily with Detective Tutuola.
Actor Chad Lowe who had previously guest starred in the second season returned to the set of SVU. However, instead of reprising his character, he directed the season finale. The episode "Dominance '' introduced the CSU Captain Judith Siper played by actress and life science executive Caren Browning. Browning continued to appear in this role for the eight seasons that followed. As with Neal Baer, she stated that her role on SVU was beneficial to her job in the healthcare industry: "My work on the show has opened many doors and conversations with the press and clients -- so there 's a real synergy there. ''
In the season premiere "Chameleon '', Sharon Lawrence guest starred as Maggie Peterson, a psychotic prostitute who kills men after she sleeps with them. When discussing the role, Lawrence revealed that her "husband trained as a psychiatrist in a big county psych ward and was very helpful in researching that pathology. It was a great challenge to understand that character 's mind. '' The decorated actress Pam Grier appeared in the fifth episode "Disappearing Acts ''. She appeared again in the fifteenth episode "Pandora '' and was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her time on SVU.
The episode "Angels '' guest starred Pablo Santos as Ernesto Diaz, a Guatemalan boy who endured years of living as a sex slave. Of the previous SVU episodes focusing on child molestation, most of them were careful not to expose the child actors to the actual content of the sex crimes. However, Santos discussed several details in his episode as well as in an interview with Zap2it. According to Neal Baer, "We would never do it with, say, a 6 - year - old, but we felt like, with a kid who 's 15, he can articulate that. It 's not something that 15 - year - olds have n't heard about. We felt that it 's all right. '' "Waste '' explored the question of whether reproductive rights are retained by comatose patients. Bruce Davison and Lisa Pelikan played doctors in the episode marking the first joint appearance by the husband and wife. Philip Bosco 's, whose character has Parkinson 's disease, would later portray the same dementia in The Savages.
Gloria Reuben guest starred in the episode, "Dolls '' as the mother of a missing daughter. Reuben later went on to portray Bureau Chief Assistant District Attorney Christine Danielson in the ninth season and Assistant U.S. Attorney Christine Danielson in the twelfth. Concerning Reuben 's Season 4 performance, Michael Buckley of TV Guide wrote "The scenes between Reuben and Ice - T are particularly good, and the detective bends the rules to try to help the agonizing mother. '' With the episode "Appearances '', John Cullum guest starred as ADA Cabot 's old law professor - turned - defense attorney Barry Moredock who comes in when defendants ' civil and amendment rights are believed to be violated. This role became recurring for Cullum in later seasons. Rob Estes guest stars in "Desperate '' as the prime suspect in his second wife 's murder. Max Jansen Weinstein guest stars as a silent child in "Desperate '', where he witnesses his stepmother 's murder.
Jason Ritter made a guest appearance this season after his father appeared in season 3. His character in "Dominance '' was a disturbed young adult, assisting in murders to gain the respect of his brother played by Ian Somerhalder. In the episode "Fallacy '', Kate Moennig played Cheryl Avery -- a transgender woman who was born Charlie Avery. Moennig considered the show to be her initiation to New York City and said "You have to do Law and Order if you lived in New York! '' In the episode "Perfect '', Barbara Barrie was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. She portrayed Mrs. Haggerty, one of the organizers of a cult who believes she is doing the right thing before having a change of heart at the end of the episode. This episode was the prime - time broadcast network debut for Gale Harold. In the final episode "Soulless '', the detectives are on the trail of a vicious sociopath played by Logan Marshall - Green. The detectives have a debate about whether his character has a conscience, and in this scene, Mariska Hargitay was uncomfortable evoking the pessimistic point of view. Neal Baer told her "I 'm sure you do (believe there is good in everyone) but Olivia Benson does not. ''
The detectives go on the trail of a recently paroled rapist responsible for the murder of a sex worker during a raid at a men 's club and are called to the scene where he was shot in self defense by his own gun. However, the murder weapon was also used in another crime while he was still in prison, leading the detectives to investigate the victim (Sharon Lawrence) through a trail of previously unsolved cases, a spending spree and another victim.
Benson and Stabler try to prove self - defense when a rape victim (Katherine Moennig) kills her attacker. Events take an unusual turn when they learn that the victim is transgender. The victim 's boyfriend (Chad Lindberg) is shocked to learn this and commits suicide. When the woman 's lifelong anguish is detailed in court, Cabot begins to feel guilty about sending her to prison (which would be a male prison for a pre-op transgender woman).
A rape victim, Chloe Dutton (Peyton List), is brought into the hospital one night with a bar stamp on her hand, and when Benson tries to interview her, she insists that she was n't raped after all and that she was drunk. A short time later, the nurse announces that the rapist snatched Chloe from the hospital. Chloe is later found deceased and one of the suspects involved in her death (Logan Marshall - Green) turns out to be a sociopath with a history of murder.
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when was the grenfell tower in london built | Grenfell Tower - wikipedia
Grenfell Tower was a 24 - storey residential tower block in North Kensington, London, England. It was completed in 1974, as part of the first phase of the Lancaster West Estate. The tower was named after Grenfell Road which ran to the south of the structure. The road itself was named after Field Marshal Lord Grenfell (1841 -- 1925), a senior British Army officer.
The concrete structure 's top 20 storeys consisted of 120 flats, with a total of 200 bedrooms. Its first four storeys were nonresidential until its most recent refurbishment in 2015 -- 2016, which converted two of them to residential use, bringing it up to 127 flats and 227 bedrooms. It also received new windows and new (albeit faulty) cladding with thermal insulation during this refurbishment.
A major fire seriously damaged the building on 14 June 2017. At least 80 people were confirmed or presumed dead, according to the Metropolitan Police Service. Demolition of the tower is expected to start towards the end of 2018.
The 24 - storey tower block was designed in 1967 in the Brutalist style of the era by Clifford Wearden and Associates, with the Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council approving its construction in 1970, as part of phase one of the Lancaster West redevelopment project.
The 67.3 metres (221 ft) tall building contained 120 one - and two - bedroom flats (six dwellings per floor on twenty of the twenty - four stories, with the bottom four, the podium, being used for non-residential purposes). The floors were named ground, mezzanine, walkway and walkway + 1, floor 1, floor 2 etc. It housed up to 600 people.
The tower was built to the Parker Morris standards. Each floor was 22m square, giving an approximate usable area of 476 square metres (5,120 sq ft). The layout of each floor was designed to be flexible as none of the partition walls was structural. The residential floors contained a two bedroom flat at each corner, in between which on the east and the west face was a one bedroomed flat. The core contained a stair column and the lift and service shafts. One - bedroom flats were 51.4 m (553 sq ft) in area and two - bedroom flats were 75.5 m (813 sq ft).
The building was innovative, as most LCC tower blocks used traditional brick work for infill whereas here precast insulated concrete blocks were used, giving the walls an unusual texture. The ten exterior concrete columns were also unusual. In addition, other tower blocks of this era had four flats per storey, rather than six.
The original lead architect for the building, Nigel Whitbread, said in 2016 in an interview with Constantine Gras, which was later partially repeated in The Guardian, that the tower had been designed with attention to strength, following the Ronan Point collapse of 1968, "and from what I can see could last another 100 years. '' He described it as a "very simple and straightforward concept. You have a central core containing the lift, staircase and the vertical risers for the services and then you have external perimeter columns. The services are connected to the central boiler and pump which powered the whole development and this is located in the basement of the tower block. This basement is about 4 metres deep and in addition has 2 metres of concrete at its base. This foundation holds up the tower block and in situ concrete columns and slabs and pre-cast beams all tie the building together ''.
Construction, by contractors AE Symes, of Leyton, London, commenced in 1972, with the building being completed in 1974. Before construction the plans at basement level were changed from the original brief to accommodate the need for extra car - parking. In the early 1990s, access to the building was restricted through the use of key fobs, and lift access to the first four storeys was discontinued. The building was renovated in 2015 -- 16.
When the building opened in 1974, it was nicknamed the ' Moroccan tower ' because many renters came from the local Moroccan immigrant community. In recent years some residents had become leaseholders, mostly under the Right to Buy scheme; 14 flats in the tower, and three in Grenfell Walk, were leaseholder owned at the time of the fire.
The renovation was part of a project to utilise the area around Lancaster Green. A new leisure centre had already been built to the east of the green, and the all - weather football pitches to the north of the tower were destined to become Kensington Academy. The renovation aimed to replace the substandard heating system, replace the windows, increase the thermal efficiency of the tower and improve appearance of the tower in the style of the academy.
It aimed to reconfigure the podium levels in order to use the space more efficiently. The nursery would move from 244 m (2,630 sq ft) on the mezzanine floor to 206 m (2,220 sq ft) on the ground floor with immediate access to outside play space. The mezzanine floor would be continues across the full width of the building make space for three four bedroom, 101.5 m (1,093 sq ft) 6 person flats. The Dale Youth boxing club gained almost 100 m (1,100 sq ft) extra space by moving from the ground floor to the walkway level (190 m (2,000 sq ft) to 287 m (3,090 sq ft)). Walkway + 1 level would be converted from offices, to four new four bedroom, 6 person flats.
Plans by Studio E Architects for renovation of the tower were publicised in 2012. The £ 8.7 million refurbishment, undertaken by Rydon Ltd, of Forest Row, East Sussex in conjunction with Artelia for contract administration and Max Fordham as specialist mechanical and electrical consultants, was completed in 2016. As part of the project, in 2015 -- 2016, the concrete structure received new windows and new aluminium composite rainscreen cladding, in part to improve the appearance of the building.
Two types were used: Arconic 's Reynobond PE, which consists of two coil - coated aluminium sheets that are fusion bonded to both sides of a polyethylene core; and Reynolux aluminium sheets. Beneath these, and fixed to the outside of the walls of the flats, was Celotex RS5000 polyisocyanurate (PIR) thermal insulation. The work was carried out by Harley Facades of Crowborough, East Sussex, at a cost of £ 2.6 million.
Nigel Whitbread was lead architect for the Grenfell Tower. In an interview with Constantine Gras, quoted in the Guardian, he said that "he was born in Kenton, his parents had a grocers shop on St Helen 's Gardens, North Kensington. He was educated at Sloane Grammar school and then got a position with the architects Douglas Stephen and Partners, who though small were applying the principles of Le Corbusier and the modernists. '' He worked alongside Kenneth Frampton who was the Technical Editor of the journal Architectural Design; and Elia Zenghelis and Bob Maxwell. He moved to work for Clifford Wearden after the basic plan for Lancaster West Estate had been established. He later worked for 30 years until his retirement at Aukett Associates. Around 2016 he became involved with local residents association drawing up the St Quintin and Woodlands Neighbourhood Plan. This included the Imperial West site in Hammersmith and Fulham.
A residents ' organisation, Grenfell Action Group (GAG), published a blog in which it highlighted major safety problems. In the last four years they published 10 warnings criticising fire safety and maintenance practices at Grenfell Tower.
The Grenfell Tower fire broke out on Wednesday 14 June 2017.
Emergency services received the first report of the fire at 00: 54 local time and it burned for around 24 hours. Initially hundreds of firefighters and 45 fire engines were involved in efforts to control the fire, with many firefighters continuing to attempt to control pockets of fire on the higher floors after most of the rest of the building had been gutted. Residents of surrounding buildings were evacuated due to concerns that the tower could collapse, though the building was later determined to be structurally sound.
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 50 '' N 0 ° 12 ′ 57 '' W / 51.5140 ° N 0.2158 ° W / 51.5140; - 0.2158
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over 12 of the population of the united states is over the age of 65 | Demography of the United States - Wikipedia
The United States is estimated to have a population of 327,589,916 as of April 23, 2018, making it the third most populous country in the world. It is very urbanized, with 81 % residing in cities and suburbs as of 2014 (the worldwide urban rate is 54 %). California and Texas are the most populous states, as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward. New York City is the most populous city in the United States.
The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2016 is 1.82 children per woman, which is below the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1. The United States Census Bureau shows a population increase of 0.75 % for the twelve - month period ending in July 2012. Though high by industrialized country standards, this is below the world average annual rate of 1.1 %.
There were about 125.9 million adult women in the United States in 2014. The number of men was 119.4 million. At age 85 and older, there were almost twice as many women as men (4 million vs. 2.1 million). People under 21 years of age made up over a quarter of the U.S. population (27.1 %), and people age 65 and over made up one - seventh (14.5 %). The national median age was 37.8 years in 2015.
The United States Census Bureau defines white people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' It includes people who reported "White '' or wrote in entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Near Easterner, Arab, or Polish. '' Whites constitute the majority of the U.S. population, with a total of about 245,532,000 or 77.7 % of the population as of 2013. Non-Hispanic whites make up 62.6 % of the country 's population. Despite major changes due to immigration since the 1960s, and the higher birth - rates of nonwhites, the overall current majority of American citizens are still white, and English - speaking, though regional differences exist.
The American population almost quadrupled during the 20th century -- at a growth rate of about 1.3 % a year -- from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000. It is estimated to have reached the 200 million mark in 1967, and the 300 million mark on October 17, 2006. Population growth is fastest among minorities as a whole, and according to the Census Bureau 's estimation for 2012, 50.4 % of American children under the age of 1 belonged to racial and ethnic minority groups. According to Pew Research Center study released in 2018, by 2040, Islam will surpass Judaism to become the second largest religion in the US due to higher immigration and birth rates.
Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 48 % of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 1, 2005, and July 1, 2006. Immigrants and their U.S. - born descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades ahead.
The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 417 million in 2060, a 38 % increase from 2007 (301.3 million), and the United Nations estimates the U.S. population will be 402 million in 2050, an increase of 32 % from 2007. In an official census report, it was reported that 54.4 % (2,150,926 out of 3,953,593) of births in 2010 were non-Hispanic white. This represents an increase of 0.3 % compared to the previous year, which was 54.1 %.
In 1900, when the U.S. population was 76 million, there were 66.8 million Whites in the United States, representing 88 % of the total population, 8.8 million Black Americans, with about 90 % of them still living in Southern states, and slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics.
Under the law, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the number of first - generation immigrants living in the United States has increased, from 9.6 million in 1970 to about 38 million in 2007. Around a million people legally immigrated to the United States per year in the 1990s, up from 250,000 per year in the 1950s. In 2009, 37 % of immigrants originated in Asia, 42 % in North America, and 11 % in Africa.
In 1900, non-Hispanic whites comprised almost 97 % of the population of the 10 largest American cities. The Census Bureau reported that minorities (including Hispanic whites) made up 50.4 % of the children born in the U.S. between July 2010 and July 2011, compared to 37 % in 1990.
In 2010 the state with the lowest fertility rate was Rhode Island, with a rate of 1.63, while Utah had the greatest rate with a rate of 2.45. This correlates with the ages of the states ' populations: Rhode Island has the ninth - oldest median age in the US -- 39.2 -- while Utah has the youngest -- 29.0.
The U.S. total fertility rate as of 2010 census is 1.931:
Other:
(Note that ~ 95 % of Hispanics are included as "white Hispanics '' by CDC, which does not recognize the Census ' "Some other race '' category and counts people in that category as white.)
Source: National Vital statistics report based on 2010 US Census data
The most densely populated state is New Jersey (1,121 / mi or 433 / km). See List of U.S. states by population density for maps and complete statistics.
The United States Census Bureau publishes a popular "dot '' or "nighttime '' map showing population distribution at resolutions of 1,000 and 7,500 people, as well as complete listings of population density by place name.
The United States has dozens of major cities, including 31 "global cities '' of all types, with 10 in the "alpha '' group of global cities: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, DC, Boston, San Francisco, Miami, Philadelphia, Dallas, and Atlanta. As of 2011, the United States had 51 metropolitan areas with a population of over 1,000,000 people each. (See Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas.)
As of 2011, about 250 million Americans live in or around urban areas. That means more than three - quarters of the U.S. population shares just about three percent of the U.S. land area.
The following table shows the populations of the top twenty metropolitan areas. Note Denver and Baltimore have over 2.5 million residents in their metro areas.
The United States Census Bureau collects racial data in accordance with guidelines provided by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and these data are based on self - identification. The Census Bureaus uses five racial classifications that are defined as indicated below. State classifications of race may differ from federal classifications.
Data about race and ethnicity are self - reported to the Census Bureau. Since the 2000 census, Congress has authorised people to identify themselves according to more than one racial classification by selecting more than one category. One only ethnicity may be selected, however, because the U.S. Census recognises only two ethnicities -- Hispanic and Non-Hispanic -- which, obviously, are mutually exclusive; so you can be one or the other, but not both. The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic '' as any person who has an ancestral connection to Spain.
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the racial composition of the United States in 2015 was:
The U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) defines "Hispanic or Latino '' as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race. People who identify with the terms "Hispanic '' or "Latino '' are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the decennial census questionnaire and various Census Bureau survey questionnaires -- "Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano '' or '' Puerto Rican '' or "Cuban '' -- as well as those who indicate that they are "another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. '' People who identify their origin as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race.
There were 22.1 million veterans in 2009, meaning that less than 10 % of Americans served in the Armed Forces.
In 2010, The Washington Post estimated that there were 11 million illegal immigrants in the country.
There were about 2 million people in prison in 2010.
The 2000 U.S. Census counted same - sex couples in an oblique way; asking the sex and the relationship to the "main householder '', whose sex was also asked. One organization specializing in analyzing gay demographic data reported, based on this count in the 2000 census and in the 2000 supplementary survey, that same - sex couples comprised between 0.99 % and 1.13 % of U.S. couples in 2000. A 2006 report issued by The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation concluded that the number of same - sex couples in the U.S. grew from 2000 to 2005, from nearly 600,000 couples in 2000 to almost 777,000 in 2005. A 2006 UCLA study reported that 4.1 % of Americans aged 18 -- 45 identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.
A 2011 report by the Institute estimated that 4 million adults identify as gay or lesbian, representing 1.7 % of the population over 18. A spokesperson said that, until recently, few studies have tried to eliminate people who had occasionally undertaken homosexual behavior or entertained homosexual thoughts, from people who identified as lesbian or gay. (Older estimates have varied depending on methodology and timing; see Demographics of sexual orientation for a list of studies.) The American Community Survey from the 2000 U.S. Census estimated 776,943 same - sex couple households in the country as a whole, representing about 0.5 % of the population.
A report by the U.S. Census Bureau projects a decrease in the ratio of Whites between 2010 and 2050, from 79.5 % to 74.0 %. At the same time, Non-Hispanic Whites are projected to no longer make up a majority of the population by 2042, but will remain the largest single ethnic group. In 2050 they will compose 46.3 % of the population. Non-Hispanic whites made up 85 % of the population in 1960.
The report foresees the Hispanic or Latino population rising from 16 % today to 30 % by 2050, the Black percentage barely rising from 12.9 % to 13.1 %, and Asian Americans upping their 4.6 % share to 7.8 %. The United States had a population of 310 million people in October 2010, and is projected to reach 400 million by 2039 and 439 million in 2050. It is further projected that 82 % of the increase in population from 2005 to 2050 will be due to immigrants and their children.
Of the nation 's children in 2050, 62 % are expected to be of a minority ethnicity, up from 44 % today. Approximately 39 % are projected to be Hispanic or Latino (up from 22 % in 2008), and 38 % are projected to be single - race, non-Hispanic Whites (down from 56 % in 2008). Racial and ethnic minorities surpassed non-Hispanic whites as the largest group of American children under 5 years old in 2015.
In 2008, the U.S. Census Bureau projected the future censuses as follows:
The table below is based mainly on selected data as reported to the United States Census Bureau. It only includes the voluntary self - reported membership of religious bodies with 750,000 or more. The definition of a member is determined by each religious body. In 2004, the US census bureau reported that about 13 % of the population did not identify themselves as a member of any religion.
In a Pew Research Survey performed in 2012, Americans without a religion (atheists, agnostics, nothing in particular, etc.) surpassed Evangelical Protestant Americans with almost 20 % of Americans being nonreligious. If this current growth rate continues, by 2050, around 51 % of Americans will not have a religion.
A survey conducted in 2014 by the same organization indicated that the percentage of Americans unaffiliated with a religion rose to nearly 23 % of the population, up from 16 % in 2007.
Religious affiliation within each state that has the largest deviation compared to the national average, 2001.
Percentage of state populations that identify with a religion rather than "no religion '', 2001.
Plurality religion by state, 2001. Data is unavailable for Alaska and Hawaii.
The United States government does not collect religious data in its census. The survey below, the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008, was a random digit - dialed telephone survey of 54,461 American residential households in the contiguous United States. The 1990 sample size was 113,723; 2001 sample size was 50,281.
Adult respondents were asked the open - ended question, "What is your religion, if any? ''. Interviewers did not prompt or offer a suggested list of potential answers. The religion of the spouse or partner was also asked. If the initial answer was "Protestant '' or "Christian '' further questions were asked to probe which particular denomination. About one - third of the sample was asked more detailed demographic questions.
Religious Self - Identification of the U.S. Adult Population: 1990, 2001, 2008 Figures are not adjusted for refusals to reply; investigators suspect refusals are possibly more representative of "no religion '' than any other group.
In 2010, the median age for marriage for men was 27; for women, 26.
In 2006, the median household income in the United States was around $46,326. Household and personal income depends on variables such as race, number of income earners, educational attainment and marital status.
Social classes in the United States lack distinct boundaries and may overlap. Even their existence (when distinguished from economic strata) is controversial. The following table provides a summary of some prominent academic theories on the stratification of American society:
In 2010, the average man weighed 194.7 pounds (88.3 kg); the average woman 164.7 pounds (74.7 kg). The height of an American man was 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) and woman 5 feet 3.8 inches (1.621 m) The average BMI is 27.3 for males (overweight) and 28.5 for females (overweight).
According to a Gallup poll in 2012, an estimated 26 % of the population were obese, 21 % smoked, and 11 % had diabetes.
A nationwide study reported by The New York Times in 2010 indicated that 19.5 % of teens, aged 12 -- 19, had developed "slight '' hearing loss. "Slight '' was defined as an inability to hear at 16 to 24 decibels.
According to the Centers for Disease Control in 2011, an estimated 1.2 million people were living with HIV / AIDS in the United States.
A study by William Strauss and Neil Howe, in their books Generations and Fourth Turning, looked at generational similarities and differences going back to the 15th century and concluded that over 80 - year spans, generations proceed through four stages of about 20 years each.
A definitive recent study of US generational cohorts was done by Schuman and Scott (2012) in which a broad sample of adults of all ages was asked, "What world events are especially important to you? '' They found that 33 events were mentioned with great frequency. When the ages of the respondents were correlated with the expressed importance rankings, seven (some put 8 or 9) distinct cohorts became evident.
Today the following descriptors are frequently used for these cohorts:
Subdivided groups are present when peak boom years or inverted peak bust years are present, and may be represented by a normal or inverted bell - shaped curve (rather than a straight curve). The boom subdivided cohorts may be considered as "pre-peak '' (including peak year) and "post-peak ''. The year 1957 was the baby boom peak with 4.3 million births and 122.7 fertility rate. Although post-peak births (such as trailing edge boomers) are in decline, and sometimes referred to as a "bust '', there are still a relatively large number of births. The dearth - in - birth bust cohorts include those up to the valley birth year, and those including and beyond, leading up to the subsequent normal birth rate. The baby boom began around 1943 to 1946.
From the decline in U.S. birth rates starting in 1958 and the introduction of the birth control pill in 1960, the Baby Boomer normal distribution curve is negatively skewed. The trend in birth rates from 1958 to 1961 show a tendency to end late in the decade at approximately 1969, thus returning to pre-WWII levels, with 12 years of rising and 12 years of declining birth rates. Pre-war birth rates were defined as anywhere between 1939 and 1941 by demographers such as the Taeuber 's, Philip M. Hauser and William Fielding Ogburn.
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
Median ages are 37.3 years; males are 36.1 years; females are 38.5 years estimated as of 2012.
As of 2012, people are distributed by age as follows:
The growth rate is 0.76 % as estimated from 2014 -- 2010 by the U.S. Census
The birth rate is 12.5 births / 1,000 population, estimated as of 2013. This was the lowest since records began. There were 3,957,577 births in 2013.
In 2009, Time magazine reported that 40 % of births were to unmarried women. The following is a breakdown by race for unwed births: 17 % Asian, 29 % White, 53 % Hispanics, 66 % Native Americans, and 72 % Black American.
The drop in the birth rate from 2007 to 2009 is believed to be associated with the Late - 2000s recession.
A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that more than half (51 percent) of live hospital births in 2008 and 2011 were male.
Per U.S. federal government data released in March 2011, births fell 4 % from 2007 to 2009, the largest drop in the U.S. for any two - year period since the 1970s. Births have declined for three consecutive years, and are now 7 % below the peak in 2007. This drop has continued through 2010, according to data released by the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics in June 2011. Numerous experts have suggested that this decline is largely a reflection of unfavorable economic conditions. This connection between birth rates and economic downturns partly stems from the fact that American birth rates have now fallen to levels that are comparable to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Teen birth rates in the U.S. are at the lowest level in U.S. history. In fact, teen birth rates in the U.S. have consistently decreased since 1991 through 2011, except for a brief increase between 2005 and 2007. The other aberration from this otherwise steady decline in teen birth rates is the 6 % decrease in birth rates for 15 - to 19 - year - olds between 2008 and 2009. Despite these years of decrease, U.S. teen birth rates are still higher than in other developed nations. Racial differences prevail with teen birth and pregnancy rates as well. The American Indian / Alaska Native, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic black teen pregnancy rates are more than double the non-Hispanic white teen birth rate.
Note: Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. Also note that growth arrows indicate an increase or decrease in the number of births, not in the fertility rate.
NOTE:
As of July 2010, it was estimated that there were 8.18 deaths / 1,000 population per year. In 2015 it was 8.44 / 1,000 population / year.
13 % of the population was foreign - born in 2009 -- a rise of 350 % since 1970 when foreign - born people accounted for 3.7 % of the population, including 11.2 million illegal immigrants, 80 % of whom come from Latin America. Latin America is the largest region - of - birth group, accounting for over half (53 %) of all foreign born population in US, and thus is also the largest source of both legal and illegal immigration to US. In 2011, there are 18.1 million naturalized citizens in the United States, accounting for 45 % of the foreign - born population (40.4 million) and 6 % of the total US population at the time, and around 680,000 legal immigrants are naturalized annually.
4.32 people migrate per 1,000 population, estimated in 2010.
As of 2010:
As of 2010:
As of 2010:
As of 2016:
As of July 2017, the U.S. unemployment rate was 4.3 percent (U3 rate).
As of July 2016, the U.S. unemployment rate was 4.9 percent (U3 rate).
As of July 2015, the U.S. unemployment rate was 5.3 percent (U3 rate).
As of July 2014, the U.S. unemployment rate was 6.2 percent (U3 rate).
The U6 unemployment rate as of April 2017 was 8.6 percent. The U6 unemployment rate counts not only people without work seeking full - time employment (the more familiar U3 rate), but also counts "marginally attached workers and those working part - time for economic reasons. '' Note that some of these part - time workers counted as employed by U3 could be working as little as an hour a week. And the "marginally attached workers '' include those who have gotten discouraged and stopped looking, but still want to work. The age considered for this calculation is 16 years and over.
In 2013, about 15 % of Americans moved. Most of these, 67 %, moved within the same county. Of the 33 % who moved beyond local county boundaries, 13 % of those moved more than 200 miles (320 km).
Lists:
Income:
Population:
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who played the brownies in the movie willow | Willow (film) - wikipedia
Willow is a 1988 American high fantasy film directed by Ron Howard, produced and with a story by George Lucas, and starring Warwick Davis, Val Kilmer, Joanne Whalley, Jean Marsh, and Billy Barty. Davis plays the eponymous lead character and hero: a reluctant farmer who plays a critical role in protecting a special baby from a tyrannical queen who vows to destroy her and take over the world in a high fantasy setting.
Lucas conceived the idea for the film in 1972, approaching Howard to direct during the post-production phase of Cocoon in 1985. Bob Dolman was brought in to write the screenplay, coming up with seven drafts before finishing in late 1986. It was then set up at Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and principal photography began in April 1987, finishing the following October. The majority of filming took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England, as well as Wales and New Zealand. Industrial Light & Magic created the visual effects sequences, which led to a revolutionary breakthrough with digital morphing technology. The film was released in 1988 to mixed reviews from critics, but was a modest financial success, received two Academy Award nominations, and has developed a cult following amongst fantasy fans.
When a prophecy states that a female child with a special birthmark will herald the downfall of the evil sorceress Queen Bavmorda, she imprisons all pregnant women in her realm to prevent its fulfillment. When the child is born, the mother begs the midwife to hide the infant and smuggle her to safety. The midwife reluctantly accepts and leaves Nockmaar Castle unnoticed. The mother is executed; the midwife is hunted down and eventually found. Knowing she can not escape, the midwife sets the baby on a makeshift raft of grass and sends her down a river before being killed by Nockmaar hounds. Bavmorda, furious about the escape, sends her daughter Sorsha and her army 's commander, General Kael, to find the baby.
The baby drifts downriver to a village of Nelwyn (dwarves). She comes into the care of Willow Ufgood, a kind farmer and conjurer with hopes to become a real sorcerer. His wife Kaiya and his children fall in love with the baby immediately, and Willow, after some resistance, quickly grows to love her as well. The village is attacked by a lone Nockmaar hound; after being killed by the village warriors, they deduce it was after a baby. Willow reveals the baby to the High Aldwin, the village sorcerer. He declares the child special and that she must be taken back to the Daikini (humans). Willow, due to his love for the child, is selected to accompany the party of volunteers in returning the baby. At the Daikini Crossroads, they find a human warrior named Madmartigan trapped in a crow 's cage. While the rest of the party want to give the baby to Madmartigan and go home immediately, Willow and his friend Meegosh refuse, so the others leave. After spending the night at the crossroads and meeting an army led by Airk Thaughbaer, an old friend of Madmartigan 's marching against Bavmorda, Willow reluctantly decides to free Madmartigan and hand the baby over to him.
As Meegosh and Willow are headed home, they find the baby was stolen by a group of Brownies. They chase the Brownies and are trapped, but are rescued by the Fairy Queen Cherlindrea. Cherlindrea tells Willow that the baby is Elora Danan, the future empress of Tir Asleen, and Bavmorda 's bane. She gives Willow her wand and assigns him the task of helping Elora fulfill her destiny. Willow sends Meegosh home and two of the Brownies, Franjean and Rool, are assigned to help Willow find the sorceress Fin Raziel. The three of them find Madmartigan at a tavern, where he is disguised as a woman to hide from Lug, a cuckolded husband. Sorsha arrives and reveals his identity; Lug, furious upon the realization that Madmartigan is not a woman, starts a brawl, allowing Willow, Madmartigan, and the brownies to escape. Madmartigan guides them to the lake where Raziel lives before departing.
They find Raziel, but discover she has been transformed into a possum by Bavmorda. Willow and his party return with her to shore but encounter Sorsha, who already has Madmartigan in custody. They are taken to a snowbound mountain camp of the Nockmaar army where Willow tries to restore Raziel, but turns her into a rook instead. Madmartigan is accidentally dosed with love dust by the Brownies during their escape and ends up declaring his undying love for Sorsha, much to her disbelief. The prisoners escape with the baby and reach a village at the foot of the mountain. While hiding, they again encounter Airk and what remains of his army, recently defeated by Bavmorda 's forces. Madmartigan proclaims his loyalty to the Nelwyn and promises to protect Willow and Elora.
They take Sorsha hostage, but she escapes to tell Kael where they are going. They arrive at the castle of Tir Asleen only to discover that it is now overrun by trolls and the inhabitants have all been cursed by Bavmorda. Madmartigan finds armor and weapons as he prepares for the assault from Kael and Sorsha. During the fighting, Sorsha realizes she has feelings for Madmartigan and decides to join him and Willow in opposing her mother. Willow accidentally turns a troll into an eborsisk, a massive, fire - breathing, two - headed dragon - like monster that begins attacking everything it sees. Airk arrives with his army, turning the tide of battle. Kael kidnaps Elora and escapes to Nockmaar where he reports Sorsha 's betrayal to Bavmorda. She orders the preparation of the ritual to banish Elora 's soul.
Airk 's army, Willow, and the others arrive at Nockmaar to lay siege, but Bavmorda turns most of them into pigs. Willow escapes when Raziel has him use a spell to avoid transformation. He succeeds in turning Raziel human again, and she removes Bavmorda 's spell from the army. They trick their way into the castle and, in the ensuing battle, Airk is killed by Kael, who is in turn slain by Madmartigan after a lengthy sword duel. Sorsha leads Willow and Raziel to the ritual chamber, interrupting Elora 's sacrifice. Bavmorda incapacitates Sorsha and then duels magically with Raziel; Raziel loses but is only knocked out. Willow uses an "old disappearing pig trick '' to fool Bavmorda into thinking that Elora has been sent to a dimension beyond her reach; enraged, Bavmorda accidentally triggers the final part of the ritual, banishing her own soul instead.
Willow is rewarded with a magic book to aid him in becoming a sorcerer, and Sorsha and Madmartigan remain in a restored Tir Asleen to raise Elora together. Willow returns home to a hero 's welcome and performs a true magic trick, much to the delight of the High Aldwin, before being happily reunited with his family.
George Lucas conceived the idea for the film (originally titled Munchkins) in 1972. Similar in intent to Star Wars, he created "a number of well - known mythological situations for a young audience ''. During the production of Return of the Jedi in 1982, Lucas approached Warwick Davis, who was portraying Wicket the Ewok, about playing Willow Ufgood. Five years passed before he was actually cast in the role. Lucas "thought it would be great to use a little person in a lead role. A lot of my movies are about a little guy against the system, and this was just a more literal interpretation of that idea. ''
Lucas explained that he had to wait until the mid-1980s to make the film because visual effects technology was finally advanced enough to execute his vision. Meanwhile, actor - turned - director Ron Howard was looking to do a fantasy film. He was at Industrial Light & Magic during the post-production phase of Cocoon, when he was first approached by Lucas to direct Willow. He had previously starred in Lucas 's American Graffiti, and Lucas felt that he and Howard shared a symbiotic relationship similar to the one he enjoyed with Steven Spielberg. Howard nominated Bob Dolman to write the screenplay based on Lucas 's story. Dolman had worked with him on a 1983 television pilot called Little Shots that had not resulted in a series, and Lucas admired Dolman 's work on the sitcom WKRP in Cincinnati.
Dolman joined Howard and Lucas at Skywalker Ranch for a series of lengthy story conferences, and wrote seven drafts of his script between the spring and fall of 1986. Pre-production began in late 1986. Various major film studios turned down the chance to distribute and co-finance it with Lucasfilm because they believed the fantasy genre was unsuccessful. This was largely due to films such as Krull, Legend, Dragonslayer, and Labyrinth. Lucas took it to Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), which was headed by Alan Ladd Jr. Ladd and Lucas shared a relationship as far back as the mid-1970s, when Ladd, running 20th Century Fox, greenlighted Lucas 's idea for Star Wars. However, in 1986, MGM was facing financial troubles, and major investment in a fantasy film was perceived as a risk. Ladd advanced half the $35 million budget for it in return for theatrical and television rights, leaving Lucasfilm with home video and pay television rights to offer in exchange for the other half. RCA / Columbia Pictures Home Video paid $15 million to Lucas in exchange for the video rights.
Lucas based the character of General Kael (Pat Roach) on the film critic Pauline Kael, a fact that was not lost on Kael in her printed review of the film. She referred to General Kael as an "homage a moi ''. Similarly, the two - headed dragon was called an "Eborsisk '' after film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert.
Principal photography began on April 2, 1987 and ended that following October. Interior footage took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England, while location shooting took place in Wales and New Zealand. Lucas initially visualized shooting the film similar to Return of the Jedi, with studio scenes at Elstree and locations in Northern California, but the idea eventually faded. However, some exteriors were done around Skywalker Ranch and on location at Burney Falls, near Mount Shasta. The Chinese government refused Lucas the chance for a brief location shoot. He then sent a group of photographers to South China to photograph specific scenery, which was then used for background blue screen footage. Tongariro National Park in New Zealand was chosen to house Bavmorda 's castle.
Lucasfilm 's Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) created the visual effects sequences. The script called for Willow to restore Fin Raziel (Patricia Hayes) from a goat to her human form. Willow recites what he thinks is the appropriate spell, but turns the goat into an ostrich, a peacock, a tortoise and, finally, a tiger, before returning her to normal. ILM supervisor Dennis Muren considered using stop motion animation for the scene. He also explained that another traditional and practical way in the late 1980s to execute this sequence would have been through the use of an optical dissolve with cutaways at various stages.
Muren found both stop motion and optical effects to be too technically challenging and decided that the transformation scene would be a perfect opportunity for ILM to create advances with digital morphing technology. He proposed filming each animal, and the actress doubling for Hayes, and then feeding the images into a computer program developed by Doug Smythe. The program would then create a smooth transition from one stage to another before outputting the result back onto film. Smythe began development of the necessary software in September 1987. By March 1988, the impressive result Muren and fellow designer David Allen achieved what would represent a breakthrough for computer - generated imagery (CGI). The techniques developed for the sequence were later utilized by ILM for Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
The head of ILM 's animation department, Wes Takahashi, supervised the film 's animation sequences.
The film score was written by James Horner and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra.
"I am a musicologist, a doctor of music. Therefore I listened to, studied and analysed a lot of music. I also enjoy metaphors, the art of quoting and of cycles. The harmonic draft of the Willow score, and most particularly its spiritual side, came from such a cycle, from such mythology and music history that I was taught, and that I myself convey with my own emotions and compositions. ''
Eclectic influences on the score include Leos Janacek 's Glagolitic Mass, Mozart 's "Requiem '', "The Nine Splendid Stags '' from Béla Bartók, Edvard Grieg 's "Arabian Dance '' for the theater play Peer Gynt, and compositions by Sergei Prokofiev.
"Willow 's Theme '' purposefully (see Horner 's quote above) contains a reworking / alteration of part of the theme of the first movement ("Lebhaft '') of Robert Schumann 's Symphony No. 3 referencing it, while "Elora Danan 's Theme '' shows a reference to the Bulgarian folk song "Mir Stanke Le '' (Мир Станке ле), also known as the "Harvest Song from Thrace ''.
The film was shown and promoted at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival. It was released on May 20, 1988 in 1,209 theaters, earning $8,300,169 in its opening weekend, placing number one at the weekend box office. Lucas had hoped it would earn as much money as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, but the film faced early competition with Crocodile Dundee II, Big and Rambo III. Making over $57 million at the North American box office, it was not the blockbuster hit insiders had anticipated. It was not, however, a financial flop either, as it made a profit because of strong international, home video, and television sales.
The film was released to mixed reviews from critics. As of May 2018, based on 31 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 52 % of the critics gave the film a positive review with an average score of 5.6 / 10.
Janet Maslin from The New York Times praised Lucas 's storytelling, but was critical of Ron Howard 's direction. "Howard appears to have had his hands full in simply harnessing the special effects, '' Maslin said.
Desson Thomson writing in The Washington Post, explained "Rob Reiner 's similar fairytale adventure The Princess Bride (which the cinematographer Adrian Biddle also shot) managed to evoke volumes more without razzle - dazzle. It 's a sad thing to be faulting Lucas, maker of the Star Wars trilogy and Raiders of the Lost Ark, for forgetting the tricks of entertainment. '' Mike Clark in USA Today wrote that "the rainstorm wrap - up, in which Good edges Evil is like Led Zeppelin Meets The Wild Bunch. The film is probably too much for young children and possibly too much of the same for cynics. But any 6 -- 13 - year - old who sees this may be bitten by the "movie bug '' for life. ''
At the Academy Awards, the film was nominated for Sound Effects Editing and Visual Effects, but lost both to Who Framed Roger Rabbit, which was similarly done by Industrial Light & Magic. It won Best Costume Design at the Saturn Awards, where it was also nominated for Warwick Davis for Best Performance by a Younger Actor (lost to Fred Savage for Vice Versa) and Jean Marsh for Best Supporting Actress (lost to Sylvia Sidney for Beetlejuice). It also lost Best Fantasy Film and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation to Who Framed Roger Rabbit. It was also nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Screenplay, which lost to Cocktail and Worst Supporting Actor for Billy Barty, who lost to Dan Aykroyd for Caddyshack II.
The film was released on DVD as a "special edition '' in November 2001 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The release included an audio commentary by Warwick Davis and two "making of '' featurettes. In the commentary, Davis confirms that there were a number of "lost scenes '' previously rumored to have been deleted from it including a battle in the valley, Willow battling a boy who transforms into a shark in a lake while retrieving Fin Raziel, and an extended sorceress duel at the climax. 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray Disc on March 12, 2013, with an all - new transfer supervised by George Lucas.
In 1988, Tor Books released The Willow Game, a two - to six - player adventure board game based on the film designed by Greg Costikyan.
Three video games based on the film were released. Mindscape published an action game in 1988 for Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and DOS. Capcom published two different games in 1989, a platform game for the arcades and a role - playing game for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Wayland Drew adapted Lucas 's story into a film novel, providing additional background information to several major characters and various additional scenes, including an encounter with a lake monster near Razel 's island which was filmed, but ultimately not used in the movie. A segment of that scene 's filmed material can be found in the DVD 's "Making of Willow '' documentary.
Lucas outlined the Chronicles of the Shadow War trilogy to follow the film and hired comic book writer / novelist Chris Claremont to adapt them into a series of books. They take place about fifteen years after the original film and feature the teenage Elora Danan as a central character.
In April 2005, Lucas and Davis commented that a television series acting as a sequel was under consideration. In June 2008, Davis reiterated his hopes to return for a theatrically - released second installment of the film. On February 15, 2013 Val Kilmer posted a photo via Twitter implying that it was "Right around the corner! ''. However, this coincided with a Life 's Too Short mockumentary featuring Davis and Kilmer, and is likely to have been a hoax. In March 2013, Davis indicated an interest in seeing a sequel (perhaps as a TV series), but gave no indication that any development was ongoing. In September 2016, Warwick Davis went on record again in stating that he would not like to see a remake of Willow, but he would like to see a sequel that explores if Willow became a sorcerer or not and what happened to Elora Danan when she grew up. In 2018 talks surfaced again about some type of sequel. "I do n't want to give away too much, but there is a little talk of Willow, ' ' Howard told ComicBook.com. ' ' We would n't call it Willow 2, I think it would focus a lot on Elora Danan, although Willow would have to be significantly involved. ' '
Kilmer tweeted in 2018 ' ' You just ca n't keep a good thing down. There 's TOP SECRET SCRIPT DISCUSSIONS ABOUT TOP POPULAR TOP FUN action packed films that ca n't be discussed, and Bob Dylan wants a prequel to TOMBSTONE, and so do I, I finally started writing it, and now there 's official talk of a sequel to WILLOW. Dear sweet George Lucas has always defended Willow and often compared it to the megasmashes of the HOBBIT trilogy and beyond. Ive kept in touch with Warwick all thru the years and it would be a joy to get back into that world after all these years. Or twirling guns BEFORE ol Doc hooks up with the Earps... Even tho someone brings up Doc Holliday virtually every day I 'm in public, I actually get more people wanting a sequel to THE SAINT. That one was really set up for it. I 've got a great outline for that one - more fun characters and situations like cold fusion, that are n't so science fiction as they were 20 years ago. This could be a lot of fun? ' '
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in what war did america lose the most soldiers | United States Military Casualties of War - wikipedia
This article lists the United States 's military dead, wounded, and missing person totals for wars and major deployments.
"Deaths per day '' is the total number of Americans killed in military service, divided by the number of days between the dates of the commencement and end of hostilities. "Deaths per population '' is the total number of deaths in military service, divided by the U.S. population of the year indicated.
a. Revolutionary War: All figures from the Revolutionary War are rounded estimates. Commonly cited casualty figures provided by the Department of Defense are 4,435 killed and 6,188 wounded, although the original government report that generated these numbers warned that the totals were incomplete and far too low. In 1974, historian Howard Peckham and a team of researchers came up with a total of 6,824 killed in action and 8,445 wounded. Because of incomplete records, Peckham estimated that this new total number of killed in action was still about 1,000 too low. Military historian John Shy subsequently estimated the total killed in action at 8,000, and argued that the number of wounded was probably far higher, about 25,000. The "other '' deaths are primarily from disease, including prisoners who died on British prison ships.
b. Other Actions Against Pirates: Includes actions fought in the West Indies, the Greek Isles, off of Louisiana, China and Vietnam. Other deaths resulted from disease and accidents.
c. Civil War: All Union casualty figures, and Confederate killed in action, from The Oxford Companion to American Military History except where noted (NPS figures). estimate of total Confederate dead from James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (Oxford University Press, 1988), 854. Newer estimates place the total death toll at 650,000 to 850,000. 148 of the Union dead were U.S. Marines. CA. Civil War April 2, 2012 Doctor David Hacker after extensive research offered new casualty rates higher by 20 %; his work has been accepted by the academic community and is represented here.
d. World War I figures include expeditions in North Russia and Siberia. See also World War I casualties
da. World War II Note: as of March 31, 1946 there were an estimated 286,959 dead of whom 246,492 were identified; of 40,467 who were unidentified 18,641 were located (10,986 reposed in military cemeteries and 7,655 in isolated graves) and 21,826 were reported not located. As of April 6, 1946 there were 539 American Military Cemeteries which contained 241,500 dead. Note the American Battle Monuments Commission database for the World War II reports that in 18 ABMC Cemeteries total of 93,238 buried and 78,979 missing and that "The World War II database on this web site contains the names of those buried at our cemeteries, or listed as Missing in Action, buried or lost at sea. It does not contain the names of the 233,174 Americans returned to the United States for burial... '' Similarly, the ABMC Records do not cover inter-War deaths such as the Port Chicago disaster in which 320 died. As of June 2018 total of US World War II casualties (Military and Civilian) not recovered is 72,906
e. Korean War: Note: gives Dead as 33,746 and Wounded as 103, 284 and MIA as 8,177. The American Battle Monuments Commission database for the Korean War reports that "The Department of Defense reports that 54,246 American service men and women lost their lives during the Korean War. This includes all losses worldwide. Since the Korean War Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. honors all U.S. Military who lost their lives during the War, we have tried to obtain the names of those who died in other areas besides Korea during the period June 27, 1950 to July 27, 1954, one year after the Korean Armistice... ''. (For a breakdown of Worldwide casualties of 54,246 see The Korean War educator at gives figures as In - theatre / non theater) After their retreat in 1950, dead Marines and soldiers were buried at a temporary gravesite near Hungnam, North Korea. During "Operation Glory '' which occurred from July to November 1954 the dead of each side were exchanged; remains of 4,167 US soldiers / Marines were exchanged for 13,528 North Korean / Chinese dead. After "Operation Glory '' 416 Korean War "unknowns '' were buried in the Punchbowl Cemetery. According to a DPMO white paper 1,394 names were also transmitted during "Operation Glory '' from the Chinese and North Koreans, of whom 858 names proved to be correct; of the 4,167 returned remains were found to be 4,219 individuals of whom 2,944 were found to be Americans of whom all but 416 were identified by name. Of 239 Korean War unaccounted for: 186 not associated with Punchbowl unknowns (176 were identified and of the remaining 10 cases 4 were non-Americans of Asiatic descent; one was British; 3 were identified and 2 cases unconfirmed); Of 10 Korean War "Punchbowl Unknowns '' 6 were identified. The W.A. Johnson listing of 496 POWs - including 25 Civilians - who died in North Korea can be found here and there
Listed as MIA: 7,699
ea. Cold War -- Korea and Vietnam and Middle East - additional US Casualties:
f. Iraq War. See also Casualties of the Iraq War. Sources:.
g. Afghanistan. Casualties include those that occurred in Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guantanamo Bay (Cuba), Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Philippines, Seychelles, Sudan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Yemen.
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who has won rte sports person of the year five times | RTÉ Sports Person of the Year - wikipedia
The RTÉ Sports Person of the Year Award is the titular award of the RTÉ Sports Awards ceremony, which takes place each December. The winner is the Irish sportsperson (from the island of Ireland) judged to have achieved the most that year. The winner was originally chosen by a special panel of RTÉ journalists and editorial staff, but was selected by a public vote from a pre-determined shortlist in 2016. The first Irish sports award ceremony took place in 1985, and was closely modelled on the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award.
Three people have won the award multiple times: athlete Sonia O'Sullivan won the award five times, including a record three successive awards, and golfers Pádraig Harrington, with three wins, and Rory McIlroy, who won it twice. The oldest recipient of the award is Christy O'Connor Jnr, who won in 1989 aged 41. Rory McIlroy, who first won in 2011, aged 22, is the youngest winner. Ten sporting disciplines have been represented; golf has the highest representation, with seven recipients.
Eamonn Darcy, Ronan Rafferty and Des Smyth, who won the Alfred Dunhill Cup in 1988, are the only non-individual winners of the award. Counting them separately, there have been twenty - seven winners of the award. Five of these have been Northern Irish. The most recent award was made in 2016 to mixed martial artist Conor McGregor.
The winner is in bold.
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what is the cruising speed of a boeing 737 | Boeing 737 - wikipedia
The Boeing 737 is a short - to medium - range twinjet narrow - body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes in the United States. Originally developed as a shorter, lower - cost twin - engine airliner derived from the 707 and 727, the 737 has developed into a family of ten passenger models with capacities from 85 to 215 passengers. The 737 is Boeing 's only narrow - body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation (- 700, - 800, and - 900ER) and the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX variants currently being built.
Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737 - 100 made its first flight in April 1967 and entered airline service in February 1968 at Lufthansa. Next, the lengthened 737 - 200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s, Boeing launched the longer − 300, − 400, and − 500 models, subsequently referred to as the Boeing 737 Classic series and featuring CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements.
The 737 Next Generation was introduced in the 1990s, with a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded "glass '' cockpit, and new interior. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four − 600, − 700, − 800, and − 900 models, with lengths ranging from 102 to 138 ft (31.09 to 42.06 m). Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 was revised again in the 2010s for greater efficiency with the 737 MAX series featuring CFM International LEAP - 1B engines and improved winglets. The 737 MAX entered service in 2017.
The 737 series is the best - selling jet commercial airliner in history. The 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,659 aircraft delivered and 4,427 orders yet to be fulfilled as of August 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington. Many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707, 727, 757, DC - 9, and MD - 80 / MD - 90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, with two departing or landing somewhere every five seconds.
Boeing had been studying short - haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11, 1964, and Boeing 's intense market research yielded plans for a 50 - to 60 - passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi (100 to 1,600 km) long.
Initial design featured podded engines on the aft fuselage and a T - tail like the 727, and five abreast seating, but Joe Sutter rather placed the engines under the wings to lighten the structure, enabling fuselage widening for six abreast seating. The 737 design was presented in October 1964 at the Air Transport Association maintenance and engineering conference by chief project engineer Jack Steiner, where its elaborate high - lift devices raised concerns about maintenance costs and dispatch reliability. The launch decision was made by the board on 1 February 1965 for the $150 million development.
Lufthansa became the launch customer on February 19, 1965, with an order for 21 aircraft, worth $67 million in 1965, after the airline received assurances from Boeing that the 737 project would not be canceled. Consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats.
On April 5, 1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s. United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 cm (36 in) ahead of, and 102 cm (40 in) behind the wing. The longer version was designated 737 - 200, with the original short - body aircraft becoming the 737 - 100.
Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time. Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC - 111, Douglas DC - 9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60 % of the structure and systems of the existing 727, the most notable being the fuselage cross-section. This fuselage permitted six - abreast seating compared to the rival BAC - 111 and DC - 9 's five - abreast layout.
Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the engines low to the ground for easy ramp inspection and servicing. Many thickness variations for the engine attachment strut were tested in the wind tunnel and the most desirable shape for high speed was found to be one which was relatively thick, filling the narrow channels formed between the wing and the top of the nacelle, particularly on the outboard side.
Originally, the span arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727, but somewhat thicker. A substantial improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D - 1 low - bypass ratio turbofan engine, delivering 14,500 lbf (64 kN) thrust. With the wing - mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T - tail style of the Boeing 727.
The initial assembly of the 737 was adjacent to Boeing Field (now officially named King County International Airport) because the factory in Renton was filled to capacity with the building of the 707 and 727. After 271 aircraft were built, production moved to Renton in late 1970. A significant portion of fuselage assembly occurs in Wichita, Kansas, which was previously done by Boeing but now by Spirit AeroSystems, which purchased some of Boeing 's assets in Wichita.
The fuselage is joined with the wings and landing gear, then moves down the assembly line for the engines, avionics, and interiors. After rolling out the aircraft, Boeing tests the systems and engines before its maiden flight to Boeing Field, where it is painted and fine - tuned before delivery to the customer.
The first of six - 100 prototypes rolled out in December 1966, and made its maiden flight on April 9, 1967, piloted by Brien Wygle and Lew Wallick. On December 15, 1967, the Federal Aviation Administration certified the - 100 for commercial flight, issuing Type Certificate A16WE. The 737 was the first aircraft to have, as part of its initial certification, approval for Category II approaches. Lufthansa received its first aircraft on December 28, 1967, and on February 10, 1968, became the first non-American airline to launch a new Boeing aircraft. Lufthansa was the only significant customer to purchase the 737 - 100. Only 30 aircraft were produced.
The 737 - 200 had its maiden flight on August 8, 1967. It was certified by the FAA on December 21, 1967, and the inaugural flight for United was on April 28, 1968, from Chicago to Grand Rapids, Michigan. The lengthened - 200 was widely preferred over the - 100 by airlines.
Sales were low in the early 1970s and after a peak of 114 deliveries in 1969, only 22 were shipped in 1972 with 19 in backlog, but the US Air Force saved the program by ordering T - 43s. African airlines orders kept the production running until the 1978 US Airline Deregulation Act where demand was better for a six - abreast narrow - body aircraft, particularly re-engined with the CFM56, struggling at the time.
The original engine nacelles incorporated thrust reversers taken from the 727 outboard nacelles. They proved to be relatively ineffective and tended to lift the aircraft up off the runway when deployed. This reduced the downforce on the main wheels thereby reducing the effectiveness of the wheel brakes. In 1968, an improvement to the thrust reversal system was introduced. A 48 - inch tailpipe extension was added and new, target - style, thrust reversers were incorporated. The thrust reverser doors were set 35 degrees away from the vertical to allow the exhaust to be deflected inboard and over the wings and outboard and under the wings. The improvement became standard on all aircraft after March 1969, and a retrofit was provided for active aircraft. Boeing fixed the drag issue by introducing new longer nacelle / wing fairings, and improved the airflow over the flaps and slats. The production line also introduced an improvement to the flap system, allowing increased use during takeoff and landing. All these changes gave the aircraft a boost to payload and range, and improved short - field performance. In May 1971, after aircraft # 135, all improvements, including more powerful engines and a greater fuel capacity, were incorporated into the 737 - 200, giving it a 15 % increase in payload and range over the original - 200s. This became known as the 737 - 200 Advanced, which became the production standard in June 1971.
In 1970, Boeing received only 37 orders. Facing financial difficulties, Boeing considered closing the 737 production - line and selling the design to Japanese aviation companies. After the cancellation of the Boeing Supersonic Transport, and scaling back of 747 production, enough funds were freed up to continue the project. In a bid to increase sales by offering a variety of options, Boeing offered a 737C (Convertible) model in both - 100 and - 200 lengths. This model featured a 340 cm × 221 cm (134 in × 87 in) freight door just behind the cockpit, and a strengthened floor with rollers, which allowed for palletized cargo. A 737QC (Quick Change) version with palletized seating allowed for faster configuration changes between cargo and passenger flights. With the improved short - field capabilities of the 737, Boeing offered the option on the - 200 of the gravel kit, which enables this aircraft to operate on remote, unpaved runways. Until retiring its - 200 fleet in 2007, Alaska Airlines used this option for some of its rural operations in Alaska. Northern Canadian operators Air Inuit, Air North, Canadian North, First Air and Nolinor Aviation still operate the gravel kit aircraft in Northern Canada, where gravel runways are common.
In 1988, the initial production run of the - 200 model ended after producing 1,114 aircraft. The last one was delivered to Xiamen Airlines on August 8, 1988.
Development began in 1979 for the 737 's first major revision. Boeing wanted to increase capacity and range, incorporating improvements to upgrade the aircraft to modern specifications, while also retaining commonality with previous 737 variants. In 1980, preliminary aircraft specifications of the variant, dubbed 737 - 300, were released at the Farnborough Airshow.
Boeing engineer Mark Gregoire led a design team, which cooperated with CFM International to select, modify and deploy a new engine and nacelle that would make the 737 - 300 into a viable aircraft. They chose the CFM56 - 3B - 1 high - bypass turbofan engine to power the aircraft, which yielded significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise, but also posed an engineering challenge, given the low ground clearance of the 737 and the larger diameter of the engine over the original Pratt & Whitney engines. Gregoire 's team and CFM solved the problem by reducing the size of the fan (which made the engine slightly less efficient than it had been forecast to be), placing the engine ahead of the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the sides of the engine pod, giving the engine a distinctive non-circular "hamster pouch '' air intake. Earlier customers for the CFM56 included the U.S. Air Force with its program to re-engine KC - 135 tankers.
The passenger capacity of the aircraft was increased to 149 by extending the fuselage around the wing by 2.87 meters (9 ft 5 in). The wing incorporated several changes for improved aerodynamics. The wingtip was extended 9 in (23 cm), and the wingspan by 1 ft 9 in (53 cm). The leading - edge slats and trailing - edge flaps were adjusted. The tailfin was redesigned, the flight deck was improved with the optional EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrumentation System), and the passenger cabin incorporated improvements similar to those developed on the Boeing 757. The prototype - 300, the 1,001 st 737 built, first flew on 24 February 1984 with pilot Jim McRoberts. It and two production aircraft flew a nine - month - long certification program.
In June 1986, Boeing announced the development of the 737 - 400, which stretched the fuselage a further 10 ft (3.0 m), increasing the passenger load to 188. The - 400s first flight was on February 19, 1988, and, after a seven - month / 500 - hour flight - testing run, entered service with Piedmont Airlines that October.
The − 500 series was offered, due to customer demand, as a modern and direct replacement of the 737 - 200. It incorporated the improvements of the 737 Classic series, allowing longer routes with fewer passengers to be more economical than with the 737 - 300. The fuselage length of the − 500 is 1 ft 7 in (48 cm) longer than the 737 - 200, accommodating up to 140 passengers. Both glass and older - style mechanical cockpits arrangements were available. Using the CFM56 - 3 engine also gave a 25 % increase in fuel efficiency over the older - 200s P&W engines.
The 737 - 500 was launched in 1987 by Southwest Airlines, with an order for 20 aircraft, and flew for the first time on June 30, 1989. A single prototype flew 375 hours for the certification process, and on February 28, 1990, Southwest Airlines received the first delivery.
After the introduction of the − 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 series, the - 300 / 400 / 500 series was called the 737 Classic series.
The price of jet fuel reached a peak in 2008, when airlines devoted 40 % of the retail price of an air ticket to pay for fuel, versus 15 % in 2000. Consequently, in that year carriers retired Classic 737 series aircraft to reduce fuel consumption; replacements consisted of more efficient Next Generation 737s or Airbus A320 / A319 / A318 series aircraft. On June 4, 2008, United Airlines announced it would retire all 94 of its Classic 737 aircraft (64 737 - 300 and 30 737 - 500 aircraft), replacing them with Airbus A320 jets taken from its Ted subsidiary, which has been shut down.
Prompted by the modern Airbus A320, Boeing initiated development of an updated series of aircraft in 1991. After working with potential customers, the 737 Next Generation (NG) program was announced on November 17, 1993. The 737NG encompasses the − 600, − 700, − 800, and − 900, and is to date the most significant upgrade of the airframe. The performance of the 737NG is, in essence, that of a new aircraft, but important commonality is retained from previous 737 models.
The wing was redesigned with a new airfoil section, greater chord, increased wing span by 16 ft (4.9 m) and area by 25 %, which increased total fuel capacity by 30 %. New, quieter, more fuel - efficient CFM56 - 7B engines were used. The wing, engine, and fuel capacity improvements combined increase the 737 's range by 900 nautical miles to over 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km), now permitting transcontinental service. With the increased fuel capacity, higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) specifications are offered. The 737NG included redesigned vertical stabilizers, and winglets were available on most models. The flight deck was upgraded with modern avionics, and passenger cabin improvements similar to those on the Boeing 777, including more curved surfaces and larger overhead bins than previous - generation 737s. The Next Generation 737 interior was also adopted on the Boeing 757 - 300.
The first NG to roll out was a - 700, on December 8, 1996. This aircraft, the 2,843 rd 737 built, first flew on February 9, 1997. The prototype − 800 rolled out on June 30, 1997, and first flew on July 31, 1997. The smallest of the new variants, the - 600s, is the same size as the - 500. It was the last in this series to launch, in December 1997. First flying January 22, 1998, it was given certification on August 18, 1998. A flight test program was operated by 10 aircraft; 3 - 600s, 4 - 700s, and 3 - 800s.
In 2004, Boeing offered a Short Field Performance package in response to the needs of Gol Transportes Aéreos, which frequently operates from restricted airports. The enhancements improve takeoff and landing performance. The optional package is available for the 737NG models and standard equipment for the 737 - 900ER. The CFM56 - 7B Evolution nacelle began testing in August 2009 to be used on the new 737 PIP (Performance Improvement Package) due to enter service mid-2011. This new improvement is said to shave at least 1 % off overall drag and have some weight benefits. Overall, it is claimed to have a 2 % improvement on fuel burn on longer stages. In 2010, new interior options for the 737NG included the 787 - style Boeing Sky Interior.
Boeing delivered the 5,000 th 737 to Southwest Airlines on February 13, 2006. Boeing delivered the 6,000 th 737 to Norwegian Air Shuttle in April 2009. Boeing delivered the 8,000 th 737 to United Airlines on April 16, 2014. The Airbus A320 family has outsold the 737NG over the past decade, although its order totals include the A321 and A318, which have also rivaled Boeing 's 757 and 717, respectively. The 737NG has also outsold the A320 on an annual basis in past years, with the next generation series extending the jetliner 's run as the most widely sold and commonly flown airliner family since its introduction. The 10,000 th aircraft was ordered in July 2012.
Boeing produces 42 of the type per month in 2015, and expects to increase to 52 per month in 2018. The slow selling 737 - 600 is no longer being marketed and was removed from the Boeing website as of 2016, its position as the smallest model being taken by the more popular 737 - 700.
The 737, particularly the 737 Next Generation, has been featured in many flight simulation games, including Infinite Flight and Microsoft Flight Simulator X.
Since 2006, Boeing has discussed replacing the 737 with a "clean sheet '' design (internally named "Boeing Y1 '') that could follow the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. A decision on this replacement was postponed, and delayed into 2011. In November 2014, it was reported that Boeing plans to develop a new aircraft to replace the 737 in the 2030 time frame. The airplane is to have a similar fuselage, but probably made from composite materials similar to the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Boeing also considers a parallel development along with the 757 replacement, similar to when the 757 / 767 were developed in the 1970s.
On July 20, 2011, Boeing announced plans for a new 737 version to be powered by the CFM International LEAP - X engine, with American Airlines intending to order 100 of these aircraft. On August 30, 2011, Boeing confirmed the launch of the 737 new engine variant, called the 737 MAX, with new CFM International LEAP - 1B engines.
On September 23, 2015, Boeing announced a collaboration with Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China Ltd. to build a completion and delivery facility for the 737 in China, the first outside the U.S.
The 737 's main landing gear under the wings at mid-cabin rotates into wells in the aircraft 's belly. The legs are covered by partial doors, and "brush - like '' seals aerodynamically smooth (or "fair '') the wheels in the wells. The sides of the tires are exposed to the air in flight. "Hub caps '' complete the aerodynamic profile of the wheels. It is forbidden to operate without the caps, because they are linked to the ground speed sensor that interfaces with the anti-skid brake system. The dark circles of the tires are clearly visible when a 737 takes off, or is at low altitude.
737s are not equipped with fuel dump systems. The original aircraft were too small to require them, and adding a fuel dump system to the later, larger variants would have incurred a large weight penalty. Boeing instead demonstrated an "equivalent level of safety ''. Depending upon the nature of the emergency, 737s either circle to burn off fuel or land overweight. If the latter is the case, the aircraft is inspected by maintenance personnel for damage and then returned to service if none is found.
Engines on the 737 Classic series (- 300, - 400, - 500) and Next - Generation series (- 600, - 700, - 800, - 900) do not have circular inlets like most aircraft. The 737 Classic series featured CFM56 turbofan engines, which yielded significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise over the JT8D engines used on the − 100 and − 200, but also posed an engineering challenge given the low ground clearance of the 737. Boeing and engine supplier CFMI solved the problem by placing the engine ahead of (rather than below) the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the sides (rather than the bottom) of the engine pod, giving the 737 a distinctive non-circular air intake.
The wing also incorporated changes for improved aerodynamics. The engines ' accessory gearbox was moved from the 6 o'clock position under the engine to the 4 o'clock position (from a front / forward looking aft perspective). This side - mounted gearbox gives the engine a somewhat triangular rounded shape. Because the engine is close to the ground, 737 - 300s and later models are more prone to engine foreign object damage (FOD). The improved CFM56 - 7 turbofan engine on the 737 Next Generation is 7 % more fuel - efficient than the previous CFM56 - 3 in the 737 classics. The newest 737 variants, the 737 MAX family, are to feature CFM International LEAP - 1B engines with a 1.73 m fan diameter. These engines are expected to be 10 - 12 % more efficient than the CFM56 - 7B engines on the 737 Next Generation family.
The primary flight controls are intrinsically safe. In the event of total hydraulic system failure or double engine failure, they will automatically and seamlessly revert to control via servo tab. In this mode, the servo tabs aerodynamically control the elevators and ailerons; these servo tabs are in turn controlled by cables running to the control yoke. The pilot 's muscle forces alone control the tabs. For the 737 Next Generation, a six - screen LCD glass cockpit with modern avionics was implemented while retaining crew commonality with previous generation 737.
Most 737 cockpits are equipped with "eyebrow windows '' positioned above the main glareshield. Eyebrow windows were a feature of the original 707 and 727. They allowed for greater visibility in turns, and offered better sky views if navigating by stars. With modern avionics, they became redundant, and many pilots actually placed newspapers or other objects in them to block out sun glare. They were eliminated from the 737 cockpit design in 2004, although they are still installed at customer request. These windows are sometimes removed and plugged, usually during maintenance overhauls, and can be distinguished by the metal plug which differs from the smooth metal in later aircraft that were not originally fitted with the windows.
The 737 has four different winglet types: 737 - 200 Mini-winglet, 737 Classic / NG Blended Winglet, 737 Split Scimitar Winglet, and 737 MAX Advanced Technology Winglet. The 737 - 200 Mini-winglets are part of the Quiet Wing Corp modification kit that received certification in 2005.
Blended winglets are in production on 737 NG aircraft and are available for retrofit on 737 Classic models. These winglets stand approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) tall and are installed at the wing tips. They help to reduce fuel burn (by reducing vortex drag), engine wear, and takeoff noise. Overall fuel efficiency improvement is up to five percent through the reduction of lift - induced drag.
Split Scimitar winglets became available in 2014 for the 737 - 800, 737 - 900ER, BBJ2 and BBJ3, and in 2015 for the 737 - 700, 737 - 900 and BBJ1. Split Scimitar winglets were developed by Aviation Partners Inc. (API), the same Seattle based corporation that developed the blended winglets; the Split Scimitar winglets produce up to a 5.5 % fuel savings per aircraft compared to 3.3 % savings for the blended winglets. Southwest Airlines flew their first flight of a 737 - 800 with Split Scimitar winglets on April 14, 2014. The next generation 737, 737 Max, will feature an Advanced Technology (AT) Winglet that is produced by Boeing. The Boeing AT Winglet resembles a cross between the Blended Winglet and the Split Scimitar Winglet.
As of July 2008 the 737 features carbon brakes manufactured by Messier - Bugatti. These new brakes, now certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, weigh 550 -- 700 lb (250 -- 320 kg) less than the steel brakes normally fitted to the Next - Gen 737s (weight savings depend on whether standard or high - capacity brakes are fitted). A weight reduction of 700 pounds on a Boeing 737 - 800 results in 0.5 % reduction in fuel burn.
A short - field design package is available for the 737 - 600, - 700, and - 800, allowing operators to fly increased payload to and from airports with runways under 5,000 feet (1,500 m). The package consists of sealed leading edge slats (improved lift), a two - position tail skid (enabling greater protection against tail strikes that may be caused by the lower landing speeds), and increased flight spoiler deflection on the ground. These improvements are standard on the 737 - 900ER.
The 737 interior arrangement has changed in successive generations. The original 737 interior was restyled for the 737 Classic models using 757 designs, while 777 architecture was used for the debut of the Next Generation 737. Designed using Boeing 's new cabin concepts, the latest Sky Interior features sculpted sidewalls and redesigned window housings, along with increased headroom and LED mood lighting. Larger pivot - bins similar to those on the 777 and 787 have more luggage space than prior designs. The Sky Interior is also designed to improve cabin noise levels by 2 -- 4 dB. The first 737 equipped with the Boeing Sky Interior was delivered to Flydubai in late 2010. Continental Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, and TUIFly have also received Sky Interior - equipped 737s.
The 737 models can be divided into three generations, including nine major variants. The "Original '' models consist of the 737 - 100, 737 - 200 / - 200 Advanced. The "Classic '' models consist of the 737 - 300, 737 - 400, and 737 - 500. The "Next Generation '' variants consist of the 737 - 600, 737 - 700 / - 700ER, 737 - 800, and 737 - 900 / - 900ER. Of these nine variants, many feature additional versions such as the T - 43, which was a modified Boeing 737 - 200 used by the United States Air Force (USAF).
The fourth generation derivative - the 737 MAX - is currently under development and will encompass the 737 - MAX - 7, 737 - MAX - 8, and 737 - MAX - 9 which will replace the - 700, - 800 and - 900 / 900ER versions of the NG family, respectively.
The initial model was the 737 - 100. It was launched in February 1965. The - 100 was rolled out on January 17, 1967, had its first flight on April 9, 1967 and entered service with Lufthansa in February 1968. The aircraft is the smallest variant of the 737. A total of 30 737 - 100s were ordered and delivered; the final commercial delivery took place on October 31, 1969 to Malaysia -- Singapore Airlines. No 737 - 100s remain in commercial service. The original Boeing prototype, last operated by NASA and retired more than 30 years after its maiden flight, is on exhibit in the Museum of Flight in Seattle.
The 737 - 200 is a 737 - 100 with an extended fuselage, launched by an order from United Airlines in 1965. The − 200 was rolled out on June 29, 1967, and entered service at United in April 1968. The 737 - 200 Advanced is an improved version of the - 200, introduced into service by All Nippon Airways on May 20, 1971. The - 200 Advanced has improved aerodynamics, automatic wheel brakes, more powerful engines, more fuel capacity, and longer range than the - 100. Boeing also provided the 737 - 200C (Cargo), which allowed for conversion between passenger and cargo use and the 737 - 200QC (Quick Change), which facilitated a rapid conversion between roles. The 1,095 th and last delivery of a - 200 series aircraft was in August 1988 to Xiamen Airlines. Many 737 - 200s have been phased out or replaced by newer 737 versions. In July 2015, there were a combined 99 Boeing 737 - 200s in service, mostly with "second and third tier '' airlines, and those of developing nations.
With a gravelkit modification the 737 - 200 can use unimproved or unpaved landing strips, such as gravel runways, that other similarly - sized jet aircraft can not. Gravel - kitted 737 - 200 Combis are currently used by Canadian North, First Air, Air Inuit, Nolinor and Air North in northern Canada. For many years, Alaska Airlines made use of gravel - kitted 737 - 200s to serve Alaska 's many unimproved runways across the state.
Nineteen 737 - 200s were used to train aircraft navigators for the U.S. Air Force, designated T - 43. Some were modified into CT - 43s, which are used to transport passengers, and one was modified as the NT - 43A Radar Test Bed. The first was delivered on July 31, 1973 and the last on July 19, 1974. The Indonesian Air Force ordered three modified 737 - 200s, designated Boeing 737 - 2x9 Surveiller. They were used as Maritime reconnaissance (MPA) / transport aircraft, fitted with SLAMMAR (Side - looking Multi-mission Airborne Radar). The aircraft were delivered between May 1982 and October 1983.
After 40 years the final 737 - 200 aircraft in the U.S. flying scheduled passenger service were phased out in March 2008, with the last flights of Aloha Airlines. The variant still sees regular service through North American charter operators such as Sierra Pacific.
The Boeing 737 Classic is the name given to the - 300 / - 400 / - 500 series of the Boeing 737 after the introduction of the - 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 series. The Classic series was originally introduced as the ' new generation ' of the 737. Produced from 1984 to 2000, 1,988 aircraft were delivered.
By the early 1990s, it became clear that the new Airbus A320 was a serious threat to Boeing 's market share, as Airbus won previously loyal 737 customers such as Lufthansa and United Airlines. In November 1993, Boeing 's board of directors authorized the Next Generation program to replace the 737 Classic series. The − 600, − 700, − 800, and − 900 series were planned. After engineering trade studies and discussions with major 737 customers, Boeing proceeded to launch the 737 Next Generation series in late 1993, with 6,511 built as of August 2017. Variants include the P - 8 Poseidon.
After Airbus launched the Airbus A320neo family in December 2010, achieving 1,029 orders by June 2011 and breaking Boeing 's monopoly with American Airlines with an order for 130 A320neos that July, Boeing launched the 737 MAX program on August 30, 2011. Boeing will be offering four variants: 737 MAX 7, 737 MAX 8, 737 MAX 9 and announced the 737 MAX 10 in June 2017. These variants will replace the 737 - 700, 737 - 800, and 737 - 900ER, respectively. The main changes are the use of CFM International LEAP - 1B engines, the addition of fly - by - wire control to the spoilers, and the lengthening of the nose landing gear. Deliveries are scheduled to begin in 2017. On December 13, 2011, Boeing announced that Southwest Airlines was the launch customer, having placed the first firm order -- for 150 of the aircraft. Its first commercial flight was by a MAX 8 with Malindo Air on May 22, 2017.
The Boeing Business Jet is a customized version of the 737. Plans for a business jet version of the 737 are not new. In the late 1980s, Boeing marketed the 77 - 33 jet, a business jet version of the 737 - 300. The name was short - lived. After the introduction of the next generation series, Boeing introduced the Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) series. The BBJ1 was similar in dimensions to the 737 - 700 but had additional features, including stronger wings and landing gear from the 737 - 800, and had increased range (through the use of extra fuel tanks) over the other 737 models. The first BBJ rolled out on August 11, 1998 and flew for the first time on September 4.
On October 11, 1999 Boeing launched the BBJ2. Based on the 737 - 800, it is 5.84 meters (19 ft 2 in) longer than the BBJ, with 25 % more cabin space and twice the baggage space, but has slightly reduced range. It is also fitted with auxiliary belly fuel tanks and winglets. The first BBJ2 was delivered on 28 February 2001.
Boeing 's BBJ3 is based on the 737 - 900ER. The BBJ3 has 1,120 square feet (104 m) of floor space, 35 % more interior space, and 89 % more luggage space than the BBJ2. It has an auxiliary fuel system, giving it a range of up to 4,725 nautical miles (8,751 km), and a Head - up display. Boeing completed the first example in August 2008. This aircraft 's cabin is pressurized to a simulated 6,500 - foot (2,000 m) altitude.
Boeing is studying plans to offer passenger to freighter conversion for the 737 - 800. Boeing has signed an agreement with Chinese YTO Airlines to provide the airline with 737 - 800 Boeing Converted Freighters (BCFs) pending a planned program launch.
The 737 is operated by more than 500 airlines, flying to 1,200 destinations in 190 countries. With over 10,000 aircraft ordered, over 7,000 delivered, and over 4,500 still in service, at any given time there are on average 1,250 airborne worldwide. On average, somewhere in the world, a 737 took off or landed every five seconds in 2006. Since entering service in 1968, the 737 has carried over 12 billion passengers over 74 billion miles (120 billion km; 65 billion nm), and has accumulated more than 296 million hours in the air. The 737 represents more than 25 % of the worldwide fleet of large commercial jet airliners.
As of August 2013, 140 Boeing 737 - 200 aircraft were in civilian service.
Many countries operate the 737 passenger, BBJ, and cargo variants in government or military applications. Users with 737s include:
The Boeing 737 Classics and the Boeing 737 Next Generation have faced main challenges from the Airbus A320 family introduced in 1988, which was developed to compete also with the McDonnell Douglas MD - 80 / 90 series and the Boeing 717 (formerly named McDonnell Douglas MD - 95).
Boeing has shipped 9,659 aircraft of the 737 family since late 1967, with 8,153 of those deliveries since March 1, 1988, and has a further 4,427 on firm order as of August 2017. In comparison, Airbus has delivered 7,731 A320 series aircraft since their certification / first delivery in early 1988, with another 5,520 on firm order (as of August 2017).
In total, 9,659 units of the Boeing 737 have been built and delivered as of August 31, 2017.
As of 31 August 2017, 14,086 units of the Boeing 737 have been ordered, with 4,427 units still to be delivered. Units built by model type for 737 Original, Classic, Next Generation, and Boeing Business Jet families are as follows:
As of October 2015, a total of 368 aviation accidents and incidents involving all 737 aircraft have occurred, including 184 hull loss accidents resulting in a total of 4,862 fatalities. The 737 has also been in 111 hijackings involving 325 fatalities.
An analysis by Boeing on commercial jet airplane accidents in the period 1959 -- 2013 showed that the original series had a hull loss rate of 1.75 per million departures versus 0.54 for the classic series and 0.27 for the Next Generation series.
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where did the ninja turtle names come from | Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles - Wikipedia
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (often shortened to TMNT or Ninja Turtles) are four fictional teenaged anthropomorphic turtles named after Renaissance Italian artists. They were trained by their anthropomorphic rat sensei in the art of ninjutsu. From their home in the sewers of New York City, they battle petty criminals, evil overlords, mutated creatures, and alien invaders while attempting to remain hidden from society. They were created by Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird.
The characters originated in comic books published by Mirage Studios and expanded into cartoon series, films, video games, toys, and other merchandise. During the peak of the franchise 's popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it gained worldwide success and fame.
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles first appeared in an American comic book published by Mirage Studios in 1984 in Dover, New Hampshire. The concept arose from a humorous drawing sketched out by Eastman during a casual evening of brainstorming and bad television with Laird. Using money from a tax refund, together with a loan from Eastman 's uncle, the young artists self - published a single - issue comic intended to parody four of the most popular comics of the early 1980s: Marvel Comics ' Daredevil and New Mutants, Dave Sim 's Cerebus, and Frank Miller 's Ronin. The TMNT comic book series has been published in various incarnations by various comic book companies since 1984.
The Turtles started their rise to mainstream success when a licensing agent, Mark Freedman, sought out Eastman and Laird to propose wider merchandising opportunities for the franchise. In 1986, Dark Horse Miniatures produced a set of 15 - mm (approximately 0.6 inch) lead figurines. In January 1987, Eastman and Laird visited the offices of Playmates Toys, a small California toy company that wanted to expand into the action - figure market. Development was undertaken by a creative team of companies and individuals: Jerry Sachs, advertising agent of Sachs - Finley Agency, brought together the animators at Murakami - Wolf - Swenson headed by Fred Wolf. Wolf and his team combined concepts and ideas with the Playmates marketing crew, headed by Karl Aaronian, vice president (VP) of sales Richard Sallis, and VP of Playmates Bill Carlson.
Aaronian brought on several designers and concepteur and writer John C. Schulte, and worked out the simple backstory that would live on toy packaging for the entire run of the product and show. Sachs called the high concept pitch "Green Against Brick ''. The sense of humor was honed with the collaboration of the Murakami - Wolf - Swenson animation firm 's writers. Playmates and their team essentially served as associate producers and contributing writers to the miniseries that was first launched to sell - in the toy action figures. Phrases like "Heroes in a half shell '' and many of the comical catch phrases and battle cries ("Turtle power! '') came from the writing and conceptualization of this creative team. As the series developed, veteran writer Jack Mendelsohn came on board as both a story editor and scriptwriter. David Wise, Michael Charles Hill, and Michael Reaves wrote most of the scripts.
The miniseries was repeated three times before it found an audience. Once the product started selling, the show got syndicated and picked up and backed by Group W, which funded the next round of animation. The show then went network, on CBS. Accompanied by the popular Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1987 TV series, and the subsequent action figure line, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles became a mainstream success. At the height of the frenzy, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Turtles ' likenesses could be found on a wide range of children 's merchandise, from Pez dispensers to skateboards, breakfast cereal, video games, school supplies, linens, towels, cameras, and toy shaving kits.
While the animated TV series, which lasted for 10 seasons until 1996, was more light - hearted, the comic - book series continued in a much darker and grittier tone. In 1990, a live - action feature film was released, with the Turtles and Splinter being portrayed by actors in partially animatronic suits created by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop. The film became one of the most successful independent films and spawned two sequels, as well as inspiring a three - dimensional animated film set in the same continuity, which was released in 2007 under the title TMNT. After the end of the cartoon series, a live - action series in the vein of the films was created in 1997 in conjunction with Saban Entertainment. The series was called Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation and introduced a fifth, female turtle called Venus de Milo. However, the series was largely unsuccessful and was canceled after one season.
The property lay dormant until 2003, when a new animated TV series also entitled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles began to air on Fox Box (4Kids TV). The series storyline stuck much closer to the original Mirage comic book series, but was still less violent. It lasted for seven seasons and 156 episodes, ending in February 2009.
On October 21, 2009, it was announced that cable channel Nickelodeon (a subsidiary of Viacom) had purchased all of Mirage 's rights to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles property. Mirage retains the rights to publish 18 issues a year, though the future involvement of Mirage with the Turtles and the future of Mirage Studios itself is unknown. Nickelodeon has developed a new CGI - animated TMNT television series and partnered with fellow Viacom company Paramount Pictures to bring a new TMNT movie to theaters. The TV show premiered on Nickelodeon on September 29, 2012. The live - action film, produced by Platinum Dunes, Nickelodeon Movies, and Paramount Pictures, directed by Jonathan Liebesman, and produced by Michael Bay, was released on August 8, 2014.
Eastman and Laird 's Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles premiered in May 1984, at a comic book convention held at a local Sheraton Hotel in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. It was published by Mirage Studios in an oversized magazine - style format using black and white artwork on cheap newsprint, limited to a print run of only 3,250 copies. Through a clever media kit that included a press release in Comic Buyer 's Guide # 542 and a full - page ad placed in Comic Buyer 's Guide # 547, the public 's interest was piqued and thus began the Turtle phenomenon. The small print runs made these early comics and trade magazines instant collector items, and within months, they were trading for over 50 times their cover price. The name "Mirage Studios '' was chosen because of Eastman and Laird 's lack of a professional art studio at the start of their career, before their creation made them both multimillionaires.
Mirage also published a bimonthly companion book entitled Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, featuring art by Ryan Brown and Jim Lawson, which was designed to fill in the gaps of continuity in the TMNT universe. This put the original series and Tales in the same mainstream continuity, and the two are thus canon to each other. The title 's first volume was from 1987 -- 1989, released in alternating months with the regular Eastman and Laird book. All seven issues of volume one have been collected in trade paperback form twice, and 25 issues of volume two have been collected in trades of five issues each.
As the TMNT phenomenon proliferated to other media, Eastman and Laird found themselves administrating an international merchandising juggernaut. However, this prevented the two creators from participating in the day - to - day work of writing and illustrating a monthly comic book. So, many guest artists were invited to showcase their unique talents in the TMNT universe. The breadth of diversity found in the various short stories gave the series a disjointed, anthology - like feel. Fans stuck with the series, and what was originally intended as a one - shot became a continuing series that lasted for 129 issues, spanning four separate volumes (having 62, 13, 23, and 32 issues in the four distinct volumes).
In June 1996, Image Comics took over publishing the title in what is considered "volume 3 '' of the series. It was a slightly more action - oriented TMNT series and although notable for inflicting major physical changes on the main characters, Peter Laird, co-creator of the TMNT, has said this volume is no longer in canon as he began publishing volume 4 at Mirage Publishing. As an explanation, he offered in the pages of the volume 4 (issue # 8) letter column: "It just did n't feel right. ''
After taking back the series from Image Comics, Mirage Studios resumed publication of a fourth volume in December 2001, under the simple title TMNT. After the publication of issue number 28, writer Peter Laird placed the series on an eight - month hiatus to devote himself to production of the 2007 TMNT movie. However, after that eight months had passed, Mirage 's official website went on to list the series as in "indefinite hiatus ''. In January 2008, Mirage had finally confirmed that the series would return in May 2008. Issues 29 and 30 had a limited printing of 1,000 copies each, and were available through the official TMNT website. Although the purchase agreement with Nickelodeon allows Laird to produce up to 18 comics a year set in the original Mirage continuity, no new material was released in the next few years. The latest issue of TMNT volume 4 was issue # 32 which came out in print May 4, 2014, and online on May 9, 2014, almost 4 years after issue # 31 was last released.
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures was a comic - book series published from August 1988 to October 1995 by Archie Comics. The initial storylines were close adaptations of the 1987 TV series, but with the fifth issue, Eastman and Laird decided to hand the series over to Mirage Studios employees Ryan Brown and Stephen Murphy, who immediately abandoned the animated series adaptations and took the title in a decidedly different direction with all - new original adventures, including the uniting of several of the series ' recurring characters as a separate team, the Mighty Mutanimals.
A monthly comic inspired by the 2003 TV series was published by Dreamwave Productions from June to December 2003. It was written by Peter David and illustrated by LeSean Thomas. In the first four issues, which were the only ones directly adapted from the TV series, the story was told from the perspectives of April, Baxter, Casey, and a pair of New York City police officers.
In April 2011, IDW Publishing announced that they had acquired the license to publish new collections of Mirage storylines and a new ongoing series. The first issue of the new series was released on August 24, 2011. Turtles co-creator Kevin Eastman and Tom Waltz write, with Eastman and Dan Duncan handling art chores.
The Turtles have appeared in several manga series.
A daily comic strip written and illustrated by Dan Berger began in 1990. It featured an adventure story Monday through Friday and activity puzzles on weekends (with fan art appearing later). The comic strip was published in syndication until its cancellation in December 1996. At its highest point in popularity, it was published in over 250 newspapers.
When little - known Playmates Toys, Inc. was approached about producing a TMNTs action figure line, they were cautious of the risk and requested that a television deal be acquired first. On December 28, 1987, the TMNT 's first cartoon series began, starting as a five - part miniseries and becoming a regular Saturday - morning syndicated series on October 1, 1988, with 13 more episodes. The series was produced by Murakami - Wolf - Swenson Film Productions, Inc. (later Fred Wolf Films). Mirage Studios does not own the rights to this cartoon series. The show places a much stronger emphasis on humor than the comics do. Here, the Ninja Turtles are portrayed as four wise - cracking, pizza - obsessed superheroes that fight the forces of evil from their sewer hideout, and they make their first appearance in masks color - coded to each turtle, where previously they had all worn red.
The cast included new and different characters, such as Bebop and Rocksteady and the Neutrinos. Original characters such as Splinter, Shredder, and the Foot Soldiers stayed true to the comics in appearance and alignment only. Instead of being Hamato Yoshi 's mutated pet rat, Splinter was a mutated Hamato himself. The Foot Soldiers changed from human ninjas to an endless supply of robotic grunts, allowing large numbers of them to be destroyed without anyone dying (this was a very important decision in terms of the show 's child audience; excessive violence would have alienated parents of children, the show 's target demographic). Krang, one of the series ' most memorable villains, was inspired by the design of the Utrom, a benign alien race from the Mirage comics. The animated Krang, however, was instead an evil warlord from Dimension X. Baxter Stockman, whose race was changed from black to white either due to apprehension toward depicting a villainous African American character in a children 's cartoon or that for Shredder to boss around a black Stockman would be perceived as racist. Either way, Stockman was rewritten as a shy and meek lackey to Shredder, later mutating into an anthropomorphic housefly. During the final two seasons of the show, to combat the rising popularity of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, the lead villain switched to Lord Dregg, an evil alien overlord bent on world conquest by trying to distract the public into believing that the Turtles were the enemy instead of himself.
Starting on September 25, 1989, the series was expanded to weekdays and it had 47 more episodes for the new season. There were 28 new syndicated episodes for season 4 and only 13 of those episodes aired in 1990. The "European Vacation '' episodes were not seen in the United States until USA Network started showing reruns in late 1993 and the "Awesome Easter '' episodes were not seen until 1991. These episodes were delayed because of animation or scheduling problems. The turtles are also well known for their use of idiomatic expressions characteristic of the surfer lingo of the time, especially by Michelangelo. Words and phrases included "bummer '', "dude '', "bogus '', "radical '', "far - out '', "tubuloso '', "bodacious '', and possibly the most recognized, "cowabunga ''. On April 21, 1990, a drug - prevention television special was broadcast on ABC, NBC, and CBS named Cartoon All - Stars to the Rescue that featured some of the most popular cartoons at the time; representing TMNT was Michelangelo, voiced by Townsend Coleman.
Starting on September 8, 1990 (with a different opening sequence), the show began its run on CBS. The CBS weekend edition ran for a full hour until 1994, initially airing a few Saturday - exclusive episodes back - to - back. Also, a brief "Turtle Tips '' segment aired between the two episodes, which served as public - service announcement about the environment or other issues. After 1994, the show was reduced to just a half - hour and only eight episodes per season were produced, grouped into a "CBS Action Zone '' block that also featured WildC. A.T.s. and Skeleton Warriors, both of which were canceled after one season; though TMNTs retained their "Action Zone '' introduction. The two shows in the block were also produced by Fred Wolf Films. The series ran until November 2, 1996, when it aired its final episode. Its enormous popularity gave rise to its numerous imitators, including the Battletoads, Cheetahmen, Wild West C.O.W. - Boys of Moo Mesa, Road Rovers, Street Sharks, Extreme Dinosaurs, and Biker Mice from Mars. Currently, all 193 episodes are available on DVD and VHS.
In addition to the American series, a Japan - exclusive two - episode anime original video animation (OVA) series was made in 1996, titled Mutant Turtles: Choujin Densetsu - hen. The OVA is similar in tone to the 1987 TV series and uses the same voices from TV Tokyo 's Japanese dub of the 1987 TV series. The first episode was made to advertise the TMNT Supermutants toys. It featured the Turtles as superheroes, that gained costumes and superpowers with the use of Mutastones, while Shredder, Bebop and Rocksteady gained supervillain powers with the use of a Dark Mutastone. As with the Super Sentai and Power Rangers franchises, the four Turtles could combine to form the giant Turtle Saint. The second episode was created to advertise the Metal Mutants toys in which the characters gain Saint Seiya-esque mystical metal armor that can transform into beasts.
In 1997 -- 1998, the Turtles starred in a live - action television series called Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation that directly follows the events of the first three movies. A fifth turtle was introduced, a female named Venus de Milo, who was skilled in the mystical arts of the shinobi. The series was intended as a loose continuation of the movie franchise, as Shredder had been defeated and the Ninja Turtles encountered new villains. Other connections to the feature films include the fact that Splinter 's ear was cut, the Foot Soldiers were humans, and the Turtles lived in the abandoned subway station seen in the second and third movies. The Next Mutation Turtles made a guest appearance on Power Rangers in Space. It was canceled after one season of 26 episodes.
In 2003, a new TMNT series produced by 4Kids Entertainment began airing on the "FoxBox '' (later renamed "4Kids TV '') programming block. It later moved to "The CW4Kids '' block. The series was co-produced by Mirage Studios, and Mirage owned one - third of the rights to the series. Mirage 's significant stake in creative control resulted in a cartoon that hews more closely to the original comics, creating a darker and edgier feel than the 1987 cartoon, but still remains lighthearted enough to be considered appropriate for children.
This series lasted until 2009, ending with a feature - length television movie titled Turtles Forever, which was produced in conjunction with the 25th anniversary of the TMNTs franchise and featured the Turtles of the 2003 series teaming up with their counterparts from the 1987 series. 4Kidstv.com featured all the episodes of the series, until September 2010, when Nickelodeon brought the series and air the series occasionally on Nicktoons and Nickelodeon normally during TMNTs marathons.
Nickelodeon acquired the global rights to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles from the Mirage Group and 4Kids Entertainment, Inc. and announced a new CGI - animated TMNT television series. The 2012 version is characterized by anime - like iconography and emphasis on mutagen continuing to wreak havoc on the everyday lives of the Turtles and their enemies. The series ran for five seasons.
Nickelodeon announced a new 2D animated series based on the franchise titled Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, which will debut in Fall 2018.
The Turtles have appeared in six feature films. The first three are live - action features produced in the early 1990s: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze (1991), and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III (1993). The Turtles were played by various actors in costumes featuring animatronic heads, initially produced by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop. The fourth film is a CGI - animated film titled simply TMNT and released in 2007.
A reboot, titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles produced by Platinum Dunes, Nickelodeon Movies, and Paramount Pictures, directed by Jonathan Liebesman, and produced by Michael Bay, was released on August 8, 2014. A sequel, Out of the Shadows was released on June 3, 2016.
Among the first licensed products to feature the TMNT was a tabletop role - playing game titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles & Other Strangeness, published by Palladium Books in 1985, and featuring original comics and illustrations by Eastman and Laird. The game features a large list of animals, including elephants and sparrows, that are available as mutant player characters. Several more titles were in this genre, including Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures, Truckin ' Turtles, Turtles Go Hollywood, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Guide to the Universe, and Transdimensional Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
In 1986, Dark Horse Miniatures in Boise, Idaho, produced an attendant set of lead figurines; unlike later incarnations, the bandannas on the store 's display set were painted all black before the multicolored versions were released to help younger readers distinguish between the four characters other than their weaponry. Palladium allowed the license to lapse in 2000, in part due to declining sales stemming from the "kiddification '' of the animated and live - action incarnations to that point. However, Palladium 's publisher, Kevin Siembieda, has indicated a potential willingness to revisit the license given the franchise 's recent moves closer to its roots.
During the run of the 1987 TV series, Playmates Toys produced hundreds of TMNT action figures, along with vehicles, playsets, and accessories, becoming one of the top collectibles for children. Staff artists at Northampton, Massachusetts - based Mirage Studios provided conceptual designs for many of the figures, vehicles, and playsets and creator credit can be found in the legal text printed on the back of the toy packaging. In addition, Playmates produced a series of TMNTs / Star Trek crossover figures, due to Playmates holding the Star Trek action - figure license at the time. Playmates employed many design groups to develop looks and styles for the toy line, including Bloom Design, White Design, Pangea, Robinson - Clarke, and McHale Design. The marketing vice president of Playmates, Karl Aaronian, was largely responsible for assembling the talented team of designers and writers, which in turn, helped germinate continued interest in the toy line.
Never before in toy history did an action - figure line have such an impact for over two decades, generating billions of dollars in licensing revenue. The series was highly popular in the UK, where in the run - up to Christmas, the Army & Navy Store in London 's Lewisham devoted its entire basement to everything Turtle, including games, videos, costumes, and other items. Playmates continue to produce TMNT action figures based on the 2003 animated series. The 2007 film TMNT also gave Playmates a new source from which to make figures, while National Entertainment Collectibles Association produced a series of high - quality action figures based on character designs from the original Mirage comics. In 2012, a new toy line and a new classic toy line from Playmates were announced to be released.
The first console video game based on the franchise, titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) by Konami under their "Ultra Games '' label in 1989 and later ported to home computers and eventually for the Wii on the Virtual Console. Also released by Konami in 1989 was an arcade game, also titled simply Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, later ported to the NES as Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game, leading to an NES - only sequel, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III: The Manhattan Project, which used the look of the arcade game, as opposed to the first NES game. The next Turtles game, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Turtles in Time, was released in 1991 as an arcade game, and was later ported to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES) in 1992. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Hyperstone Heist was also created for the Sega Genesis in the same year, and used many of the art assets from TMNT IV. There was also a trilogy of TMNT video games for the original Game Boy system made by Konami, consisting of: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Fall of the Foot Clan, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: Back from the Sewers, and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III: Radical Rescue. As the video game series progressed, and the Ninja Turtles ' popularity began to decline in the mid-1990s, the video games changed direction. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Tournament Fighters was released as a set of one - on - one fighting game similar to the Street Fighter series; versions were released for the NES, SNES, and Genesis, each a distinct game.
Konami also acquired the license to adapt the 2003 TV series into a video game franchise, resulting in a new series of games with 3D gameplay inspired by the old TMNT beat ' em up games, consisting of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003 video game), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 2: Battle Nexus, and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 3: Mutant Nightmare.
In 2006, Ubisoft acquired the rights for TMNT games, beginning with a game based on the 2007 animated feature film, along with a distinct game for the Game Boy Advance similar in style to the Konami arcade games. A beat ' em up game Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Arcade Attack was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009, to coincide with the series ' 25th anniversary. In 2013, Activision released the downloadable game Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, based on the 2012 TV series and developed by Red Fly Studio for the Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network and Steam.
On January 25, 2016, Activision and PlatinumGames announced Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutants in Manhattan for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, and PC. The game is described as a third - person, team - based brawler. The campaign will be playable either single - player or co-op and will have an original story written by Tom Waltz, IDW comic writer and editor. The art style is based on long time TMNT comic artist Mateus Santolouco.
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Legends, a Free to play Role - playing video game has been released by Ludia in summer 2016 for iPhone, iPad, Android, and Kindle Fire. It is based on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012 TV series).
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles are set to appear as playable characters in the DC Comics fighting game Injustice 2 as a part of the "Fighter Pack 3 '' downloadable content.
In 1985, Palladium Books published Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles & Other Strangeness. This was a stand - alone game, as well as acting as an expansion for their game Rifts. The game used many key mechanics from the Palladium system. The game itself is limited to which martial arts are available, but a separate book, Ninjas and Superspies, increased the amount available to a choice of 41 martial arts styles. Examples of animals created are included in the appendices as potential antagonists, including the Terror Bears, Caesers Weasels, and Sparrow Eagles, as well as including stats for the Turtles and other characters.
During the height of their popularity, the Turtles had a number of food tie - ins. Among the most notable of these products was Ninja Turtles Cereal, produced by Ralston - Purina as a kind of "Chex with TMNT - themed marshmallows '' which also came with a small pouch of Pizza Crunchabungas, pizza - flavored corn snacks in the shape of pizzas (the commercial starred the Ninja Turtles as Will Vinton - created claymations); Hostess Ninja Turtles Pudding Pies, featuring a green sugar crust and vanilla pudding inside; and Royal OOZE Gelatin Desserts, distributed by Nabisco under "Royal Gelatin '' in three different flavors: orange, strawberry, and lime. Shreddies used to give out TMNT toys in their boxes when the cereal advertising was still geared toward children. One example of a TMNT prize was rings featuring a character on the cartoon (1992). There was also green Ninja Turtle ice cream with different toppings according to which turtle flavor one ordered. Chef Boyardee also released a canned pasta with the pasta in the shapes of the four turtles.
To capitalize on the Turtles ' popularity, a concert tour was held in 1990, premiering at Radio City Music Hall on August 17. The "Coming Out of Their Shells '' tour featured live - action turtles playing music as a band (Donatello, keyboards; Leonardo, bass guitar; Raphael, drums and sax; Michelangelo, guitar) on stage around a familiar plotline: April O'Neil is kidnapped by the Shredder, and the turtles have to rescue her. The story had a very Bill - n ' - Ted-esque feel, with its theme of the power of rock n ' roll literally defeating the enemy, in the form of the Shredder (who only rapped about how he hates music) trying to eliminate all music. A pay - per - view special highlighting the concert was shown, and a studio album was also released. The track listing is as follows:
Since the tour was sponsored by Pizza Hut in real life, many references are made to their pizza. Empty Pizza Hut boxes are seen onscreen in the "Behind the Shells '' VHS. As part of a cross-marketing strategy, Pizza Hut restaurants gave away posters, audio cassettes of "Coming Out of Their Shells '', and "Official Tour Guides '' as premiums. The original show of the tour was released on video with a making of video also released. The song "Pizza Power '' was later used by Konami for the second arcade game Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Turtles in Time.
On June 30, 1990, the TMNT appeared in the "New York Street '' section of Disney - MGM Studios theme park in Orlando. Emerging from their Turtle Party Wagon, they would "ninja dance '' across the stage while April performed the theme song to the show. After the main show was done, they posed for pictures and signed autographs. The Turtles also made appearances in Disney 's Very Merry Christmas Parade to sing their own rendition of "Santa Claus is Coming to Town ''. They also appeared during the Easter parade dancing to their single "Pizza Power! '' The Turtles ' live shows and appearances ceased production in 1996.
Although the TMNT had originated as something of a parody, the comic 's explosive success led to a wave of small - press, black and white comic parodies of TMNT itself, including Adolescent Radioactive Black Belt Hamsters, Pre-Teen Dirty - Gene Kung Fu Kangaroos, and a host of others. Dark Horse Comics ' Boris the Bear was launched in response to these TMNT clones; its first issue was titled "Boris the Bear Slaughters the Teenage Radioactive Black Belt Mutant Ninja Critters ''. Once the Turtles broke into the mainstream, parodies also proliferated in other media, such as in satire magazines Cracked and Mad magazine and numerous TV series of the period. The satirical British television series Spitting Image featured a recurring sketch "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turds ''.
The Turtles engaged in a greater amount of overt violence in the pages of the early Mirage comic book series by Eastman and Laird. As the TMNT were introduced into the mainstream, they were radically redesigned. In issue # 19 of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the creators published an editorial addressing any possible concerns of readers as a result of this. It stated, in part: "We 've allowed the wacky side to happen, and enjoy it very much. All the while, though, we 've kept the originals very much ours -- forty pages of what we enjoy and want to see in our books, whether it comes from our own hands or from those of the talented people we work with. '' In the film Turtles Forever, the original Mirage Turtles refer to their descendants as "sell - outs '', in reference to their colorful accessories (the originals are conveyed in black and white).
Upon TMNT 's first arrival in the United Kingdom and Ireland the name was changed to "Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles '' (or TMHT, for short), since local censorship policies deemed the word ninja to have excessively violent connotations for a children 's program (in Ireland, however, the first season aired as "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles '' before the change to "Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles ''). Consequently, everything related to the Turtles (comic books, video games, toys, etc.) had to be renamed before being released in these nations, as well as in the German - speaking countries.
The lyrics were also changed, such as changing "Splinter taught them to be ninja teens '' to "Splinter taught them to be fighting teens ''. The policies also had other effects, such as editing out use of Michelangelo 's nunchaku (which were at the time banned by James Ferman, chairman of the BBFC, from appearing in films and generally toning down the usage of all the turtles ' weapons. To head this problem off, the showrunners elected to remove Michelangelo 's nunchaku entirely during season three, replacing them with a grappling hook called the "Turtle Line '' that served as Mikey 's signature weapon for the rest of the show 's run.
In Italy, Spain and Portugal, they kept Michelangelo 's nunchaku but the "TMHT '' logo could be seen in the intro, as it was not edited to reflect the title in each of those translations. In Spain the cartoon was originally aired in regional TV channels and thus had different dubs in addition to Castillian: Galician and Catalan; in the Galician version, the title As Tartarugas Mutantes ("The Mutant Turtles '') was used. The Italian and European Portuguese dubs also had few edits.
However, when the live - action movie came out in 1990, the Ninja of the title was kept even in the UK. In time, nunchaku scenes were retained in previously - censored movies such as those of Bruce Lee. The same went for the PAL releases of the early video games, which had Michelangelo 's weapon of choice fully visible and usable. By the time of the 2003 TV series, these censorship policies had been abolished, and no changes have occurred in the content of the show. The name "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles '' remained unchanged for the 2003 TV series. As a result, in the UK, the 1987 TV series is still called Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles and the 2003 TV series is called Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. In 2009, Lionsgate Home Entertainment released the 25th Anniversary Collectors Edition on Region 2 DVD in the UK. This 3 - Disc set contains all the episodes of Seasons 1 and 2 and 4 episodes from the final season, as well as a 1 - Disc DVD with the first few episodes of Season 1. This release features the original, unedited episodes under the "Ninja Turtles '' title, and also marks the first time the show has been released and left uncensored in the UK.
Due to various movie and television deals, the various TMNT films and television series have split between various companies, with Mirage Studios having retained copyright and trademark until October 19, 2009, at which point the rights for the entire TMNT franchise were sold by co-creator Peter Laird to Nickelodeon.
The original animated series (1987 -- 1996) was produced by Fred Wolf Films Dublin (as Murakami Wolf Swenson (MWS) and Murakami Wolf Dublin (MWD) during earlier seasons), and syndicated by Group W. The series itself is owned by Wolf Films, with home entertainment rights residing with Lions Gate Entertainment, and until recently, syndication rights belonged to Nickelodeon 's former corporate sibling CBS Television Distribution. The initial five - part miniseries (retroactively considered the first season) was copyrighted by Playmates Toys, although their rights to those episodes were bought out by Fred Wolf Films.
Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation was produced by Saban Entertainment, and as of September 2011, is owned and distributed by Saban Brands.
The second animated series (2003 -- 2009) was a co-production between Mirage Studios and 4Kids Entertainment. Nickelodeon 's October 19, 2009 buyout of the TMNT franchise included an approximate $9.75 million payment to 4Kids to terminate its right to serve as the merchandise licensing agent prior to the scheduled expiration of the representation agreement in 2012. Due to the buyout, all future TMNT film and television series rights are owned by Nickelodeon. Nickelodeon also gained the rights to the 2003 series after terminating 4Kids ' contract.
The first three TMNT live - action films were produced by Golden Harvest, with New Line Cinema (now a sister company of Warner Bros. Entertainment) distributing the films in the United States, with 20th Century Fox distributing the second and third films in most other territories. The first two films were copyrighted by the UK - based Northshore Investments. The third film was copyrighted by Clearwater Holdings. The fourth film was produced by Imagi Animation Studios, and released by Warner Bros. Entertainment in association with the Weinstein Company.
Michael Bay produced a feature film directed by Jonathan Liebesman simply titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and was released on August 8, 2014. A sequel, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, was released on June 3, 2016, with Megan Fox and Will Arnett reprising their roles and debuting Stephen Amell as Casey Jones. Dave Green replaced Liebesman as the director.
Initially, Mirage allowed employees and freelancers to retain the rights to characters they created for the TMNT Universe but had never licensed for media and merchandise outside comic books. Eventually, due to the difficulty of keeping track of everyone 's rights, Mirage made TMNT character creators sign retroactive work - for - hire contracts. One creator who did not sign over the rights to his TMNT work was Swamp Thing veteran Rick Veitch.
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when did sinclair oil go out of business | Sinclair Oil Corporation - wikipedia
Sinclair Oil Corporation is an American petroleum corporation, founded by Harry F. Sinclair on May 1, 1916, as the Sinclair Oil and Refining Corporation by combining the assets of 11 small petroleum companies. Originally a New York corporation, Sinclair Oil reincorporated in Wyoming in 1976. The corporation 's logo features the silhouette of a large green dinosaur. It is ranked on the list of US largest privately owned corporations. It owns and operates refineries, gas stations, hotels, a ski resort and a cattle ranch.
Sinclair has long been a fixture on American roads with its dinosaur logo and mascot, a Brontosaurus.
During September 1919, Harry F. Sinclair restructured Sinclair Oil and Refining Corporation, Sinclair Gulf Corporation, and 26 other related entities into Sinclair Consolidated Oil Corporation. In 1932, this new entity was renamed Consolidated Oil Corporation. In 1943, it was renamed Sinclair Oil Corporation.
Near the beginning of the Great Depression, Sinclair sold the remaining interest in its pipeline subsidiary to Standard Oil Company (Indiana) for US $72.5 million (Standard Oil had purchased a 50 % interest in the pipeline subsidiary in 1921). With these funds, including an additional US $33.5 million from an additional common stock issue, Sinclair retired a number of promissory notes and prepared to weather the Depression with the remaining supply of cash.
Between 1921 and 1922, Sinclair leased oil production rights to Teapot Dome in Wyoming without competitive bidding. This led to the Teapot Dome scandal.
During the Great Depression, Sinclair saved a number of other petroleum companies from receivership or bankruptcy, and acquired others to expand its operations. In 1932, Sinclair purchased the assets of Prairie Oil and Gas 's pipeline and producing companies in the southern United States, and the Rio Grande Oil Company in California. The purchase of Prairie also gave Sinclair a 65 % interest in Producers and Refiners Corporation (or Parco), which Sinclair subsequently acquired when Parco entered receivership in 1934. Lastly, in 1936, Sinclair purchased the East Coast marketing subsidiary of Richfield Oil Company, which had operated in receivership for several years. Richfield then reorganized, resulting in the creation of the Richfield Oil Corporation. Sinclair was instrumental in transferring capital and managerial assets into Richfield. Thirty years later, Richfield merged with Atlantic Refining, located on the East Coast, forming Atlantic Richfield.
At the Chicago World 's Fair of 1933 -- 1934, Sinclair sponsored a dinosaur exhibit meant to point out the putative correlation between the formation of petroleum deposits and the time of dinosaurs, now a largely discredited misconception. The exhibit included a two - ton animated model of a brontosaurus. The exhibit proved so popular it inspired a promotional line of rubber brontosaurs at Sinclair stations, complete with wiggling heads and tails, and the eventual inclusion of the brontosaur logo. Later, inflatable dinosaurs were given as promotional items, and an anthropomorphic version appeared as a service - station attendant in advertisements. Some locations have a life - size model of the mascot straddling the building 's entrance.
In the early 1960s Sinclair came up with the Turbo - S aircraft oils used for reliability in commercial jets, military jets, guided missiles and space exploration rockets.
At the New York World 's Fair of 1964 -- 1965, Sinclair again sponsored a dinosaur exhibit, "Dinoland '', featuring life - size replicas of nine different dinosaurs, including their signature brontosaurus. Souvenirs from the exhibit included a brochure ("Sinclair and the Exciting World of Dinosaurs '') and molded plastic figurines of the dinosaurs featured. After the Fair closed, Dinoland spent a period of time as a traveling exhibit.
Two of the replicas (Tyrannosaurus and Brontosaurus) are still on display at Dinosaur Valley State Park near Glen Rose, Texas. Another, a model of a Trachodon, has been displayed at Brookfield Zoo outside Chicago, Illinois. A replica of a Triceratops is either owned by the Kentucky Science Center and was being stored outdoors at an industrial park in South Louisville, Kentucky in 2016 or was donated by Sinclair to the Smithsonian Institution and is on display as "Uncle Beazley '' in the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C.
In 1955, Sinclair ranked 21st on the Fortune 500; by 1969, it had fallen to 58th.
In 1969, Sinclair was acquired by the Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO). Federal antitrust provisions required the new entity to divest itself of certain Sinclair assets, and as a result, the East Coast operations of Sinclair were sold to BP (which has since purchased ARCO). After the acquisition by ARCO, the dinosaur was phased out, but at least one service station, in Winona, Minnesota, retained the original look through the 1980s. Many Sinclair stations in the Midwest continued to use the dinosaur logo along with ARCO 's "diamond spark '' logo. At least some Sinclair stations partially retained the Sinclair brand for a time, using ARCO 's blue rectangular logo including the "spark '' graphic, but with the word "Sinclair '' substituted for ARCO.
In 1976, ARCO spun off Sinclair by selling certain assets to Robert (Earl) Holding. Sinclair has been owned by the Holdings since 1976. Assets divested in the spin - off included ARCO 's retail operations in the region bounded by the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, and the rights to the Sinclair brand and logo, resulting in many stations along Interstate 80 keeping the dinosaur logo. The ARCO stations in Texas, New Mexico, Illinois and some portions of Oklahoma were not affected by the divesture, and they continued as part of ARCO until ARCO pulled out of those states in the 1980s.
Currently headquartered in Salt Lake City, Sinclair is the 51st - largest private company in the United States. There are 2,607 Sinclair filling stations in 20 states in the Western and Midwestern United States. As of 2010, the corporation currently operates two refineries -- one in Casper, Wyoming, and one in Sinclair, Wyoming. Sinclair operated a third refinery in Tulsa, Oklahoma until it was sold to Holly Corporation on December 1, 2009. Sinclair 's other operations include 1,000 miles of pipeline.
Sinclair continues to use the green dinosaur, affectionately called "Dino '', and markets all its products under the logo. Sinclair patented the gasoline additive SG - 2000. The high - octane fuel blend is called "Dino Supreme '' and regular gas is "Dino '', trade names used since 1961, when many oil companies still used trade names for their fuels instead of generic terms such as "regular, '' "premium, '' or "unleaded ''. Prior to that time, Sinclair 's trade names for its gasoline products included "Power X '' for high - octane fuel and "Sinclair H-C '' for regular gas. Sinclair also has marketed products such as Dino, Dino Supreme and Opaline motor oils.
Company - owned Sinclair Trucking provides distribution for Sinclair Oil fuels and other related products. Terminals are located in:
Sinclair Oil Company also owns and operates Grand America Hotels and Resorts, which has hotel properties in Salt Lake City, Utah; Flagstaff, Arizona; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Little America, Wyoming; and San Diego, California, in addition to the Sun Valley and Snowbasin resorts.
The brontosaurus logo is parodied in the Toy Story and Cars franchise films as being the "DinoCo '' gas station chain, perhaps an allusion to gasoline and its creation from fossil fuels.
The TV series Dinosaurs featured several characters with names derived from fossil fuel companies. The main character and his family had the surname Sinclair.
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where are you going where have you been based on true story | Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? - Wikipedia
"Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? '' is a frequently anthologized short story written by Joyce Carol Oates. The story first appeared in the Fall 1966 edition of Epoch magazine. It was inspired by three Tucson, Arizona murders committed by Charles Schmid, which were profiled in Life magazine in an article written by Don Moser on March 4, 1966. Oates said that she dedicated the story to Bob Dylan because she was inspired to write it after listening to his song "It 's All Over Now, Baby Blue ''.
The story was originally named "Death and the Maiden ''. The main character of Oates ' story is Connie, a beautiful, self - absorbed 15 - year - old girl, who is at odds with her mother -- once a beauty herself -- and with her dutiful, "steady '', and homely older sister. Without her parents ' knowledge, she spends most of her evenings picking up boys at a Big Boy restaurant, and one evening captures the attention of a stranger in a gold convertible covered with cryptic writing. While her parents are away at her aunt 's barbecue, two men pull up in front of Connie 's house and call her out. She recognizes the driver, Arnold Friend, as the man from the drive - in restaurant, and is initially charmed by the smooth - talking, charismatic stranger. He tells Connie he is 18 and has come to take her for a ride in his car with his sidekick Ellie. Connie slowly realizes that he is actually much older, and grows afraid. When she refuses to go with them, Friend becomes more forceful and threatening, saying that he will harm her family, while at the same time appealing to her vanity, saying that she is too good for them. Connie is compelled to leave with him and do what he demands of her.
Considerable academic analysis has been written about the story, with scholars divided on whether it is intended to be taken literally or as allegory. Several writers focus on the series of numbers written on Friend 's car, which he indicates are a code of some sort, but which is never explained:
"Now, these numbers are a secret code, honey, '' Arnold Friend explained. He read off the numbers 33, 19, 17 and raised his eyebrows at her to see what she thought of that, but she did n't think much of it.
Literary scholars have interpreted this series of numbers as different Biblical references, as an underlining of Friend 's sexual deviancy, or as a reference to the ages of Friend and his victims.
The narrative has also been viewed as an allegory for initiation into sexual adulthood, an encounter with the devil, a critique of modern youth 's obsession with sexual themes in popular music, or as a dream sequence.
The story was loosely adapted into the 1985 film Smooth Talk, starring Laura Dern and Treat Williams. Oates has written an essay named "Smooth Talk: Short Story into Film '' about the adaptation.
The short story is the inspiration and basis for The Blood Brothers ' song "The Salesman, Denver Max ''.
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where did the last name vega come from | Vega (surname) - wikipedia
Vega (pronounced (ˈbeɣa)) is a Spanish surname than means "dweller in the meadow '', or "one who lives on the plain ''. Other versions of the surname Vega are Vegas or Vegaz. Notable people with the surname include:
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who lives at 924 bel air rd los angeles ca 90077 | Billionaire (Los Angeles, California) - wikipedia
Billionaire is a private residence located at 924 Bel Air Road in the Bel Air neighborhood of Los Angeles. The home designed by Bruce Makowsky is the most expensive house for sale in the United States (as of 2017) and one of the largest houses in the Los Angeles metropolitan area.
The previous home occupying the lot was owned by Hollywood star Judy Garland until 1967. The property was acquired by Makowsky on May 7, 2012, for US $7.9 million. The structure was built over the course of four years by 250 workers.
Listed on January 18, 2017, at US $250 million, Billionaire was the most expensive house listed for sale at that time in the United States. In April 2018 it was relisted for $188 million. It surpassed the Gemini mansion in Manalapan, Florida that was listed at US $190 million at the time. The most expensive home ever sold in Los Angeles County was the Playboy Mansion at $100 million while the record sale in the state of California was $117.5 million. At that time, the most expensive home ever sold in the United States was a $147 million East Hampton mansion.
The house at 924 Bel Air Road consists of 38,000 square feet (3,500 m) of living space on four levels including 12 bedrooms (two master suites and 10 VIP oversized guest suites). The interior contains 21 bathrooms adorned with 50 types of marble imported from Italy, five bars, three gourmet kitchens, three dining areas, a state - of - the - art fitness center, a wellness spa, a 4 - lane bowling alley, a $12,000 glass pool table, and a 360 - inch TV, likely the largest residential television set. The $2 million, 40 - seat Dolby Atmos James Bond - themed theater features a 22 - foot screen, 57 speakers, and a 4k projector with 7,000 pre-loaded movies. Situated on a 1.08 - acre lot, the exterior of the home features 17,000 square feet (1,600 m) of outdoor deck space, a $2 million outdoor hydraulic retractable theater screen measuring 18 feet by 12 feet, an 85 - foot glass tile infinity pool with a swim - up bar, and a helipad with an inoperable Airwolf. replica that the developer calls a "sculpture. '' The home offers a 270 - degree unobstructed view of Los Angeles from the San Gabriel Mountains to the Pacific Ocean in Malibu.
The residence contains many unique features including two fully stocked wine cellars, two commercial elevators lined in alligator skin, a $2 million polished steel staircase, a $500,000 set of moving Seven Dwarfs images, a $200,000 wall of candy dispensers, Dom Pérignon - filled fire extinguishers, over 130 works of art (including photographs by Timothy White and a $1 million sculpture by Liao Yibai), and a seven - person full - time staff with separate living quarters. The residence includes an auto gallery with US $30 million in luxury vehicles including Lamborghinis, Ferraris, Bentleys, a Rolls Royce, a Bugatti Veyron, ten motorcycles, a one - of - a-kind Pagani Huayra worth more than $2 million, and a 1936 Mercedes - Benz 540K worth in excess of $15 million.
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what a time it was a time of innocence | Bookends (song) - wikipedia
"Bookends '', also known as "Bookends Theme '', is a song by American music duo Simon & Garfunkel from their fourth studio album, Bookends (1968). It appears twice on the track listing, as the first and last song on side one of the original vinyl LP.
The "Bookends Theme '' that opens and closes side one is played on the acoustic guitar, with no additional instruments. The song is a brief acoustic piece (once compared to English rock band the Moody Blues) that evokes "a time of innocence. ''
The reprise is preceded by "Old Friends '', which segues into the song with a single high, sustained note on the strings. The reprise contains vocal accompaniment from the duo. "The text refers to the passage of time, and to memories of a loved one, and thus fittingly concludes the series of intervening songs, which address interpersonal relationships at times of life that progress from song to song, '' wrote James Bennighof, author of The Words and Music of Paul Simon. The piece closes the entire suite with the "resigned admonition '' to "Preserve your memories / They 're all that 's left you. ''
The song was used in the 2009 film (500) Days of Summer.
The song opens the 1999 film Girl, Interrupted.
The song was used in the season three finale of Party of Five and its series finale as well.
The song closed Ep. 13 Season 2 of the nostalgic show The Wonder Years.
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wonder woman how did she get her powers | Wonder Woman - Wikipedia
Wonder Woman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character is a founding member of the Justice League, a goddess, and Ambassador - at - Large of the Amazon people. The character first appeared in All Star Comics # 8 in December 1941 and first starred in Sensation Comics # 1, January 1942. In her homeland, the island nation of Themyscira, her official title is Princess Diana of Themyscira, Daughter of Hippolyta. When blending into the society outside of her homeland, she adopts her civilian identity Diana Prince. The character is also referred to by such epithets as the "Amazing Amazon '', the "Spirit of Truth '', "Themyscira 's Champion '', the "God - Killer '', and the "Goddess of Love and War ''.
Wonder Woman was created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston (pen name: Charles Moulton), and artist Harry G. Peter. Marston 's wife, Elizabeth, and their life partner, Olive Byrne, are credited as being his inspiration for the character 's appearance. Marston 's comics featured his ideas on DISC theory, and the character drew a great deal of inspiration from early feminists, and especially from birth control pioneer Margaret Sanger; in particular, her piece "Woman and the New Race ''. The Wonder Woman title has been published by DC Comics almost continuously except for a brief hiatus in 1986.
As one of the world 's first and foremost superheroines, Wonder Woman at once embodies the unrivaled force and supreme grace of a born warrior, and the genuine compassion and understanding of a true humanitarian. As a symbol of equality, power, and truth, her natural confidence and unmistakable intelligence made her unequaled. Wonder Woman 's origin story relates that she was sculpted from clay by her mother Queen Hippolyta and given life by Aphrodite, along with superhuman powers as gifts by the Greek gods. In recent years, DC changed her background with the revelation that she is the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta, jointly raised by her mother and her aunts Antiope and Menalippe. The character has changed in depiction over the decades, including briefly losing her powers entirely in the 1970s; by the 1980s, artist George Perez gave her a muscular look and emphasized her Amazonian heritage. Wonder Woman 's Amazonian training helped to develop a wide range of extraordinary skills in tactics, hunting, and combat. She possesses an arsenal of advanced technology, including the Lasso of Truth, a pair of indestructible bracelets, a tiara which serves as a projectile, and, in older stories, a range of devices based on Amazon technology.
Wonder Woman 's character was created during World War II; the character in the story was initially depicted fighting Axis military forces as well as an assortment of colorful supervillains, although over time her stories came to place greater emphasis on characters, deities, and monsters from Greek mythology. Many stories depicted Wonder Woman rescuing herself from bondage, which defeated the "damsels in distress '' trope that was common in comics during the 1940s. In the decades since her debut, Wonder Woman has gained a cast of enemies bent on eliminating the Amazon, including classic villains such as Ares, Cheetah, Doctor Poison, Circe, Doctor Psycho, and Giganta, along with more recent adversaries such as Veronica Cale and the First Born. Wonder Woman has also regularly appeared in comic books featuring the superhero teams Justice Society (from 1941) and Justice League (from 1960).
The character is a well - known figure in popular culture that has been adapted to various media. June 3rd is Wonder Woman Day. Notable depictions of the character in other media include Gloria Steinem placing the character on the cover of the second edition of Ms. in 1971; the 1975 -- 1979 Wonder Woman TV series starring Lynda Carter; as well as animated series such as the Super Friends and Justice League. Since Carter 's television series, studios struggled to introduce a new live - action Wonder Woman to audiences, although the character continued to feature in a variety of toys and merchandise, as well as animated adaptations of DC properties, including a direct - to - DVD animated feature starring Keri Russell. Attempts to return Wonder Woman to television have included a television pilot for NBC in 2011, closely followed by another stalled production for The CW. Gal Gadot portrays Wonder Woman in the DC Extended Universe, starting with the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, marking the character 's second appearance in a feature film (The Lego Movie (2014) is the first as an animated character) in its 75 - year history. Gadot also starred in the character 's first solo live - action film, Wonder Woman, which was released on June 2, 2017.
In an October 25, 1940, interview with the Family Circle magazine, William Moulton Marston discussed the unfulfilled potential of the comic book medium. This article caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and All - American Publications, two of the companies that would merge to form DC Comics. At that time, Marston wanted to create his own new superhero; Marston 's wife and fellow psychologist Elizabeth suggested to him that it should be a woman:
William Moulton Marston, a psychologist already famous for inventing the polygraph, struck upon an idea for a new kind of superhero, one who would triumph not with fists or firepower, but with love. "Fine, '' said Elizabeth. "But make her a woman. ''
Marston introduced the idea to Gaines. Given the go - ahead, Marston developed Wonder Woman, whom he believed to be a model of that era 's unconventional, liberated woman. Marston also drew inspiration from the bracelets worn by Olive Byrne, who lived with the couple in a polyamorous relationship. Wonder Woman debuted in All Star Comics # 8 (cover date Dec / Jan 1941 / 1942, released in October 1941), scripted by Marston.
Marston was the creator of a systolic - blood - pressure - measuring apparatus, which was crucial to the development of the polygraph (lie detector). Marston 's experience with polygraphs convinced him that women were more honest than men in certain situations and could work more efficiently.
Marston designed Wonder Woman to be an allegory for the ideal love leader; the kind of women who he believed should run society.
"Wonder Woman is psychological propaganda for the new type of woman who should, I believe, rule the world '', Marston wrote.
In a 1943 issue of The American Scholar, Marston wrote:
Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. Not wanting to be girls, they do n't want to be tender, submissive, peace - loving as good women are. Women 's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness. The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman.
Marston went on record by describing bondage and submission as a "respectable and noble practice ''. Marston wrote in a weakness for Wonder Woman, which was attached to a fictional stipulation that he dubbed "Aphrodite 's Law '', that made the chaining of her "Bracelets of Submission '' together by a man take away her Amazonian super strength. However, not everything about his creation was explicitly explained in any one source, which caused confusion among writers and fans for many years.
Initially, Wonder Woman was an Amazon champion who wins the right to return Steve Trevor -- a United States intelligence officer whose plane had crashed on the Amazons ' isolated island homeland -- to "Man 's World '' and to fight crime and the evil of the Nazis.
During this period, Wonder Woman joined the Justice Society of America as the team 's secretary.
During the Silver Age, under writer Robert Kanigher, Wonder Woman 's origin was revamped, along with other characters '. The new origin story increased the character 's Hellenic and mythological roots: receiving the blessing of each deity in her crib, Diana is destined to become as "beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, strong as Hercules, and swift as Hermes. ''
At the end of the 1960s, under the guidance of Mike Sekowsky, Wonder Woman surrendered her powers in order to remain in Man 's World rather than accompany her fellow Amazons to another dimension. Wonder Woman begins using the alias Diana Prince and opens a mod boutique. She acquires a Chinese mentor named I Ching, who teaches Diana martial arts and weapons skills. Using her fighting skill instead of her powers, Diana engaged in adventures that encompassed a variety of genres, from espionage to mythology. This phase of her story was directly influenced by the British spy thriller The Avengers and Diana Rigg 's portrayal of Emma Peel.
In the early 1970s the character returned to her superhero roots in the Justice League of America and to the World War II era in her own title. This however, was ultimately due to the popularity of the TV series at the time also having Wonder Woman set in WW2 era, and was shifted back to the 1970s era once the TV show did the same.
With a new decade arriving, DC president Jenette Kahn ordered a revamp in Wonder Woman 's appearance. Artist Milton Glaser, who also designed the "bullet '' logo adopted by DC in 1977, created a stylized "WW '' emblem that evoked and replaced the eagle in her bodice, and debuted in 1982. The emblem in turn was incorporated by studio letterer Todd Klein onto the monthly title 's logo, which lasted for a year and a half before being replaced by a version from Glaser 's studio. With sales of the title continuing to decline in 1985 (despite an unpublished revamp that was solicited), the series was canceled and ended in issue # 329 (February 1986) written by Gerry Conway, depicting Steve Trevor 's marriage to Wonder Woman.
The Crisis on Infinite Earths crossover of 1986 was designed and written with the purpose of streamlining most of DC 's characters into one more - focused continuity and reinventing them for a new era, thus Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor were declared to come from the Earth - Two dimension, and along with all of their exploits, were erased from history, so that a new Wonder Woman character, story and timeline could take priority.
Following the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths series, George Pérez, Len Wein, and Greg Potter rewrote the character 's origin story, depicting Wonder Woman as an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira to Patriarch 's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Pérez incorporated a variety of deities and concepts from Greek mythology in Wonder Woman 's stories and origin. His rendition of the character acted as the foundation for the modern Wonder Woman stories, as he expanded upon the widely accepted origin of Diana being birthed out of clay. The relaunch was a critical and commercial success.
In August 2010 (issue # 600), J. Michael Straczynski took over the series ' writing duties and introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate timeline created by the Gods in which Paradise Island had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as the main enemy of Wonder Woman. In this run, Wonder Woman wears a new costume designed by Jim Lee. Straczynski determined the plot and continued writing duties until Wonder Woman # 605; writer Phil Hester then continued his run, which ultimately concluded in Wonder Woman # 614.
In 2011 's The New 52, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of publications to attract a new generation of readers, and thus released volume 4 of the Wonder Woman comic book title. Brian Azzarello and Cliff Chiang were assigned writing and art duties respectively and revamped the character 's history considerably. In this new continuity, Wonder Woman wears a costume similar to her original Marston costume, utilizes a sword and shield, and has a completely new origin. No longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods, she is, instead, a demi - goddess and the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus. Azzarello and Chiang 's revamp of the character was critically acclaimed, but highly divisive among long time fans of the character.
In 2016, DC Comics once again relaunched all of its publications as part of the "DC Rebirth '' continuity reboot, and new fifth volume of Wonder Woman was released bi-monthly with writer Greg Rucka. This fifth volume of Wonder Woman is part of the "DC Universe '', the current continuity established after Rebirth. Initially, the new series does not use a regular storyline that exists between each issue; instead two separate storylines share the book, with an installment of one story published every other issue, and those of the other storyline published in between those. This practice began with the storyline "The Lies '' for the odd numbered issues, and "Year One '' for the even numbered issues. The new storyline as presented in these issues effectively retcons the events from the previous New 52 series. "The Lies '' storyline reveals that a number of events from the previous Wonder Woman series in which Diana was made the Queen of the Amazons and the God of War, was in fact all an illusion created by a mysterious villain, and she had never once been back to Themyscira ever since she left, nor is she capable of returning there. The "Year One '' story is presented as an all - new origin story for Diana, which reveals how she received her powers from the Olympian Gods, which was intended to bring her back to her classical DC roots. Wonder Woman appears in DC Rebirth with a revised look, which includes a red cape and light armor fittings. Along with her lasso and bracelets, she now regularly utilizes her sword and shield. Wonder Woman: Rebirth artist Liam Sharp described the new armor as a utilitarian piece which allows her to move more freely. Starting from Issue 26, the series returned to a regular storyline between each issue.
The "Diana Prince '' identity has been part of Wonder Woman 's history since her comics debut in 1941. In the early Golden Age stories, Wonder Woman served as a military secretary during World War II, using Prince as her cover. Later occupations Wonder Woman performed as Prince included translator at the United Nations, Air Force captain and ambassador, and in the ' 70s TV series, Lynda Carter 's Wonder Woman used Prince to serve as an agent of the Inter-Agency Defense Command. In the DC Extended Universe, Prince works as curator for the Department of Antiquities at the extremely prestigious Louvre Museum and is held in very high esteem by the curator of the Gotham City Museum of Antiquities. Her tremendously long life - span, accumulation of immense amount of knowledge, and exceptional perceptiveness, makes Diana Prince the wisest and most emotionally intelligent member of the Justice League.
During Marston 's run, Diana Prince was the name of an army nurse whom Wonder Woman met. The nurse wanted to meet her fiancé, who was transferred to South America, but was unable to arrange for money to do so. As Wonder Woman needed a secret identity to look after Steve (who was admitted to the same army hospital in which Diana Prince worked), and because both of them looked alike, Wonder Woman gave the nurse money to go to her fiancé in exchange for the nurse 's credentials and took Diana Prince as her alias. She started to work as an army nurse and later as an Air Force secretary.
The identity of Diana Prince was especially prominent in a series published in the early 1970s, in which she fought crime only under the Prince alias and without her mystic powers. To support herself, she ran a mod clothing boutique.
The Diana Prince alias also played an important role after the events of Infinite Crisis. Wonder Woman was broadcast worldwide killing a villain named Maxwell Lord, as he was mind controlling Superman into killing Batman. When Wonder Woman caught him in her lasso, demanding to know how to stop Superman, Maxwell revealed that the only way to stop him was to kill Lord, so as a last resort Diana snapped his neck. To recover from the trauma of killing another person, the Amazon went into a self - imposed exile for one year. On her return to public life, Diana realized that her life as a full - time celebrity superhero and ambassador had kept her removed from humanity. Because of this she assumed the persona of Diana Prince and became an agent at the Department of Metahuman Affairs. During a later battle with the witch Circe, a spell was placed on Diana leaving her powerless when not in the guise of Wonder Woman.
The New 52 universe does not have a "Diana Prince '' identity as stated in an interview by series writer Brian Azzarello. However, when she and Superman began dating, for her civilian identity she used the Diana Prince alias whenever she was around Clark Kent; such as when she introduced herself to Lois Lane at Lois 's housewarming party under that name.
The DC Rebirth universe have n't featured the Diana Prince identity as much in favor of Wonder Woman just going by Diana of Themyscira in her down time.
Princess Diana commands respect both as Wonder Woman and Diana Prince; her epithetical title -- The Amazon Princess -- illustrates the dichotomy of her character. She is a powerful, strong - willed character who does not back down from a fight or a challenge. Yet, she is a diplomat who strongly "favors the pen '', and a lover of peace who would never seek to fight or escalate a conflict. She 's simultaneously both the most fierce and most nurturing member of the Justice League; and her political connections as a United Nations Honorary Ambassador and the ambassador of a warrior nation makes her an invaluable addition to the team. With her powerful abilities, centuries of training and experienced at handling threats that range from petty crime to threats that are of a magical or supernatural nature, Diana is capable of competing with nearly any hero or villain.
Many writers have depicted Diana in different personalities and tone; between both of her diametric extremes; that of a worldly warrior, a highly compassionate and calm ambassador, and sometimes also as a naive and innocent person, depending on the writer. What has remained constant, and is a mainstay of the character, is her nurturing humanity: her overwhelming belief in love, empathy, compassion, and having a strong conscience. This trait had been the reason for her induction into the Star Sapphires.
Writer Gail Simone was applauded for her portrayal of Wonder Woman during her run on the series, with comic book reviewer Dan Phillips of IGN noting that "she 's molded Diana into a very relatable and sympathetic character. ''
Actress Gal Gadot described Wonder Woman as "an idealist. Experienced, super-confident. Open and sincere even in the midst of a gruesome, bloody conflict. Having many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence ''.
In the Golden Age, Wonder Woman adhered to an Amazon code of helping any in need, even misogynistic people, and never accepting a reward for saving someone; while conversely, the modern version of the character has been shown to perform lethal and fatal actions when left with no other alternative, exemplified in the killing of Maxwell Lord in order to save Superman 's life.
The New 52 version of the character has been portrayed to be a younger, more headstrong, loving, fierce and willful person. Brian Azzarello stated in a video interview with DC Comics that they 're building a very "confident '', "impulsive '' and "good - hearted '' character in her. He referred to her trait of feeling compassion as both her strength and weakness.
A distinctive trait of her characterization is a group of signature mythological exclamations, beginning with "Great Aphrodite! '', followed by "Great Hera! '', "Merciful Minerva! '', and "Suffering Sappho! ', some of which were contributed by Elizabeth Holloway Marston.
Diana, after her death, was granted divinity as the Goddess of Truth by her gods for such faithful devotion. During her brief time as a god of Olympus, Diana was replaced in the role of Wonder Woman by her mother, Queen Hippolyta. Unlike Diana receiving the title of Wonder Woman in honor, Hippolyta 's role as Wonder Woman was meant to be a punishment for her betrayal in Artemis ' death as well as for unintentionally killing her own daughter. However, Hippolyta eventually grew to enjoy the freedom and adventure the title came with. Whereas Diana used the Lasso of Truth as her primary weapon, Hippolyta favored a broad sword.
John Byrne, the writer that introduced the concept of Hippolyta as the first Wonder Woman, has explained his intentions in a post in his message board:
I thought George 's one "mistake '' in rebooting Wonder Woman was making her only 25 years old when she left Paradise Island. I preferred the idea of a Diana who was thousands of years old (as, if I recall correctly, she was in the TV series). From that angle, I would have liked to have seen Diana having been Wonder Woman in WW2, and be returning to our world in the reboot.
As Wonder Woman, Queen Hippolyta immediately got involved in a time travel mission back to the 1940s with Jay Garrick. After this mission, she elected to join the Justice Society of America and remained in that era for eight years, where her teammates nicknamed her "Polly ''. During that time she had a relationship with Ted Grant. Hippolyta also made visits into the past to see her godchild Lyta, daughter of Hippolyta 's protege Helena, the Golden Age Fury. These visits happened yearly from young Lyta 's perspective and also accounted for Hippolyta 's participation in the JSA / JLA team ups. When she returned from the past, Hippolyta took Diana 's place in the JLA as well.
Artemis of Bana - Mighdall briefly served as Wonder Woman during Hippolyta 's trials for a new Wonder Woman. Orana, a character similar to Artemis, defeated Diana in a new contest and became Wonder Woman in pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity. Orana was killed during her first mission. Others who have donned the Wonder Woman persona include Nubia, Cassandra Sandsmark, and Donna Troy.
Diana is depicted as a masterful athlete, acrobat, fighter and strategist, trained and experienced in many ancient and modern forms of armed and unarmed combat, including exclusive Amazonian martial arts. In some versions, her mother trained her, as Wonder Girl, for a future career as Wonder Woman. From the beginning, she is portrayed as highly skilled in using her Amazon bracelets to stop bullets and in wielding her golden lasso. Batman once called her the "best melee fighter in the world ''. The modern version of the character is known to use lethal force when she deems it necessary. In the New 52 continuity, her superior combat skills are the result of her Amazon training, as well as receiving further training from Ares, the God of War, himself, since as early as her childhood. The Golden Age Wonder Woman also had knowledge in psychology, as did her Amazon sisters.
The Golden Age Wonder Woman had strength that was comparable to the Golden Age Superman. Wonder Woman was capable of bench pressing 15,000 pounds even before she had received her bracelets, and later hoisted a 50,000 pound boulder above her head to inspire Amazons facing the test. Even when her super strength was temporarily nullified, she still had enough mortal strength of an Amazon to break down a prison door to save Steve Trevor. In one of her earliest appearances, she is shown running easily at 60 mph (97 km / h), and later jumps from a building and lands on the balls of her feet.
She was able to heal faster than a normal human being due to her birthright consumption of water from Paradise Island 's Fountain of Eternal Youth.
Her strength would be removed in accordance with "Aphrodite 's Law '' if she allowed her bracelets to be bound or chained by a male.
She also had an array of mental and psychic abilities, as corresponding to Marston 's interest in parapsychology and metaphysics. Such an array included ESP, astral projection, telepathy (with or without the Mental Radio), mental control over the electricity in her body, the Amazonian ability to turn brain energy into muscle power, etc. Wonder Woman first became immune to electric shocks after having her spirit stripped from her atoms by Dr. Psycho 's Electro Atomizer; it was also discovered that she was unable to send a mental radio message without her body.
Wonder Woman (vol. 1) # 105 revealed that Diana was formed from clay by the Queen of the Amazons, given life and power by four of the Greek and Roman gods (otherwise known as the Olympian deities) as gifts, corresponding to her renowned epithet: "Beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, swifter than Hermes, and stronger than Hercules '', making her the strongest of the Amazons. Wonder Woman 's Amazon training gave her limited telepathy, profound scientific knowledge, and the ability to speak every language -- even caveman and Martian languages.
Between 1966 and 1967, new powers were added, such as super breath.
In the Silver and Bronze Ages of comics, Wonder Woman was able to further increase her strength. In times of great need, removing her bracelets would temporarily augment her power tenfold, but cause her to go berserk in the process.
These powers received changes after the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths.
In the Post-Crisis universe, Wonder Woman receives her super powers as a blessing from Olympian deities just like the Silver Age version before, but with changes to some of her powers:
While not completely invulnerable, she is highly resistant to great amounts of concussive force and extreme temperatures and matches Superman in this regard, although edged weapons or projectiles applied with sufficient force are able to pierce her skin. Due to her divine origins, Diana can resist many forms of magical manipulation.
She is able to astrally project herself into various lands of myth. Her physical body reacts to whatever happens to her on the mythical astral plane, leaving her body cut, bruised, or sometimes strengthened once her mind and body are reunited. She can apparently leave the planet through meditation and did this once to rescue Artemis while she was in Hell.
After the 2011 relaunch, Diana gained new powers. These new abilities, which included superhuman speed, durability, longevity, accelerated healing, and even flight came in addition to her previous attributed Olympian strength. She is now considered to be stronger than Hercules. In addition to her weaponry, Diana 's indestructible bracelets can now create an thunderous explosion when she clashes them together. These new abilities are attributed to being the daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus. Her powers are now considered nearly unmeasurable if she goes without her Bracelets of Submission, which keep her powers in check. She uses these powers in battle against the goddess Artemis and quickly renders her unconscious with ease with a series of carefully positioned counterattacks. While using her godly strength, her outfit and accoutrements lit up and her eyes glowed like her father 's.
After becoming the God of War in the pages of Wonder Woman, Diana inherits Ares 's divine abilities. Diana has not exhibited her full powers as War, but is seen in Superman / Wonder Woman # 5 to slip easily into telepathic rapport with a soldier, explaining "I am War. I know all soldiers, and they know me. ''
Following the Rebirth retcon, the "Year One '' storyline explains that while put in a cell after coming to Man 's World, Diana was visited by the Greek gods in animal form. Each gave her powers that would reveal themselves when she needed them to. She first displays strength when she accidentally rips the bars off her cell door when visited by Steve Trevor, Etta Candy, and Barbara Ann Minerva. Later on a trip to the mall, she discovers super speed, great durability, and the power of flight while fighting off a terrorist attack.
DC Comics ended the Rebirth branding in December 2017, opting to include everything under a larger "DC Universe '' banner and naming. The continuity established by Rebirth continues across DC 's comic book titles, including volume five of Wonder Woman.
Diana has an arsenal of powerful god - forged gear at her disposal, but her signature equipment are her indestructible bracelets and the Lasso of Truth.
Wonder Woman 's outfit has varied over time, although almost all of her outfit incarnations have retained some form of breastplate, tiara, bracelets, and her signature five - pointed star symbols. When Wonder Woman was first introduced, she wore a heavily patriotic skirt and red top which incorporated an American eagle and elements of the United States flag, reflecting the comic 's origins during World War II. Later artists introduced what would become Wonder Woman 's classic ensemble, adding an armored plate to her top whose design recalls a letter W and revealing blue short shorts, whose precise length varied from artist to artist. Other artists have experimented with different looks for Wonder Woman over the years, including an all - white mod jumpsuit, a biker outfit, a variation of her mainstream depiction featuring leather pants and a jacket, and a number of armoured battlesuits. Contemporary artists have attempted to emphasise Wonder Woman 's traditional outfit as a red armored top with a blue gladiator skirt.
Wonder Woman 's outfit design was originally rooted in American symbolism and iconography, which included her signature star symbols, a golden eagle on her chest, crimson red bustier, white belt, and a dark blue star spangled skirt / culotte.
She also had a pair of red glowing magnetic earrings which allowed her to receive messages from Queen Desira of the planet Venus.
At the time of her debut, Wonder Woman sported a red top with a golden eagle emblem, a white belt, blue star - spangled culottes, and red and golden go - go boots. She originally wore a skirt; however according to Elizabeth Martson, "It was too hard to draw and would have been over her head most of the time. '' This outfit was entirely based on the American flag, because Wonder Woman was purely an American icon as she debuted during World War II. Later in 1942, Wonder Woman 's outfit received a slight change -- the culottes were converted entirely into skin - tight shorts and she wore sandals. While earlier most of her back was exposed, during the imposition of the Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s, Wonder Woman 's outfit was rectified to make her back substantially covered, in order to comply with the Authority 's rule of minimum exposure. During Mike Sekowsky 's run in the late 1960s, Diana surrendered her powers and started using her own skill to fight crime. She wore a series of jumpsuits as her attire, most popular of these was a white one.
After Sekowsky 's run ended in the early 1970s, Diana 's roots were reverted to her old mythological ones and she wore a more modernized version of her original outfit, a predecessor to her "bathing suit '' outfit. Later, in 1976, her glowing white belt was turned into a yellow one. For Series 3, artist Terry Dodson redrew her outfit as a strapless swimsuit.
After Crisis on Infinite Earths, George Pérez rebooted the character in 1987. She wore an outfit similar to her 1970s one, but now with a larger glowing golden belt. This outfit continued until William Messner - Loebs ' run, which had Diana pass on the role of Wonder Woman to Artemis. No longer Wonder Woman, Diana sported a new black biker - girl outfit designed by artist Mike Deodato Jr. After John Byrne took over writing and art duties, he redesigned the Wonder Woman outfit (Diana was reinstated as Wonder Woman at the end of Loebs ' run) and joined the emblem and belt together.
Her outfit did not receive any prominent change until after the 2005 -- 2006 Infinite Crisis storyline. Similar to her chest - plate, her glowing belt was also shaped into a "W ''. This outfit continued until issue # 600 -- J. Michael Straczynski 's run of Wonder Woman 's altered timeline changed her outfit drastically. Her outfit was redesigned by Jim Lee and included a redesigned emblem, a golden and red top, black pants, and a later discontinued blue - black jacket.
It was later retconned by Gail Simone that Wonder Woman 's outfit design had Amazonian roots. During a flashback in Vol. 3, Hippolyta is shown issuing orders to have a garment created for Diana, taking inspiration from the skies on the night Diana was born; a red hunter 's moon and a field of stars against deep blue, and the eagle breastplate being a symbol of Athena 's avian representations.
Another major outfit change for Wonder Woman came about as part of DC Comics ' 2011 relaunch of its entire line of publications, The New 52. The character 's original one - piece outfit was restored, although the color combination of red and blue was changed to dark red and blue - black. Her chest - plate, belt and tiara were also changed from gold to a platinum or sterling silver color. Along with her sword, she now also utilizes a shield. She wears many accessories such as arm and neck jewelery styled as the "WW '' motif. Her outfit is no longer made of fabric, as it now resembles a type of light, flexible body armor. Her boots are now a very dark blue rather than red. The design previously included black trousers, but they were removed and the one - piece look was restored during the time of publication.
After the events of the 2015 storyline "Convergence '', Diana gets a new armored suit with the classic armor and tiara returning.
Following the 2016 "DC Rebirth '' continuity relaunch, Wonder Woman 's outfit was redesigned to resemble the one worn in the film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. This outfit is a red bustier with a gold eagle, a blue leather skirt with gold edges with two stars, and knee - high red boots with gold knee guards and accents. Her tiara once again is gold with a red star. She occasionally wears a red cape with a gold clasp and edges. She continues to wear this updated outfit in DC Universe, the continuity established after Rebirth.
Her tiara 's signature star symbol is now an eight pointed starburst. According to designer Lindy Hemming and director Patty Jenkins, every design decision made for Themyscira came down to the same question: "How would I want to live that 's badass? '' "To me, they should n't be dressed in armor like men. It should be different. It should be authentic and real (...) and appealing to women. '' When asked about the decision to give the Amazons heeled sandals, Jenkins explained that they also have flats for fighting, adding "It 's total wish - fulfillment (...) I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be sexy, hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time (...) the same way men want Superman to have ridiculously huge pecs and an impractically big body. That makes them feel like the hero they want to be. And my hero, in my head, has really long legs. '' This corresponds to the original intent by William Moulton Marston, who wanted his character to be alluringly feminine.
The Pre-Crisis version of the invisible plane was a necessity because before Crisis on Infinite Earths rewrote Wonder Woman 's history -- along with the histories of many other heroes -- Wonder Woman could not fly. She grew increasingly powerful during and after the Silver Age of Comic Books, acquiring the power to ride wind currents and imitate flight over short distances. This had limitations, however; for example, if there was no wind and the air was completely still she would be trapped on the ground or if dropped from a distance that she would helplessly fall out of control to the ground. Though this meant that she would rely on the invisible plane less frequently, she always had need of it.
The Invisible Plane was a creation of Diana 's during her younger years on Paradise Island. She created it to be an improvement on her mother 's planes which would be shot down in Man 's World. The result of her innovation was an invisible plane that could fly at terrific speeds silently and not be detected by hostile forces. Initially, it was portrayed as being transparent.
The Invisible Plane appeared in the very first comic stories, including All - Star Comics # 8, where it is shown as being able to fly at over 2,000 mph (3,200 km / h) and to send out rainbow rays that penetrate the mist around Paradise Island, as well as landing stealthily and having a built - in radio. Wonder Woman is seen storing the plane at an abandoned farm near Washington, D.C., in the barn; she goes there as Lt. Prince and changes clothes in some of the earliest tales. Though never explicitly stated, the Plane is presumably stored there when not in use for the rest of the Pre-Crisis era. In a story published shortly after, it flies at 40 miles (64 km) a second.
Shortly thereafter, Wonder Woman is shown being able to summon it with her tiara, have it hover by the War Department, and extend from it a rope ladder with which she could board it. She uses the plane to fly into outer space, and frequently transports Etta Candy and the Holliday Girls, Steve Trevor, and others. During the 1950s, the plane becomes a jet, and is often shown swooping over Lt. Prince 's office; she strips out of her uniform at super speed and bounds to the plane. Though the Plane was depicted as semi-transparent for the reader 's convenience, in - story dialogue indicated that it actually was completely invisible, or at least able to become so as the need arose.
Wonder Woman continued to use the plane for super speed, outer space, and multi-dimensional transport up until the unpowered era of Diana Prince. When Wonder Woman resumed superpowered, costumed operations in 1973, she continued to use the jet as before, but did glide on air currents for short distances. At one point, Aphrodite granted the plane the power to fly faster than the speed of light for any interstellar voyages her champion might undertake. Thanks to tinkering by gremlins, the Plane even developed intelligence and the power to talk. The plane proved a good friend, eager to help his "mistress '' and her loved ones in any way possible. It got along especially well with Steve Trevor.
Diana 's bulletproof bracelets were formed from the remnants of Athena 's legendary shield, the Aegis, to be awarded to her champion. The shield was made from the indestructible hide of the great she - goat, Amalthea, who suckled Zeus as an infant. These forearm guards have thus far proven indestructible and able to absorb the impact of incoming attacks, allowing Wonder Woman to deflect automatic weapon fire and energy blasts. Diana can slam the bracelets together to create a wave of concussive force capable of making strong beings like Superman 's ears bleed. Recently, she gained the ability to channel Zeus 's lightning through her bracelets as well. Zeus explained to her that this power had been contained within the bracelets since their creation, because they were once part of the Aegis, and that he had only recently unlocked it for her use. After the 2011 relaunch of the character, it was revealed that Diana was the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta and that the bracelets are able to keep the powers she had inherited from Zeus in check. In addition, Hephaestus has modified the bracelets to allow Wonder Woman the sorcerous ability to manifest a sword of grayish metal from each bracelet. Each sword, marked with a red star, takes shape from a flash of lightning, and when Wonder Woman is done with them, the swords disappear, supposedly, back into her bracelets. As such, she has produced other weapons from the bracelets in this way such as a bow that fires explosive arrows, spears and energy bolts among others.
The inspiration to give Diana bracelets came from the pair of bracelets worn by Olive Byrne, creator William Moulton Marston 's research assistant and lover.
The Lasso of Truth, or Lasso of Hestia, was forged by Hephaestus from the golden girdle of Gaea. The original form of the Lasso in the Golden Age was called the Magic Lasso of Aphrodite. It compels all beings who come into contact with it to tell the absolute truth and is virtually indestructible; in Identity Crisis, Green Arrow mistakenly describes it as "the only lie detector designed by Zeus. '' The only times it has been broken were when Wonder Woman herself refused to accept the truth revealed by the lasso, such as when she confronted Rama Khan of Jarhanpur, and by Bizarro in Matt Wagner 's non-canonical Batman / Superman / Wonder Woman: Trinity. During the Golden Age, the original form of the Lasso had the power to force anyone caught to obey any command given them, even overriding the mind control of others; this was effective enough to defeat strong - willed beings like Captain Marvel. Diana wields the Lasso with great precision and accuracy and can use it as a whip or noose.
Diana occasionally uses additional weaponry in formal battle, such as ceremonial golden armour with golden wings, pteruges, chestplate, and golden helmet in the shape of an eagle 's head. She possesses a magical sword forged by Hephaestus that is sharp enough to cut the electrons off an atom.
As early as the 1950s, Wonder Woman 's tiara has also been used as a razor - edged throwing weapon, returning to her like a boomerang. The tiara allows Wonder Woman to be invulnerable from telepathic attacks, as well as allowing her to telepathically contact people such as the Amazons back on Themyscira using the power of the red star ruby in its center.
The Golden, Silver, and Bronze Age portrayals of Wonder Woman showed her using a silent and invisible plane that could be controlled by mental command and fly at speeds up to 3,000 mph (4,800 km / h). Its appearance has varied over time; originally it had a propeller, while later it was drawn as a jet aircraft resembling a stealth aircraft.
During the golden age Wonder Woman possessed a Purple Ray capable of healing even a fatal gunshot wound to the brain. She also possessed a Mental Radio that could let her receive messages from those in need.
As a temporary inductee into the Star Sapphires, Wonder Woman gained access to the violet power ring of love. This ring allowed her to alter her costume at will, create solid - light energy constructs, and reveal a person 's true love to them. She was able to combine the energy with her lasso to enhance its ability.
In her debut in All Star Comics # 8, Diana was a member of a tribe of women called the Amazons, native to Paradise Island -- a secluded island set in the middle of a vast ocean. Captain Steve Trevor 's plane crashes on the island and he is found alive but unconscious by Diana and fellow Amazon, and friend, Mala. Diana has him nursed back to health and falls in love with him. A competition is held amongst all the Amazons by Diana 's mother, the Queen of the Amazons Hippolyta, in order to determine who is the most worthy of all the women; Hippolyta charges the winner with the responsibility of delivering Captain Steve Trevor back to Man 's World and to fight for justice. Hippolyta forbids Diana from entering the competition, but she takes part nonetheless, wearing a mask to conceal her identity. She wins the competition and reveals herself, surprising Hippolyta, who ultimately accepts, and must give in to, Diana 's wish to go to Man 's World. She then is awarded a special uniform made by her mother for her new role as Wonder Woman and safely returns Steve Trevor back to his home country.
Coming to America for the first time, Wonder Woman comes upon a wailing army nurse. Inquiring about her state, she finds that the nurse wanted to leave for South America with her fiancé but was unable due to shortage of money. As both of them looked identical and Wonder Woman needed a job and a valid identity to look after Steve (who was admitted in the same army hospital), she gives her the money she had earned earlier to help her go to her fiancé in exchange for her credentials. The nurse reveals her name as Diana Prince, and thus, Wonder Woman 's secret identity was created, and she began working as a nurse in the army.
Wonder Woman then took part in a variety of adventures, mostly side by side with Trevor. Her most common foes during this period would be Nazi forces led by a German baroness named Paula von Gunther, occasionally evil deities / demigods such as Mars and the Duke of Deception, and then colorful villains like Hypnota, Doctor Psycho, and the Cheetah.
In the Silver Age, Wonder Woman 's history received several changes. Her earlier origin, which had significant ties to World War II, was changed and her powers were shown to be the product of the gods ' blessings, corresponding to her epithet, "beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, stronger than Hercules, and swifter than Hermes ''. The concepts of Wonder Girl and Wonder Tot were also introduced during this period.
Wonder Woman (vol. 1) # 179 (Nov. 1968) showed Wonder Woman giving up her powers and returning her costume and title to her mother in order to continue staying in Man 's World. The reason behind this was that all the Amazons were shifting to another dimension, but Diana was unable to accompany them as she needed to stay behind to help Steve, who had been wrongly convicted. Thus, she no longer held the title of Wonder Woman and after meeting and training under a blind martial arts mentor I - Ching, Diana resumed crime fighting as the powerless Diana Prince. She ran a mod - boutique as a business and dressed in a series of jumpsuits while fighting crime. During this period, Samuel R. Delany took over scripting duties with issue # 202. Delany was initially supposed to write a six - issue story arc, which would culminate in a battle over an abortion clinic, but Delany was removed reportedly due to criticism from Gloria Steinem, who, not knowing the content of the issues Delany was writing, was upset that Wonder Woman had lost her powers and was no longer wearing her traditional costume.
In Wonder Woman Vol 1 # 204, Diana 's powers and costume were returned to her and she is once again reinstated as Wonder Woman. I - Ching is killed by a crazy sniper in the same issue. Later, Diana meets her sister Nubia, who is Hippolyta 's daughter fashioned out of dark clay (hence Nubia 's dark complexion). Nubia claimed to be the "Wonder Woman of The Floating Island '', and she challenges Diana to a duel which ends in a draw. Returning to her home, Nubia would have further adventures involving Diana.
The last issue of Volume 1 showed Diana and Steve Trevor announce their love for each other and their subsequent marriage.
The events of Crisis on Infinite Earths greatly changed and altered the history of the DC Universe. Wonder Woman 's history and origin were considerably revamped by the event. Wonder Woman was now an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira (the new name for Paradise Island) to Patriarch 's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Various deities and concepts from Greek mythology were blended and incorporated into Wonder Woman 's stories and origin. Diana was formed out of clay of the shores of Themyscira by Hippolyta, who wished for a child; the clay figure was then brought to life by the Greek deities. The Gods then blessed and granted her unique powers and abilities -- beauty from Aphrodite, strength from Demeter, wisdom from Athena, speed and flight from Hermes, Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts from Artemis and sisterhood with fire and the ability to discern the truth from Hestia. Due to the reboot, Diana 's operating methods were made distinctive from Superman and Batman 's with her willingness to use deadly force when she judges it necessary. In addition, her previous history and her marriage to Steve Trevor were erased. Trevor was introduced as a man much older than Diana who would later on marry Etta Candy. Instead, Perez created Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis, a Greek - American scholar and her teenage daughter whom Diana would live with when she was in Man 's world and would be major supporting characters in the series for years.
Starting in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 51, The Amazons, who had revealed their presence to the world in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 50, are blamed for a series of murders and for the theft of various artifacts. The Amazons are then taken into custody, Queen Hippolyta is nowhere to be found and Steve Trevor is forced by General Yedziniak to attack Themyscira. These events lead to the "War of the Gods '' occurring. The culprit of the murders, thefts and the framing of the Amazons is revealed to be the witch Circe, who "kills '' Diana by reverting her form back into the clay she was born from. Later, Wonder Woman is brought back to life and together with Donna Troy, battles Circe and ultimately defeats her. Circe would later return by unknown means.
When Hippolyta and the other Amazons were trapped in a demonic dimension, she started receiving visions about the death of Wonder Woman. Fearing her daughter 's death, Hippolyta created a false claim that Diana was not worthy of continuing her role as Wonder Woman, and arranged for a contest to determine who would be the new Wonder Woman, thus protecting Diana from her supposed fate. The participants of the final round were Diana and Artemis, and with the help of some mystic manipulation by Hippolyta, Artemis won the contest. Thus, Diana was forced to hand over her title and costume to Artemis, who became the new Wonder Woman and Diana started fighting crime in an alternate costume. Artemis later died in battle with the White Magician -- thus, Hippolyta 's vision of a dying Wonder Woman did come true, albeit not of Diana as Wonder Woman. Diana once again became Wonder Woman, a request made by Artemis in her last seconds. Artemis would later return as Requiem. Prior to Artemis ' death, Hippolyta would admit to her daughter about her own part in Artemis ' death, which strained their relationship as Diana was unable to forgive her mother for sending another Amazon to her death knowingly for the sake of saving her own daughter.
The demon Neron engaged Diana in battle and managed to kill her. The Olympian Gods granted Diana divinity and the role of the Goddess of Truth who started to reside in Olympus; her mother Hippolyta then assumed the role of Wonder Woman and wore her own different incarnation of the costume. In Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 136, Diana was banished from Olympus due to interfering in earthly matters (as Diana was unable to simply watch over people 's misery on earth). She immediately returned to her duties as Wonder Woman, but ran into conflicts with her mother over her true place and role as Hippolyta seemed accustomed to her life in America. Their fight remained unsolved, as Hippolyta died during an intergalactic war. Themyscira was destroyed during the war, but was restored and reformed as a collection of floating islands. Circe later resurrected Hippolyta in Wonder Woman Vol 3 # 8.
One of the events that led to Infinite Crisis was of Wonder Woman killing the villain Maxwell Lord in Wonder Woman (vol. 2) # 219. Maxwell Lord was mind - controlling Superman, who as a result was near to killing Batman. Wonder Woman tried to stop Superman, Lord (who was unable to mind control her) made Superman see her as his enemy Doomsday trying to kill Lois Lane. Superman then attacked Wonder Woman, and a vicious battle ensued. Buying herself time by slicing Superman 's throat with her tiara, Wonder Woman caught Lord in her Lasso of Truth and demanded to know how to stop his control over Superman. As the lasso forced the wearer to speak only the truth, Lord told her that the only way to stop him was to kill him. Left with no choice, Wonder Woman snapped Lord 's neck and ended his control over Superman. Unknown to her, the entire scene was broadcast live around every channel in the world by Brother Eye. The viewers were not aware of the entire situation, and saw only Wonder Woman murdering a Justice League associate. Wonder Woman 's actions put her at odds with Batman and Superman, as they saw Wonder Woman as a cold - blooded killer, despite the fact that she saved their lives.
At the end of Infinite Crisis, Wonder Woman temporarily retires from her costumed identity. Diana, once again using the alias Diana Prince, joins the Department of Metahuman Affairs. Donna Troy becomes the new Wonder Woman and is captured by Diana 's enemies. Diana then goes on a mission to rescue her sister, battling Circe and Hercules. Diana defeats the villains, freeing Donna and takes up the role of Wonder Woman again. Circe places a spell on Diana, which renders Diana into a normal, powerless human being when in the role of Diana Prince; her powers come to her only when she is in the role of Wonder Woman.
The storyline "The Circle '' was focused on the revelation of a failed assassination attempt on Diana when she was a baby, by four rogue Amazons. These Amazons -- Myrto, Charis, Philomela and Alkyone, collectively referred to as The Circle -- were Hippolyta 's personal guards and were extremely loyal and devoted to her. However, when Hippolyta decided to raise a daughter, The Circle was horrified and considered the baby ill - fate, one who would ruin their entire race. Thus, after Diana was sculpted out of clay and brought to life, The Circle decided to assassinate the baby. Their attempt was foiled however, and the four Amazons were imprisoned. After years, the Circle escaped their prisons with the help of Captain Nazi, and decided to accomplish their previously failed mission and kill Diana. Diana defeated Myrto, Charis, Philomela and then approached Alkyone, who runs off and succumbs to her death by falling into the ocean. The other three Amazons return to their prisons.
Issue # 600 introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate time - line created by the Gods in which Themyscira had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York who is learning to cope with her powers. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. Diana has no memories of her prior adventures as Wonder Woman, recollecting her memories in bits and pieces and receiving different abilities and resources (such as the power of flight and her lasso) during the progression of her adventure. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as Wonder Woman 's main enemies. Diana ultimately defeats the evil goddesses and returns everything back to normal.
In September 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire publication line, dubbing the event the New 52. Among the major changes to the character, Wonder Woman now appears wearing a new costume similar to her older one, and has a completely new origin. In this new timeline, Wonder Woman is no longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods. Rather, she is the demigoddess daughter of Queen Hippolyta and Zeus: King of the Greek Gods. Her original origin is revealed as a cover story to explain Diana 's birth as a means to protect her from Hera 's wrath. Currently, Diana has taken on the role and title as the new "God of War ''.
The Greek messenger god, Hermes, entrusts Wonder Woman with the protection of Zola, a young woman, who is pregnant with Zeus 's child, from Hera, seething with jealousy and determined to kill the child. With the appearance of a bizarre, new, chalk - white enemy, the goddess Strife (a reimagined version of Eris, the goddess of discord who had battled Wonder Woman in post-Crisis continuity), Wonder Woman discovers she, herself, is the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus, who, after a violent clash, became lovers. Hippolyta revealed Diana 's earlier origin story to be a lie, spread amongst the Amazons to protect Diana from the wrath of Hera, who is known for hunting and killing several illegitimate offspring of Zeus.
The first of these half - mortal siblings to reveal himself to Wonder Woman was her older half - brother, Lennox Sandsmark, who could transform himself into living, marble - like stone and, before his death, was revealed to be the father of Wonder Girl (Cassie Sandsmark). His killer, the First Born, the eldest progeny of Zeus, would become Wonder Woman 's first major super-villain of the New 52.
The story then focuses on Wonder Woman 's quest to rescue Zola from Hades, who had abducted her and taken her to Hell at the end of the sixth issue of the series. The male children of the Amazons are introduced and Diana learns about the birth of her "brothers '' -- the Amazons used to infrequently invade ships coming near their island and force themselves on the sailors, before killing them. After nine months, the birth of the resulting female children was highly celebrated and they were inducted into the ranks of the Amazons while the male children were rejected. In order to save the male children from being drowned to death by the Amazons, Hephaestus traded weapons to the Amazons in exchange for them.
After saving Zola from Hades, Wonder Woman tries to protect her further from Apollo, as it is prophesied that one of Zeus ' children will be his downfall whom Apollo considers to be Zola 's child. Wonder Woman receives the power of flight by one of Hermes ' feathers piercing her thigh and Zola 's baby is stolen by Hermes at the end and given to Demeter. The issue 's last page shows a dark and mysterious man rising from the snow, taking a helmet and disappearing. This man is later revealed to be Zeus ' first son, known only as First Born, who seeks to rule over Olympus and the rest of the world, and take Diana as his bride.
A stand - alone # 0 issue was released in September which explored Diana 's childhood and her tutelage under Ares, the God of War, now known most often as simply ' War '. The issue was narrated in the style of a typical Silver Age comic book and saw Diana in her childhood years. The main plot of the issue was Diana training under War as he thought of her being an extraordinary girl with immense potential. The issue ultimately concluded with Diana learning and experiencing the importance of mercy, which she first learned when War showed it to her during their sparring. This later translated into her refusal to kill the Minotaur -- a task given to her by War; however, this show of mercy makes her a failure in War 's eyes, which was actually his fault since he inadvertently "taught '' her mercy and affection as his protege. Later in the series, Wonder Woman is forced to kill War during a conflict with her evil half - brother, Zeus ' son First Born, and herself becomes the God of War. After the Amazons are restored, she rules over them both as a warrior queen and God of War, as the ongoing conflict with First Born escalates. At the end of Azzarello 's run, as part of a final conflict, Wonder Woman kills First Born, while Zeke is revealed to have been Zeus ' plan for resurrection, with Zola revealed to have been a mortal shell for the goddess Athena, who gave birth to Zeus just as he once did to her. Wonder Woman pleads with Athena not to allow the Zola personality, whom she has grown to love as a friend, die with Athena 's awakening. Athena leaves the site in animal form, leaving a stunned and confused Zola behind with Wonder Woman.
Wonder Woman appears as one of the lead characters in the Justice League title written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee that was launched in 2011 as part of the New 52. In August 2012, she and Superman shared a kiss in Justice League Vol 2 # 12, which has since developed into a romantic relationship. DC launched a Superman / Wonder Woman series that debuted in late 2013, which focuses both the threats they face together, and on their romance as a "Power Couple ''.
After the events of Convergence, Wonder Woman would don a new costume. She would also face Donna Troy, who is now reimagined as a villanous doppellganger created by a vengeful Amazon elder, not only to physically defeat Wonder Woman but also to outmaneuver her in Themyscirian politics.
The New 52 version of Earth 2 was introduced in Earth 2 # 1 (2012). In that issue, the Earth 2 Wonder Woman is introduced via flashback. She, along with Superman and Batman, are depicted dying in battle with forces from Apokolips five years in the past. This Wonder Woman worshiped the deities of Roman mythology as opposed to the Greek; the Roman gods perish as a result of the conflict. An earlier version of the Earth - 2 Wonder Woman, prior to the Apokoliptian invasion, is seen in the comic book Batman / Superman, where she is seen riding a pegasus.
In Earth 2 # 8 (2013), Wonder Woman 's adult daughter, Fury, is introduced. She is loyal to the Apokoliptian Steppenwolf.
In 2016, DC Comics started DC Rebirth, a relaunch of its entire line of comic books.
Following the events of the Darkseid War, Wonder Woman is told by the dying Myrina Black that on the night of Diana 's birth, Hippolyta gave birth to a twin child. This child was revealed to be male, known as Jason, and is said to be incredibly powerful. Wonder Woman makes it her mission to find him. At the same time, she finds the truth behind her origin and history is now cluttered, as she remembers two versions: the pre-Flashpoint one, and the New 52 rendition. She can not locate Themiscyra or her fellow Amazons and the Lasso of Truth does not work for her anymore.
The "Year One '' storyline retells Diana 's origin growing up on Themyscira. She lives an idyllic life and harbors interest for the outside world, and the first connection to it comes in the form of Steve Trevor, who crashes on the island and is the sole survivor. A contest is held to determine which Amazon is the best candidate to take Steve home, with Diana volunteering despite knowing the cost to leave the island is to never return. Diana wins the contest and departs with Steve. Once arriving in America, Diana is taken into custody by the government to discern her origins. She meets Etta Candy and Barbara Ann Minerva along the way. While incarcerated Diana is visited by the gods in animal form and bestow upon her powers of strength, speed, agility, durability, and flight. She discovers Ares, the god of war, is working to destroy humanity. Accepting her new role in Man 's World, Diana, with the help of the gods in animal form, subdues Ares with the lasso. Now called Wonder Woman, Diana becomes one of the world 's greatest heroes.
The "Lies '' story arc runs parallel and explores Diana 's search. No longer able to get into Mount Olympus, Diana tracks down Barbara Ann Minerva, the Cheetah, to get help. Cheetah agrees to help in exchange for Diana aiding her in killing the god Urzkartaga and end Minerva 's curse. The pair battle their way through Urzkartaga 's minions, the Bouda, and defeat Andres Cadulo, a worshiper of Urzkartaga that planned to sacrifice Steve Trevor to the plant god. Once reverted to her human form, Minerva agreed to help Wonder Woman find her way back to Paradise Island. During this time Wonder Woman reconnects with Steve. Minerva eventually realizes Paradise Island is an embodiment of emotion instead of a physical place, so Wonder Woman and Steve head out to find the island. They succeed and Wonder Woman is greeted by her mother and sisters, though Steve senses something is wrong. Wonder Woman comes to realize nothing is as she remembers and, upon using the Lasso of Truth, discovers everything she thought she knew was a lie: she never really returned to Themyscira after departing with Steve years earlier. The revelation shatters Diana 's mind and she is left nearly insane. Veronica Cale, a businesswoman who has been desiring to find Themyscira and the leader of Godwatch, sends a military group called Poison after her, but Diana 's state has left her vulnerable and oblivious to the danger she and Steve are in. Steve wards them off long enough for them to be rescued, and reluctantly places Diana in a mental hospital so she can get help. While there she comes to grasp the reality she thought she knew was false, eventually coming out of her stupor and able to rejoin the others in tracking down Veronica Cale, who is trying to find Themyscira.
Since her comic book debut in December 1941, Wonder Woman has appeared in a number of adaptations. These formats include television shows, video games, and films.
Wonder Woman has made multiple appearances in television, including Wonder Woman, and most notably the 1970s live - action show Wonder Woman.
The character has been featured in direct - to - DVD animated films and CGI theatrical releases, such as The Lego Movie (2014). Within the live - action DC Extended Universe films, Wonder Woman debuted in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and was featured as the main character in Wonder Woman (2017). In November 2017, she appeared in the DCEU release Justice League.
The 2017 film, Professor Marston & the Wonder Women, tells the story of the polygamous relationship between William Moulton Marston, his wife and fellow psychologist Elizabeth Holloway Marston, and their lover Olive Byrne; the invention of the lie detector, and how they inspired the creation of the Wonder Woman comic.
As a compassionate warrior with god - like strength, Wonder Woman preferred peace and love to war and violence, a contradiction that has long made her a symbol of female empowerment, and the center of controversy. The early Wonder Woman stories featured an abundant amount of bondage portrayals, which had critics worried.
Although created to be a positive role - model and a strong female character for girls and boys, Wonder Woman has had to deal with the misogyny that was commonplace in comic book industry for decades. For example, Wonder Woman was a founding member of the Justice Society of America. This roster included the original Flash and Green Lantern. Wonder Woman was an experienced leader and easily the most powerful of them all; yet was rendered a secretary. This would also be accompanied with her losing her powers or getting captured on most Justice League adventures. During the ' 50s and ' 60s, comic writers regularly made Wonder Woman love sick over Steve Trevor, a Major in the United States Army. Stories frequently featured Wonder Woman hoping or imagining what it would be like to marry Steve Trevor.
Wonder Woman was named the 20th greatest comic book character by Empire magazine. She was ranked sixth in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list. In May 2011, Wonder Woman placed fifth on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time.
Not all reaction to Wonder Woman has been positive. In the controversial Seduction of the Innocent, psychiatrist Fredric Wertham claimed Wonder Woman 's strength and independence made her a lesbian in a condemning way.
Feminist icon Gloria Steinem, founder of Ms. magazine, was responsible for the return of Wonder Woman 's original abilities. Offended that the most famous female superhero had been depowered into a boyfriend - obsessed damsel in distress, Steinem placed Wonder Woman (in costume) on the cover of the first issue of Ms. (1972) -- Warner Communications, DC Comics ' owner, was an investor -- which also contained an appreciative essay about the character. Wonder Woman 's powers and traditional costume were restored in issue # 204 (January -- February 1973).
In 1972, just months after the groundbreaking US Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, science fiction author Samuel R. Delany had planned a story for Ms. that culminated in a plainsclothes Wonder Woman protecting an abortion clinic. However, Steinem disapproved of Wonder Woman being out of costume, and the controversial story line never happened.
The original significance of Wonder Woman had the intentions of influencing many women of all ages, displaying the physical and mental strengths, values, and ethical attributes that not only men acquire. "Wonder Woman symbolizes many of the values of the women 's culture that feminists are now trying to introduce into the mainstream: strength and self - reliance for women; sisterhood and mutual support among women; peacefulness and esteem for human life; a diminishment both of ' masculine ' aggression and of the belief that violence is the only way of solving conflicts, '' Steinem wrote at the time.
The origin of Wonder Woman and the psychological reasoning behind why William Morton Marston created her in the way he did illustrated Marston 's educational, ethical, and moral values. "William Marston intended her to be a feminist character, showing young boys the illimitable possibilities of a woman who could be considered just as strong as the famed Superman. '' Gladys L. Knight explains the impact and influences that superheroes have on us in society ranging from the 1870s until the present day.
Marc DiPaolo introduces us to Wonder Woman 's creator and history and he demonstrates how she is a "WWII veteran, a feminist icon, and a sex symbol '' all throughout her "career ''. Wonder Woman stars in multiple films and is most commonly known for her red, white and blue one piece, and her tall, sexy assertiveness. What many people do n't know is that she is a big part of history in the comic and superhero world because of how her character influences real life people of all ages, sexes, ethnicities, and races. "Marston created the comic book character Wonder Woman to be both strong and sexy, as a means of encouraging woman to emulate her unapologetic assertiveness. ''
Continuing her legacy as an influential feminist icon, in 2015 Wonder Woman became the first superhero to officiate a same - sex wedding in a comic series.
On October 21, 2016, the United Nations controversially named Wonder Woman a UN Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls in a ceremony attended by Under - Secretary - General for Communications and Public Information Cristina Gallach and by actors Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot. The character was dropped from the role two months later after a petition against the appointment stated Wonder Woman was "not culturally... sensitive '' and it was "alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualized image ''.
Gloria Steinem, editor for Ms. Magazine and a big supporter of Wonder Woman, stated "... (Marston) had invented Wonder Woman as a heroine for little girls, and also as a conscious alternative to the violence of comic books for boys. '' Badower described a near - international incident (involving an unnamed Russian general rolling dozens of tanks and munitions through a shady mountain pass) as an outstanding example for standing up to bullies. "She ends up deflecting a bullet back and disarming the general, '' he says, adding that "she does n't actually do anything violent in the story. I just think that Wonder Woman is smarter than that. ''
Nick Pumphrey stated that Wonder Woman stands as a non-violent beacon of hope and inspiration for women and men. Grant Morrison stated "I sat down and I thought, ' I do n't want to do this warrior woman thing. ' I can understand why they 're doing it, I get all that, but that 's not what (Wonder Woman creator) William Marston wanted, that 's not what he wanted at all! His original concept for Wonder Woman was an answer to comics that he thought were filled with images of blood - curdling masculinity, and you see the latest shots of Gal Gadot in the costume, and it 's all sword and shield and her snarling at the camera. Marston 's Diana was a doctor, a healer, a scientist. ''
William Marston 's earliest works were notorious for containing "bondage and sapphic - undertones '' subtext. Fredric Wertham 's Seduction of the Innocent referred to her as the "lesbian counterpart to Batman '' (whom he also identified as a homosexual). After William Marston 's death in 1947, DC Comics downplayed her sexuality; the sexual imagery disappeared from the "Wonder Woman '' comic, along with Wonder Woman 's super powers. During the Comics Code Authority - decades since, subsequent comic book writers and artists did n't do much more than hint at Wonder Woman 's erotic legacy.
Grant Morrison 's 2016 comic Wonder Woman: Earth One, which exists parallel to the current DC comics Rebirth canon, Diana is depicted being kissed on her right cheek by a blonde woman who has put her left arm around Diana.
Wonder Woman feels she need not be "labelled sexually '', that she "loves people for who they are '' and is "just herself ''. Coming from a society that was only populated by women, "lesbian '' in (the world 's) eyes may have been "straight '' for them. "Her culture is completely free from the shackles of heteronormativity in the first place so she would n't even have any ' concept ' of gender roles in sex. '' Wonder Woman is suggested as being queer or bisexual, as she and another Amazon, Io, had reciprocal feelings for each other.
In 2016, Sensation Comics featured Wonder Woman officiating a same - sex wedding (Issue # 48) drawn by Australian illustrator Jason Badower. "My country is all women. To us, it 's not ' gay ' marriage. It 's just marriage '', she states to Superman. Inspired by the June Supreme Court ruling that established marriage equality in all 50 United States, Badower says DC Comics was "fantastic '' about his idea for the issue. In an interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, he said his editor "Was like ' great, I love it! Let 's do it. ' It was almost anticlimactic. '' "Diana 's mother, the queen, at the very least authorized or in some cases officiated these weddings, '' Badower says. "It just seems more like a royal duty Diana would take on, that she would do for people that would appreciate it. ''
Wonder Woman 's advocacy for gay rights was taken a step further in September 2016, when comic book writer Greg Rucka announced that she is canonically bisexual, according to her rebooted Rebirth origin. Rucka stated that in his opinion, she "has to be '' queer and has "obviously '' had same - sex relationships on an island surrounded by beautiful women. This follows the way Wonder Woman was written in the alternate continuity or non-canon Earth One by Grant Morrison, and fellow Wonder Woman writer Gail Simone staunchly supported Rucka 's statement. Surprised at the amount of backlash from her fanbase, Rucka responded to "haters '' that consensual sex with women is just as important to Wonder Woman as the Truth is to Superman.
Wonder Woman actress Gal Gadot reacted positively to Diana 's rebooted orientation, and agreed her sexuality was impacted by growing up in the women - only Themyscira.
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what is the girl name in mary poppins | Mary Poppins (film) - wikipedia
Mary Poppins is a 1964 American musical - fantasy film directed by Robert Stevenson and produced by Walt Disney, with songs written and composed by the Sherman Brothers. The screenplay is by Bill Walsh and Don DaGradi, loosely based on P.L. Travers 's book series Mary Poppins. The film, which combines live - action and animation, stars Julie Andrews in her feature film debut as Mary Poppins, who visits a dysfunctional family in London and employs her unique brand of lifestyle to improve the family 's dynamic. Dick Van Dyke, David Tomlinson, and Glynis Johns are featured in supporting roles. The film was shot entirely at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California using painted London background scenes.
Mary Poppins was released on August 27, 1964, to critical acclaim. It received a total of 13 Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture -- a record for any other film released by Walt Disney Studios -- and won five; Best Actress for Andrews, Best Film Editing, Best Original Music Score, Best Visual Effects, and Best Original Song for "Chim Chim Cher - ee ''. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Mary Poppins is widely considered to be Walt Disney 's crowning live - action achievement, his only film to gain a Best Picture nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
A sequel titled Mary Poppins Returns, directed by Rob Marshall is scheduled to be released on December 25, 2018.
In Edwardian London, 1910, Bert entertains a crowd as a one - man band when he senses a change in the wind. Afterwards, he directly addresses the audience, and gives them a tour of Cherry Tree Lane, stopping outside the Banks family 's home. George Banks returns home to learn from Winifred that Katie Nanna has left their service after Jane and Michael ran away again. They are returned shortly after by Constable Jones, who reveals the children were chasing a lost kite. The children ask their father to help build a better kite, but he dismisses them. Taking it upon himself to hire a new nanny, Mr. Banks advertises for a stern, no - nonsense nanny. Instead, Jane and Michael present their own advertisement for a kinder, sweeter nanny. Mr. Banks rips up the letter, and throws the scraps in the fireplace, but the remains of the advertisement magically float up, and out into the air.
The next day, a number of elderly, sour - faced nannies wait outside the Banks ' home, but a strong gust of wind blows them away, and Jane and Michael witness a young nanny descending from the sky using her umbrella. Presenting herself to Mr. Banks, Mary Poppins calmly produces the children 's restored advertisement, and agrees with its requests, but promises the astonished banker she will be firm with his children. As Mr. Banks puzzles over the advertisement 's return, Mary Poppins hires herself, and convinces him it was originally his idea. She meets the children, then helps them tidy their nursery through song, before heading out for a walk in the park.
Outside, they meet Bert, working as a screever; Mary Poppins uses her magic to transport the group into one of the drawings. While the children ride on a carousel, Mary Poppins and Bert go on a leisurely stroll. Mary Poppins later enchants the carousel horses, and participates in a horse race, which she wins. While being asked to describe her victory, Mary Poppins announces the nonsense word "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious ''. However, the outing is ruined when a thunderstorm demolishes Bert 's drawings, returning the group to London.
On another outing, the four meet Uncle Albert, who has floated up in the air due to his uncontrollable laughter; they join him for a tea party on the ceiling, telling jokes.
Mr. Banks becomes annoyed by the household 's cheery atmosphere, and threatens to fire Mary Poppins. Instead, Mary Poppins inverts his attempt by convincing him to take the children to the bank for a day. Mr. Banks takes Jane and Michael to the bank, where they meet Mr. Dawes Sr. and his son. Mr. Dawes aggressively attempts to have Michael invest his tuppence in the bank, snatching it from him. Michael demands it back, causing other customers to misinterpret, and all demand their own money back, causing a bank run.
Jane and Michael flee the bank, getting lost in the East End until they run into Bert, now working as a chimney sweep, who escorts them home. The three and Mary Poppins venture onto the rooftops, where they have a song - and - dance number with other chimney sweeps, which spills out into the Banks ' home. Mr. Banks returns, and receives a phone call from his employers. He speaks with Bert, who tells him he should spend more time with his children before growing up. Jane and Michael give their father Michael 's tuppence in the hope to make amends.
Mr. Banks walks through London to the bank, where he is given a humiliating cashiering, and is dismissed. Looking to the tuppence for words, he blurts out "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious! '', tells one of Uncle Albert 's jokes, and happily heads home. Dawes mulls over the joke, but finally "gets '' it, and floats up into the air, laughing.
The next day, the wind changes, meaning Mary Poppins must leave. A happier Mr. Banks is found at home, having fixed his children 's kite, and takes the family out to fly it. In the park, the Bankses meet Mr. Dawes Jr, who reveals his father died laughing from the joke, and re-employs Mr. Banks as a junior partner. With her work done, Mary Poppins flies away, with Bert bidding her farewell, telling her not to stay away too long.
The first book in the Mary Poppins book series was the film 's main basis. According to the 40th Anniversary DVD release of the film in 2004, Disney 's daughters fell in love with the Mary Poppins books and made him promise to make a film based on them. Disney first attempted to purchase the film rights to Mary Poppins from P.L. Travers as early as 1938 but was rebuffed because Travers did not believe a film version of her books would do justice to her creation. In addition, Disney was known at the time primarily as a producer of cartoons and had yet to produce any major live - action work. For more than 20 years, Disney periodically made efforts to convince Travers to allow him to make a Poppins film. He finally succeeded in 1961, although Travers demanded and got script approval rights. The Sherman Brothers composed the music score and were also involved in the film 's development, suggesting the setting be changed from the 1930s to the Edwardian era. Pre-production and song composition took about two years.
Travers was an adviser to the production. However, she disapproved of the dilution of the harsher aspects of Mary Poppins ' character, felt ambivalent about the music, and so hated the use of animation that she ruled out any further adaptations of the later Mary Poppins novels. She objected to a number of elements that actually made it into the film. Rather than original songs, she wanted the soundtrack to feature known standards of the Edwardian period in which the story is set. She also objected to the animated sequence. Disney overruled her, citing contract stipulations that he had final say on the finished print. Much of the Travers - Disney correspondence is part of the Travers collection of papers in the Mitchell Library of New South Wales, Australia. The relationship between Travers and Disney is detailed in Mary Poppins She Wrote, a biography of Travers, by Valerie Lawson. The biography is the basis for two documentaries on Travers, The Real Mary Poppins, and Lisa Matthews ' The Shadow of Mary Poppins. Their relationship during the development of the film was also dramatized in the 2013 film, Saving Mr. Banks.
Julie Andrews, who was making her feature film acting debut after a successful stage career, got the prime role of Mary Poppins soon after she was passed over by Jack L. Warner and replaced with Audrey Hepburn for the role of Eliza Doolittle in his screen adaptation of My Fair Lady, even though Andrews had originated the role on Broadway. When Disney first approached Andrews about taking on the role, Andrews was three months pregnant and therefore was not sure she should take it. Disney assured her that the crew would be fine with waiting to begin filming until after she had given birth so that she could play the part. Julie Andrews also provided the voice in two other sections of the film: during "A Spoonful of Sugar, '' she provided the whistling harmony for the robin, and she was also one of the Pearly singers during "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious. '' David Tomlinson, besides playing Mr. Banks, provided the voice of Mary 's talking umbrella and numerous other voice - over parts (including that of Admiral Boom 's first mate). During the "Jolly Holiday '' sequence, the three singing Cockney geese were all voiced by Marni Nixon, a regular aural substitute for actresses with substandard singing voices. Nixon would later provide the singing voice for Hepburn in My Fair Lady and play one of Andrews ' fellow nuns in The Sound of Music. Andrews later beat Hepburn for the Best Actress Award at the Golden Globes for their respective roles. Andrews would also win the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role. Hepburn did not receive a nomination. Richard Sherman, one of the songwriters, also voiced a penguin as well as one of the Pearlies. Robert Sherman dubbed the speaking voice for Jane Darwell because Darwell 's voice was too weak to be heard in the soundtrack. Sherman 's voice is heard saying the only line: "Feed the Birds, Tuppence a bag. ''
Disney cast Dick Van Dyke in the key supporting role of Bert after seeing his work on The Dick Van Dyke Show. After winning the role of Bert, Van Dyke lobbied to also play the senior Mr. Dawes, but Disney originally felt he was too young for the part. Van Dyke eventually won Disney over after a screen test. Although he is fondly remembered for this film, Van Dyke 's attempt at a Cockney accent is regarded as one of the worst film accents in history, cited as an example by actors since as something that they wish to avoid. In a 2003 poll by Empire magazine of the worst film accents of all time, he came second. Van Dyke claims that his accent coach was the Irish J. Pat O'Malley, who "did n't do an accent any better than I did ''.
Filming took place between May and September 1963, with post-production and animation taking another 11 months.
The film changed the book 's storyline in a number of places. For example, Mary, when approaching the house, controlled the wind rather than the other way around. As another example, the father, rather than the mother, interviewed Mary for the nanny position. A number of other changes were necessary to condense the story into feature length. In the film, there are only two Banks children, Jane and Michael. The satirical and mysterious aspects of the original book gave way to a cheerful and "Disney - fied '' tone. Mary Poppins ' character as portrayed by Andrews in the film is somewhat less vain and more sympathetic towards the children compared to the rather cold and intimidating nanny of the original book. Bert, as played by Van Dyke, was a composite of several characters from Travers ' stories. Travers demanded that any suggestions of romance between Mary and Bert be eliminated, so lyrics were written for "Jolly Holiday '' that clearly indicated that their friendship was purely platonic; some subtle hints of romance, however, did remain in the finished film.
Buena Vista Records released the original motion picture soundtrack on LP and reel - to - reel tape. Due to time constraints, some songs were edited (such as "Step in Time '' and "Jolly Holiday '', "A Spoonful of Sugar ''), while songs also featured introductory passages ("Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious '') or completed endings ("Sister Suffragette '', "Fidelity Fiduciary Bank '', "A Man Has Dreams ''). Written by Richard and Robert Sherman, the songs were inspired by Edwardian British music hall music. The score won two Grammy Awards and two Academy Awards.
Walt Disney Records re-issued the soundtrack in 1997, including a 16 - minute track of unreleased songs and demo versions. In 2004, as part of the 40th Anniversary (also called Special Edition), a 28 - track disc (as part of a two - disc set) was released. In 2014 (the 50th anniversary of the film 's release), the soundtrack was released in a 3 - CD edition as part of the Walt Disney Records The Legacy Collection series; this edition includes demos of many "lost '' tracks.
All tracks are written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman.
A number of other songs were written for the film by the Sherman Brothers and either rejected or cut for time. Richard Sherman, on the 2004 DVD release, indicated that more than 30 songs were written at various stages of the film 's development. No cast recordings of any of these songs have been released to the public, only demos or later performances done by the songwriters -- with the exception of the rooftop reprise of "Chim Chim Cher - ee '' and the "smoke staircase yodel '' mentioned below.
The Compass Sequence, a precursor to "Jolly Holiday '', was to be a multiple - song sequence. A number of possible musical components have been identified:
Mary Poppins premiered on August 27, 1964, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. Travers was not extended an invitation to the event, but managed to obtain one from a Disney executive. It was at the after - party that Richard Sherman recalled her walking up to Disney and loudly announcing that the animated sequence had to go. Disney responded, "Pamela, the ship has sailed, '' and walked away.
Mary Poppins was first released in late 1980 on VHS, Betamax, CED and LaserDisc. On October 28, 1994, August 26, 1997, and March 31, 1998, it was re-released three times as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. In 1998, this film became Disney 's first DVD. On July 4, 2000, it was released on VHS and DVD as part of the Gold Classic Collection. On December 14, 2004, it had a 2 - Disc DVD release in a Digitally Restored 40th Anniversary Edition as well as its final issue in the VHS Format. The film 's audio track featured an "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' consisting of replaced sound effects (to make the soundtrack more "modern '') and improved fidelity and mixing and some enhanced music (this version was also shown on 2006 -- 2012 ABC Family airings of the movie.) On January 27, 2009, the film was released on DVD again as a 45th anniversary edition, with more language tracks and special features (though the film 's "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' was not included.) Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray as the 50th Anniversary Edition on December 10, 2013.
The film received universal acclaim from film critics. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 100 % of critics gave the film a "fresh '' rating, based on 44 reviews with an average score of 8.3 / 10. The site 's consensus refers to it as "A lavish modern fairy tale celebrated for its amazing special effects, catchy songs, and Julie Andrews 's legendary performance in the title role. ''
Variety praised the film 's musical sequences and the performances of Julie Andrews and Dick Van Dyke, in particular. Time lauded the film, stating, "The sets are luxuriant, the songs lilting, the scenario witty but impeccably sentimental, and the supporting cast only a pinfeather short of perfection. ''
Critic Drew Casper summarized the impact of Mary Poppins in 2011:
Disney was the leader, his musical fantasies mixing animation and truly marvelous f / x with real - life action for children and the child in the adult. Mary Poppins (1964) was his plum... the story was elemental, even trite. But utmost sophistication (the chimney pot sequence crisply cut by Oscared "Cotton '' Warburton) and high - level invention (a tea party on the ceiling, a staircase of black smoke to the city 's top) characterized its handling.
The film earned $31 million in North American rentals during its initial run. The film was re-released theatrically in 1973, in honor of Walt Disney Productions ' 50th anniversary, and earned an estimated additional $9 million in North American rentals. It was released once more in 1980 and grossed $14 million. It returned a total lifetime rental of $45 million to Disney from a gross of over $102 million from its North American theatrical releases.
The film was the twentienth most popular sound film of the twentieth century in the UK with admissions of 14 million.
The film was very profitable for Disney. Made on an estimated budget of $4.4 -- 6 million, it was reported by Cobbett Steinberg to be the most profitable film of 1965, earning a net profit of $28.5 million. Walt Disney used his huge profits from the film to purchase land in central Florida and finance the construction of Walt Disney World.
Mary Poppins is widely considered to be one of the greatest films of all time and Walt Disney 's "crowning achievement ''. It was the only film of Disney 's to garner a "Best Picture '' nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
The film also inspired the eighth - season episode of The Simpsons entitled "Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala (Annoyed Grunt) cious '', featuring a parody of Mary called "Shary Bobbins '' who helps out the Simpson family after Marge loses her hair due to stress, and spoofs of the songs "The Perfect Nanny '', "A Spoonful of Sugar '', "Feed The Birds '' and "The Life I Lead ''.
Never at ease with the handling of her property by Disney or the way she felt she had been treated, Travers would never again agree to another Poppins / Disney adaptation. So fervent was Travers ' dislike of the Disney adaptation and of the way she felt she had been treated during the production, that when producer Cameron Mackintosh approached her about the stage musical in the 1990s, she acquiesced on the condition that he used only English - born writers and no one from the film production were to be directly involved with creating the stage musical.
On September 14, 2015, it was reported that a new film was in development by Walt Disney Pictures. The film will take place 20 years after the first, featuring a standalone narrative based on the remaining seven books in the series. Rob Marshall has been hired to direct, while John DeLuca and Marc Platt will serve as producers.
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how did the baltimore bullets get their name | Washington Wizards - wikipedia
The Washington Wizards are an American professional basketball team based in Washington, D.C. The Wizards compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Southeast Division. The team plays its home games at the Capital One Arena, in the Chinatown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.
The franchise was established in 1961 as the Chicago Packers based in Chicago, and were renamed to Chicago Zephyrs the following season. In 1963, they relocated to Baltimore, Maryland and became the Baltimore Bullets, taking the name from previous team of the same name. In 1973, the team changed its name to the Capital Bullets to reflect their move to the Washington metropolitan area, and then to Washington Bullets in the following season. In 1997, they rebranded themselves as the Wizards.
The Wizards have appeared in four NBA Finals, and won in 1978. They have had a total of 28 playoff appearances, won four conference titles (1971, 1975, 1978, 1979), and seven division titles (1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1979, 2017). Their best season came in 1975 with a record of 60 - 22. Wes Unseld is the only player in franchise history to become the MVP (1969), and win the Finals MVP award (1978). Four players (Walt Bellamy, Terry Dischinger, Earl Monroe and Wes Unseld) have won the Rookie of the Year award.
The team now known as the Wizards began playing as the Chicago Packers in 1961, as the first modern expansion team in NBA history, an expansion prompted by Abe Saperstein 's American Basketball League. Rookie Walt Bellamy was the team 's star, averaging 31.6 points per game, 19.0 rebounds per game, and leading the NBA in field goal percentage. During the All - Star game, Bellamy represented the team while scoring 23 points and grabbing 17 rebounds. Bellamy was named the league Rookie of the Year, but the team finished with the NBA 's worst record at 18 - 62.
The team 's original nickname was a nod to Chicago 's meatpacking industry; their home arena, the International Amphitheater, was next door to the Union Stock Yards. However, it was extremely unpopular since it was the same nickname used by the NFL 's Green Bay Packers, bitter rivals of the Chicago Bears. After only one year, the organization changed its name to the Chicago Zephyrs and played its home games at the Chicago Coliseum (Saperstein 's ABL Majors prevented the team from playing in the larger Chicago Stadium). Their only season as the Zephyrs boasted former Purdue star Terry Dischinger, who went on to win Rookie of the Year honors. In 1963 the franchise moved to Baltimore, Maryland, and became the Baltimore Bullets, taking their name from a 1940s -- ' 50s Baltimore Bullets BAA / NBA franchise and playing home games at the Baltimore Civic Center (the NBA would return to Chicago in 1966 when the Chicago Bulls began play). In their first year in Baltimore, the Bullets finished fourth in a five -- team Western Division.
Prior to the 1964 -- 65 NBA season the Bullets pulled off a blockbuster trade, sending Dischinger, Rod Thorn and Don Kojis to the Detroit Pistons for Bailey Howell, Don Ohl, Bob Ferry and Wali Jones. The trade worked out well; Howell proved to be a hustler and a fundamentally sound player. He helped the Bullets get into the playoffs for the first time in franchise history. In the 1965 NBA Playoffs, the Bullets stunned the St. Louis Hawks 3 -- 1, and advanced to the Western Conference finals. In the finals, Baltimore managed to split the first four games with the Los Angeles Lakers before losing the series 4 -- 2.
In the late 1960s, the Bullets drafted two future Hall of Fame members: Earl Monroe, in the 1967 draft, number two overall, and Wes Unseld, in the 1968 draft, also number two overall. The team improved dramatically, from 36 wins the previous season to 57 in the 1968 -- 69 season, and Unseld received both the rookie of the year and MVP awards. The Bullets reached the playoffs with high expectations to go far, but they were eliminated by the New York Knicks in the first round. The next season the two teams met again in the first round, and although this one went to seven games, the Knicks emerged victorious again.
In the 1970 -- 71 season, the 42 -- 40 Bullets again met the 1970 -- 71 Knicks, this time though in the Eastern Conference finals. With the Knicks team captain Willis Reed injured in the finals, the injury - free Bullets took advantage of his absence, and in game seven, at New York 's Madison Square Garden, the Bullets ' Gus Johnson made a critical basket late in the game to lift the Bullets over the Knicks 93 -- 91 and advance to their first NBA Finals. They were swept in four games by the powerful Milwaukee Bucks led by future Hall of Fame members Kareem Abdul - Jabbar (known in 1971 as Lew Alcindor) and Oscar Robertson.
Even after the trades of Earl Monroe (to the Knicks) and Gus Johnson (to the Suns), the Bullets remained a playoff contender throughout the 1970s. Following a less than spectacular 1971 -- 72 season, Baltimore acquired Elvin Hayes from the Houston Rockets and drafted Kevin Porter in the third round, out of St. Francis in Pennsylvania.
After a slow start in 1972 -- 73, Baltimore made their charge in December, posting a 10 -- 4 record on the way to capturing the Central Division title for the third straight year. The Bullets again faced the Knicks in the 1973 NBA Playoffs, losing for the fourth time in five series against New York.
In February 1973, the team announced its pending move 30 miles (50 km) southwest to the Capital Centre in Landover, a Washington, D.C. suburb, and became the Capital Bullets. After that 1973 -- 74 season, they changed their name to the Washington Bullets.
During November 1973, while waiting for the completion of their new arena in Landover, the Bullets played their home games at Cole Field House on the campus of the University of Maryland in College Park. The Capital Centre (later known as the USAir / US Airways Arena) opened on December 2, 1973, with the Bullets defeating the SuperSonics. Through the mid-1990s, the Bullets still played a few games per season in Baltimore.
The 60 -- 22 Bullets made it back to the 1975 NBA Playoffs. That year, Washington posted a 36 -- 5 home record at the Capital Centre. In the first round of the playoffs, they survived a seven -- game series against the Buffalo Braves as both teams won all of their games at home. In the Eastern Conference finals, they beat the defending NBA champion Boston Celtics in six games to advance to the NBA Finals. The Bullets were favorites to win the NBA Championship, but were swept by the Al Attles - led Golden State Warriors in four games, losing games two and three at the Capital Centre.
The loss at the NBA Finals lingered into the 1975 -- 76 season, as they won 12 fewer games than last year, and in the playoffs they were eliminated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in seven games. After the season, the Bullets fired head coach K.C. Jones, despite having a career 62 % winning percentage as the Bullets head coach.
In 1976 -- 77, under new head coach Dick Motta, the Bullets again fell short of the Central Division title for the second straight year. Elvin Hayes finished sixth in the league in rebounds with 12.5 rebounds per game. After opening the 1977 NBA Playoffs with a three -- game series victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers, the Bullets took a 2 -- 1 series lead in the second round against the Houston Rockets. With a chance to take a 3 -- 1 series lead at home, the Bullets lost 107 -- 103, and the Rockets took the series in six games.
Although they had future hall of famers Elvin Hayes and Wes Unseld on the team, the Bullets finished the 77 -- 78 season 44 -- 38 and were a longshot to win the NBA Finals, but San Antonio journalist Dan Cook used the famed phrase "The opera ai n't over ' til the fat lady sings ''. This became the rallying cry for the Bullets as they finished a playoff run that led to the NBA Finals, defeating the Seattle SuperSonics in seven games to bring a professional sports championship to Washington, D.C. for the first time in 36 years.
In the 1978 -- 79 NBA season the Bullets moved to the Atlantic Division, capturing the title in their first season there. They entered the 1979 NBA Playoffs having lost eight of the final 11 games to finish the regular season at 54 -- 28. In the playoffs the Bullets nearly blew a 3 -- 1 series lead against the Atlanta Hawks, but managed to hold off the Hawks in seven games.
In the Eastern Conference finals, they trailed the San Antonio Spurs 3 -- 1, but they mounted a comeback by winning two straight games to force a game seven at the Capital Centre. The Bullets rallied again, overcoming a fourth -- quarter deficit to beat George Gervin and the Spurs 107 -- 105 in one of the NBA 's all - time greatest games and advance to the NBA Finals and a rematch with the Seattle SuperSonics.
In game one of the finals, the Bullets defeated the SuperSonics, 99 -- 97, on two game - winning free throws. They lost the next four games, and the series, to Seattle. The Bullets were the only team to play in the NBA Finals four times during the 1970s.
Age and injuries finally caught up with the Bullets. In the 1979 -- 80 NBA season, they barely made the playoffs as they captured the sixth and final playoff spot with a tiebreaker despite posting a 39 -- 43 record. In the playoffs, they were swept by the Philadelphia 76ers in a 2 -- game playoff series. The following year the Bullets failed to make the playoffs for the first time in 13 years. Wes Unseld retired and Elvin Hayes was traded to the Houston Rockets the following season.
In 1980 -- 81, Washington played strong under the coaching of Gene Shue and Don Moran, finishing the regular season with a 43 -- 39 record, and although they advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals in the playoffs, they had clearly lost their form of the late 1970s. The 1982 Bullets continued to play with the same talent they had in the previous year. They finished with a winning record, but in a highly competitive Atlantic Division they finished last and missed the playoffs.
The next two years saw the Bullets continue to play mediocre basketball as they finished with losing records but they made the playoffs in the new expanded NBA Playoffs format that involved the 16 best teams to make the playoffs; the Bullets were eliminated in both years in the first round.
In 1985, the Bullets acquired Manute Bol, whose specialty was blocking shots. That year, he blocked 397 shots (a Bullets record), part of a team that blocked 716 shots (a Bullets team record). But the Bullets finished with a disappointing 39 -- 43 record, and were eliminated by the 76ers in the first round of the NBA Playoffs. The Bullets acquired center Moses Malone from the Philadelphia 76ers for center Jeff Ruland the following season for hope of improvement. Malone would lead the team in scoring with a 24.1 points per game as he would be joined by Jeff Malone who averaged 22.0 points per game. The Bullets ' 42 -- 40 record would be their last winning season until the 1996 -- 97 NBA season. Washington was eliminated by the Detroit Pistons in 3 games in the playoffs.
The Bullets selected Muggsy Bogues twelfth overall in the 1987 Draft, who at 5'3 '' is the smallest player in NBA history. The Bullets would get off to a slow start as coach Kevin Loughery was fired 27 games into the season with the Bullets holding an 8 -- 19 record. To replace Loughery, the Bullets hired former MVP Wes Unseld. Under Unseld the Bullets improved as they were able to reach the playoffs again with a record of 38 -- 44. After losing the first 2 games on the road in the first round of the 1988 NBA Playoffs to the Detroit Pistons, the Bullets fought back and forced a 5th game with 2 home wins. They would lose game 5 by 21 points. It would be 9 years before Washington would return to the NBA Playoffs.
The Bullets got off to a 5 -- 1 start in 1989, but they lost 16 of 18 games from mid-December to mid-January. They finished with a 31 -- 51 record despite stellar seasons by Jeff Malone and Bernard King, who averaged 24.3 and 22.3 points per game respectively to lead the team.
The lone highlight of the Bullets 30 - win 1990 -- 91 season was the successful comeback effort by Bernard King as he recovered from knee surgery he suffered while playing for the Knicks in the 1984 -- 85 NBA season to finish third in the NBA in scoring with a 28.4 points per game. In 1990, the team named Susan O'Malley as its president, the first female president of a franchise in the history of the NBA. Susan O'Malley is the daughter of Peter O'Malley, the prominent lawyer from Maryland and former president of the Washington Capitals.
The Bullets continued to struggle due to injuries and inconsistent play. They posted a 25 -- 57 record in the 1991 -- 92 season. Pervis Ellison was named 1992 Most Improved Player of The Year, averaging 20.0 points, 11.2 rebounds, and 2.7 blocks per game. Undrafted rookie Larry Stewart became the first undrafted player in NBA history to make an All - Rookie Team, being selected to the All - Rookie Second Team. The Bullets drafted Tom Gugliotta with their sixth overall pick in the 1992 NBA draft. They finished the 1992 -- 93 season with a 22 -- 60 record. Following the season, the Bullets traded Harvey Grant to the Portland Trail Blazers for former All - Star center Kevin Duckworth. In 1993, the Bullets did a rap music video of their version of Naughty by Nature 's rap single "Hip Hop Hooray '', featuring the rap trio themselves.
Injuries continued to bite the Bullets as key players Rex Chapman and Calbert Cheaney (the club 's first - round draft pick) missed significant stretches, and Ellison missed almost the entire season. The result was a 24 -- 58 record for the 1993 -- 94 season. Don MacLean was named 1994 Most Improved Player of the season, leading the Bullets with 18.2 points per game (tied with Chapman).
The Bullets selected Juwan Howard in the 1994 NBA draft and traded Gugliotta along with three first - round draft picks to the Golden State Warriors for the rights to Chris Webber. While the season started out with promise, a shoulder injury to Chris Webber (ironically against the Warriors) caused him to miss 19 games and the Bullets struggled through the rest of the season finishing a then franchise - worst (percentage wise) 21 -- 61. Webber averaged 20.1 points and 9.6 rebounds per game, but declined surgery for his dislocated shoulder. This would prove costly for the next season. The Bullets released a holiday video, "You da Man, You da Man, that 's the reason I 'm a Bullets Fan! '' in 1994, which featured all 12 Bullets dancing in front of the Reflecting Pool in Washington, D.C.
In the Bullets ' 1995 -- 96 season Webber suffered a dislocated left shoulder in a preseason game against the Indiana Pacers on October 21, and opened the season on the injured list. He was activated on November 27, but strained his shoulder against the New York Knicks on December 29. After hoping the injury would get better with rest, Webber finally underwent surgery on Feb. 1 which sidelined him for the remainder of the season. The Bullets were 9 -- 6 with Webber in the lineup as he averaged a team - high 23.7 points plus 7.6 rebounds, 5.0 assists and 1.80 steals in 37.2 minutes per game when he was able to play. Other players injured included Mark Price (who only played in 7 games) and Robert Pack (31 games played out of 82). Bright spots of the season included the selection of Rasheed Wallace in the 1995 NBA draft and the All - Star play of Howard. Howard averaged a career - best 22.1 ppg and 8.1 rpg and kept the Bullets slim playoff hopes alive until the end of the season. Center Gheorghe Mureșan was named Most Improved Player of The Year, averaging 14.5 points, 9.6 rebounds, and 2.3 blocks. The Bullets improved to 39 -- 43 but just missed the playoffs for the eighth consecutive season.
Washington, boasting the league 's tallest player (Mureșan, whose height is 7 ft 7 in), two very athletic forwards (Howard and Webber) and one of the league 's top point guards (Rod Strickland), started the 1996 -- 97 season at 22 -- 24. That led to the dismissal of Head Coach Jim Lynam. Bernie Bickerstaff, an assistant coach with the Bullets when they won their only NBA Championship in 1978, was called upon to resurrect his former team. The Bullets responded, winning 16 of their final 21 games to finish 44 -- 38, their best record since 1978 -- 79. The late surge enabled the Bullets to climb within reach of the Cleveland Cavaliers for the final playoff spot in the Eastern Conference. In a win - or - go - home game with the Cavaliers on the season 's final day, the Bullets squeezed past Cleveland 85 -- 81 to end the franchise 's longest playoff drought. And while the Bullets were swept by the Bulls in the first round, they lost the three games by a total of 18 points.
Webber led the way in scoring (20.1 ppg), rebounding (10.3) and blocks (1.9) and shot 51.8 percent from the floor to make his first All - Star team. Howard averaged 19.1 ppg and 8.0 rpg, while Strickland averaged 17.2 ppg and 1.74 spg and finished fifth in the league in assists with 8.9 per game. Mureşan dominated the middle and led the NBA in field goal percentage (. 599). Washington received contributions from Calbert Cheaney (10.6 ppg) and Tracy Murray (10.0 ppg).
In November 1995, owner Abe Pollin announced he was changing the team 's nickname, because Bullets had acquired violent overtones that had made him increasingly uncomfortable over the years, particularly given the high homicide and crime rate in the early 1990s in Washington, D.C. It was widely believed to also be related to the assassination of Pollin 's longtime friend, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.
A contest was held to choose a new name and the choices were narrowed to the Dragons, Express, Stallions, Sea Dogs, and the Wizards. On May 15, 1997, the Bullets officially became the Wizards. The new name generated some controversy because "Wizard '' is a rank in the Ku Klux Klan, and Washington has a large African American population. A new logo was unveiled and the team colors were changed from the traditional red, white and blue to a lighter shade of blue, black and bronze, the same colors as the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League (NHL), also owned by Pollin. That same year the Wizards moved to the then MCI Center, now called Capital One Arena, which is home to the Capitals, the Washington Mystics of the Women 's National Basketball Association and the Georgetown Hoyas men 's college basketball team.
In 1998, they became the brother team to the Mystics, and remained officially thus until 2005 when the Mystics were sold to Lincoln Holdings (headed by Ted Leonsis), parent company of the Capitals. However, upon the purchase of the Wizards by Leonsis in 2010, the Wizards and Mystics again became sibling teams.
The newly named Wizards began the 1997 -- 98 season playing 5 home games at the Capital Centre before moving to the new MCI Center on December 2, 1997. The Wizards finished the season with a 42 -- 40 record including 4 straight victories to end the season but just missed the playoffs. Highlights of the season included Chris Webber leading the team in scoring (21.9 ppg) and rebounding (9.5 rpg). Strickland led the league in assists (10.5 apg) before suffering an injury near the end of the season. He was also named on the All - NBA Second Team. Tracy Murray averaged 15.1 ppg off the bench including a 50 - point game against Golden State. Off court distractions led to the trade of Webber to the Sacramento Kings for Mitch Richmond and Otis Thorpe in May 1998.
The Wizards finished the lockout shortened season of 1998 -- 99 with a record of 18 -- 32. Mitch Richmond led the team in scoring with a 19.7 ppg average. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, the Wizards finished with a 29 -- 53 record. Mitch Richmond led the team with 17.4 ppg. In the 2000 -- 2001 season, under newly hired coach Leonard Hamilton, 1999 NBA draft pick Richard Hamilton led the team in scoring with 18.1 ppg, but the team finished with a 19 -- 63 record (a franchise low).
On February 23, 2001, the Wizards were involved in a blockbuster trade days before the trading deadline. The team sent Juwan Howard, Obinna Ekezie and Calvin Booth to the Dallas Mavericks. In return, Washington received Hubert Davis, Courtney Alexander, Christian Laettner, Loy Vaught and Etan Thomas along with $3 million.
After retiring from the Chicago Bulls in early 1999, Michael Jordan became the Washington Wizards ' president of basketball operations as well as a minority owner in January 2000. In September 2001, Jordan came out of retirement at age 38 to play for Washington. Jordan stated that he was returning "for the love of the game. '' Because of NBA rules, he had to divest himself of any ownership of the team. Before the All - Star break, Jordan was one of only two players to average more than 25 points, 5 assists, and 5 rebounds as he led the Wizards to a 26 -- 21 record. After the All - Star break, Jordan 's knee could not handle the workload of a full - season as he ended the season on the injured list, and the Wizards concluded the season with a 37 -- 45 record.
Jordan announced he would return for the 2002 -- 03 season, and this time he was determined to be equipped with reinforcements, as he traded for All - Star Jerry Stackhouse and signed budding star Larry Hughes. Jordan even accepted a sixth - man role on the bench in order for his knee to survive the rigors of an 82 -- game season. A combination of numerous team injuries and uninspired play led to Jordan 's return to the starting lineup, where he tried to rebound the franchise from its early - season struggles. By the end of the season, the Wizards finished with a 37 -- 45 record once again. Jordan ended the season as the only Wizard to play in all 82 games, as he averaged 20.0 points, 6.9 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals in 37.0 minutes per game. Jordan retired from playing for a third and final time after the season.
After the season, majority owner Pollin fired Jordan as team president, much to the shock of players, associates, and the public. Jordan felt betrayed, thinking that he would get his ownership back after his playing days ended, but Pollin justified Jordan 's dismissal by noting that Jordan had detrimental effects on the team, such as benching Hughes for Tyronn Lue, making poor trades, and using the team 's first - round draft pick on high schooler Kwame Brown. Without Jordan in the fold the following year, the Washington Wizards were not expected to win, and they did not. Despite the signing of future All - Star point guard Gilbert Arenas, in a move that was ironically made possible by Jordan 's prior cap - clearing maneuvers as a team executive, the team stumbled to a 25 -- 57 record in the 2003 -- 04 season.
The Wizards replaced Jordan 's managerial role with general manager Ernie Grunfeld.
The 2004 -- 05 NBA season saw the team (now in the new Southeast Division) post its best regular - season record in 26 years (45 -- 37) and marked the first time the franchise had ever made the playoffs as the Wizards. In the off - season, the team traded Stackhouse, Christian Laettner, and the draft rights to Devin Harris to the Dallas Mavericks for Antawn Jamison. During the regular season, the scoring trio of Arenas, Jamison and Hughes was the highest in the NBA and earned the nickname of "The Big Three ''. Hughes led the NBA in steals with 2.89 per game. Arenas and Jamison were both named to the 2005 Eastern Conference All - Star team, marking the first time Washington had two players in the All - Star game since Jeff Malone and Moses Malone represented the Bullets in the 1987 All - Star Game.
With a 93 -- 82 win over the Chicago Bulls on April 13, 2005, the Wizards clinched a playoff spot for the first time since 1996 -- 97. Long - suffering fans celebrated by buying over 16,000 playoff tickets in two and a half hours the day tickets went on sale. In game 3 of the first round against the Bulls, the Wizards won their first playoff game since 1988. Adding to the "long - overdue '' feeling was the fact that game 3 was the first NBA playoff game to be held within Washington, D.C. city limits. In the Wizards ' game 5 victory in Chicago, Arenas hit a buzzer - beater to win the game and the Wizards took their first lead in a playoff series since 1986. In Game 6 at the MCI Center, Jared Jeffries picked up a loose ball and went in for an uncontested tie - breaking dunk with 32 seconds left, thus giving the Wizards a 94 -- 91 win and the team 's first playoff series win in 23 years. They were only the 12th team in NBA history to win a playoff series after being down 0 -- 2.
In the conference semifinals, the Wizards were swept by the Miami Heat, the No. 1 seed in the Eastern Conference in the 2005 NBA Playoffs.
The 2005 -- 06 NBA season was filled with ups and downs. During the off - season, Washington acquired Caron Butler and Antonio Daniels. During the regular season, the Wizards again had the best scoring trio in the NBA, this time consisting of Arenas, Jamison and Butler as the "Big Three ''. The Wizards started the 2005 -- 06 season at 5 -- 1, but went on an 8 -- 17 funk to go to 13 -- 18 through 31 games. Then, they went 13 -- 5 in the next 18 games. On April 5, 2006, the team was 39 -- 35 and looking to close in on the 45 - win mark achieved the previous year, until Butler suffered a thumb sprain and the Wizards lost all five games without him. Butler returned and the team pulled out their final three games, against the Pistons, Cavs and Bucks, all playoff - bound teams, to finish the year at 42 -- 40 and clinch the 5th seed in the Eastern Conference. They averaged 101.7 points a game, third in the NBA and tops in the East and clinched a playoff berth for the second year in a row for the first time since 1987.
Their first - round match - up with Cleveland was widely seen as the most evenly matched series in the 2006 NBA Playoffs. The teams exchanged wins during the first two games in Cleveland, with Game 2 highlighted by the Wizards holding LeBron James to 7 -- 25 shooting from the floor while Brendan Haywood gave James a hard foul in the first quarter that many cited as the key to shaking up the rest of James 's game. In Game 3 at the Verizon Center, James hit a 4 - footer on the way down with 5.7 seconds left to take the game and the series lead for the Cavs with a 97 -- 96 win. Arenas missed a potential game - winning three - pointer on the other end to seal the win for the Cavs. Game 4 saw the Wizards heat up again, as Arenas scored 20 in the fourth quarter after claiming he changed his jersey, shorts, shoes and tights in the room and the Wizards won 106 -- 96. Yet in Games 5 and 6, the Cavs would take control of the series, both games decided by one point in overtime.
In Game 5, despite the Wizards being down 107 -- 100 with 1: 18 to play, the team drove back and eventually tied the game on Butler 's layup with 7.5 seconds remaining to send the game to OT, where James scored with 0.9 seconds left in overtime to send the Cavs to a 121 -- 120 win. The series returned to the Verizon Center for Game 6, where the game went back and forth all night. The Wizards blew a 14 - point first - quarter lead, then for 24 minutes, from early in the second quarter to early in the fourth, neither team led by more than five points at any time. The Wizards blew a seven - point lead with just under 5 to play and needed Arenas to hit a 31 - footer at the end of regulation to take the game to overtime. In OT, Arenas missed two key free throws. Cleveland rebounded the ball, went downcourt and Damon Jones hit a 17 - foot baseline jumper with 4.8 seconds remaining to give the Cavs the lead for good. Butler missed a three - pointer on the other end to seal the game, and the series, for the Cavaliers.
The 2006 -- 07 season started out very promisingly for the Wizards. In the off - season they signed free agents DeShawn Stevenson and Darius Songaila. Etan Thomas beat out Haywood for the starting center job. After starting the season 0 -- 8 on the road, Washington rebounded to win 6 of 7 away from Verizon Center. After a November 4 -- 9, Washington went 22 -- 9 through December and January. Arenas scored a franchise - record 60 points against the Lakers on December 17. He and Eddie Jordan were named player of the month and coach of the month for December, respectively. On January 3 and again on January 15, Arenas hit buzzer - beating three - pointers to beat Milwaukee and Utah.
On January 30, Jamison went down with a sprained left knee in a win against Detroit. Washington went 4 -- 8 in the 12 games without him. On February 3, Songaila made his Wizards debut against the Lakers. On February 18, Eddie Jordan became the first Wizards / Bullets coach to coach the NBA All - Star Game since Dick Motta in 1978 -- 1979. Arenas played in his third straight All - Star game and Butler made his All - Star Game debut.
On March 14, Butler went out with a knee injury that kept him out of the lineup for six games. He returned for only three games until he fractured his right hand on April 1 against Milwaukee. On April 4, Arenas suffered a season - ending knee injury, of the meniscus. An April 15 article in The Washington Post pointed out that with Arenas and Butler gone, the team had lost 42.3 % of their offensive production, quite possibly "the most costly '' loss for any team in the midst of a playoff hunt in NBA history.
Despite their late - season struggles without Arenas and Butler, the Wizards still managed to make the Eastern Conference playoffs, taking the 7th seed at 41 -- 41. They were swept four games to none in a rematch of the previous year 's first - round series against the Cleveland Cavaliers. Despite a depleted roster, the Wizards still managed to keep things close in every game in the series and only lost the final three games by a combined 20 points. The team enjoyed their best attendance figures in the post-Jordan era with a season attendance of 753,283 (18,372 per game).
The Wizards retained a majority of their roster from the 2006 -- 07 season, only losing Jarvis Hayes to Detroit, Calvin Booth to the Philadelphia 76ers, and Michael Ruffin to the Milwaukee Bucks as free agents. Washington signed Oleksiy Pecherov, the team 's first - round pick in 2006, as well as 2007 picks Nick Young and Dominic McGuire. Etan Thomas missed the regular season after undergoing open - heart surgery.
The team began the season starting 0 -- 5, but rebounded to win six straight. After 8 games, Arenas underwent surgery to repair a torn medial meniscus in his left knee, as well as a microfracture surgery. This was the same knee he had injured the previous year. The injury forced Arenas out for a total of 68 games. Midway through the season, Butler was forced to the sidelines for a total of 20 games with what initially was a strained hip flexor, but turned out to be a labral tear. Despite all of the injuries, the Wizards managed to go 43 -- 39 on the regular season, good for 5th place in the Eastern Conference and a first - round playoff matchup with the Cleveland Cavaliers for the third straight season.
During the off - season, Arenas signed a 6 - year, $111 million contract, while Jamison signed a 4 - year, $50 million contract. The Wizards did not re-sign guard Roger Mason, who signed with the San Antonio Spurs. The Wizards added guards Dee Brown and Juan Dixon, and drafted JaVale McGee 18th overall in the 2008 NBA Draft.
In September, Arenas underwent a third operation on his surgically repaired left knee to clean out fluid and debris, and was expected to miss at least the first month of the season. The forecast came in longer than expected, as Arenas missed 5 months of action due to concerns on his knee before returning on March 29, 2009. In the first game of the preseason, Jamison suffered a right knee contusion, and was expected to miss the rest of the preseason. Haywood announced that he would undergo surgery on his right wrist and was expected to miss 4 -- 6 months. The preseason marked the return of Etan Thomas who had missed all of the 2007 -- 2008 season while recovering from open heart surgery. The Wizards added guard Fenny Falmagne from the Dakota Wizards on August 23, 2008 that later was waived by the team after knee injury.
The Wizards opened the season on October 29 with a loss against New Jersey, and dropped 15 of their first 19 games. Head coach Eddie Jordan was fired on November 24 after a 1 -- 10 start, and was replaced by interim coach Ed Tapscott. On December 10, Washington acquired guards Javaris Crittenton and Mike James in a three - team deal that sent Antonio Daniels to New Orleans. The team waived guard Dee Brown. They won just 14 of their first 60 games and in the end tied a franchise worst record of 19 -- 63.
One of the few high points of the season came on February 27 when recently inaugurated President Barack Obama attended a Wizards game against the Chicago Bulls, sitting in a northeast court - side seat. The Wizards produced their second - biggest victory margin of the season with a 113 -- 90 win; Jamison paced the side with 27 points.
On April 2, the Wizards shut down the Cleveland Cavaliers, who came in with a record of 61 -- 13, and ended Cleveland 's franchise - best winning streak at 13.
Flip Saunders reached an agreement to become the new coach of the team in mid-April, 2009. Despite having the second best chance at obtaining the number one overall pick in the 2009 draft, the Wizards were randomly chosen to pick fifth overall in the NBA Draft Lottery. This pick was later traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves, along with Songaila, Thomas, and Oleksiy Pecherov, in exchange for Randy Foye and Mike Miller. On May 21, 2009, Wizards president Ernie Grunfeld announced that the team has named Randy Wittman and Sam Cassell as assistant coaches. Then on August 11, 2009, the Wizards signed Fabricio Oberto, many weeks after he committed to signing with the team.
In November, majority owner Abe Pollin died at the age of 85. At the time of his passing, he was the longest - tenured owner in NBA history. Control of the franchise passed to his widow Irene, though minority owner Ted Leonsis was known to be preparing a takeover bid.
On December 24, 2009, it was revealed that Arenas had admitted to storing unloaded firearms in his locker at Verizon Center and had surrendered them to team security. In doing so, Arenas violated both NBA rules against bringing firearms into an arena and D.C. ordinances. On January 1, 2010, it was reported that Arenas and teammate Javaris Crittenton had unloaded guns in the Wizards ' locker room during a Christmas Eve argument regarding gambling debts resulting in Arenas 's suspension. Despite Stern 's longstanding practice of not disciplining players until the legal process plays out, he felt compelled to act when Arenas 's teammates surrounded him during pregame introductions prior to a game with the Philadelphia 76ers and he pantomimed shooting them with guns made from his fingers. The Wizards issued a statement condemning the players ' pregame stunt as "unacceptable ''.
On February 13, 2010, after a 17 -- 33 record at the season 's midway point, The Wizards traded Butler, Haywood, and Stevenson to the Mavericks in exchange for Josh Howard, Drew Gooden, Quinton Ross and James Singleton. Three days later, the Wizards traded Antawn Jamison to the Cavaliers in exchange for Zydrunas Ilgauskas and obtained Al Thornton from the Los Angeles Clippers in a three - team deal. Ilgauskas reported long enough to take a physical (to make the trade official). His contract was immediately bought out, making him a free agent. On February 26, 2010, the Wizards signed Shaun Livingston to a 10 - day contract. With Gilbert Arenas suspended and Caron Butler and Antawn Jamison being traded, the Wizards finished the season at 26 - 56, posting an abysmal 9 -- 23 record to finish the season. They were the only Southeast Division team not to make the post-season.
Leonsis completed his takeover of the Wizards and Verizon Center in June through his newly - formed holding company, Monumental Sports and Entertainment. He had previously purchased the Washington Capitals and Mystics from the Pollin family. Leonsis has taken a fan - centric approach to running the franchise, by listening and responding to the concerns of Wizards supporters through his email and personal website. He has written a manifesto of 101 changes he hopes to implement during his ownership, including changing the team 's colors back to the red, white and blue of the Bullets era, and possibly changing the team nickname back to ' Bullets ' as well. Team President Ernie Grunfeld later confirmed that the franchise 's colors would revert to red, white and blue from the 2011 -- 12 season onwards. The team also adopted new uniforms that were very similar to the ones they wore from 1974 to 1987. Although the Wizards did not change their name to the Bullets again, they adopted a variation of the 1969 -- 1987 Bullets logo with "wizards '' spelled in all lowercase letters like the "bullets '' logo was printed.
Despite having only the 5th - best odds of obtaining the No. 1 pick (10.3 % overall), the Wizards won the 2010 NBA draft lottery and selected All - American Kentucky point guard John Wall with the first overall pick. Later in the offseason, the team acquired the Chicago Bulls ' all - time leader in three - point field goals, Kirk Hinrich and the draft rights to forward Kevin Seraphin in exchange for the draft rights to Vladimir Veremeenko.
In a blockbuster trade, the Wizards sent Gilbert Arenas to the Orlando Magic in return for Rashard Lewis on December 18. Kirk Hinrich and Hilton Armstrong were traded to the Atlanta Hawks for Jordan Crawford, Maurice Evans, Mike Bibby, and a 2011 first - round pick that became Chris Singleton, although Mike Bibby bought out his contract after playing two games and eventually signed with the Miami Heat. The Wizards finished with a 23 -- 59 record, once again occupying the Southeast Division cellar.
After a poor start to the 2011 -- 12 season, head coach Flip Saunders was fired and replaced by assistant Randy Wittman. On March 15, the Wizards were involved in a three - way trade that sent JaVale McGee and Ronny Turiaf to the Nuggets and Nick Young to the Clippers in exchange for Nenê and Brian Cook. After ending the season on a six - game win streak, the Wizards finished with a record of 20 - 46 (season was shortened due to the 2011 NBA Lockout) and the second worst record in the NBA, comfortably ahead of the 7 - 59 Charlotte Bobcats who set a new NBA record for the lowest win percentage in a season with. 106.
The Wizards sent Rashard Lewis and a pick to the Hornets for Emeka Okafor and Trevor Ariza.
In the 2012 NBA Draft, the Wizards selected Bradley Beal and Tomáš Satoranský.
On July 17, 2012, the Wizards exercised the amnesty provision from the 2011 CBA to release Andray Blatche. They also signed A.J. Price. Then, on August 29, 2012, Martell Webster was signed to the Wizards for one year on a $1.6 million contract. He played above average for what he was signed for and had a. 422 average for three - pointers and a. 442 field goal percentage.
On April 30, 2013. Jason Collins, who joined the team in February announced his homosexuality as a member of the Wizards. His announcement made him the first openly gay member of a North American team sport.
On Tuesday, May 21, 2013 the Wizards jumped up 5 spots in the NBA Draft Lottery to make the number 3 overall selection for the second year in a row. They used that pick to draft Consensus All - American Otto Porter of Georgetown University.
On October 25, 2013, the Wizards ' center Emeka Okafor and top - 12 protected 2014 first - round pick were traded to the Phoenix Suns for the center Marcin Gortat, Shannon Brown, Malcolm Lee and Kendall Marshall.
On February 3, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Portland Trail Blazers to improve to a 24 - 23 record. The win marked the first time the team had held a winning record since 2009.
On April 2, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Boston Celtics by a score of 118 - 92 to clinch the team 's first playoff berth since the 2007 -- 08 season.
On April 29, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Chicago Bulls in game 5 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals by a score of 75 - 69 to win the series 4 - 1. This was the Wizards first series victory since the 2005 NBA Playoffs when they defeated the same team in 6 games.
The Wizards advanced to the Eastern Conference semi-finals against the Indiana Pacers. The Wizards won game one 102 - 96. In game two the Wizards lost a 19 - point second half lead, as they dropped the game 88 - 82. After being routed by Indiana in game three 85 - 63, they also lost game four 95 - 92. They showed grit and determination as they staved off elimination with a 102 - 79 game five win. They were behind most of game 6, but battled back to take the lead late in the game. However, Indiana closed out the series with a 93 - 80 win.
In the offseason, after the departure of Trevor Ariza, the Wizards signed veteran small forward Paul Pierce to a two - year contract. Pierce 's veteran leadership proved to be a major factor on and off the court in the team 's improvement. On November 12, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Detroit Pistons 107 -- 103, extending their record to 6 -- 2 for the first time since the 1975 -- 76 season. The following game three days later, the Wizards defeated the Orlando Magic 98 - 93 as they won their third straight and moved to 7 -- 2, their best start since opening 7 -- 1 during the 1974 -- 75 season. With a 104 - 96 win over the Los Angeles Clippers on December 12, the Wizards moved to an 11 -- 2 record at home to start the season for the first time in franchise history. They would struggle throughout the later months of the season but the Washington Wizards would finish the season with a 46 -- 36 record, their best record since the 1978 -- 1979 season. They played the Toronto Raptors in the first round of the NBA Playoffs and won in four games, marking their first sweep in franchise history. Following the victory over Toronto, the Wizards next had to play the top seeded Atlanta Hawks. The Wizards managed to take the first game in the series, but suffered the loss of Wall due to a fractured wrist. Although small forward Paul Pierce made several big shots throughout the series, the loss of Wall proved too much, and Atlanta took the series in six games.
However, the 2015 -- 16 season was much less successful. The Wizards finished 10th in the Eastern Conference with a 41 - 41 record, and missed the playoffs. On April 13, 2016 the Wizards, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012 -- 13, fired Head Coach Randy Wittman.
On April 21, 2016, NBA.com reported that Scott Brooks, the former head coach of the Oklahoma City Thunder, had agreed to a 5 - year, $35 million head coaching position with the Wizards.
On September 8, 2016, the team unveiled new alternative jerseys. From 2015 on, their logo was the "monument ball '' with "Navy Blue, Red, Silver, White '' colors.
In October 2016, they were ranked 93rd of 122 worst franchises in major sports by Ultimate Standings.
The Wizards started off the 2016 -- 17 season with a 2 -- 8 record. However, they rebounded to touch the second seed, before a slump brought them down to the fourth seed, finishing 49 -- 33, behind the 51 -- 31 Toronto Raptors at third, the 51 -- 31 Cleveland Cavaliers at second, and the 53 -- 29 Boston Celtics in first place. The Wizards won their division title for the first time since the 1978 -- 79 season, also clinching home - field advantage for the first time since the 1978 -- 79 season, and the team had their best record since the 1978 -- 79 season. The Wizards played the fifth - seeded Atlanta Hawks in the first round of the Eastern Conference playoffs, defeating them in six games behind a 42 - point game six performance from Wall and 31 from Beal; before losing to the Boston Celtics in a seven - game series.
After moving from Chicago in 1963, the then - Baltimore Bullets used red and navy colors as part of the team 's logos and uniforms. In 1969, the club changed the colors to blue and orange. The red, white and blue colors returned as part of the franchise 's iconic uniforms beginning with the 1973 -- 74 season, coinciding with the team 's move to Landover, Maryland to become the Capital Bullets. Those uniforms also featured large horizontal stripes on the chest of the jerseys, and three stars on the side panels of the shorts. The uniforms were kept when they changed their name a year later to the Washington Bullets.
In 1997, then team owner Abe Pollin decided to change the club 's nickname from Bullets to Wizards. The reasoning behind the name change was because Pollin did not want the team 's name to continue to be associated with any violent connotations. The name change also included new logos, colors and uniforms, coinciding with the team 's move to the new MCI Center. The new team 's colors were blue, bronze and black. The primary logo depicted a wizard conjuring a basketball with a quarter moon. In 2007, the Wizards made minor modifications on their team jerseys and logos. To accommodate the gold -- black alternate jerseys they introduced the previous season along with the design change on the Verizon Center floor, they changed their secondary team colors from bronze to metallic gold, and the player 's name on the back of the jersey was changed from white / blue with bronze trim to gold (blue on home uniforms) with a change in lettering.
On May 10, 2011, the Wizards unveiled a new color scheme, uniforms and logo. David Safren, Pat Sullivan, and Michael Glazer were the product designers for the new jerseys which include the Washington Monument as an alternate logo. The team of product designers was led by Jessie Caples, who made most of the design decisions. James Pinder was also an essential part of the team, as he helped to engineer the jerseys to meet the players ' standards. The team reverted to its traditional red, white and blue colors, which are the colors of the American flag. The uniforms are based very closely on those worn from 1974 to 1987, during the team 's glory years. Leonsis said the throwback to the old Bullets ' uniforms was intentional; the only difference between those uniforms and the current ones is the team name on the jerseys. The colors were also used by Leonsis ' other franchises, the Capitals and the Mystics, who adopted to those colors in 2007 and 2011, respectively.
On July 23, 2014, the Wizards unveiled a new alternate uniform. The uniform is similar to the club 's road set, with the navy and red colors switched, so that navy is the predominant color instead of red.
On April 15, 2015, the Wizards unveiled a new primary logo. The new logo features the Washington Monument ball logo set in a roundel, with the striping pattern from the team 's uniforms, three stars (each representing Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Virginia), and the team 's wordmarks. The team also said it would immediately discontinue the use of the wizard / partial moon logo, which had been used since 1997.
On September 30, 2015, the Wizards unveiled a new alternate uniform. Called the "Baltimore Pride '' uniform, the uniform is intended to be worn for six select games during the Wizards ' 2015 -- 16 season.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2017 -- 10 -- 14
The Wizards hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
Notes:
Bold denotes still active with team.
Italic denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of April 18, 2017)
NBA Most Valuable Player
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award
NBA Community Assist Award
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star Game
* Starter
NBA All - Star Game head coaches
Long Distance Shootout
Slam Dunk Contest
Skills Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge MVP
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what event took place in fukushima japan after a tsunami | Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster - Wikipedia
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (福島 第 一 原子力 発電 所 事故, Fukushima Dai - ichi (pronunciation) genshiryoku hatsudensho jiko) was an energy accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima Prefecture, initiated primarily by the tsunami following the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011. Immediately after the earthquake, the active reactors automatically shut down their sustained fission reactions. However, the tsunami disabled the emergency generators that would have provided power to control and operate the pumps necessary to cool the reactors. The insufficient cooling led to three nuclear meltdowns, hydrogen - air explosions, and the release of radioactive material in Units 1, 2 and 3 from 12 March to 15 March. Loss of cooling also raised concerns over the recently loaded spent fuel pool of Reactor 4, which increased in temperature on 15 March due to the decay heat from the freshly added spent fuel rods but did not boil down to exposure.
On 5 July 2012, the Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) found that the causes of the accident had been foreseeable, and that the plant operator, Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), had failed to meet basic safety requirements such as risk assessment, preparing for containing collateral damage, and developing evacuation plans. On 12 October 2012, TEPCO admitted for the first time that it had failed to take necessary measures for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants.
The Fukushima disaster was the most significant nuclear incident since the April 26, 1986 Chernobyl disaster and the second disaster to be given the Level 7 event classification of the International Nuclear Event Scale. However, there have been no fatalities linked to radiation due to the accident. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and World Health Organization report that there will be no increase in miscarriages, stillbirths or physical and mental disorders in babies born after the accident. Controversially, however, an estimated 1,600 deaths are believed to have occurred, primarily in the elderly, who had earlier lived in nursing homes, due to the resultant poor ad hoc evacuation conditions. In 2017 risk analysis has determined, that unlike Chernobyl, "relocation was unjustified for the 160,000 people relocated after Fukushima, '' asserting that 1,600 deaths occurred due to these stressful evacuation conditions, while the potential for future deaths from exposure to greater amounts of radiation would have been comparatively lower, had everyone instead stayed home and been supported by a shelter in place.
There are no clear plans for decommissioning the plant, but the plant management estimate is 30 or 40 years. A frozen soil barrier has been constructed in an attempt to prevent further contamination of seeping groundwater, but in July 2016 TEPCO revealed that the ice wall had failed to totally stop groundwater from flowing in and mixing with highly radioactive water inside the wrecked reactor buildings, adding that they are "technically incapable of blocking off groundwater with the frozen wall ''.
In February 2017, TEPCO released images taken inside Reactor 2 by a remote - controlled camera that show there is a 2 - meter (6.5 ft) wide hole in the metal grating under the pressure vessel in the reactor 's primary containment vessel, which could have been caused by fuel escaping the pressure vessel, indicating a meltdown / melt - through had occurred, through this layer of containment. Radiation levels of about 210 Sv per hour were subsequently detected inside the Unit 2 containment vessel. These values are in the context of undamaged spent fuel which has typical values of 270 Sv / h, after 10 years of cold shutdown, with no shielding.
The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant comprised six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric (GE) and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). At the time of the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011, Reactors 4, 5, and 6 were shut down in preparation for re-fueling. However, their spent fuel pools still required cooling.
Immediately after the earthquake, the electricity - producing Reactors 1, 2, and 3 automatically shut down their sustained fission reactions by inserting control rods in a legally - mandated safety procedure referred to as SCRAM, which ceases the reactors ' normal running conditions. As the reactors were unable to generate power to run their own coolant pumps, emergency diesel generators came online, as designed, to power electronics and coolant systems. These operated nominally until the tsunami destroyed the generators for Reactors 1 -- 5. The two generators cooling Reactor 6 were undamaged and were sufficient to be pressed into service to cool the neighboring Reactor 5 along with their own reactor, averting the overheating issues that Reactor 4 suffered.
The largest tsunami wave was 13 meters (43 ft) high and hit 50 minutes after the initial earthquake, overwhelming the plant 's seawall, which was 10 m (33 ft) high. The moment of impact was recorded by a camera. Water quickly flooded the low - lying rooms in which the emergency generators were housed. The flooded diesel generators failed soon afterwards, resulting in a loss of power to the critical coolant water pumps. These pumps needed to continuously circulate coolant water through a Generation II reactor for several days to keep the fuel rods from melting, as the fuel rods continued to generate decay heat after the SCRAM event. The fuel rods would become hot enough to melt during the fuel decay time period if an adequate heat sink was not available. After the secondary emergency pumps (run by back - up electrical batteries) ran out, one day after the tsunami, 12 March, the water pumps stopped and the reactors began to overheat.
Meanwhile, as workers struggled to supply power to the reactors ' coolant systems and restore power to their control rooms, a number of hydrogen - air chemical explosions occurred, the first in Unit 1, on 12 March and the last in Unit 4, on 15 March. It is estimated that the hot zirconium fuel cladding - water reaction in Reactors 1 -- 3 produced 800 to 1000 kilograms of hydrogen gas each. The pressurized gas was vented out of the reactor pressure vessel where it mixed with the ambient air, and eventually reached explosive concentration limits in Units 1 and 3. Due to piping connections between Units 3 and 4, or alternatively from the same reaction occurring in the spent fuel pool in Unit 4 itself, Unit 4 also filled with hydrogen, resulting in an explosion. In each case, the hydrogen - air explosions occurred at the top of each unit, that was in their upper secondary containment buildings. Drone overflights on 20 March and afterwards captured clear images of the effects of each explosion on the outside structures, while the view inside was largely obscured by shadows and debris.
Coinciding with the well understood implications of a loss of coolant accident, the insufficient cooling eventually led to meltdowns in Reactors 1, 2, and 3. The full extent of the movement of the resulting corium is unknown but it is now considered to be at least through the bottom of each reactor pressure vessel (RPV), residing somewhere between there and the water - table below each reactor. In a similar manner to what was observed at reactor 4 in Chernobyl.
There have been no fatalities linked to short term overexposure to radiation reported due to the Fukushima accident, while approximately 18,500 people died due to the earthquake and tsunami. The maximum cancer mortality and morbidity estimate according to the linear no - threshold theory is 1,500 and 1,800 but with most estimates considerably lower, in the range of a few hundred. In addition, the rates of psychological distress among evacuated people rose fivefold compared to the Japanese average due to the experience of the disaster and evacuation.
In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that the residents of the area who were evacuated were exposed to low amounts of radiation and that radiation - induced health impacts are likely to be low. In particular, the 2013 WHO report predicts that for evacuated infant girls, their 0.75 % pre-accident lifetime risk of developing thyroid cancer is calculated to be increased to 1.25 % by being exposed to radioiodine, with the increase being slightly less for males. The risks from a number of additional radiation - induced cancers are also expected to be elevated due to exposure caused by the other low boiling point fission products that were released by the safety failures. The single greatest increase is for thyroid cancer, but in total, an overall 1 % higher lifetime risk of developing cancers of all types, is predicted for infant females, with the risk slightly lower for males, making both some of the most radiation - sensitive groups. Along with those within the womb, which the WHO predicted, depending on their gender, to have the same elevations in risk as the infant groups.
A screening program a year later in 2012 found that more than a third (36 %) of children in Fukushima Prefecture have abnormal growths in their thyroid glands. As of August 2013, there have been more than 40 children newly diagnosed with thyroid cancer and other cancers in Fukushima prefecture as a whole. In 2015, the number of thyroid cancers or detections of developing thyroid cancers numbered 137. However, whether these incidences of cancer are elevated above the rate in un-contaminated areas and therefore were due to exposure to nuclear radiation is unknown at this stage. Data from the Chernobyl accident showed that an unmistakable rise in thyroid cancer rates following the disaster in 1986 only began after a cancer incubation period of 3 -- 5 years; however, whether this data can be directly compared to the Fukushima nuclear disaster is yet to be determined.
A survey by the newspaper Mainichi Shimbun computed that of some 300,000 people who evacuated the area, approximately 1,600 deaths related to the evacuation conditions, such as living in temporary housing and hospital closures, had occurred as of August 2013, a number comparable to the 1,599 deaths directly caused by the earthquake and tsunami in the Fukushima Prefecture in 2011. The exact causes of the majority of these evacuation related deaths were not specified, as according to the municipalities, that would hinder application for condolence money compensation by the relatives of the deceased.
On 5 July 2012, the Japanese National Diet - appointed Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese Diet. The Commission found the nuclear disaster was "manmade '', that the direct causes of the accident were all foreseeable prior to 11 March 2011. The report also found that the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant was incapable of withstanding the earthquake and tsunami. TEPCO, the regulatory bodies (NISA and NSC) and the government body promoting the nuclear power industry (METI), all failed to correctly develop the most basic safety requirements -- such as assessing the probability of damage, preparing for containing collateral damage from such a disaster, and developing evacuation plans for the public in the case of a serious radiation release. Meanwhile, the government - appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012. A separate study by Stanford researchers found that Japanese plants operated by the largest utility companies were particularly unprotected against potential tsunami.
TEPCO admitted for the first time on 12 October 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants. There are no clear plans for decommissioning the plant, but the plant management estimate is thirty or forty years.
A frozen soil barrier was constructed in an attempt to prevent further contamination of seeping groundwater by melted - down nuclear fuel, but in July 2016 TEPCO revealed that the ice wall had failed to stop groundwater from flowing in and mixing with highly radioactive water inside the wrecked reactor buildings, adding that they are "technically incapable of blocking off groundwater with the frozen wall ''.
In 2018, some tours to visit Fukushima disastered area have been started.
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant site close - up
Map of Japan 's electricity distribution network, showing incompatible systems between regions. Fukushima is in the 50 hertz Tohoku region.
Simplified cross-section sketch of a typical BWR Mark I containment as used in units 1 to 5 Key: RPV: reactor pressure vessel DW: dry well enclosing reactor pressure vessel. WW: wet well - torus - shaped all around the base enclosing steam suppression pool. Excess steam from the dry well enters the wet well water pool via downcomer pipes. SFP: spent fuel pool area SCSW: secondary concrete shield wall
The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant consisted of six GE light water boiling water reactors (BWRs) with a combined power of 4.7 gigawatts, making it one of the world 's 25 largest nuclear power stations. It was the first GE - designed nuclear plant to be constructed and run entirely by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). Reactor 1 was a 439 MWe type (BWR - 3) reactor constructed in July 1967, and commenced operation on 26 March 1971. It was designed to withstand an earthquake with a peak ground acceleration of 0.18 g (1.4 m / s, 4.6 ft / s) and a response spectrum based on the 1952 Kern County earthquake. Reactors 2 and 3 were both 784 MWe type BWR - 4s. Reactor 2 commenced operation in July 1974, and Reactor 3 in March 1976. The earthquake design basis for all units ranged from 0.42 g (4.12 m / s, 13.5 ft / s) to 0.46 g (4.52 m / s, 14.8 ft / s). After the 1978 Miyagi earthquake, when the ground acceleration reached 0.125 g (1.22 m / s, 4.0 ft / s) for 30 seconds, no damage to the critical parts of the reactor was found. Units 1 -- 5 have a Mark - 1 type (light bulb torus) containment structure; unit 6 has Mark 2 - type (over / under) containment structure. In September 2010, Reactor 3 was partially fueled by mixed - oxides (MOX).
At the time of the accident, the units and central storage facility contained the following numbers of fuel assemblies:
There was no MOX fuel in any of the cooling ponds at the time of the incident. The only MOX fuel was currently loaded in the Unit 3 reactor.
Nuclear reactors generate electricity by using the heat of the fission reaction to produce steam, which is used to drive turbines in order to generate electricity. When the reactor stops operating, the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes in the fuel continues to generate heat (decay heat) for a time, and so require continued cooling. Initially this decay heat amounts to approximately 6.5 % of the amount produced by fission, decreasing over several days before reaching shutdown levels. Afterwards, spent fuel rods typically require several years in a spent fuel pool before they can be safely transferred to dry cask storage vessels. The decay heat in the Unit 4 spent fuel pool had the capacity to boil about 70 metric tons (69 long tons; 77 short tons) of water per day.
In the reactor core, high - pressure systems cycle water between the reactor pressure vessel and heat exchangers. These systems transfer heat to a secondary heat exchanger via the essential service water system, using water pumped out to sea or an onsite cooling tower. Units 2 and 3 were equipped with steam turbine - driven emergency core cooling systems that could be directly operated by steam produced by decay heat, and which could inject water directly into the reactor. Some electrical power was needed to operate valves and monitoring systems.
Unit 1 was equipped with a different, entirely passive cooling system, the Isolation Condenser (IC). It consisted of a series of pipes run from the reactor core to the inside of a large tank of water. When the valves are opened, steam flows upward to the IC where the cool water in the tank condenses the steam back to water, and it runs under gravity back to the reactor core. For unknown reasons, Unit 1 's IC was operated only intermittently during the emergency. However, during a 25 March 2014 presentation to the TVA, Dr Takeyuki Inagaki explained that the IC was being operated intermittently to maintain reactor vessel level and to prevent the core from cooling too quickly which can increase reactor power. Unfortunately, as the tsunami engulfed the station, the IC valves were closed and could not be reopened automatically due to the loss of electrical power, but could have been opened manually. On 16 April 2011, TEPCO declared that cooling systems for Units 1 -- 4 were beyond repair.
When a reactor is not producing electricity, its cooling pumps can be powered by other reactor units, the grid, diesel generators, or batteries.
Two emergency diesel generators were available for each of Units 1 -- 5 and three for Unit 6.
In the late 1990s, three additional backup generators for Units 2 and 4 were placed in new buildings located higher on the hillside, to comply with new regulatory requirements. All six units were given access to these generators, but the switching stations that sent power from these backup generators to the reactors ' cooling systems for Units 1 through 5 were still in the poorly protected turbine buildings. The switching station for Unit 6 was protected inside the only GE Mark II reactor building and continued to function. All three of the generators added in the late 1990s were operational after the tsunami. If the switching stations had been moved to inside the reactor buildings or to other flood - proof locations, power would have been provided by these generators to the reactors ' cooling systems.
The reactor 's emergency diesel generators and DC batteries, crucial components in powering cooling systems after a power loss, were located in the basements of the reactor turbine buildings, in accordance with GE 's specifications. Mid-level GE engineers expressed concerns, relayed to Tepco, that this left them vulnerable to flooding.
Fukushima I was not designed for such a large tsunami, nor had the reactors been modified when concerns were raised in Japan and by the IAEA.
Fukushima II was also struck by the tsunami. However, it had incorporated design changes that improved its resistance to flooding, reducing flood damage. Generators and related electrical distribution equipment were located in the watertight reactor building, so that power from the electricity grid was being used by midnight. Seawater pumps for cooling were protected from flooding, and although 3 of 4 initially failed, they were restored to operation.
Used fuel assemblies taken from reactors are initially stored for at least 18 months in the pools adjacent to their reactors. They can then be transferred to the central fuel storage pond. Fukushima I 's storage area contains 6375 fuel assemblies. After further cooling, fuel can be transferred to dry cask storage, which has shown no signs of abnormalities.
Many of the internal components and fuel assembly cladding are made from zircaloy because it is relatively transparent to neutrons. At normal operating temperatures of approximately 300 ° C (572 ° F), zircaloy is inert. However, above 1,200 degrees Celsius (2,190 ° F), zirconium metal can react exothermically with water to form free hydrogen gas. The reaction between zirconium and the coolant produces more heat, accelerating the reaction. In addition, zircaloy can react with uranium dioxide to form zirconium dioxide and uranium metal. This exothermic reaction together with the reaction of boron carbide with stainless steel can release additional heat energy, thus contributing to the overheating of a reactor.
On 27 February 2012, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency ordered TEPCO to report its reasoning for changing the piping layout for the emergency cooling system.
The original plans separated the piping systems for two reactors in the isolation condenser from each other. However, the application for approval of the construction plan showed the two piping systems connected outside the reactor. The changes were not noted, in violation of regulations.
After the tsunami, the isolation condenser should have taken over the function of the cooling pumps, by condensing the steam from the pressure vessel into water to be used for cooling the reactor. However, the condenser did not function properly and TEPCO could not confirm whether a valve was opened.
On 30 October 1991, one of two backup generators of Reactor 1 failed, after flooding in the reactor 's basement. Seawater used for cooling leaked into the turbine building from a corroded pipe at 20 cubic meters per hour, as reported by former employees in December 2011. An engineer was quoted as saying that he informed his superiors of the possibility that a tsunami could damage the generators. TEPCO installed doors to prevent water from leaking into the generator rooms.
The Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission stated that it would revise its safety guidelines and would require the installation of additional power sources. On 29 December 2011, TEPCO admitted all these facts: its report mentioned that the room was flooded through a door and some holes for cables, but the power supply was not cut off by the flooding, and the reactor was stopped for one day. One of the two power sources was completely submerged, but its drive mechanism had remained unaffected.
In 2007, TEPCO set up a department to supervise its nuclear facilities. Until June 2011, its chairman was Masao Yoshida, the Fukushima Daiichi chief. A 2008 in - house study identified an immediate need to better protect the facility from flooding by seawater. This study mentioned the possibility of tsunami - waves up to 10.2 meters (33 ft). Headquarters officials insisted that such a risk was unrealistic and did not take the prediction seriously.
A Mr. Okamura of the Active Fault and Earthquake Research Center (replaced in 2014 by Research Institute of Earthquake and Volcano Geology (IEVG), Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ), AIST) urged TEPCO and NISA to review their assumption of possible tsunami heights based on a ninth century earthquake, but it was not seriously considered at that time. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission warned of a risk of losing emergency power in 1991 (NUREG - 1150) and NISA referred to the report in 2004. No action to mitigate the risk was taken.
Japan, like the rest of the Pacific Rim, is in an active seismic zone, prone to earthquakes. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) had expressed concern about the ability of Japan 's nuclear plants to withstand earthquakes. At a 2008 meeting of the G8 's Nuclear Safety and Security Group in Tokyo, an IAEA expert warned that a strong earthquake with a magnitude above 7.0 could pose a "serious problem '' for Japan 's nuclear power stations. The region had experienced three earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8, including the 869 Sanriku earthquake, the 1896 Sanriku earthquake, and the 1933 Sanriku earthquake.
The 9.0 M Tōhoku earthquake occurred at 14: 46 on Friday, 11 March 2011, with the epicenter near Honshu, the largest island of Japan. It produced maximum ground g - forces of 0.56, 0.52, 0.56 (5.50, 5.07 and 5.48 m / s, 18.0, 16.6 and 18.0 ft / s) at units 2, 3, and 5 respectively. This exceeded the earthquake tolerances of 0.45, 0.45, and 0.46 g (4.38, 4.41 and 4.52 m / s, 14.4, 14.5 and 14.8 ft / s). The shock values were within the design tolerances at units 1, 4, and 6.
When the earthquake struck, units 1, 2, and 3 were operating, but units 4, 5, and 6 had been shut down for a scheduled inspection. Reactors 1, 2, and 3 immediately shut down automatically; this meant the plant stopped generating electricity and could no longer use its own power. One of the two connections to off - site power for units 1 -- 3 also failed, so 13 on - site emergency diesel generators began providing power.
The earthquake triggered a 13 - to - 15 - meter (43 to 49 ft) - high tsunami that arrived approximately 50 minutes later. The waves overtopped the plant 's 5.7 - meter (19 ft) seawall, flooding the basements of the power plant 's turbine buildings and disabling the emergency diesel generators at approximately 15: 41. TEPCO then notified authorities of a "first - level emergency ''. The switching stations that provided power from the three backup generators located higher on the hillside failed when the building that housed them flooded. Power for the plant 's control systems switched to batteries designed to provide power for about eight hours. Further batteries and mobile generators were dispatched to the site, but were delayed by poor road conditions; the first arrived at 21: 00 11 March, almost six hours after the tsunami struck.
Unsuccessful attempts were made to connect portable generating equipment to power water pumps. The failure was attributed to flooding at the connection point in the Turbine Hall basement and the absence of suitable cables. TEPCO switched its efforts to installing new lines from the grid. One generator at unit 6 resumed operation on 17 March, while external power returned to units 5 and 6 only on 20 March.
The government initially set in place a four - stage evacuation process: a prohibited access area out to 3 km (1.9 mi), an on - alert area 3 -- 20 km (1.9 -- 12.4 mi) and an evacuation prepared area 20 -- 30 km (12 -- 19 mi). On day one, an estimated 170,000 people were evacuated from the prohibited access and on - alert areas. Prime Minister Kan instructed people within the on - alert area to leave and urged those in the prepared area to stay indoors. The latter groups were urged to evacuate on 25 March. The 20 km (12 mi) exclusion zone was guarded by roadblocks to ensure that fewer people would be affected by the radiation.
The earthquake and tsunami damaged or destroyed more than one million buildings leading to a total of 470,000 people needing evacuation. Of the 470,000, the nuclear accident was responsible for 154,000 being evacuated.
In Reactors 1, 2, and 3, overheating caused a reaction between the water and the zircaloy, creating hydrogen gas. On 12 March, an explosion in Unit 1 was caused by the ignition of the hydrogen, destroying the upper part of the building. On 14 March, a similar explosion occurred in the Reactor 3 building, blowing off the roof and injuring eleven people. On the 15th, there was an explosion in the Reactor 4 building due to a shared vent pipe with Reactor 3.
The amount of damage sustained by the reactor cores during the accident, and the location of molten nuclear fuel ("corium '') within the containment buildings, is unknown; TEPCO has revised its estimates several times. On 16 March 2011, TEPCO estimated that 70 % of the fuel in Unit 1 had melted and 33 % in Unit 2, and that Unit 3 's core might also be damaged. As of 2015 it can be assumed that most fuel melted through the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), commonly known as the "reactor core '') and is resting on the bottom of the primary containment vessel (PCV), having been stopped by the PCV concrete. In July 2017 a remotely controlled robot filmed for the first time apparently melted fuel, just below the pressure vessel of Unit 3.
TEPCO released further estimates of the state and location of the fuel in a November 2011 report. The report concluded that the Unit 1 RPV was damaged during the disaster and that "significant amounts '' of molten fuel had fallen into the bottom of the PCV. The erosion of the concrete of the PCV by the molten fuel after the core meltdown was estimated to stop at approx. 0.7 meters (2 ft 4 in) in depth, while the thickness of the containment is 7.6 meters (25 ft) thick. Gas sampling carried out before the report detected no signs of an ongoing reaction of the fuel with the concrete of the PCV and all the fuel in Unit 1 was estimated to be "well cooled down, including the fuel dropped on the bottom of the reactor ''. Fuel in Units 2 and 3 had melted, however less than in Unit 1, and fuel was presumed to be still in the RPV, with no significant amounts of fuel fallen to the bottom of the PCV. The report further suggested that "there is a range in the evaluation results '' from "all fuel in the RPV (none fuel fallen to the PCV) '' in Unit 2 and Unit 3, to "most fuel in the RPV (some fuel in PCV) ''. For Unit 2 and Unit 3 it was estimated that the "fuel is cooled sufficiently ''. According to the report, the greater damage in Unit 1 (when compared to the other two units) was due to the longer time that no cooling water was injected in Unit 1. This resulted in much more decay heat accumulating, as for about 1 day there was no water injection for Unit 1, while Unit 2 and Unit 3 had only a quarter of a day without water injection.
In November 2013, Mari Yamaguchi reported for Associated Press that there are computer simulations which suggest that "the melted fuel in Unit 1, whose core damage was the most extensive, has breached the bottom of the primary containment vessel and even partially eaten into its concrete foundation, coming within about 30 centimeters (1 ft) of leaking into the ground '' -- a Kyoto University nuclear engineer said with regards to these estimates: "We just ca n't be sure until we actually see the inside of the reactors. ''
According to a December 2013 report, TEPCO estimated for Unit 1 that "the decay heat must have decreased enough, the molten fuel can be assumed to remain in PCV (primary container vessel) ''.
In August 2014, TEPCO released a new revised estimate that Reactor 3 had a complete melt through in the initial phase of the accident. According to this new estimate within the first three days of the accident the entire core content of Reactor 3 had melted through the RPV and fallen to the bottom of the PCV. These estimates were based on a simulation, which indicated that Reactor 3 's melted core penetrated through 1.2 meters (3 ft 11 in) of the PCV 's concrete base, and came close to 26 -- 68 centimeters (10 -- 27 in) of the PCV 's steel wall.
In February 2015, TEPCO started the muon scanning process for Units 1, 2, and 3. With this scanning setup it will be possible to determine the approximate amount and location of the remaining nuclear fuel within the RPV, but not the amount and resting place of the corium in the PCV. In March 2015 TEPCO released the result of the muon scan for Unit 1 which showed that no fuel was visible in the RPV, which would suggest that most if not all of the molten fuel had dropped onto the bottom of the PCV -- this will change the plan for the removal of the fuel from Unit 1.
In February 2017, six years after the disaster, radiation levels inside the Unit 2 containment building were crudely estimated to be about 650 Sv / h. The estimation was revised later to 80 Sv / h. These readings were the highest recorded since the disaster occurred in 2011 and the first recorded in that area of the reactor since the meltdowns. Images showed a hole in metal grating beneath the reactor pressure vessel, suggesting that melted nuclear fuel had escaped the vessel in that area.
In January 2018, a remote - controlled camera confirmed that nuclear fuel debris was at the bottom of the Unit 2 PCV, showing fuel had escaped the RPV. The handle from the top of a nuclear fuel assembly was also observed, confirming that a considerable amount of the nuclear fuel had melted.
Reactor 4 was not operating when the earthquake struck. All fuel rods from Unit 4 had been transferred to the spent fuel pool on an upper floor of the reactor building prior to the tsunami. On 15 March, an explosion damaged the fourth floor rooftop area of Unit 4, creating two large holes in a wall of the outer building. It was reported that water in the spent fuel pool might be boiling. Radiation inside the Unit 4 control room prevented workers from staying there for long periods. Visual inspection of the spent fuel pool on 30 April revealed no significant damage to the rods. A radiochemical examination of the pond water confirmed that little of the fuel had been damaged.
In October 2012, the former Japanese Ambassador to Switzerland and Senegal, Mitsuhei Murata, said that the ground under Fukushima Unit 4 was sinking, and the structure may collapse.
In November 2013, TEPCO began moving the 1533 fuel rods in the Unit 4 cooling pool to the central pool. This process was completed on 22 December 2014.
Reactors 5 and 6 were also not operating when the earthquake struck. Unlike Reactor 4, their fuel rods remained in the reactor. The reactors had been closely monitored, as cooling processes were not functioning well. Both Unit 5 and Unit 6 shared a working generator and switchgear during the emergency and achieved a successful cold shutdown nine days later on 20 March.
On 21 March, temperatures in the fuel pond had risen slightly, to 61 ° C (142 ° F) and water was sprayed over the pool. Power was restored to cooling systems on 24 March and by 28 March, temperatures were reported down to 35 ° C (95 ° F).
Radioactive material was released from the containment vessels for several reasons: deliberate venting to reduce gas pressure, deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea, and uncontrolled events. Concerns about the possibility of a large scale release led to a 20 - kilometer (12 mi) exclusion zone around the power plant and recommendations that people within the surrounding 20 -- 30 km (12 -- 19 mi) zone stay indoors. Later, the UK, France, and some other countries told their nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading contamination. In 2015, the tap water contamination was still higher in Tokyo compared to other cities in Japan. Trace amounts of radioactivity, including iodine - 131, caesium - 134, and caesium - 137, were widely observed.
Between 21 March and mid-July, around 27 PBq of caesium - 137 (about 8.4 kg or 19 lb) entered the ocean, with about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world 's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, due to the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentrations in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above the normal concentrations prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.
A monitoring system operated by the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) tracked the spread of radioactivity on a global scale. Radioactive isotopes were picked up by over 40 monitoring stations.
On 12 March, radioactive releases first reached a CTBTO monitoring station in Takasaki, Japan, around 200 km (120 mi) away. The radioactive isotopes appeared in eastern Russia on 14 March and the west coast of the United States two days later. By day 15, traces of radioactivity were detectable all across the northern hemisphere. Within one month, radioactive particles were noted by CTBTO stations in the southern hemisphere.
Estimates of radioactivity released ranged from 10 -- 40 % of that of Chernobyl. The significantly contaminated area was 10 - 12 % of that of Chernobyl.
In March 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine - 131 exceeding safety limits for infants had been detected at 18 water - purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures ''. On 21 March, the first restrictions were placed on the distribution and consumption of contaminated items. As of July 2011, the Japanese government was unable to control the spread of radioactive material into the nation 's food supply. Radioactive material was detected in food produced in 2011, including spinach, tea leaves, milk, fish, and beef, up to 320 kilometres from the plant. 2012 crops did not show signs of radioactivity contamination. Cabbage, rice and beef showed insignificant levels of radioactivity. A Fukushima - produced rice market in Tokyo was accepted by consumers as safe.
On 24 August 2011, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) of Japan published the results of the recalculation of the total amount of radioactive materials released into the air during the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. The total amounts released between 11 March and 5 April were revised downwards to 130 PBq (petabecquerels, 3.5 mega curies) for iodine - 131 and 11 PBq for caesium - 137, which is about 11 % of Chernobyl emissions. Earlier estimations were 150 PBq and 12 PBq.
In 2011, scientists working for the Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Kyoto University and other institutes, recalculated the amount of radioactive material released into the ocean: between late March through April they found a total of 15 PBq for the combined amount of iodine - 131 and caesium - 137, more than triple the 4.72 PBq estimated by TEPCO. The company had calculated only the direct releases into the sea. The new calculations incorporated the portion of airborne radioactive substances that entered the ocean as rain.
In the first half of September 2011, TEPCO estimated the radioactivity release at some 200 MBq (megabecquerels, 5.4 milli curies) per hour. This was approximately one four - millionth that of March. Traces of iodine - 131 were detected in several Japanese prefectures in November and December 2011.
According to the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, between 21 March and mid-July around 27 PBq of caesium - 137 entered the ocean, about 82 percent before 8 April. This emission represents the most important individual oceanic emissions of artificial radioactivity ever observed. The Fukushima coast has one of the world 's strongest currents (Kuroshio Current). It transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, dispersing the radioactivity. As of late 2011 measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments suggested that the consequences for marine life would be minor. Significant pollution along the coast near the plant might persist, because of the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported to the sea by surface water crossing contaminated soil. The possible presence of other radioactive substances, such as strontium - 90 or plutonium, has not been sufficiently studied. Recent measurements show persistent contamination of some marine species (mostly fish) caught along the Fukushima coast. Migratory pelagic species are highly effective and rapid transporters of radioactivity throughout the ocean. Elevated levels of caesium - 134 appeared in migratory species off the coast of California that were not seen pre-Fukushima.
As of March 2012, no cases of radiation - related ailments had been reported. Experts cautioned that data was insufficient to allow conclusions on health impacts. Michiaki Kai, professor of radiation protection at Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, stated, "If the current radiation dose estimates are correct, (cancer - related deaths) likely wo n't increase. ''
In May 2012, TEPCO released their estimate of cumulative radioactivity releases. An estimated 538.1 PBq of iodine - 131, caesium - 134 and caesium - 137 was released. 520 PBq was released into the atmosphere between 12 -- 31 March 2011 and 18.1 PBq into the ocean from 26 March -- 30 September 2011. A total of 511 PBq of iodine - 131 was released into both the atmosphere and the ocean, 13.5 PBq of caesium - 134 and 13.6 PBq of caesium - 137. TEPCO reported that at least 900 PBq had been released "into the atmosphere in March last year (2011) alone ''.
In 2012 researchers from the Institute of Problems in the Safe Development of Nuclear Energy, Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Hydrometeorological Center of Russia concluded that "on March 15, 2011, ~ 400 PBq iodine, ~ 100 PBq caesium, and ~ 400 PBq inert gases entered the atmosphere '' on that day alone.
In August 2012, researchers found that 10,000 nearby residents had been exposed to less than 1 millisievert of radiation, significantly less than Chernobyl residents.
As of October 2012, radioactivity was still leaking into the ocean. Fishing in the waters around the site was still prohibited, and the levels of radioactive Cs and Cs in the fish caught were not lower than immediately after the disaster.
On 26 October 2012, TEPCO admitted that it could not stop radioactive material entering the ocean, although emission rates had stabilized. Undetected leaks could not be ruled out, because the reactor basements remained flooded. The company was building a 2,400 - foot - long steel and concrete wall between the site and the ocean, reaching 100 feet (30 m) below ground, but it would not be finished before mid-2014. Around August 2012 two greenling were caught close to shore. They contained more than 25,000 becquerels (0.67 milli curies) of caesium - 137 per kilogram (11,000 Bq / lb; 0.31 μCi / lb), the highest measured since the disaster and 250 times the government 's safety limit.
On 22 July 2013, it was revealed by TEPCO that the plant continued to leak radioactive water into the Pacific Ocean, something long suspected by local fishermen and independent investigators. TEPCO had previously denied that this was happening. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe ordered the government to step in.
On 20 August, in a further incident, it was announced that 300 metric tons (300 long tons; 330 short tons) of heavily contaminated water had leaked from a storage tank, approximately the same amount of water as one eighth (1 / 8) of that found in an Olympic - size swimming pool. The 300 metric tons (300 long tons; 330 short tons) of water was radioactive enough to be hazardous to nearby staff, and the leak was assessed as Level 3 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.
On 26 August, the government took charge of emergency measures to prevent further radioactive water leaks, reflecting their lack of confidence in TEPCO.
As of 2013, about 400 metric tons (390 long tons; 440 short tons) of water per day of cooling water was being pumped into the reactors. Another 400 metric tons (390 long tons; 440 short tons) of groundwater was seeping into the structure. Some 800 metric tons (790 long tons; 880 short tons) of water per day was removed for treatment, half of which was reused for cooling and half diverted to storage tanks. Ultimately the contaminated water, after treatment to remove radionuclides other than tritium, may have to be dumped into the Pacific. TEPCO intend to create an underground ice wall to reduce the rate contaminated groundwater reaches the sea.
In February 2014, NHK reported that TEPCO was reviewing its radioactivity data, after finding much higher levels of radioactivity than was reported earlier. TEPCO now says that levels of 5 MBq (0.12 milli curies) of strontium per liter (23 MBq / imp gal; 19 MBq / U.S. gal; 610 μCi / imp gal; 510 μCi / U.S. gal) were detected in groundwater collected in July 2013 and not the 900 kBq (0.02 milli curies) (4.1 MBq / imp gal; 3.4 MBq / U.S. gal; 110 μCi / imp gal; 92 μCi / U.S. gal) that were initially reported.
On 10 September 2015, floodwaters driven by Typhoon Etau prompted mass evacuations in Japan and overwhelmed the drainage pumps at the stricken Fukushima nuclear plant. A TEPCO spokesperson said that hundreds of metric tons of radioactive water had entered the ocean as a result. Plastic bags filled with contaminated soil and grass were also swept away by the flood waters.
In March 2014, numerous news sources, including NBC, began predicting that the radioactive underwater plume traveling through the Pacific Ocean would reach the western seaboard of the continental United States. The common story was that the amount of radioactivity would be harmless and temporary once it arrived. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration measured caesium - 134 at points in the Pacific Ocean and models were cited in predictions by several government agencies to announce that the radiation would not be a health hazard for North American residents. Groups, including Beyond Nuclear and the Tillamook Estuaries Partnership, challenged these predictions on the basis of continued isotope releases after 2011, leading to a demand for more recent and comprehensive measurements as the radioactivity made its way east. These measurements were taken by a cooperative group of organizations under the guidance of a marine chemist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and it was revealed that total radiation levels, of which only a fraction bore the fingerprint of Fukushima, were not high enough to pose any direct risk to human life and in fact were far less than Environmental Protection Agency guidelines or several other sources of radiation exposure deemed safe. Integrated Fukushima Ocean Radionuclide Monitoring project (InFORM) also failed to show any significant amount of radiation and as a result authors received death threats from supporters of a Fukushima - induced "wave of cancer deaths across North America '' theory.
Government agencies and TEPCO were unprepared for the "cascading nuclear disaster ''. The tsunami that "began the nuclear disaster could and should have been anticipated and that ambiguity about the roles of public and private institutions in such a crisis was a factor in the poor response at Fukushima ''. In March 2012, Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda said that the government shared the blame for the Fukushima disaster, saying that officials had been blinded by a false belief in the country 's "technological infallibility '', and were taken in by a "safety myth ''. Noda said "Everybody must share the pain of responsibility. ''
According to Naoto Kan, Japan 's prime minister during the tsunami, the country was unprepared for the disaster, and nuclear power plants should not have been built so close to the ocean. Kan acknowledged flaws in authorities ' handling of the crisis, including poor communication and coordination between nuclear regulators, utility officials, and the government. He said the disaster "laid bare a host of an even bigger man - made vulnerabilities in Japan 's nuclear industry and regulation, from inadequate safety guidelines to crisis management, all of which he said need to be overhauled. ''
Physicist and environmentalist Amory Lovins said that Japan 's "rigid bureaucratic structures, reluctance to send bad news upwards, need to save face, weak development of policy alternatives, eagerness to preserve nuclear power 's public acceptance, and politically fragile government, along with TEPCO 's very hierarchical management culture, also contributed to the way the accident unfolded. Moreover, the information Japanese people receive about nuclear energy and its alternatives has long been tightly controlled by both TEPCO and the government. ''
The Japanese government did not keep records of key meetings during the crisis. Data from the SPEEDI network were emailed to the prefectural government, but not shared with others. Emails from NISA to Fukushima, covering 12 March 11: 54 PM to 16 March 9 AM and holding vital information for evacuation and health advisories, went unread and were deleted. The data was not used because the disaster countermeasure office regarded the data as "useless because the predicted amount of released radiation is unrealistic. '' On 14 March 2011 TEPCO officials were instructed not to use the phrase "core meltdown '' at press conferences.
On the evening of March 15, Prime Minister Kan called Seiki Soramoto, who used to design nuclear plants for Toshiba, to ask for his help in managing the escalating crisis. Soramoto formed an impromptu advisory group, which included his former professor at the University of Tokyo, Toshiso Kosako, a top Japanese expert on radiation measurement. Mr. Kosako, who studied the Soviet response to the Chernobyl crisis, said he was stunned at how little the leaders in the prime minister 's office knew about the resources available to them. He quickly advised the chief cabinet secretary, Yukio Edano, to use SPEEDI, which used measurements of radioactive releases, as well as weather and topographical data, to predict where radioactive materials could travel after being released into the atmosphere.
The Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company 's interim report stated that Japan 's response was flawed by "poor communication and delays in releasing data on dangerous radiation leaks at the facility ''. The report blamed Japan 's central government as well as TEPCO, "depicting a scene of harried officials incapable of making decisions to stem radiation leaks as the situation at the coastal plant worsened in the days and weeks following the disaster ''. The report said poor planning worsened the disaster response, noting that authorities had "grossly underestimated tsunami risks '' that followed the magnitude 9.0 earthquake. The 12.1 - meter (40 ft) high tsunami that struck the plant was double the height of the highest wave predicted by officials. The erroneous assumption that the plant 's cooling system would function after the tsunami worsened the disaster. "Plant workers had no clear instructions on how to respond to such a disaster, causing miscommunication, especially when the disaster destroyed backup generators. ''
In February 2012, the Rebuild Japan Initiative Foundation described how Japan 's response was hindered by a loss of trust between the major actors: Prime Minister Kan, TEPCO 's Tokyo headquarters and the plant manager. The report said that these conflicts "produced confused flows of sometimes contradictory information ''. According to the report, Kan delayed the cooling of the reactors by questioning the choice of seawater instead of fresh water, accusing him of micromanaging response efforts and appointing a small, closed, decision - making staff. The report stated that the Japanese government was slow to accept assistance from U.S. nuclear experts.
A 2012 report in The Economist said: "The operating company was poorly regulated and did not know what was going on. The operators made mistakes. The representatives of the safety inspectorate fled. Some of the equipment failed. The establishment repeatedly played down the risks and suppressed information about the movement of the radioactive plume, so some people were evacuated from more lightly to more heavily contaminated places. ''
From 17 to 19 March 2011, US military aircraft measured radiation within a 45 km (28 mi) radius of the site. The data recorded 125 micro sieverts per hour of radiation as far as 25 km (15.5 mi) northwest of the plant. The US provided detailed maps to the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) on 18 March and to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) two days later, but officials did not act on the information.
The data were not forwarded to the prime minister 's office or the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), nor were they used to direct the evacuation. Because a substantial portion of radioactive materials reached ground to the northwest, residents evacuated in this direction were unnecessarily exposed to radiation. According to NSC chief Tetsuya Yamamoto, "It was very regrettable that we did n't share and utilize the information. '' Itaru Watanabe, from the Science and Technology Policy Bureau, blamed the US for not releasing the data.
Data on the dispersal of radioactive materials were provided to the U.S. forces by the Japanese Ministry for Science a few days after March 11; however, the data was not shared publicly until the Americans published their map on March 23, at which point Japan published fallout maps compiled from ground measurements and SPEEDI the same day. According to Watanabe 's testimony before the Diet, the US military was given access to the data "to seek support from them '' on how to deal with the nuclear disaster. Although SPEEDI 's effectiveness was limited by not knowing the amounts released in the disaster, and thus was considered "unreliable '', it was still able to forecast dispersal routes and could have been used to help local governments designate more appropriate evacuation routes.
On 19 June 2012, science minister Hirofumi Hirano stated that his "job was only to measure radiation levels on land '' and that the government would study whether disclosure could have helped in the evacuation efforts.
On 28 June 2012, Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency officials apologized to mayor Yuko Endo of Kawauchi Village for NISA having failed to release the American - produced radiation maps in the first days after the meltdowns. All residents of this village were evacuated after the government designated it a no - entry zone. According to a Japanese government panel, authorities had shown no respect for the lives and dignity of village people. One NISA official apologized for the failure and added that the panel had stressed the importance of disclosure; however, the mayor said that the information would have prevented the evacuation into highly polluted areas, and that apologies a year too late had no meaning.
In June 2016, it was revealed that TEPCO officials had been instructed on 14 March 2011 not to describe the reactor damage using the word "meltdown ''. Officials at that time were aware that 25 -- 55 % of the fuel had been damaged, and the threshold for which the term "meltdown '' became appropriate (5 %) had been greatly exceeded. TEPCO President Naomi Hirose told the media: "I would say it was a cover - up... It 's extremely regrettable. ''
The incident was rated 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES). This scale runs from 0, indicating an abnormal situation with no safety consequences, to 7, indicating an accident causing widespread contamination with serious health and environmental effects. Prior to Fukushima, the Chernobyl disaster was the only level 7 event on record, while the Three Mile Island accident was rated as level 5.
A 2012 analysis of the intermediate and long - lived radioactivity released found about 10 -- 20 % of that released from the Chernobyl disaster. Approximately 15 PBq of caesium - 137 was released, compared with approximately 85 PBq of caesium - 137 at Chernobyl, indicating the release of 26.5 kilograms (58 lb) of caesium - 137.
Unlike Chernobyl, all Japanese reactors were in concrete containment vessels, which limited the release of strontium - 90, americium - 241, and plutonium, which were among the radioisotopes released by the earlier incident.
Some 500 PBq of iodine - 131 were released, compared to approximately 1,760 PBq at Chernobyl. Iodine - 131 has a half life of 8.02 days, decaying into a stable nuclide. After ten half lives (80.2 days), 99.9 % has decayed to xenon - 131, a stable isotope.
No deaths followed short - term radiation exposure, though there were a number of deaths in the evacuation of the nearby population, while 15,884 died (as of 10 February 2014) due to the earthquake and tsunami.
Very few cancers would be expected as a result of accumulated radiation exposures, even though people in the area worst affected by Japan 's Fukushima nuclear accident have a slightly higher risk of developing certain cancers such as leukemia, solid cancers, thyroid cancer, and breast cancer.
Estimated effective doses from the accident outside Japan are considered to be below (or far below) the dose levels regarded as very small by the international radiological protection community.
In 2013, WHO reported that area residents who were evacuated were exposed to so little radiation that radiation - induced health effects were likely to be below detectable levels. The health risks were calculated by applying conservative assumptions, including the conservative linear no - threshold model of radiation exposure, a model that assumes even the smallest amount of radiation exposure will cause a negative health effect. The report indicated that for those infants in the most affected areas, lifetime cancer risk would increase by about 1 %. It predicted that populations in the most contaminated areas faced a 70 % higher relative risk of developing thyroid cancer for females exposed as infants, and a 7 % higher relative risk of leukemia in males exposed as infants and a 6 % higher relative risk of breast cancer in females exposed as infants. One - third of involved emergency workers would have increased cancer risks. Cancer risks for fetuses were similar to those in 1 year old infants. The estimated cancer risk to children and adults was lower than infants.
These percentages represent estimated relative increases over the baseline rates and are not absolute risks for developing such cancers. Due to the low baseline rates of thyroid cancer, even a large relative increase represents a small absolute increase in risks. For example, the baseline lifetime risk of thyroid cancer for females is just three - quarters of one percent and the additional lifetime risk estimated in this assessment for a female infant exposed in the most affected location is one - half of one percent.
According to a linear no - threshold model (LNT model), the accident would most likely cause 130 cancer deaths. However, radiation epidemiologist Roy Shore countered that estimating health effects from the LNT model "is not wise because of the uncertainties. '' Darshak Sanghavi noted that to obtain reliable evidence of the effect of low - level radiation would require an impractically large number of patients, Luckey reported that the body 's own repair mechanisms can cope with small doses of radiation and Aurengo stated that "The LNT model can not be used to estimate the effect of very low doses... ''
In April 2014, studies confirmed the presence of radioactive tuna off the coasts of the Pacific U.S. Researchers carried out tests on 26 albacore tuna caught prior to the 2011 power plant disaster and those caught after. However, the amount of radioactivity is less than that found naturally in a single banana. Caesium - 137 and caesium - 134 have been noted in Japanese whiting in Tokyo Bay as of 2016. "Concentration of radiocesium in the Japanese whiting was one or two orders of magnitude higher than that in the sea water, and an order of magnitude lower than that in the sediment. '' They were still within food safety limits.
In June 2016 Tilman Ruff, co-president of the political advocacy group, the "International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War '' argues that 174,000 people have been unable to return to their homes and ecological diversity has decreased and malformations have been found in trees, birds, and mammals.
Five years after the event, the Department of Agriculture from the University of Tokyo (which holds many experimental agricultural research fields around the affected area) has noted that "the fallout was found at the surface of anything exposed to air at the time of the accident. The main radioactive nuclides are now caesium - 137 and caesium - 134 '', but these radioactive compounds have not dispersed much from the point where they landed at the time of the explosion, "which was very difficult to estimate from our understanding of the chemical behavior of cesium ''.
In February 2018, Japan renewed the export of fish caught off Fukushima 's nearshore zone. According to prefecture officials, no seafood had been found with radiation levels exceeding Japan safety standards since April 2015. Thailand is the first country to receive a shipment of fresh fish from Japan 's Fukushima prefecture. A group campaigning to help prevent global warming has demanded the Food and Drug Administration disclose the name of the importer of fish from Fukushima and of the Japanese restaurants in Bangkok serving. Srisuwan Janya, chairman of the Stop Global Warming Association, said the FDA must protect the rights of consumers by ordering restaurants serving Fukushima fish to make that information available to their customers, so they could decide whether to eat it or not.
In July 2018, a robotic probe has found that radiation levels remain too high for humans to work inside one of the reactor buildings.
The World Health Organization stated that a 2013 thyroid ultrasound screening program was, due to the screening effect, likely to lead to an increase in recorded thyroid cases due to early detection of non-symptomatic disease cases. The overwhelming majority of thyroid growths are benign growths that will never cause symptoms, illness, or death, even if nothing is ever done about the growth. Autopsy studies on people who died from other causes show that more than one third of adults technically have a thyroid growth / cancer. As a precedent, in 1999 in South Korea, the introduction of advanced ultrasound thyroid examinations resulted in an explosion in the rate of benign thyroid cancers being detected and needless surgeries occurring. Despite this, the death rate from thyroid cancer has remained the same.
According to the Tenth Report of the Fukushima Prefecture Health Management Survey released in February 2013, more than 40 % of children screened around Fukushima prefecture were diagnosed with thyroid nodules or cysts. Ultrasonographic detectable thyroid nodules and cysts are extremely common and can be found at a frequency of up to 67 % in various studies. 186 (0.5 %) of these had nodules larger than 5.1 mm (0.20 in) and / or cysts larger than 20.1 mm (0.79 in) and underwent further investigation, while none had thyroid cancer. A Russia Today report into the matter was highly misleading. Fukushima Medical University give the number of children diagnosed with thyroid cancer, as of December 2013, as 33 and concluded "it is unlikely that these cancers were caused by the exposure from I - 131 from the nuclear power plant accident in March 2011 ''.
In October 2015, 137 children from the Fukushima Prefecture were described as either being diagnosed with or showing signs of developing thyroid cancer. The study 's lead author Toshihide Tsuda from Okayama University stated that the increased detection could not be accounted for by attributing it to the screening effect. He described the screening results to be "20 times to 50 times what would be normally expected. '' By the end of 2015, the number had increased to 166 children.
However, despite his paper being widely reported by the media, an undermining error, according to teams of other epidemiologists who point out Tsuda 's remarks are fatally wrong, is that Tsuda did an apples and oranges comparison by comparing the Fukushima surveys, which uses advanced ultrasound devices that detect otherwise unnoticeable thyroid growths, with data from traditional non-advanced clinical examinations, to arrive at his "20 to 50 times what would be expected '' conclusion. In the critical words of epidemiologist Richard Wakeford, "It is inappropriate to compare the data from the Fukushima screening program with cancer registry data from the rest of Japan where there is, in general, no such large - scale screening, ''. Wakeford 's criticism was one of seven other author 's letters that were published criticizing Tsuda 's paper. According to Takamura, another epidemiologist, who examined the results of small scale advanced ultrasound tests on Japanese children not near Fukushima, "The prevalence of thyroid cancer (using the same detection technology) does not differ meaningfully from that in Fukushima Prefecture, ''.
In 2016 Ohira et al. conducted a study cross-comparing thyroid cancer patients from Fukushima prefecture evacuees with rates of Thyroid cancer in from those outside of the evacuation zone. Ohira et al. found that "The duration between accident and thyroid examination was not associated with thyroid cancer prevalence. There were no significant associations between individual external doses and prevalence of thyroid cancer. External radiation dose was not associated with thyroid cancer prevalence among Fukushima children within the first 4 years after the nuclear accident... ''
A 2018 publication by Yamashita et al. has also concluded that attribution of Thyroid cancers can also be attributed to the screening effect. They noted that the mean age of the patients at the time of the accident was 10 -- 15 years, while no cases were found in children from the ages of 0 - 5 who would have been most susceptible. Yamashita et al. thus conclude that "In any case, the individual prognosis can not be accurately determined at the time of FNAC at present. It is therefore urgent to search not only for intraoperative and postoperative prognostic factors but also for predictive prognostic factors at the FNAC / preoperative stage. ''
Thyroid cancer is one of the most survivable cancers, with an approximate 94 % survival rate after first diagnosis. That rate increases to a nearly 100 % survival rate if caught early.
Radiation deaths at Chernobyl were also statistically undetectable. Only 0.1 % of the 110,645 Ukraninian cleanup workers, included in a 20 - year study out of over 500,000 former Soviet clean up workers, had as of 2012 developed leukemia, although not all cases resulted from the accident.
Data from Chernobyl showed that there was a steady then sharp increase in thyroid cancer rates following the disaster in 1986, but whether this data can be directly compared to Fukushima is yet to be determined.
Chernobyl thyroid cancer incidence rates did not begin to increase above the prior baseline value of about 0.7 cases per 100,000 people per year until 1989 to 1991, 3 -- 5 years after the incident in both adolescent and child age groups. The rate reached its highest point so far, of about 11 cases per 100,000 in the decade of the 2000s, approximately 14 years after the accident. From 1989 to 2005, an excess of 4,000 children and adolescent cases of thyroid cancer were observed. Nine of these had died as of 2005, a 99 % survival rate.
In the former Soviet Union, many patients with negligible radioactive exposure after the Chernobyl disaster displayed extreme anxiety about radiation exposure. They developed many psychosomatic problems, including radiophobia along with an increase in fatalistic alcoholism. As Japanese health and radiation specialist Shunichi Yamashita noted:
We know from Chernobyl that the psychological consequences are enormous. Life expectancy of the evacuees dropped from 65 to 58 years -- not because of cancer, but because of depression, alcoholism, and suicide. Relocation is not easy, the stress is very big. We must not only track those problems, but also treat them. Otherwise people will feel they are just guinea pigs in our research.
A survey by the Iitate local government obtained responses from approximately 1,743 evacuees within the evacuation zone. The survey showed that many residents are experiencing growing frustration, instability, and an inability to return to their earlier lives. Sixty percent of respondents stated that their health and the health of their families had deteriorated after evacuating, while 39.9 % reported feeling more irritated compared to before the disaster.
Summarizing all responses to questions related to evacuees ' current family status, one - third of all surveyed families live apart from their children, while 50.1 % live away from other family members (including elderly parents) with whom they lived before the disaster. The survey also showed that 34.7 % of the evacuees have suffered salary cuts of 50 % or more since the outbreak of the nuclear disaster. A total of 36.8 % reported a lack of sleep, while 17.9 % reported smoking or drinking more than before they evacuated.
Stress often manifests in physical ailments, including behavioral changes such as poor dietary choices, lack of exercise, and sleep deprivation. Survivors, including some who lost homes, villages, and family members, were found likely to face mental health and physical challenges. Much of the stress came from lack of information and from relocation.
A survey computed that of some 300,000 evacuees, approximately 1,600 deaths related to the evacuation conditions, such as living in temporary housing and hospital closures that had occurred as of August 2013, a number comparable to the 1,599 deaths directly caused by the earthquake and tsunami in the Prefecture. The exact causes of these evacuation related deaths were not specified, because according to the municipalities, that would hinder relatives applying for compensation.
In June 2011, TEPCO stated the amount of contaminated water in the complex had increased due to substantial rainfall. On 13 February 2014, TEPCO reported 37 kBq (1.0 micro curie) of caesium - 134 and 93 kBq (2.5 micro curies) of caesium - 137 were detected per liter of groundwater sampled from a monitoring well. Dust particles gathered 4 km from the reactors in 2017 included microscopic nodules of melted core samples encased in caesium. After decades of exponential decline in ocean caesium from weapons testing fallout, radioactive isotopes of caesium in the Sea of Japan increased after Fukushima from 1.5 mBq / L to about 2.5 mBq / L and are still rising as of 2018, while those just off the western coast of Japan have declined.
According to reinsurer Munich Re, the private insurance industry will not be significantly affected by the disaster. Swiss Re similarly stated, "Coverage for nuclear facilities in Japan excludes earthquake shock, fire following earthquake and tsunami, for both physical damage and liability. Swiss Re believes that the incident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant is unlikely to result in a significant direct loss for the property & casualty insurance industry. ''
The amount of compensation to be paid by TEPCO is expected to reach 7 trillion yen.
Costs to Japanese taxpayers are likely to exceed 12 trillion yen ($100 billion). In December 2016 the government estimated decontamination, compensation, decommissioning, and radioactive waste storage costs at 21.5 trillion yen ($187 billion), nearly double the 2013 estimate.
In March 2017, a Japanese court ruled that negligence by the Japanese government had led to the Fukushima disaster by failing to use its regulatory powers to force TEPCO to take preventive measures. The Maebashi district court near Tokyo awarded ¥ 39 million (US $345,000) to 137 people who were forced to flee their homes following the accident.
By March 2012, one year after the disaster, all but two of Japan 's nuclear reactors had been shut down; some had been damaged by the quake and tsunami. Authority to restart the others after scheduled maintenance throughout the year was given to local governments, who in all cases decided against. According to The Japan Times, the disaster changed the national debate over energy policy almost overnight. "By shattering the government 's long - pitched safety myth about nuclear power, the crisis dramatically raised public awareness about energy use and sparked strong anti-nuclear sentiment ''. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says "public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged '' by the disaster and called for a reduction in the nation 's reliance on nuclear power. It also omitted a section on nuclear power expansion that was in the previous year 's policy review.
Michael Banach, the current Vatican representative to the IAEA, told a conference in Vienna in September 2011 that the disaster created new concerns about the safety of nuclear plants globally. Auxiliary Bishop of Osaka Michael Goro Matsuura said this incident should cause Japan and other countries to abandon nuclear projects. He called on the worldwide Christian community to support this anti-nuclear campaign. Statements from Bishops ' conferences in Korea and the Philippines called on their governments to abandon atomic power. Author Kenzaburō Ōe, who received a Nobel prize in literature, urged Japan to abandon its reactors.
The nuclear plant closest to the epicenter of the earthquake, the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, successfully withstood the cataclysm. According to Reuters it may serve as a "trump card '' for the nuclear lobby, providing evidence that it is possible for a correctly designed and operated nuclear facility to withstand such a cataclysm.
The loss of 30 % of the country 's generating capacity led to much greater reliance on liquified natural gas and coal. Unusual conservation measures were undertaken. In the immediate aftermath, nine prefectures served by TEPCO experienced power rationing. The government asked major companies to reduce power consumption by 15 %, and some shifted their weekends to weekdays to smooth power demand. Converting to a nuclear - free gas and oil energy economy would cost tens of billions of dollars in annual fees. One estimate is that even including the disaster, more lives would have been lost if Japan had used coal or gas plants instead of nuclear.
Many political activists have begun calling for a phase - out of nuclear power in Japan, including Amory Lovins, who claimed, "Japan is poor in fuels, but is the richest of all major industrial countries in renewable energy that can meet the entire long - term energy needs of an energy - efficient Japan, at lower cost and risk than current plans. Japanese industry can do it faster than anyone -- if Japanese policymakers acknowledge and allow it ''. Benjamin K. Sovacool asserted that Japan could have exploited instead its renewable energy base. Japan has a total of "324 GW of achievable potential in the form of onshore and offshore wind turbines (222 GW), geothermal power plants (70 GW), additional hydroelectric capacity (26.5 GW), solar energy (4.8 GW) and agricultural residue (1.1 GW). ''
In contrast, others have said that the zero mortality rate from the Fukushima incident confirms their opinion that nuclear fission is the only viable option available to replace fossil fuels. Journalist George Monbiot wrote "Why Fukushima made me stop worrying and love nuclear power. '' In it he said, "As a result of the disaster at Fukushima, I am no longer nuclear - neutral. I now support the technology. '' He continued, "A crappy old plant with inadequate safety features was hit by a monster earthquake and a vast tsunami. The electricity supply failed, knocking out the cooling system. The reactors began to explode and melt down. The disaster exposed a familiar legacy of poor design and corner - cutting. Yet, as far as we know, no one has yet received a lethal dose of radiation. '' Responses to Monbiot noted his "false calculation that (nuclear powered electricity) is needed, that it can work economically, and that it can solve its horrific waste, decommissioning and proliferation - security pitfalls... (along with human) safety, health and indeed human psychology issues. ''
In September 2011, Mycle Schneider said that the disaster can be understood as a unique chance "to get it right '' on energy policy. "Germany -- with its nuclear phase - out decision based on a renewable energy program -- and Japan -- having suffered a painful shock but possessing unique technical capacities and societal discipline -- can be at the forefront of an authentic paradigm shift toward a truly sustainable, low - carbon and nuclear - free energy policy. ''
On the other hand, climate and energy scientists James Hansen, Ken Caldeira, Kerry Emanuel, and Tom Wigley released an open letter calling on world leaders to support development of safer nuclear power systems, stating "There is no credible path to climate stabilization that does not include a substantial role for nuclear power. '' In December 2014, an open letter from 75 climate and energy scientists on the website of pro-nuclear advocate Barry Brook asserted "nuclear power has lowest impact on wildlife and ecosystems -- which is what we need given the dire state of the world 's biodiversity. '' Brook 's advocacy for nuclear power has been challenged by opponents of nuclear industries, including environmentalist Jim Green of Friends of the Earth. Brook has described the Australian Greens political party (SA Branch) and Australian Youth Climate Coalition as "sad '' and "increasingly irrelevant '' after they expressed their opposition to nuclear industrial development.
As of September 2011, Japan planned to build a pilot offshore floating wind farm, with six 2 MW turbines, off the Fukushima coast. The first became operational in November 2013. After the evaluation phase is complete in 2016, "Japan plans to build as many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020. '' In 2012, Prime Minister Kan said the disaster made it clear to him that "Japan needs to dramatically reduce its dependence on nuclear power, which supplied 30 % of its electricity before the crisis, and has turned him into a believer of renewable energy ''. Sales of solar panels in Japan rose 30.7 % to 1,296 MW in 2011, helped by a government scheme to promote renewable energy. Canadian Solar received financing for its plans to build a factory in Japan with capacity of 150 MW, scheduled to begin production in 2014.
As of September 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that "Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the vast majority of Japanese support the zero option on nuclear power '', and Prime Minister Noda and the Japanese government announced plans to make the country nuclear - free by the 2030s. They announced the end to construction of nuclear power plants and a 40 - year limit on existing nuclear plants. Nuclear plant restarts must meet safety standards of the new independent regulatory authority. The plan requires investing $500 billion over 20 years.
On 16 December 2012, Japan held its general election. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had a clear victory, with Shinzō Abe as the new Prime Minister. Abe supported nuclear power, saying that leaving the plants closed was costing the country 4 trillion yen per year in higher costs. The comment came after Junichiro Koizumi, who chose Abe to succeed him as premier, made a recent statement to urge the government to take a stance against using nuclear power. A survey on local mayors by the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper in January 2013 found that most of them from cities hosting nuclear plants would agree to restarting the reactors, provided the government could guarantee their safety. More than 30,000 people marched on 2 June 2013, in Tokyo against restarting nuclear power plants. Marchers had gathered more than 8 million petition signatures opposing nuclear power.
In October 2013, it was reported that TEPCO and eight other Japanese power companies were paying approximately 3.6 trillion yen (37 billion dollars) more in combined imported fossil fuel costs compared to 2010, before the accident, to make up for the missing power.
From 2016 to 2018 the nation fired up at least eight new coal power plants, plans for an additional 36 coal stations over the next decade are the biggest planned coal power expansion in any developed nation. The new national energy plan that would have coal provide 26 % of Japan 's electricity in 2030, presents the abandoning of a previous goal of reducing coal 's share to 10 %. The coal revival is seen as having alarming implications for air pollution and Japan 's ability to meet its pledges to cut greenhouse gases by 80 % by 2050.
A number of nuclear reactor safety system lessons emerged from the incident. The most obvious was that in tsunami - prone areas, a power station 's sea wall must be adequately tall and robust. At the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, closer to the epicenter of 11 March earthquake and tsunami, the sea wall was 14 meters (46 ft) tall and successfully withstood the tsunami, preventing serious damage and radioactivity releases.
Nuclear power station operators around the world began to install Passive Autocatalytic hydrogen Recombiners ("PARs ''), which do not require electricity to operate. PARs work much like the catalytic converter on the exhaust of a car to turn potentially explosive gases such as hydrogen into water. Had such devices been positioned at the top of Fukushima I 's reactor buildings, where hydrogen gas collected, the explosions would not have occurred and the releases of radioactive isotopes would arguably have been much less.
Unpowered filtering systems on containment building vent lines, known as Filtered Containment Venting Systems (FCVS), can safely catch radioactive materials and thereby allow reactor core de-pressurization, with steam and hydrogen venting with minimal radioactivity emissions. Filtration using an external water tank system is the most common established system in European countries, with the water tank positioned outside the containment building. In October 2013, the owners of Kashiwazaki - Kariwa nuclear power station began installing wet filters and other safety systems, with completion anticipated in 2014.
For generation II reactors located in flood or tsunami prone areas, a 3 + day supply of back - up batteries has become an informal industry standard. Another change is to harden the location of back - up diesel generator rooms with water - tight, blast - resistant doors and heat sinks, similar to those used by nuclear submarines. The oldest operating nuclear power station in the world, Beznau, which has been operating since 1969, has a ' Notstand ' hardened building designed to support all of its systems independently for 72 hours in the event of an earthquake or severe flooding. This system was built prior to Fukushima Daiichi.
Upon a station blackout, similar to the one that occurred after Fukushima 's back - up battery supply was exhausted, many constructed Generation III reactors adopt the principle of passive nuclear safety. They take advantage of convection (hot water tends to rise) and gravity (water tends to fall) to ensure an adequate supply of cooling water to handle the decay heat, without the use of pumps.
As the crisis unfolded, the Japanese government sent a request for robots developed by the U.S. military. The robots went into the plants and took pictures to help assess the situation, but they could n't perform the full range of tasks usually carried out by human workers. The Fukushima disaster illustrated that robots lacked sufficient dexterity and robustness to perform critical tasks. In response to this shortcoming, a series of competitions were hosted by DARPA to accelerate the development of humanoid robots that could supplement relief efforts. Eventually a wide variety of specially designed robots were employed (leading to a robotics boom in the region), but as of early 2016 three of them had promptly become non-functional due to the intensity of the radioactivity; one was destroyed within a day.
Japanese authorities later admitted to lax standards and poor oversight. They took fire for their handling of the emergency and engaged in a pattern of withholding and denying damaging information. Authorities allegedly wanted to "limit the size of costly and disruptive evacuations in land - scarce Japan and to avoid public questioning of the politically powerful nuclear industry ''. Public anger emerged over an "official campaign to play down the scope of the accident and the potential health risks ''.
In many cases, the Japanese government 's reaction was judged to be less than adequate by many in Japan, especially those who were living in the region. Decontamination equipment was slow to be made available and then slow to be utilized. As late as June 2011, even rainfall continued to cause fear and uncertainty in eastern Japan because of its possibility of washing radioactivity from the sky back to earth.
To assuage fears, the government enacted an order to decontaminate over a hundred areas with a level contamination greater than or equivalent to one millisievert of radiation. This is a much lower threshold than is necessary for protecting health. The government also sought to address the lack of education on the effects of radiation and the extent to which the average person was exposed.
Previously a proponent of building more reactors, Kan took an increasingly anti-nuclear stance following the disaster. In May 2011, he ordered the aging Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant closed over earthquake and tsunami concerns, and said he would freeze building plans. In July 2011, Kan said, "Japan should reduce and eventually eliminate its dependence on nuclear energy ''. In October 2013, he said that if the worst - case scenario had been realized, 50 million people within a 250 - kilometer (160 mi) radius would have had to evacuate.
On 22 August 2011, a government spokesman mentioned the possibility that some areas around the plant "could stay for some decades a forbidden zone ''. According to Yomiuri Shimbun the Japanese government was planning to buy some properties from civilians to store waste and materials that had become radioactive after the accidents. Chiaki Takahashi, Japan 's foreign minister, criticized foreign media reports as excessive. He added that he could "understand the concerns of foreign countries over recent developments at the nuclear plant, including the radioactive contamination of seawater ''.
Due to frustration with TEPCO and the Japanese government "providing differing, confusing, and at times contradictory, information on critical health issues '' a citizen 's group called "Safecast '' recorded detailed radiation level data in Japan. The Japanese government "does not consider nongovernment readings to be authentic ''. The group uses off - the - shelf Geiger counter equipment. A simple Geiger counter is a contamination meter and not a dose rate meter. The response differs too much between different radioisotopes to permit a simple GM tube for dose rate measurements when more than one radioisotope is present. A thin metal shield is needed around a GM tube to provide energy compensation to enable it to be used for dose rate measurements. For gamma emitters either an ionization chamber, a gamma spectrometer or an energy compensated GM tube are required. Members of the Air Monitoring station facility at the Department of Nuclear Engineering at the University of Berkeley, California have tested many environmental samples in Northern California.
In 2014 Japan enacted the State Secrecy Law. The Fukushima incident falls under this law and, as a "state secret '', independent investigations and reports are forbidden by law.
The international reaction to the disaster was diverse and widespread. Many inter-governmental agencies immediately offered help, often on an ad hoc basis. Responders included IAEA, World Meteorological Organization and the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization.
In May 2011, UK chief inspector of nuclear installations Mike Weightman traveled to Japan as the lead of an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) expert mission. The main finding of this mission, as reported to the IAEA ministerial conference that month, was that risks associated with tsunamis in several sites in Japan had been underestimated.
In September 2011, IAEA Director General Yukiya Amano said the Japanese nuclear disaster "caused deep public anxiety throughout the world and damaged confidence in nuclear power ''. Following the disaster, it was reported in The Economist that the IAEA halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.
In the aftermath, Germany accelerated plans to close its nuclear power reactors and decided to phase the rest out by 2022. Italy held a national referendum, in which 94 percent voted against the government 's plan to build new nuclear power plants. In France, President Hollande announced the intention of the government to reduce nuclear usage by one third. So far, however, the government has only earmarked one power station for closure -- the aging plant at Fessenheim on the German border -- which prompted some to question the government 's commitment to Hollande 's promise. Industry Minister Arnaud Montebourg is on record as saying that Fessenheim will be the only nuclear power station to close.
On a visit to China in December 2014 he reassured his audience that nuclear energy was a "sector of the future '' and would continue to contribute "at least 50 % '' of France 's electricity output.
Another member of Hollande 's Socialist Party, the MP Christian Bataille, says the plan to curb nuclear was hatched as a way of securing the backing of his Green coalition partners in parliament.
Nuclear power plans were not abandoned in Malaysia, the Philippines, Kuwait, and Bahrain, or radically changed, as in Taiwan. China suspended its nuclear development program briefly, but restarted it shortly afterwards. The initial plan had been to increase the nuclear contribution from 2 to 4 percent of electricity by 2020, with an escalating program after that. Renewable energy supplies 17 percent of China 's electricity, 16 % of which is hydroelectricity. China plans to triple its nuclear energy output to 2020, and triple it again between 2020 and 2030.
New nuclear projects were proceeding in some countries. KPMG reports 653 new nuclear facilities planned or proposed for completion by 2030. By 2050, China hopes to have 400 -- 500 gigawatts of nuclear capacity -- 100 times more than it has now. The Conservative Government of the United Kingdom is planning a major nuclear expansion despite widespread public objection. So is Russia. India are also pressing ahead with a large nuclear program, as is South Korea. Indian Vice President M Hamid Ansari said in 2012 that "nuclear energy is the only option '' for expanding India 's energy supplies, and Prime Minister Modi announced in 2014 that India intended to build 10 more nuclear reactors in a collaboration with Russia.
Three investigations into the Fukushima disaster showed the man - made nature of the catastrophe and its roots in regulatory capture associated with a "network of corruption, collusion, and nepotism. '' Regulatory capture refers to the "situation where regulators charged with promoting the public interest defer to the wishes and advance the agenda of the industry or sector they ostensibly regulate. '' Those with a vested interest in specific policy or regulatory outcomes lobby regulators and influence their choices and actions. Regulatory capture explains why some of the risks of operating nuclear power reactors in Japan were systematically downplayed and mismanaged so as to compromise operational safety.
Many reports say that the government shares blame with the regulatory agency for not heeding warnings and for not ensuring the independence of the oversight function. The New York Times said that the Japanese nuclear regulatory system sided with and promoted the nuclear industry because of amakudari (' descent from heaven ') in which senior regulators accepted high paying jobs at companies they once oversaw. To protect their potential future position in the industry, regulators sought to avoid taking positions that upset or embarrass the companies. TEPCO 's position as the largest electrical utility in Japan made it the most desirable position for retiring regulators. Typically the "most senior officials went to work at TEPCO, while those of lower ranks ended up at smaller utilities. ''
In August 2011, several top energy officials were fired by the Japanese government; affected positions included the Vice-minister for Economy, Trade and Industry; the head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, and the head of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.
In 2016 three former TEPCO executives, chairman Tsunehisa Katsumata and two vice presidents, were indicted for negligence resulting in death and injury. In June 2017 the first hearing took place, in which the three pleaded not guilty to professional negligence resulting in death and injury.
The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) was the first independent investigation commission by the National Diet in the 66 - year history of Japan 's constitutional government.
Fukushima "can not be regarded as a natural disaster, '' the NAIIC panel 's chairman, Tokyo University professor emeritus Kiyoshi Kurokawa, wrote in the inquiry report. "It was a profoundly man - made disaster -- that could and should have been foreseen and prevented. And its effects could have been mitigated by a more effective human response. '' "Governments, regulatory authorities and Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO) lacked a sense of responsibility to protect people 's lives and society, '' the Commission said. "They effectively betrayed the nation 's right to be safe from nuclear accidents.
The Commission recognized that the affected residents were still struggling and facing grave concerns, including the "health effects of radiation exposure, displacement, the dissolution of families, disruption of their lives and lifestyles and the contamination of vast areas of the environment ''.
The purpose of the Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations (ICANPS) was to identify the disaster 's causes and propose policies designed to minimize the damage and prevent the recurrence of similar incidents. The 10 member, government - appointed panel included scholars, journalists, lawyers, and engineers. It was supported by public prosecutors and government experts. and released its final, 448 - page investigation report on 23 July 2012.
The panel 's report faulted an inadequate legal system for nuclear crisis management, a crisis - command disarray caused by the government and TEPCO, and possible excess meddling on the part of the Prime Minister 's office in the crisis ' early stage. The panel concluded that a culture of complacency about nuclear safety and poor crisis management led to the nuclear disaster.
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who is hank related to in breaking bad | Hank Schrader - wikipedia
Henry R. "Hank '' Schrader is a fictional character in the AMC drama series Breaking Bad. He is portrayed by Dean Norris and was created by series creator Vince Gilligan. Hank is the brother - in - law of main character Walter White, and is a DEA agent in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Throughout the series, he leads the investigation of the methamphetamine cook "Heisenberg '' -- unaware that the elusive drug kingpin is his own brother - in - law. Hank is also faced with numerous threats from the rival drug cartels which take a toll on Hank 's mental health as the series progresses, and eventually starts taking more extreme measures to find "Heisenberg '' and arrest him. Hank 's character development over the course of the series and Norris ' performance have been critically acclaimed.
Hank is a special agent with the DEA, where he rose through the ranks to become the supervisor of all investigations handled by his Albuquerque office, under the watchful eye of ASAC George Merkert (Michael Shamus Wiles) and SAC Ramey. He is married to Marie (Betsy Brandt), with whom he has no children. He is close to his family - by - marriage, the Whites: Walt, his wife (and Marie 's sister) Skyler (Anna Gunn), and their son Walter Jr. (RJ Mitte). In contrast with the mild - mannered Walt, Hank is extroverted, ambitious and apparently fearless, eager to take on dangerous investigations to further his career. Beneath his tough, unflappable exterior, however, he struggles with some of his own vulnerabilities: he had cold feet when it came to marrying Marie, and despite his ambition he is afraid to move outside his comfort zone at work.
As a hobby, Hank home brews his own beer, which he calls "Schraderbräu ''. After he gets shot by the Salamanca cousins, he spends part of season 4 taking up mineral collecting, much to Marie 's chagrin.
Hank is first seen during Walt 's fiftieth birthday party, where the attendees watch a news broadcast covering Hank 's involvement in a local methamphetamine bust. Walt takes up Hank 's offer to go on a ride along to another meth bust, and is allowed to inspect the meth lab 's equipment. Hank 's intended target, Jesse Pinkman (Aaron Paul), escapes before they can arrest him. Walt later makes Jesse his partner in a meth operation and enters the production side of Albuquerque 's drug trade, using his scientific knowledge to cook meth of unprecedented purity.
As Walt establishes his product in the local drug scene, he begins using the pseudonym "Heisenberg ''. His signature "blue meth '' soon gets the DEA 's attention, and Hank begins investigating Heisenberg, completely unaware that he is actually searching for his own brother - in - law. He does discover that the equipment used to manufacture the meth came from a classroom at the high school where Walt teaches, but wrongly arrests the school 's janitor.
In the first few episodes of the season, Hank frequently dominates and pokes fun at Walt. When Walt tells the family that he is suffering from inoperable lung cancer, however, Hank promises to be there for him, and to take care of Walter Jr. and Walt 's unborn daughter should he die. He also takes Walter Jr. under his wing, trying to "scare him straight '' when he believes the boy is smoking marijuana.
When Walt goes missing after having been kidnapped by Tuco Salamanca (Raymond Cruz), Hank, along with the rest of the family, attempts to find him. During his search process, he follows the evidence to Tuco 's hideout, and kills him in a shootout. Unknown to him, Walt and Jesse had wounded Tuco moments before, and had barely escaped his detection. Hank believes that Tuco had ties to Heisenberg and questions Tuco 's uncle, retired drug cartel boss Hector Salamanca (Mark Margolis), but Hector refuses to help, defiantly defecating on the interrogation room floor. Hank also questions Jesse about Heisenberg, but is unable to find any conclusive evidence connecting the two.
Hank 's heroics in killing Tuco earn him a promotion at the office and, eventually, a transfer to El Paso, Texas. Hank is at first excited about the opportunity, but the trauma of the shooting, and his own insecurity about the higher - risk job, triggers several panic attacks. While in El Paso, Hank joins a group of fellow DEA agents, preparing to meet an informant named Tortuga (Danny Trejo), when they find a tortoise with the informant 's severed head atop its shell, the words "HOLA DEA '' painted on it. This triggers one of Hank 's panic attacks, and he flees to his car. Removing the informant 's head from the tortoise shell triggers an explosive, killing and wounding the DEA agents and Mexican police officers who were nearby. Although physically unharmed, Hank is emotionally traumatized and passes up the promotion, going back into his home office in New Mexico.
When one of Jesse 's dealers, Badger (Matt L. Jones), is arrested in a sting operation, Hank leans on him to set Heisenberg up. To throw the DEA off the trail, Walt 's new attorney Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk) hires a professional fall guy named James Edward "Jimmy In - N ' - Out '' Kilkelly to pose as Heisenberg and go to prison. Hank nearly discovers the truth when Badger botches the job by talking to the wrong man, but Walt uses his own car to temporarily block Hank 's viewpoint under the pretense of innocently wandering onto his surveillance, buying Jesse enough time to fix the situation. The imposter is arrested, but Hank is convinced that the real Heisenberg is still at large.
Nagged by feelings of inadequacy, Hank becomes obsessed with the Heisenberg case, and overly aggressive on the job. He starts a fight with two men in a bar whom he suspects of dealing drugs, only avoiding being disciplined because Gomez covers for him. He begins trailing Jesse, and finds the recreational vehicle that he and Walt use to cook meth; he is unaware that Jesse and Walt are both inside. To throw Hank off the trail, Walt has Saul 's secretary call Hank and tell him that Marie is in the hospital, giving Walt and Jesse extra time to get rid of the RV. Upon finding out that the call was a hoax, an enraged Hank goes to Jesse 's house and assaults him. Jesse is hospitalized, and Hank is suspended without pay. Jesse plans to press charges and ruin Hank 's career, but ultimately decides to drop the charges after Walt lets him in on a lucrative deal cooking meth for cartel middle man Gus Fring (Giancarlo Esposito).
Unknown to Hank, Tuco 's cousins Leonel and Marco Salamanca (Daniel and Luis Moncada) have been following Walt, planning to avenge Tuco 's death. Gus needs Walt to cook meth, so he tells them to kill Hank instead. Gus then anonymously tips Hank off about the hit moments before Leonel and Marco attack. Leonel and Marco shoot Hank several times, but Hank still manages to kill Marco by shooting him in the head, and severely injures Leonel by crushing his legs with his car. Hank survives the shooting, but is unable to walk, and doctors tell Marie that he may be rendered a paraplegic. Marie, however, insists on putting Hank into expensive physical therapy. When told that insurance wo n't cover the treatment Hank needs, Skyler and Walt agree to pay for it without telling Hank. When Marie suggests taking care of Hank at home, Hank refuses, saying that he wo n't go home until he can walk again. Marie makes a bet that he can still get an erection, and if he does, he has to return home. She then proceeds to give him a hand job. The scene then cuts to Marie triumphantly wheeling Hank out of the hospital.
During his recovery, Hank begins collecting minerals to pass the time. He becomes uncharacteristically harsh towards Marie, feeling despondent at being so dependent on her. He is approached by the Albuquerque Police Department to offer his insights into Jesse 's murder of Walt 's lab assistant Gale Boetticher (David Costabile), including a review of the man 's lab notebook. He eventually formulates a theory that Gale was Heisenberg, and turns the evidence back over to the APD. At a dinner with Walt and his family, Hank says that Gale must have been a genius; Walt drunkenly replies that he thinks Gale was merely copying the real Heisenberg 's work.
Suspicious, Hank has APD Homicide send over the evidence once more. This time he notices that Gale, a vegan, had a napkin from Los Pollos Hermanos, the fast food chain Gus uses as a front for his drug operations, and questions why a vegan would eat fried chicken. He procures a fingerprint from Gus while eating with Walter Jr. at one of Gus ' restaurants, and finds that it matches a fingerprint found in Gale 's apartment. When asked about this, Gus comes up with an alibi, but Hank remains suspicious. He even has Walt drive him to the restaurant and, when there, tells his alarmed brother - in - law to place a tracking device on Gus ' car, which Walt tips off Gus to. The tracking device reveals nothing about Gus ' whereabouts, however. Hank comes to suspect that the cartel 's meth is manufactured at a laundry facility owned by Madrigal Electromotive, Los Pollos Hermanos ' parent company, and tells Walt that he wants to check it out. To deflect Hank 's investigation, Walt intentionally drives into oncoming traffic on the way there, and the two receive minor injuries. Hank 's plans to investigate are cut short when he is placed under DEA protective custody, after Walt places a tip off -- via Saul -- of Gus ' intentions to kill him. Hank then pushes Gomez to search the laundry facility, which fails to uncover anything incriminating, despite a few minor intriguing details.
Hector offers to give Hank information on Gus, but during the meeting merely taunts and curses him. This turns out to be part of Walt 's ultimately successful plan to draw Gus in and kill him, thus eliminating an enemy and drawing Hank 's attention away from Heisenberg.
Following Gus ' death, Hank is hailed as a hero for investigating him, and proceeds to pursue numerous leads in order to learn more about Gus ' drug empire. He and Gomez search the decimated remains of the laundromat lab, and recover many pieces of evidence, including the security camera. He also recovers Gus ' laptop in his office at the Albuquerque Los Pollos branch, but Walt and Jesse destroy it before he can uncover its contents. After sorting through various records and bank accounts associated with Gus, Hank becomes highly suspicious of Gus ' enforcer Mike Ehrmantraut (Jonathan Banks); Hank ultimately fails to get any information from him, however.
After Merkert is fired for mishandling the Fring leads, Hank is given his job. He and Marie celebrate with Walt and his family, and witness Skyler attempt to drown herself. Hank offers to let Walter Jr. and Walt 's infant daughter Holly stay with him and Marie; he is unaware that Skyler had staged the suicide attempt to get the children away from Walt.
Hank 's superiors eventually order him to drop the Heisenberg case. Undeterred, Hank tells Gomez to lean on Mike 's nine recently incarcerated dealers and their lawyer for information on Heisenberg and his connection to Madrigal. When the dealers and the lawyer are murdered (at Walt 's direction), however, the investigation is ruined. After Walt quits the meth business, the blue meth disappears from the streets, and Hank begins to believe that Heisenberg has eluded him for good. During a family dinner, however, Hank finds Gale 's copy of Leaves of Grass in Walt 's bathroom. Thumbing through the book, he discovers a handwritten note from Gale to Walt, and finally realizes that Walt is Heisenberg.
After Hank 's realization, he leaves the Whites ' house under the ruse of a stomach bug and suffers from a panic attack while driving home. After Walt realizes his copy of Leaves of Grass is missing, he finds a GPS tracking device planted on his car, resembling the one Hank used to track Gus. Walt confronts Hank in his garage, and Hank punches him in the face and accuses him of being Heisenberg, which Walt neither confirms nor denies. Walt reveals to Hank that his cancer has returned and that, even if Hank were to prove anything, Walt would never live to stand trial. When Hank demands that Walt have Skyler bring the children over to the Schrader house, Walt refuses, and tells him to "tread lightly ''.
Assuming that Walt forced Skyler to keep his secret, Hank meets her at a diner and asks her to divulge what she knows. When Skyler refuses to help, Hank tells Marie what is going on. Marie then confronts Skyler and is outraged to learn that Skyler knew what Walt was doing before Hank was shot. After breaking up an argument between the sisters, Hank returns home with his wife. Marie urges him to "get '' Walt, but Hank tells her that he has no concrete proof yet (his theft of Leaves of Grass renders it inadmissible as evidence) and ca n't go to the DEA, because his career will be ruined once they find out that Heisenberg was right under his nose for more than a year. When he hears Jesse has been arrested, Hank goes to see him in jail, hoping to turn him against Walt. He attempts to talk Jesse into a deal, appealing to Jesse 's resentment of his onetime partner. Jesse hates Hank more than he does Walt, however, and refuses to help.
Walt and Skyler arrange a meeting with the Schraders in which Walt maintains his innocence and insists that the kids stay with them. The Schraders refuse. Walt then gives Hank a DVD, in which Walt falsely implicates Hank as the mastermind behind the meth empire. In addition, Hank learns that Walt has paid for his medical bills after his shooting, which makes him an accessory after the fact. He later follows Jesse to Walt 's house and stops him from burning it down. He convinces Jesse that they should work together. He brings Jesse back to his house and tapes Jesse 's confession the following day. After Walt calls Jesse and asks to meet in downtown Albuquerque, Hank plans to have Jesse wear a wire tap in order to record the conversation. Jesse reluctantly agrees, even though he thinks that Walt will kill him during the meeting. Jesse abruptly backs out of the meeting, however, and tells Hank that he has a better way to get Walt: through his drug money.
Hank visits Saul 's bodyguard Huell (Lavell Crawford) and manipulates him into believing that Walt has put a hit on him. Huell confesses that he and his partner Kuby (Bill Burr) helped move Walt 's money from a storage unit with a rental van, but that he does not know where Walt hid it. Hank then checks with the rental company to learn that the van no longer has GPS. Hoping to learn the money 's whereabouts, Hank and Jesse devise a plan to trick Walt. Jesse calls Walt claiming that he has found the money and threatens to burn it if he does n't meet with him. Hank and Jesse follow Walt to the money 's location via the cell phone signal. Upon seeing that nobody is there, Walt realizes that Jesse has tricked him and calls his associate Jack Welker (Michael Bowen), telling him to bring his gang of neo-Nazis to kill Jesse. He calls off the hit when he sees Hank and Gomez are accompanying Jesse. Walt gives himself up and lets Hank arrest him. When Jack 's crew arrive, a gunfight erupts in which Gomez is killed and Hank is wounded. Walt begs Jack to spare Hank, offering him $80 million in exchange for his brother - in - law 's life. Hank refuses to beg for his life, however, and asks how such an intelligent man as Walt could be too naive to see that Jack had already made his decision. Hank then tells Jack to do what he has to do, at which point Jack shoots him in the head, killing him.
Prior to being cast in Breaking Bad, Dean Norris had a history of being typecast as law enforcement and military type characters. Norris reasons "I guess you have a certain look, it 's kind of an authoritative law enforcement - type look, and that look is certainly the first thing that people cast you with before you get a chance to do some acting. '' Vince Gilligan had talked to an actual DEA agent about creating Hank 's character.
Critics have commented on the character 's development.
NPR writes of his character 's evolution "Hank Schrader has evolved from a knuckleheaded jock into a complex, sympathetic and even heroic counterpoint to the show 's anti-hero, (...) Walter White. ''
Mary Kaye Schilling of Vulture opines "It 's thanks to (Norris) that Breaking Bad 's Hank Schrader has gone from a cliché - spewing booya DEA agent -- essentially comic relief -- to a savvy, vulnerable mensch who could be the show 's ultimate hero. '' Norris notes the realism of Hank 's "tough cop '' and "cliché machine '' persona, comparing his mannerisms to his best friend growing up, also a cop. Norris explains that people with jobs in law enforcement have to put on a bravado facade because they have to deal with unscrupulous people all day; the only other option would be to let the job affect them personally, which would compromise their effectiveness.
Gilligan says Hank was supposed to be a "hail fellow well met and a figure of worship for Walt, Jr., '' but developed him when he realized how "smart, sensitive, and well educated '' Norris was. Norris and Gilligan both wanted Hank to be smart and capable; "Otherwise, '' Norris said, "he 's just a doofus and you 'll dismiss him. '' Norris notes that Hank bullies Walt in the pilot and the first season, and makes racist jokes about his DEA partner Steven Gomez. However, his racist jokes toward Gomez were toned down as the series progressed and were turned into good - natured ribbing.
Sean Collins of Rolling Stone considered Hank in the pilot to be an "obnoxious blowhard ''. Gilligan had not considered the character as much more than a foil to Walt at first. However, as Gilligan got to know Norris, he developed Hank into a "more nuanced and complex character '' who makes both "personal and professional growth ''.
Frazier Moore of The Associated Press writes of Hank 's introduction in the pilot; "Hank seemed a potentially problematic character. With his cocky, macho style, he was perilously close to a stereotype ''; however, he has said "Norris has brought depth and nuance to his character, emerging as fully the equal of his fine fellow cast mates (...) as he displayed not just braggadocio but also emotional trauma. '' Norris and Gilligan admitted that Hank began as a "mechanical construct '' whose main purpose was to provide comic relief.
Hank begins showing signs of post-traumatic stress disorder in "Breakage '' after killing Tuco Salamanca in "Grilled '', the first deconstruction of his "tough cop '' persona. Norris attributed the PTSD to the fact that it is actually very rare for law enforcement officers to draw their weapons, let alone kill someone in a combat situation. Mary Kaye Schilling praised the way the writers handled the PTSD and how they waited an entire season to explain the cause of it. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club compared season 1 - era Hank to a "veiled (and unacknowledged) Vic Mackey parody, '' but praised his development which began with his suffering PTSD. Seth Amitin of IGN noted that Hank 's PTSD humanized the character, as Amitin thought of him as an "emotional rock '' who is usually unfazed. However, Amitin thought that Hank 's humanization and inner struggle fit in with the other character 's arcs and the series ' themes.
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker writes of Hank 's fight with Walt, the series "placed Hank, once a minor, comic character on the show, dead center in the role of hero. '' Graeme Virtue of The Guardian writes Norris "evolved his character Hank Schrader from cocksure DEA meathead to the closest thing the show has to a moral center. ''
Hank would go through significant character development in the third season episode, "One Minute ''. Norris felt that Hank 's self - realization in the episode was the turning point toward his becoming a better man, and set the stage for his decisions later in the series: Norris opined that "Hank wants a clean soul. '' Norris kept tearing up while filming a particularly dramatic speech, though the director kept telling him not to. Norris was eventually filmed from the side to obscure the fact that he was crying.
In the early fourth season episodes, Hank is bedridden after being shot multiple times in the chest by Tuco Salamanca 's cousins, and is increasingly hostile toward Marie while she tries to take care of him. Gilligan and the writers liked the idea of Hank not acting heroically or noble in his suffering. The writers felt this arc would be most true to Hank 's character.
When asked about how Hank could have not known his brother - in - law was Heisenberg, Norris said that Walt was Hank 's blind spot; Hank had this preconceived notion of a drug kingpin in his head and it did not coincide with his image of Walt as meek and oblivious. After Hank finally discovers that Walt is Heisenberg, Norris had to balance betrayal with rage, citing the hurt of Walt 's betrayal of his trust as his most significant emotion. Norris said that, in the episode "Blood Money, '' Hank 's emotions finally take over.
Norris has said that he thinks Hank 's moral code is concretely defined in "One Minute, '' when he accepts the consequences for assaulting Jesse even though he could have gotten away with it. In an interview during the first half of season 5, Norris expressed his puzzlement at viewers who "do n't know who to root for, '' and that he sees Walt as a straightforward villain.
Norris asked Gilligan to kill Hank off midway through the fifth season, as Norris had already booked a comedy pilot before he knew AMC would stretch the fifth into two years. Gilligan declined his request, as Hank 's arc was integral to the series ' final episodes.
Hank 's development as a character and Norris ' performance have both received critical acclaim.
Frank Girardot of Pasadena Star - News, an old friend of Norris ', says that he watched Norris grow into the role, and praised him as "a damn good actor. Certainly the best on TV right now. ''
Dean Norris ' acting in "Blood Money '', especially the climactic scene where Hank confronts Walt over the latter 's identity as Heisenberg, was lauded by critics. James Poniewozik of TIME wrote "Norris and Cranston are both eye magnets here, and the force just arcs between them as your attention is drawn irresistibly to both at once. '' Cinema Blend ' s Kelly West said Walt and Hank 's conversation might have been the "most heated and emotional moments of the series, '' praising Cranston and Norris. David Berry of National Post and Scott Meslow of The Week also praised Norris. Steve Marsi of TV Fanatic wrote of the climax "Dean Norris ' expressions conveyed how dismayed, distraught, vengeful and stunned he was at the same time. '' TVLine named Dean Norris the "Performer of the Week '' for his work in "Blood Money. ''
Ross Douthat of The New York Times called Hank the hero of Breaking Bad and wrote that "one of the show 's most impressive and important achievements has been the construction of a compelling, interesting, entertaining good person, capable of competing with Walter White, the anti-hero, for the audience 's attention and interest and affection. ''
In 2011, Norris was nominated at the 37th Saturn Awards for Best Supporting Actor on Television for the third season, but lost to John Noble for his performance as Dr. Walter Bishop in Fringe.
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what the name of the bride of frankenstein | Bride of Frankenstein - wikipedia
Bride of Frankenstein (advertised as The Bride of Frankenstein) is a 1935 American science - fiction horror film, the first sequel to Universal Pictures ' 1931 hit Frankenstein. It is considered one of the few sequels to a great film that is even better than the original film on which it is based. As with the first film, Bride of Frankenstein was directed by James Whale and stars Boris Karloff as The Monster. The sequel features Elsa Lanchester in the dual role of Mary Shelley and the Monster 's mate at the end of the film. Colin Clive reprises his role as Henry Frankenstein, and Ernest Thesiger plays the role of Doctor Septimus Pretorius.
The movie starts as an immediate sequel to the events that concluded the earlier film, and is rooted in a subplot of the original Mary Shelley novel, Frankenstein (1818). In the film, a chastened Henry Frankenstein abandons his plans to create life, only to be tempted and finally coerced by his old mentor Dr. Pretorius, along with threats from the Monster, into constructing a mate for the Monster.
The preparation to film the sequel began shortly after the premiere of the first film, but script problems delayed the project. Principal photography began in January 1935, with creative personnel from the original returning in front of and behind the camera. Bride of Frankenstein was released to critical and popular acclaim, although it encountered difficulties with some state and national censorship boards. Since its release the film 's reputation has grown, and it has been hailed as Whale 's masterpiece. In 1998, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''.
On a stormy night, Percy Bysshe Shelley (Douglas Walton) and Lord Byron (Gavin Gordon) praise Mary Shelley (Elsa Lanchester) for her story of Frankenstein and his Monster. Reminding them that her intention was to impart a moral lesson, Mary says she has more of the story to tell. The scene shifts to the end of the 1931 Frankenstein.
Villagers gathered around the burning windmill cheer the apparent death of the Monster (Boris Karloff). Their joy is tempered by the realization that Henry Frankenstein (Colin Clive) is also apparently dead. Hans (Reginald Barlow), father of the girl the creature drowned in the previous film, wants to see the Monster 's bones. He falls into a flooded pit underneath the mill, where the Monster -- having survived the fire -- strangles him. Hauling himself from the pit, the Monster casts Hans ' wife (Mary Gordon) to her death. He next encounters Minnie (Una O'Connor), who flees in terror.
Henry 's body is returned to his fiancée Elizabeth (Valerie Hobson) at his ancestral castle home. Minnie arrives to sound the alarm about the Monster, but her warning goes unheeded. Elizabeth, seeing Henry move, realizes he is still alive. Nursed back to health by Elizabeth, Henry has renounced his creation, but still believes he may be destined to unlock the secret of life and immortality. A hysterical Elizabeth cries that she sees death coming, foreshadowing the arrival of Henry 's former mentor, Doctor Septimus Pretorius (Ernest Thesiger). In his rooms, Pretorius shows Henry several homunculi he has created, including a miniature queen, king, archbishop, devil, ballerina, and mermaid. Pretorius wishes to work with Henry to create a mate for the Monster and offers a toast to their venture: "To a new world of gods and monsters! '' Upon forcing Henry to help him, Pretorius will grow an artificial brain while Henry gathers the parts for the mate.
The Monster saves a young shepherdess (Anne Darling) from drowning. Her screams upon seeing him alert two hunters, who shoot and injure the creature. The hunters raise a mob that sets out in pursuit. Captured and trussed to a pole, the Monster is hauled to a dungeon and chained. Left alone, he breaks his chains, kills the guards and escapes into the woods.
That night, the Monster encounters a gypsy family and burns his hand in their campfire. Following the sound of a violin playing "Ave Maria '', the Monster encounters an old blind hermit (O.P. Heggie) who thanks God for sending him a friend. He teaches the monster words like "friend '' and "good '' and shares a meal with him. Two lost hunters stumble upon the cottage and recognize the Monster. He attacks them and accidentally burns down the cottage as the hunters lead the hermit away.
Taking refuge from another angry mob in a crypt, the Monster spies Pretorius and his cronies Karl (Dwight Frye) and Ludwig (Ted Billings) breaking open a grave. The henchmen depart as Pretorius stays to enjoy a light supper. The Monster approaches Pretorius, and learns that Pretorius plans to create a mate for him.
Henry and Elizabeth, now married, are visited by Pretorius. He is ready for Henry to do his part in their "supreme collaboration ''. Henry refuses and Pretorius calls in the Monster who demands Henry 's help. Henry again refuses and Pretorius orders the Monster out, secretly signaling him to kidnap Elizabeth. Pretorius guarantees her safe return upon Henry 's participation. Henry returns to his tower laboratory where in spite of himself he grows excited over his work. After being assured of Elizabeth 's safety, Henry completes the Bride 's body.
A storm rages as final preparations are made to bring the Bride to life. Her bandage - wrapped body is raised through the roof. Lightning strikes a kite, sending electricity through the Bride. Henry and Pretorius lower her and realize their success. "She 's alive! Alive! '' Henry cries. They remove her bandages and help her to stand. "The bride of Frankenstein! '' Doctor Pretorius declares.
The Monster comes down the steps after killing Karl on the rooftop and sees his mate (Elsa Lanchester). The excited Monster reaches out to her, asking, "Friend? '' The Bride, screaming, rejects him. "She hate me! Like others '' the Monster dejectedly says. As Elizabeth races to Henry 's side, the Monster rampages through the laboratory. The Monster tells Henry and Elizabeth "Yes! Go! You live! '' To Pretorius and the Bride, he says "You stay. We belong dead. '' While Henry and Elizabeth flee, the Monster sheds a tear and pulls a lever to trigger the destruction of the laboratory and tower.
Universal considered making a sequel to Frankenstein as early as its 1931 preview screenings, following which the film 's original ending was changed to allow for Henry Frankenstein 's survival. James Whale initially refused to direct Bride, believing he had "squeezed the idea dry '' on the first film. Following the success of Whale 's The Invisible Man, producer Carl Laemmle, Jr. realized that Whale was the only possible director for Bride; Whale took advantage of the situation in persuading the studio to let him make One More River. Whale believed the sequel would not top the original, so he decided instead to make it a memorable "hoot ''. According to a studio publicist, Whale and Universal 's studio psychiatrist decided "the Monster would have the mental age of a ten - year old boy and the emotional age of a lad of fifteen ''.
Screenwriter Robert Florey wrote a treatment entitled The New Adventures of Frankenstein -- The Monster Lives!, but it was rejected without comment early in 1932. Universal staff writer Tom Reed wrote a treatment under the title The Return of Frankenstein, a title retained until filming began. Following its acceptance in 1933, Reed wrote a full script that was submitted to the Hays office for review. The script passed its review, but Whale, who by then had been contracted to direct, complained that "it stinks to heaven ''. L.G. Blochman and Philip MacDonald were the next writers assigned, but Whale also found their work unsatisfactory. In 1934, Whale set John L. Balderston to work on yet another version, and it was he who returned to an incident from the novel in which the creature demands a mate. In the novel Frankenstein creates a mate, but destroys it without bringing it to life. Balderston also created the Mary Shelley prologue. After several months Whale was still not satisfied with Balderston 's work and handed the project to playwright William J. Hurlbut and Edmund Pearson. The final script, combining elements of a number of these versions, was submitted for Hays office review in November 1934. Kim Newman reports that Whale planned to make Elizabeth the heart donor for the bride, but film historian Scott MacQueen states that Whale never had such an intention.
Sources report that Bela Lugosi and Claude Rains were considered, with varying degrees of seriousness, for the role of Frankenstein 's mentor, Pretorius; others report that the role was created specifically for Ernest Thesiger. Because of Mae Clarke 's ill health, Valerie Hobson replaced her as Henry Frankenstein 's love interest, Elizabeth. Early in production, Whale decided that the same actress cast to play the Bride should also play Mary Shelley in the film 's prologue, to represent how the story -- and horror in general -- springs from the dark side of the imagination. He considered Brigitte Helm and Phyllis Brooks before deciding on Elsa Lanchester. Lanchester, who had accompanied husband Charles Laughton to Hollywood, had met with only moderate success while Laughton had made a strong impact with several films including The Private Life of Henry VIII (for which he had won an Oscar) and Whale 's own The Old Dark House. Lanchester had returned alone to London when Whale contacted her to offer her the dual role. Lanchester modeled the Bride 's hissing on the hissing of swans. She gave herself a sore throat while filming the hissing sequence, which Whale shot from multiple angles.
Colin Clive and Boris Karloff reprised their roles from Frankenstein as creator and creation, respectively. Hobson recalled Clive 's alcoholism had worsened since filming the original, but Whale did not recast the role because his "hysterical quality '' was necessary for the film. Karloff strongly objected to the decision to allow the Monster to speak. "Speech! Stupid! My argument was that if the monster had any impact or charm, it was because he was inarticulate -- this great, lumbering, inarticulate creature. The moment he spoke you might as well... play it straight. '' This decision also meant that Karloff could not remove his dental plate, so now his cheeks did not have the sunken look of the original film. Whale and the studio psychiatrist selected 44 simple words for the Monster 's vocabulary by looking at test papers of ten - year - olds working at the studio. Dwight Frye returned to play the doctor 's assistant, Karl, having played the hunchback Fritz in the original. Frye also filmed a scene as an unnamed villager and the role of "Nephew Glutz '', a man who murdered his uncle and blamed the death on the Monster. Boris Karloff is credited simply as KARLOFF, which was Universal 's custom during the height of his career. Elsa Lanchester is credited for Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, but in a nod to the earlier film, the Monster 's bride is credited only as "? '' just as Boris Karloff had been in the opening credits of Frankenstein.
Universal makeup artist Jack Pierce paid special attention to the Monster 's appearance in this film. He altered his 1931 design to display the after - effects of the mill fire, adding scars and shortening the Monster 's hair. Over the course of filming, Pierce modified the Monster 's makeup to indicate that the Monster 's injuries were healing as the film progressed. Pierce co-created the Bride 's makeup with strong input from Whale, especially regarding the Bride 's iconic hair style, based on Nefertiti. Lanchester 's hair was given a Marcel wave over a wire frame to achieve the style. Lanchester disliked working with Pierce, who she said "really did feel that he made these people, like he was a god... in the morning he 'd be dressed in white as if he were in hospital to perform an operation. '' To play Mary Shelley, Lanchester wore a white net dress embroidered with sequins of butterflies, stars, and moons, which the actress had heard required 17 women 12 weeks to make.
Kenneth Strickfaden created and maintained the laboratory equipment. Strickfaden recycled a number of the fancifully named machines he had created for the original Frankenstein for use in Bride, including the "Cosmic Ray Diffuser '', and the "Nebularium ''. A lightning bolt generated by Strickfaden 's equipment has become a stock scene, appearing in any number of films and television shows. The man behind the film 's special photographic effects was John P. Fulton, head of the special effects department at Universal Studios at the time. Fulton and David S. Horsely created the homunculi over the course of two days by shooting the actors in full - size jars against black velvet and aligning them with the perspective of the on - set jars. The foreground film plate was rotoscoped and matted onto the rear plate. Diminutive actor Billy Barty is briefly visible from the back in the finished film as a homunculus infant in a high chair, but Whale cut the infant 's reveal before the film 's release.
Whale met Franz Waxman at a party and asked him to score the picture. "Nothing will be resolved in this picture except the end destruction scene. Would you write an unresolved score for it? '' asked Whale. Waxman created three distinctive themes: one for the Monster; one for the Bride; and one for Pretorius. The score closes, at Whale 's suggestion, with a powerful dissonant chord, intended to convey the idea that the on - screen explosion was so powerful that the theater where the film was being screened was affected by it. Constantin Bakaleinikoff conducted 22 musicians to record the score in a single nine - hour session.
Shooting began on January 2, 1935, with a projected budget of US $293,750 ($5.24 million as of 2018) -- almost exactly the budget of the original -- and an estimated 36 - day shooting schedule. On the first day, Karloff waded in the water below the destroyed windmill wearing a rubber suit under his costume. Air got into the suit and expanded it like an "obscene water lilly ''. Later that day, Karloff broke his hip, necessitating a stunt double. Clive had also broken his leg. Shooting was completed on March 7, 1935. The film was ten days over schedule because Whale shut down the picture for ten days until Heggie became available to play the Hermit. With a final cost of $397,023 ($8.87 million as of 2018), Bride was more than $100,000 ($1.78 million as of 2018) over budget. As originally filmed, Henry died fleeing the exploding castle. Whale re-shot the ending to allow for their survival, although Clive is still visible on - screen in the collapsing laboratory. Whale completed his final cut, shortening the running time from about 90 to 75 minutes and re-shooting and re-editing the ending, only days before the film 's scheduled premiere date.
Bride of Frankenstein was subjected to censorship, both during production by the Hays office and following its release by local and national censorship boards. Joseph Breen, lead censor for the Hays office, objected to lines of dialogue in the originally submitted script in which Henry Frankenstein and his work were compared to that of God. He continued to object to such dialogue in revised scripts, and to a planned shot of the Monster rushing through a graveyard to a figure of a crucified Jesus and attempting to "rescue '' the figure from the cross. Breen also objected to the number of murders, both seen and implied by the script and strongly advised Whale to reduce the number. The censor 's office, upon reviewing the film in March 1935, required a number of cuts. Whale agreed to delete a sequence in which Dwight Frye 's "Nephew Glutz '' kills his uncle and blames the Monster, and shots of Elsa Lanchester as Mary Shelley in which Breen felt too much of her breasts were visible. Curiously, despite his earlier objection, Breen offered no objection to the cruciform imagery throughout the film -- including a scene with the Monster lashed Christ - like to a pole -- nor to the presentation of Pretorius as a coded homosexual. Bride of Frankenstein was approved by the Production Code office on April 15, 1935.
Following its release with the Code seal of approval, the film was challenged by the censorship board in the state of Ohio. Censors in England and China objected to the scene in which the Monster gazes longingly upon the as - yet unanimated body of the Bride, citing concerns that it looked like necrophilia. Universal voluntarily withdrew the film from Sweden because of the extensive cuts demanded, and Bride was rejected outright by Trinidad, Palestine, and Hungary. One unusual objection, from Japanese censors, was that the scene in which Pretorius chases his miniature Henry VIII with tweezers constituted "making a fool out of a king ''.
Bride of Frankenstein was profitable for Universal, with a 1943 report showing that the film had by then earned approximately $2 million ($28.3 million in 2018 money) for the studio, a profit of about $950,000 ($13.4 million as of 2018). The film was critically praised upon its release, although some reviewers did qualify their opinions based on the film 's being in the horror genre. The New York World - Telegram called the film "good entertainment of its kind ''. The New York Post described it as "a grotesque, gruesome tale which, of its kind, is swell ''. The Hollywood Reporter similarly called the film "a joy for those who can appreciate it ''.
Variety did not so qualify its review. "(It is) one of those rare instances where none can review it, or talk about it, without mentioning the cameraman, art director, and score composer in the same breath as the actors and director. '' Variety also praised the cast, writing that "Karloff manages to invest the character with some subtleties of emotion that are surprisingly real and touching... Thesiger as Dr Pretorious (is) a diabolic characterization if ever there was one... Lanchester handles two assignments, being first in a preamble as author Mary Shelley and then the created woman. In latter assignment she impresses quite highly. ''
In another unqualified review, Time wrote that the film had "a vitality that makes their efforts fully the equal of the original picture... Screenwriters Hurlbut & Balderston and Director James Whale have given it the macabre intensity proper to all good horror pieces, but have substituted a queer kind of mechanistic pathos for the sheer evil that was Frankenstein. '' The Oakland Tribune concurred it was "a fantasy produced on a rather magnificent scale, with excellent stagecraft and fine photographic effects ''. While the Winnipeg Free Press thought that the electrical equipment might have been better suited to Buck Rogers, nonetheless the reviewer praised the film as "exciting and sometimes morbidly gruesome '', declaring that "All who enjoyed Frankenstein will welcome his Bride as a worthy successor. '' The New York Times called Karloff "so splendid in the role that all one can say is ' he is the Monster. ' '' The Times praised the entire principal cast and Whale 's direction in concluding that Bride is "a first - rate horror film '', and presciently suggested that "The Monster should become an institution, like Charlie Chan. '' Bride was nominated for one Academy Award, for Best Sound Recording (Gilbert Kurland).
The film 's reputation has persisted and grown since its release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 100 % based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 9.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "An eccentric, campy, technically impressive, and frightening picture, James Whale 's Bride of Frankenstein has aged remarkably well. '' In 1998, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''. Frequently identified as James Whale 's masterpiece, the film is lauded as "the finest of all gothic horror movies ''. Time rated Bride of Frankenstein in its "ALL - TIME 100 Movies '', in which critics Richard Corliss and Richard Schickel overruled the magazine 's original review to declare the film "one of those rare sequels that is infinitely superior to its source ''. In 2008, Bride was selected by Empire magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Also in 2008, the Boston Herald named it the second greatest horror film after Nosferatu. In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film # 7 on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals. Entertainment Weekly considers the film superior to Frankenstein.
Christian imagery appears throughout the film. In addition to the scenes of the Monster trussed in a cruciform pose and the crucified figure of Jesus in the graveyard, the hermit has a crucifix on the wall of his hut -- which, to Whale 's consternation, editor Ted Kent made glow during a fade - out -- and the Monster consumes the Christian sacraments of bread and wine at his "last supper '' with the hermit. Horror scholar David J. Skal suggests that Whale 's intention was to make a "direct comparison of Frankenstein 's monster to Christ ''. Film scholar Scott MacQueen, noting Whale 's lack of any religious convictions, disputes the notion that the Monster is a Christ - figure. Rather, the Monster is a "mockery of the divine '' since, having been created by Man rather than God, it "lacks the divine spark ''. In crucifying the Monster, he says, Whale "pushes the audience 's buttons '' by inverting the central Christian belief of the death of Christ followed by the resurrection. The Monster is raised from the dead first, then crucified.
In the decades since its release, modern film scholars have noted the possible queer reading of the film. Director James Whale was openly gay, and some of the actors in the cast, including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive, were believed to be gay or bisexual. Although James Curtis, Whale 's biographer, rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective, scholars have perceived a gay subtext suffused through the film, especially a camp sensibility, particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius and his relationship with Henry.
Gay film historian Vito Russo, in considering Pretorius, stops short of identifying the character as gay, instead referring to him as "sissified '', "sissy '' itself being Hollywood code for "homosexual ''. Pretorius serves as a "gay Mephistopheles '', a figure of seduction and temptation, going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of creating non-procreative life. A novelization of the film published in England made the implication clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein "' Be fruitful and multiply. ' Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way. ''
The Monster, whose affections for the male hermit and the female Bride he discusses with identical language ("friend '') has been read as sexually "unsettled '' and bisexual. Gender studies author Elizabeth Young writes: "He has no innate understanding that the male - female bond he is to forge with the bride is assumed to be the primary one or that it carries a different sexual valence from his relationships with (Pretorius and the hermit): all affective relationships are as easily ' friendships ' as ' marriages '. '' Indeed, his relationship with the hermit has been interpreted as a same - sex marriage that heterosexual society will not tolerate: "No mistake -- this is a marriage, and a viable one... But Whale reminds us quickly that society does not approve. The monster -- the outsider -- is driven from his scene of domestic pleasure by two gun - toting rubes who happen upon this startling alliance and quickly, instinctively, proceed to destroy it '', writes cultural critic Gary Morris for Bright Lights Film Journal. The creation of the Bride scene, Morris continues, is "Whale 's reminder to the audience -- his Hollywood bosses, peers, and everyone watching -- of the majesty and power of the homosexual creator ''.
Filmmaker Curtis Harrington, a friend and confidant of Whale 's, dismissed this as "a younger critic 's evaluation. All artists do work that comes out of the unconscious mind and later on you can analyze it and say the symbolism may mean something, but artists do n't think that way and I would bet my life that James Whale would never have had such concepts in mind. '' Specifically in response to the "majesty and power '' reading, Harrington stated, "My opinion is that 's just pure bullshit. That 's a critical interpretation that has nothing to do with the original inspiration. '' He concludes, "I think the closest you can come to a homosexual metaphor in his films is to identify that certain sort of camp humor. '' Whale 's companion David Lewis stated flatly that Whale 's sexual orientation was "not germane '' to his filmmaking, saying, "Jimmy was first and foremost an artist, and his films represent the work of an artist -- not a gay artist, but an artist. ''
Universal Pictures has sought to remake Bride of Frankenstein on several occasions. While the novel Frankenstein has been adapted to film many times, Bride of Frankenstein 's closest remake was The Bride (1985), starring Sting, Clancy Brown, and Jennifer Beals. In 1991, the studio sought to remake the film for cable television, and Martin Scorsese expressed interest in directing.
In the first decade of the 21st century, Universal paired with Imagine Entertainment and contracted Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini, who wrote the screenplay for American Splendor, to write a remake. The screenwriters set the story in contemporary New York. Jacob Estes was also involved with the project at one point and wrote a draft. In June 2009, Universal and Imagine entered discussions with director Neil Burger and his writing partner Dirk Wittenborn, and producer Brian Grazer was assigned to oversee the development of the remake. In December 2015, Variety reported that David Koepp will write the script. In May 2017, Universal Pictures announced their shared universe film series of rebooted, modern - day interpretations of their classic Universal Monsters titled, Dark Universe. The film series began with the 2017 film The Mummy, and is expected to continue with Bride of Frankenstein on February 14, 2019 with Bill Condon directing the film.
In October 2017, it was reported that pre-production had begun when the creative team and studio decided to postpone the release in order to further work on the script with intentions being to improve the story. Deadline reported that Javier Bardem and Angelina Jolie are still attached to the movie as Frankenstein 's monster and the film 's reluctant bride, respectively. The same month Condon stated that should Jolie decide to leave the project, he would be interested in seeing Gal Gadot play the titular character.
Notes
Bibliography
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difference between five point someone and 3 idiots | Five Point Someone - wikipedia
Five Point Someone: What not to do at IIT is a 2004 novel written by Indian author Chetan Bhagat. The book sold more than a million copies worldwide. The popular Hindi movie 3 Idiots is based on this book.
The book is narrated by Hari, with some small passages by his friends Ryan and Alok, as well as a letter by Hari 's girlfriend Neha Cherian. It deals with the lives of the 3 friends, whose elation on making it to one of the best engineering colleges in India is quickly deflated by the rigor and monotony of the academic work. Most of the book deals with the numerous attempts by the trio to cope with and / or beat the system as well as Hari 's fling with Neha who just happens to be the daughter of Prof. Cherian, the domineering head of the Mechanical Engineering Department of their college. It takes some dark turns every now and then, especially when it comes to the families of the protagonists. Most of the action, however, takes place inside the campus as the boys, led by the ever creative Ryan, frequently lamenting how the internationally lauded IIT system has stifled their creativity by forcing them to value grades more than anything else. Uninspiring teaching and numerous assignments add to their woes, though the boys do find a sympathizer in Prof. Veera, the new fluid mechanics professor.
Hari Kumar is the narrator of the story. While he talks about others a lot he does n't really talk about himself. Hari lacks confidence and is very bad at vivas. He is dating Neha Cherian, daughter of Professor Cherian. He is n't very attractive and is a ' loser ' like Alok.
He is rich, creative and likes original ideas (like Professor Veera). He cares a lot for his friends and claims not to love his parents, even though he hints he misses them every now and then. His character is played by Amir Khan as Rancho in the film adaptation.
He is a ' cry baby ', fat and a loser as claimed by his friend Ryan. His family is poor and he is in IIT for them. His sister is not getting married as he does not have enough dowry to give the groom 's family. In the start of the story he dislikes Ryan as he is always having fun and not studying but, after he comes back after breaking friendship with Ryan and Hari, his perspective about Ryan changes. Alok is played by Sharman Joshi as Raju Rastogi in the movie 3 Idiots and by Jiiva in Nanban.
The book has been translated into Hindi and is published by Prabhat Prakash. It set a record by being purchased by 30,000 people in one month, and has gone on to become a top seller in Hindi.
Despite its commercial success, the book was universally panned by contemporary book critics in India, with some calling it ' fast food literature '. Many discarded it as ' Bollywood on paper ' referring to its over the top nature.
This book was made into two films, 3 Idiots in Hindi and Nanban in Tamil. The names of the characters and their attributes were changed. Also, both the films were not full adaptations of the books, as many of the scenes from the book, including the climax, were changed in the films.
Following the success of 3 Idiots in East Asian markets such as China and Hong Kong, the producer Vidhu Vinod Chopra has announced that Hong Kong film star Stephen Chow (known for comedy films such as Shaolin Soccer and Kung Fu Hustle) will be producing a Chinese remake of the film. Chopra also announced that there are plans for a Hollywood remake, and is in talks with three different American studios interested in remaking the film. Chopra also stated that there is an Italian film studio too interested in remaking the film.
Prior to the release of the film, director Rajkumar Hirani commented on the relationship between Five Point Someone and 3 Idiots stating:
The day after the film opened, Chetan also noted:
A controversy developed a few days after the release, however, over the fact that Chetan 's credit, "Based on the novel Five Point Someone by Chetan Bhagat '' appeared in the closing credits rather than in the opening ones. At that time, Bhagat stated that he "was expecting an opening credit and I was quite surprised on not seeing it. They had bought the rights, made the payment and committed to a credit in the contract. It 's there, but it 's not about it being there, it 's about the placement and the prominence. '' In a 31 December 2009 blog post on his personal website, Bhagat stated that he was told the movie was only 2 -- 5 % based on the book, but when he saw it, he felt that it was 70 % of the book. He also argued that he was misled by the makers of the film, though he noted, that "this has nothing to do with Mr. Aamir Khan (...) I am a big fan of Aamir and he has made my story reach people. However, he was told by the makers not to read the book, and he has n't. Thus, he can not comment on the issue in a meaningful manner ''
A few people responded to Chetan 's statements. According to the Indo - Asian News Service (IANS), during a press conference with reporters producer Vidhu Vinod Chopra "clarified that in the agreement between the producer and Bhagat, it was clearly mentioned that the author 's name would be put in the closing credits. '' IANS also reported that Chopra "lost his cool '' and "asked a reporter to shut up after being questioned whether his hit 3 Idiots was lifted from author Chetan Bhagat 's book Five Point Someone. '' Chopra later apologized, stating: "I really think I 'm silly. I was provoked, but I should n't have done this. I saw myself on TV and saw how I was shouting ' shut up, shut up ' like an animal. I told myself -- ' what nonsensical behavior '. '' Aamir Khan also responded to these claims. Rajkumar Hirani stated that "We have officially bought the rights for the film. We drew a contract with him and it clearly mentions about the position of his credit. With open eyes he had seen the contract, consulted his lawyer and signed the agreement (...) In the contract, we have said that the title would be given in the rolling credits. We have n't changed the font size. We have n't increased the speed of the title. It 's exactly there where it was agreed to be. '' Legal documents concerning the relationship between Bhagat and the filmmakers have been added to the Vinod Chopra Productions website as well.
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the central nervous system is enclosed by membranes of meninges called the | Meninges - wikipedia
The meninges (/ məˈnɪndʒiːz /, singular: meninx (/ ˈmiːnɪŋks / or / ˈmɛnɪŋks /), from Ancient Greek: μῆνιγξ, translit. mēninx, lit. ' membrane ', adjectival: meningeal / məˈnɪndʒəl /) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is located in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.
The dura mater (Latin: tough mother) (also rarely called meninx fibrosa or pachymeninx) is a thick, durable membrane, closest to the skull and vertebrae. The dura mater, the outermost part, is a loosely arranged, fibroelastic layer of cells, characterized by multiple interdigitating cell processes, no extracellular collagen, and significant extracellular spaces. The middle region is a mostly fibrous portion. It consists of two layers: the endosteal layer, which lies closest to the calvaria (skullcap), and the inner meningeal layer, which lies closer to the brain. It contains larger blood vessels that split into the capillaries in the pia mater. It is composed of dense fibrous tissue, and its inner surface is covered by flattened cells like those present on the surfaces of the pia mater and arachnoid mater. The dura mater is a sac that envelops the arachnoid mater and surrounds and supports the large dural sinuses carrying blood from the brain toward the heart.
The dura has four areas of infolding:
The middle element of the meninges is the arachnoid mater, so named because of its spider web - like appearance. It cushions the central nervous system. This thin, transparent membrane is composed of fibrous tissue and, like the pia mater, is covered by flat cells also thought to be impermeable to fluid.
The shape of the arachnoid does not follow the convolutions of the surface of the brain and so looks like a loosely fitting sac. In particular, in the region of the brain a large number of fine filaments called arachnoid trabeculae pass from the arachnoid through the subarachnoid space to blend with the tissue of the pia mater. The arachnoid is composed of an outermost portion (arachnoid barrier cell layer) with tightly packed cells and no extracellular collagen; that is why it is considered to represent an effective morphological and physiological meningeal barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid and subarachnoid space and the blood circulation in the dura.
The arachnoid barrier layer is characterized by a distinct continuous basal lamina on its inner surface toward the innermost collagenous portion of the arachnoid reticular layer.
The pia mater (Latin: tender mother) is a very delicate membrane. It is the meningeal envelope that firmly adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, following all of the brain 's contours (the gyri and sulci). It is a very thin membrane composed of fibrous tissue covered on its outer surface by a sheet of flat cells thought to be impermeable to fluid. The pia mater is pierced by blood vessels to the brain and spinal cord, and its capillaries nourish the brain.
The arachnoid and pia mater together are sometimes called the leptomeninges, literally "thin meninges '' (Greek: λεπτός leptos - thin). Acute meningococcal meningitis can lead to an exudate within the leptomeninges along the surface of the brain. Because the arachnoid is connected to the pia by cob - web like strands, it is structurally continuous with the pia, hence the name pia - arachnoid or leptomeninges. They are responsible for the production of beta - trace protein (prostaglandin D synthase) a major cerebrospinal fluid protein.
The subarachnoid space is the space that normally exists between the arachnoid and the pia mater, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and continues down the spinal cord. Spaces are formed from openings at different points along the subarachnoid space and these are the subarachnoid cisterns which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
The dura mater is attached to the skull, whereas in the spinal cord, the dura mater is separated from the vertebrae by a space called the epidural space, which contains fat and blood vessels. The arachnoid is attached to the dura mater, while the pia mater is attached to the central nervous system tissue. When the dura mater and the arachnoid separate through injury or illness, the space between them is the subdural space. There is a subpial space underneath the pia mater that separates it from the glia limitans.
Injuries involving the meninges, can result in a hemorrhage and two types of hematoma.
Other medical conditions that affect the meninges include meningitis (usually from fungal, bacterial, or viral infection) and meningiomas that arise from the meninges, or from meningeal carcinomatoses (tumors) that form elsewhere in the body and metastasize to the meninges.
In fish, there is a single membrane known as the primitive meninx. In other vertebrates -- amphibians, reptiles and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater and a thick inner secondary meninx. In the early 1900s, Giuseppe Sterzi an Italian anatomist carried out comparative studies on the meninges from the lancelet to man. Contrary to previous reports the spinal meninges were seen to be very simple, both in the adult lower vertebrates and in the early developmental stages of the more advanced vertebrates. From the mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube only a single leaflet forms the primitive meninx. In the following phylogenetic and ontogenetic stages, the latter divides into an internal leaflet: the secondary meninx, and into an external one: the dura mater. Finally, in higher vertebrates, even the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and the pia. In the same animals, Sterzi demonstrated that, while in the spinal medulla the dura keeps its identity, in the skull it fuses with the periosteum. He also demonstrated the continuity of all meninges with the envelopes of nerves and with the filum terminale.
Mammals (as higher vertebrates) retain the dura mater, and the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and pia mater.
Illustration of the work by Antonio Pacchioni Disquisitio anatomicae de durae meningis... published in Acta Eruditorum, 1703
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right to freedom is a cluster of 6 rights explain | Fundamental rights in India - Wikipedia
Fundamental Rights are the basic rights of the people and the charter of rights contained in Part III (Article 12 to 35) of Constitution of India. It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before law freedom of speech and expression, religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly, freedom to practice religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto. Violation of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code or other special laws, subject to discretion of the judiciary. The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms that every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious development of personality. These rights universally apply to all citizens, irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste or gender. Though the rights conferred by the constitution other than fundamental rights are equally valid and their enforcement in case of violation shall be secured from the judiciary in a time consuming legal process. However, in case of fundamental rights violation, Supreme court of India can be approached directly for ultimate justice per Article 32. The Rights have their origins in many sources, including England 's Bill of Rights, the United States Bill of Rights and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man.
The seven fundamental rights recognised by the Indian constitution are:
Fundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they have also been used to abolish untouchability and thus prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They also forbid trafficking of human beings and forced labour (a crime). They also protect cultural and educational rights of religious and linguistic minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and also establish and administer their own education institutions. They are covered in Part III (Articles 12 to 35) of Indian constitution.
The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples such as England 's Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final ratification on 15 December 1791) and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August 1789).
In 1919, the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police, and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals, warrant-less searches and seizures, restrictions on public gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications. The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on government power. Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution. Also, the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India 's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.
In 1938, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio - economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom. Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.
Task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives. The Constituent Assembly first met on December 9, 1946 under the presidency of Dr. Sachidanand later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made its President. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws. Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.
The fundamental rights were included in the First Draft Constitution (February 1948), the Second Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and final Third Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.
The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity. The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties, like freedom of speech and religion were not recognised and protected by the State. According to them, "democracy '' is, in essence, a government by opinion and therefore, the means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation. For this purpose, the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights.
All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have been given the right to petition directly the Supreme Court or the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. Poverty stricken people may not have the means to do so and therefore, in the public interest, anyone can commence litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "Public interest litigation ''. In some cases, High Court judges have acted suo moto on their own on the basis of newspaper reports.
These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross violations of human rights. They emphasise on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of the same facilities, irrespective of background. Some fundamental rights apply for persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India. The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom of religion. On the other hand, freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone, including non-resident Indian citizens. The right to equality in matters of public employment can not be conferred to overseas citizens of India.
Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions, but some rights are enforceable against individuals. For instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals. However, these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare. They can also be selectively curtailed. The Supreme Court has ruled that all provisions of the Constitution, including fundamental rights can be amended. However, the Parliament can not alter the basic structure of the constitution. Since the fundamental rights can be altered only by a constitutional amendment, their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.
A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights. Under such a state, the rights conferred by Article 19 (freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) remain suspended. Hence, in such a situation, the legislature may make laws that go against the rights given in Article 19. Also, the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of other rights as well.
Right to equality is an important and meaningful right provided for in Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the constitution. It is the principal foundation of all other rights and liberties, and guarantees the following:
The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom, given in articles 19, 20, 21, 21A and with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution. It is a cluster of four main laws. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms:
Article 21A gives education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.
The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government restricts these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can also impose restrictions. However, the right to life and personal liberty can not be suspended. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency.
Right to Information (RTI)
Right to Information has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19 (1) of the Constitution in 2005. Article 19 (1) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works, what role does it play, what are its functions and so on.
The right against exploitation, given in Articles 23 and 24, provides for two provisions, namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar (forced labour), and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories, mines, etc. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution. Begar, practised in the past by landlords, has been declared a crime and is punishable by law. Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law. An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public purposes. Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision.
Right to freedom of religion, covered in Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28, provides religious freedom to all citizens of India. The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India. According to the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.
Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order, morality and health. No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion. A State run institution can not be impart education that is pro-religion. Also, nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further law regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice, or providing for social welfare and reform.
The constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced:
As India is a country of many languages, religions, and cultures, the Constitution provides special measures, in Articles 29 and 30, to protect the rights of the minorities. Any community that has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and develop it. No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions.
All minorities, or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture. In granting aid to institutions, the State can not discriminate against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution. But the right to administer does not mean that the State can not interfere in case of maladministration. In a precedent - setting judgement in 1980, the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards. It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other employees of the institution. In another landmark judgement delivered on 31 October 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses, admission could be only through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university. Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for admission.
Right to constitutional remedies (Article 32 to 35) empowers the citizens to move a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights. For instance, in case of imprisonment, any citizen can ask the court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country by lodging a PIL. If the court finds that it is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens ' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue various kinds of writs. These writs are habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as "the heart and soul '' of Indian constitution. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right is suspended by the central government.
Article 32 is also called citizens right to protect and defend the constitution as it can be used by the citizens to enforce the constitution through the judiciary.
The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of the freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution. It protects the inner sphere of the individual from interference from both State, and non-State actors and allows the individuals to make autonomous life choices. On 24 August 2017 the Supreme Court ruled that:
"Right to Privacy is an integral part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution, ''
The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons. Political groups have demanded that the right to work, the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment, old age, and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity, though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy. The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses, and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed "excessive ''. There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency. The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the National Security Act (NSA) are a means of countering the fundamental rights, because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence, without safeguards for civil rights. The phrases "security of State '', "public order '' and "morality '' are of wide implication. People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years. The meaning of phrases like "reasonable restrictions '' and "the interest of public order '' have not been explicitly stated in the constitution, and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation. The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised, but in some cases, these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods.
"Freedom of press '' has not been included in the right to freedom, which is necessary for formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate. Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced, but their employment even in non-hazardous jobs, including their prevalent employment as domestic help violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution. More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India. India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005, according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide. But in 2014, India has improved marginally to a rank of 85. The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to overseas citizens of India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.
As per Article 19 of Part III of the Indian constitution, the fundamental rights of people such as freedom of speech and expression, gathering peaceably without arms and forming associations or unions shall not effect the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India but not unity of India. The words sovereignty and integrity are the qualities to be cultivated / emulated by Indian people as urged by the Indian constitution but not used related to territory of India. Article 1 of Part 1 of the Indian constitution, defines India (Bharat) as union of states. In nutshell, India is its people not its land as enshrined in its constitution.
Since speedy trial is not the constitutional right of the citizens, the cases involving violations of fundamental rights take inordinate time for resolution by the Supreme Court which is against the legal maxim ' justice delayed is justice denied '.
Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two - thirds of the members present and voting. However, the number of members voting in support of the amendment shall not be less than the simple majority of the total members of a house -- whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.
While deciding the Golaknath case in February 1967, Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament has no power to curtail the fundamental rights. They were made permanent and sacrosanct reversing the Supreme Court 's earlier decision which had upheld Parliament 's power to amend all parts of the Constitution, including Part III related to Fundamental Rights. Up till the 24th constitutional amendment in 1971, the fundamental rights given to the people were permanent and can not be repealed or diluted by the Parliament. 24th constitutional amendment introduced a new Article 13 (4) enabling Parliament to legislate on the subjects of Part III of the constitution using its constituent powers per Article 368 (1). In the year 1973, the 13 member constitutional bench of supreme court also upheld with majority the validity of 24th constitutional amendment. However it ruled that Basic structure of the constitution which is built on the basic foundation representing the dignity and freedom of the individual. This is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any form of amendment to the constitution. Many constitutional amendments to Part III of the constitution were made deleting or adding or diluting the fundamental rights before the judgement of Golaknath case (Constitutional amendments 1, 4, 7 and 16) and after the validity of 24th constitutional amendment is upheld by the Supreme Court (Constitutional amendments 25, 42, 44, 50, 77, 81, 85, 86, 93 and 97).
Articles 31A and Article 31B are added by First constitutional amendment in 1951. Article 31B says that any acts and regulations included in the Ninth Schedule of the constitution by the Parliament can override the fundamental rights and such laws can not be repealed or made void by the judiciary on the grounds of violating fundamental rights. In 2007, Supreme Court ruled that there could not be any blanket immunity from judicial review for the laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule. Apex court also stated it shall examine laws included in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 for any incompatibility with the basic structure doctrine.
Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had changed Article 31C of the constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles (earlier applicable only to clauses b & c of Article 39) over the fundamental rights of individuals. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case, supreme court ruled that the amendment to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires.
The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property. Article 31 provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. '' It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes.
The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The Forty - Fourth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights A new provision, Article 300 - A, was added to the constitution, which provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law ''. Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, there would be no obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by aggrieved citizens.
The liberalisation of the economy and the government 's initiative to set up special economic zones has led to many protests by farmers and have led to calls for the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property. The Supreme Court has sent a notice to the government questioning why the right should not be brought back but in 2010 the court rejected the PIL
The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights in 2002 under the Eighty - Sixth Amendment of 2002. However this right was brought in to implementation after eight years in 2010. Article 21A -- On 2 April 2010, India joined a group of few countries in the world, with a historic law making education a fundamental right of every child coming into force. Making elementary education an entitlement for children in the 6 -- 14 age group, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act will directly benefit children who do not go to school at present. This act provides for appointment of teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh announced the operationalisation of the Act. Children, who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution, will get elementary education as it will be binding on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6 -- 14 age group get schooling. As per the Act, private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children from the weaker sections of society. The Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio of 55: 45, while the Finance Commission has given Rs. 250 billion to the States for implementing the Act. The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs. 150 billion for 2010 -- 2011.
The school management committee or the local authority will identify the drop - outs or out - of - school children aged above six and admit them in classes appropriate to their age after giving special training.
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which type of goods and services has the highest transaction cost | Transaction cost - wikipedia
In economics and related disciplines, a transaction cost is a cost in making any economic trade when participating in a market.
In Transaction Costs, Institutions and Economic Performance (1992), Douglass C. North argues that institutions, understood as the set of rules in a society, are key in the determination of transaction costs. In this sense, institutions that facilitate low transaction costs, boost economic growth.
Douglass North states that there are four factors that comprise transaction costs -- "measurement, '' "enforcement, '' "ideological attitudes and perceptions, '' and "the size of the market. '' Measurement refers to the calculation of the value of all aspects of the good or service involved in the transaction. Enforcement can be defined as the need for an unbiased third party to ensure that neither party involved in the transaction reneges on their part of the deal. These first two factors appear in the concept of ideological attitudes and perceptions, North 's third aspect of transaction costs. Ideological attitudes and perceptions encapsulate each individual 's set of values, which influences their interpretation of the world. The final aspect of transaction costs, according to North, is market size, which affects the partiality or impartiality of transactions.
Transaction costs can be divided into three broad categories:
For example, the buyer of a used car faces a variety of different transaction costs. The search costs are the costs of finding a car and determining the car 's condition. The bargaining costs are the costs of negotiating a price with the seller. The policing and enforcement costs are the costs of ensuring that the seller delivers the car in the promised condition.
The idea that transactions form the basis of an economic thinking was introduced by the institutional economist John R. Commons (1931). He said that:
These individual actions are really trans - actions instead of either individual behavior or the "exchange '' of commodities. It is this shift from commodities and individuals to transactions and working rules of collective action that marks the transition from the classical and hedonic schools to the institutional schools of economic thinking. The shift is a change in the ultimate unit of economic investigation. The classic and hedonic economists, with their communistic and anarchistic offshoots, founded their theories on the relation of man to nature, but institutionalism is a relation of man to man. The smallest unit of the classic economists was a commodity produced by labor. The smallest unit of the hedonic economists was the same or similar commodity enjoyed by ultimate consumers. One was the objective side, the other the subjective side, of the same relation between the individual and the forces of nature. The outcome, in either case, was the materialistic metaphor of an automatic equilibrium, analogous to the waves of the ocean, but personified as "seeking their level. '' But the smallest unit of the institutional economists is a unit of activity -- a transaction, with its participants. Transactions intervene between the labor of the classic economists and the pleasures of the hedonic economists, simply because it is society that controls access to the forces of nature, and transactions are, not the "exchange of commodities, '' but the alienation and acquisition, between individuals, of the rights of property and liberty created by society, which must therefore be negotiated between the parties concerned before labor can produce, or consumers can consume, or commodities be physically exchanged ".
The term "transaction cost '' is frequently thought to have been coined by Ronald Coase, who used it to develop a theoretical framework for predicting when certain economic tasks would be performed by firms, and when they would be performed on the market. However, the term is actually absent from his early work up to the 1970s. While he did not coin the specific term, Coase indeed discussed "costs of using the price mechanism '' in his 1937 paper The Nature of the Firm, where he first discusses the concept of transaction costs, and refers to the "Costs of Market Transactions '' in his seminal work, The Problem of Social Cost (1960). The term "Transaction Costs '' itself can instead be traced back to the monetary economics literature of the 1950s, and does not appear to have been consciously ' coined ' by any particular individual.
Arguably, transaction cost reasoning became most widely known through Oliver E. Williamson 's Transaction Cost Economics. Today, transaction cost economics is used to explain a number of different behaviours. Often this involves considering as "transactions '' not only the obvious cases of buying and selling, but also day - to - day emotional interactions, informal gift exchanges, etc. Oliver E. Williamson, one of the most cited social scientist at the turn of the century, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.
According to Williamson, the determinants of transaction costs are frequency, specificity, uncertainty, limited rationality, and opportunistic behavior.
At least two definitions of the phrase "transaction cost '' are commonly used in literature. Transaction costs have been broadly defined by Steven N.S. Cheung as any costs that are not conceivable in a "Robinson Crusoe economy '' -- in other words, any costs that arise due to the existence of institutions. For Cheung, if the term "transaction costs '' were not already so popular in economics literatures, they should more properly be called "institutional costs ''. But many economists seem to restrict the definition to exclude costs internal to an organization. The latter definition parallels Coase 's early analysis of "costs of the price mechanism '' and the origins of the term as a market trading fee.
Starting with the broad definition, many economists then ask what kind of institutions (firms, markets, franchises, etc.) minimize the transaction costs of producing and distributing a particular good or service. Often these relationships are categorized by the kind of contract involved. This approach sometimes goes under the rubric of New Institutional Economics.
A supplier may bid in a very competitive environment with a customer to build a widget. However, to make the widget, the supplier will be required to build specialized machinery which can not be easily redeployed to make other products. Once the contract is awarded to the supplier, the relationship between customer and supplier changes from a competitive environment to a monopoly / monopsony relationship, known as a bilateral monopoly. This means that the customer has greater leverage over the supplier such as when price cuts occur. To avoid these potential costs, "hostages '' may be swapped to avoid this event. These hostages could include partial ownership in the widget factory; revenue sharing might be another way.
Car companies and their suppliers often fit into this category, with the car companies forcing price cuts on their suppliers. Defense suppliers and the military appear to have the opposite problem, with cost overruns occurring quite often. Technologies like enterprise resource planning (ERP) can provide technical support for these strategies.
An example of measurement, one of North 's four factors of transaction costs, is detailed in Mancur Olson 's work Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development (1993) -- Olson writes that roving bandits calculate the success of their banditry based on how much money they can take from their citizens. Enforcement, the second of North 's factors of transaction costs, is exemplified in Diego Gambetta 's book The Sicilian Mafia: the Business of Private Protection (1996). Gambetta describes the concept of the "Peppe, '' who occupies the role of mediator in dealings with the Sicilian mafia -- the Peppe is needed because it is not certain that both parties will maintain their end of the deal. Measurement and enforcement comprise North 's third factor, ideological attitudes and perceptions -- each individual 's views influence how they go about each transaction.
Williamson argues in The Mechanisms of Governance (1996) that Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) differs from neoclassical microeconomics in the following points:
In game theory, transaction costs have been studied by Anderlini and Felli (2006). They consider a model with two parties who together can generate a surplus. Both parties are needed to create the surplus. Yet, before the parties can negotiate about dividing the surplus, each party must incur transaction costs. Anderlini and Felli find that transaction costs cause a severe problem when there is a mismatch between the parties ' bargaining powers and the magnitude of the transaction costs. In particular, if a party has large transaction costs but in future negotiations it can seize only a small fraction of the surplus (i.e., its bargaining power is small), then this party will not incur the transaction costs and hence the total surplus will be lost. It has been shown that the presence of transaction costs as modelled by Anderlini and Felli can overturn central insights of the Grossman - Hart - Moore theory of the firm.
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who plays the voice of michael in gta 5 | Danny Tamberelli - wikipedia
Daniel Paul "Danny '' Tamberelli (born February 8, 1982) is an American actor, comedian and musician. He is best known for his roles as Arnold Perlstein in The Magic School Bus, Little Pete in The Adventures of Pete and Pete and Jimmy De Santa in Grand Theft Auto V.
Tamberelli was born into an Italian American family in Wyckoff, New Jersey. He is a graduate of Hampshire College, where he earned a bachelor 's degree in Interdisciplinary Arts focusing on music performance and booking management.
Tamberelli 's first regular television role, at age 4, was as Sean Novak on the ABC daytime soap Ryan 's Hope. He originally appeared from 1986 to 1987, when his character, along with his on - screen parents, were written off the show. However, he returned to the role in the fall of 1988 when the Novak family was brought back, to help close up storylines in preparation for the Ryan 's Hope finale in January 1989.
Afterwards, Tamberelli played Jackie Rodowsky on the television series The Baby - Sitters Club. It was around this time that he was cast as Little Pete Wrigley on The Adventures of Pete & Pete, which first began as a series of 60 - second shorts on Nickelodeon in 1990. After progressing to a batch of specials, Pete & Pete became a regular half - hour sitcom in 1993, and brought Tamberelli much recognition. During this time, he provided the voice for Arnold in The Magic School Bus, as well as appearing in the films Igby Goes Down and The Mighty Ducks. Many may also know him for his work on Nickelodeon 's All That, as well as Figure It Out. On Figure It Out, he is known for his famed "head flip, '' where he would flip his head back after getting slimed to cover the audience in slime, and he was also known on Figure It Out for yelling "I do n't know '' at the top of his lungs whenever he got confused. He also guest starred, along with Michelle Trachtenberg, on an episode of Space Cases titled "All You Can Eaty. '' He also appeared in various toy commercials in the 1980s and 1990s for products such as "Rattle Me Bones '' from Ideal Games and Pirate Toys from Lego. Another was for Cinnamon Life in 1994. In 1999 he played Spike Cipriano in 100 Deeds for Eddie McDowd. In 2006, he appeared in a commercial for Wendy 's fast food.
During filming of an episode of The Adventures of Pete & Pete, Tamberelli had his guitar amplifier blown by Iggy Pop as Pop was teaching him to play The Stooges song, "TV Eye ''.
Tamberelli is the bassist and vocalist for the rock band Jounce, formed in Northern New Jersey. released an eponymous debut album on July 18, 2006, followed by their sophomore effort, These Things on March 31, 2009. The EP titled Meet Me in the Middle was released digitally on April 4, 2011. He was also the bassist for the folk / pop band Every Good Boy. He also made a guest appearance in the comedy podcast "The Comedy Button '', as well as the 11 / 11 / 13 episode of the podcast "The Indoor Kids ''.
Tamberelli appears in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V as the voice and physical inspiration for Jimmy De Santa.
In 2014, he started a podcast with former The Adventures of Pete and Pete co-star Michael Maronna.
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who played sydney on that's so raven | Sydney Park (actress) - Wikipedia
Sydney Park (born October 31, 1997) is an American actress and comedian.
Park was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to an African - American mother and a Korean - American father.
She currently resides in Los Angeles, California.
Park got her start in 2003 when she was the "Youngest comedian to ever perform at the famous Hollywood Improv (now LA Improv) ''. In 2006, she auditioned for the first season of American reality competition America 's Got Talent under the stage name Syd the Kid, where she had advanced on to the semi-finals. Park had to drop out due to her acting career. She made her television debut on the teen sitcom That 's So Raven in 2006.
In 2010, Park was hired to play Ellie Danville, the adopted daughter of Detective Jo Danville In 2010, Park also starred as "Tootsie Roll '' in the independent dark - comedy Spork.
From 2013 to 2015, Park starred as Gabby in the Nickelodeon show Instant Mom.
In 2016, she appeared as Cyndie on The Walking Dead.
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how many scenarios in mansions of madness 2nd edition | Mansions of Madness - wikipedia
Mansions of Madness is a tabletop strategy game designed by Corey Konieczka and published by Fantasy Flight Games in 2011. The players explore a locale filled with Lovecraftian horrors and must solve a mystery. After five years, two big - box expansions and six print - on - demand scenarios, the original Mansions of Madness was retired and replaced by Mansions of Madness Second Edition, designed by Nikki Valens and using an app in place of a human "Keeper '' for running the game 's scenario.
Mansions of Madness requires two to five players. One player takes the role of the "Keeper '' and is responsible for the monsters and happenings of the game, while the other players take on the roles of investigators trying to solve the mystery. At the beginning of the game, the players pick a scenario to play and set up the map accordingly. The Keeper consults his rule book to make decisions about the story and to place clues and traps across the board. After setting up, the players begin at the starting point and if there 's a main character, he or she begins first. If not, the youngest goes first. Then, the other explorers take turns exploring. Each investigator may move two spaces and carry out one action. Each investigator has a Health and Sanity value that depletes as they are wounded or scared. Each time an investigator suffers damage, the keeper may play trauma cards that inflict further penalties. For instance, after being hit, an investigator might receive a broken leg and be unable to move as quickly as before, or they could develop nyctophobia after having an encounter with an eldritch horror. During the investigators ' turns, the Keeper may play Mythos cards, attempting to injure them physically or mentally, degrade or destroy their items, or otherwise set them back.
After the investigators complete their turn, the Keeper then gets to react. He accumulates "threat '' each turn, a resource required to use most of the Keeper 's abilities. Playing these cards is a large part of the keeper 's abilities, and they often cost threat to use.
The goal is hidden from the investigators until near the end of the game, while the Keeper knows the objective from the beginning.
On 4 August 2016 a second edition of Mansions of Madness was released. Aside from some minor modifications, gameplay was fundamentally the same as in the first edition but with the role of the keeper replaced by a companion app that would run on PC, iOS, or Android platforms. This app expanded the gameplay in several ways including the randomisation of maps and monsters and incorporating and extended range of interactive puzzles into the app. It also meant that the game could be played solo.
The second edition also came with a conversion kit that allowed players who owned the first edition base game and either of its big - box expansions Forbidden Alchemy and Call of the Wild to incorporate their investigator figures, monster figures and map tiles into the second edition game to add more variety and unlock extra scenarios. Shortly after the second edition base game was released, the two Figure and Tile collections Recurring Nightmares and Suppressed Memories were released to make all the first edition components available to those who did not own the 1st edition game or expansions.
The base game came with four scenarios of varying length and difficulty and a fifth scenario that could be unlocked by paying for the DLC. Players who owned either the first edition base game or added the Recurring Nightmares figure & tile collection could play an additional sixth scenario. Players who owned the first edition Call of the Wild expansion or added the Suppressed Memories figure & tile collection could play an additional seventh scenario.
Two "big box '' expansions were published for Mansions of Madness.
Forbidden Alchemy was designed by Corey Konieczka, the designer of the base game, and released in 2011. It included the 3 new scenarios Return of the Reanimator, Yellow Matter and Lost in Time and Space. The expansion also contained 4 new investigators (Carolyn Fern, Dexter Drake, Darrell Simmons & Vincent Lee), 4 new monsters (2 Byakhees & 2 Crawling Ones) and 6 new map tiles as well as additional cards and tokens. A revised printing in May 2012 included corrected cards and map set - ups for all three scenarios.
Call of the Wild was again designed by Corey Konieczka and released in 2013. It included the 5 new scenarios A Cry for Help, The Stars Aligned, The Mind 's Veil, The Dunwich Horror and A Matter of Trust. This expansion aimed to shift the game 's focus to outdoor settings that were designed to be less linear in order to give the players more choice as to how they explore and investigate. It also introduced allies and NPCs to the game and added situations where the Keeper had to find clues and solve puzzles. The expansion added 4 new investigators (Amanda Sharpe, Bob Jenkins, Mandy Thompson and Monterey Jack), 11 new monsters (2 Dark Druids, 2 Child of the Goats, 2 Goat Spawns, 2 Nightgaunts, Dunwich Horror, Dark Young and Wizard) and 11 new map tiles as well as additional cards and tokens.
Fantasy Flight Games released six print - on - demand scenarios separately.
Mansions of Madness Second Edition shipped with a conversion kit that allowed those with the first edition game and either of its two expansions to use their investigators, monsters and tiles while playing second edition scenarios. It was n't necessary, but it did add more variety to the randomly generated game maps and monsters and gave players more choice of investigator to play. However, with production of the first edition game and expansions ceased, Fantasy Flight Games decided to package the old game components in two new Figure & Tile collections and released them simultaneously shortly after the release of the Second Edition base game. As such, they were n't considered a true "expansion '' but rather a re-packaging of the old, out - of - production first edition components that allowed new players to add them to their second edition game.
The Recurring Nightmares Figure & Tile Collection contained game components from the first edition base game: 8 investigator figures, 18 monster figures and 15 double - sided map tiles. The first edition base game actually had 24 monster figures but the second edition base game already had the 6 cultists so they were n't included in this collection. It also unlocked the Dearly Departed scenario for play.
The Suppressed Memories Figure & Tile Collection contained game components from the Forbidden Alchemy and Call of the Wild expansions: 8 investigators, 15 monsters and 17 double - sided map tiles. It also unlocked the Cult of Sentinel Hill scenario for play.
Beyond the Threshold was released in January 2017 and included 2 new investigators (Akachi Onyele and Wilson Richards), 1 new monster (4 Thrall) and 6 double - sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. It also unlocked the two new scenarios Gates of Silverwood Manor and Vengeful Impulses.
Streets of Arkham was released in Q4 2017 and included 4 new investigators, (Finn Edwards, Diana Stanley, Tommy Muldoon and Marie Lambeau), 4 new monsters (7 models), and 17 new double - sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. It also introduces Elixir Cards and Improvement Tokens for improving skills and a new Tower of Hanoi style puzzle type and unlocks the three new scenarios Astral Alchemy, Gangs of Arkham and Ill - Fated Exhibit.
Mansions of Madness First Edition received favourable reviews at Eurogamer, Penny Arcade, and the Dice Tower podcast. Criticisms include the complexity of the game, and the amount of time it takes to set up and play. Praise is often directed at the amount of replay value, the Lovecraftian theme, and the uniqueness of the game.
In the 2011 The Dice Tower Awards, Mansions of Madness won the "Best Production Values '' class and was the runner - up for the "Best Game Artwork '' award.
Watch it played, a YouTube series, started out as a resource for Mansions of Madness.
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where was the house in practical magic filmed | Practical Magic - wikipedia
Practical Magic is a 1998 American romantic comedy film based on the 1995 novel of the same name by Alice Hoffman. The film was directed by Griffin Dunne and stars Sandra Bullock, Nicole Kidman, Stockard Channing, Dianne Wiest, Aidan Quinn, and Goran Visnjic. The film score was composed by Alan Silvestri.
Bullock and Kidman play sisters Sally and Gillian Owens, who have always known they were different from each other. Raised by their aunts after their parents ' death, the sisters grew up in a household that was anything but typical -- their aunts fed them chocolate cake for breakfast and taught them the uses of practical magic. But the invocation of the Owens ' sorcery also carries a price -- some call it a curse: the men they fall in love with are doomed to an untimely death. Now adult women with very different personalities, the quiet Sally and the fiery Gillian must use all of their powers to fight the family curse and a swarm of supernatural forces that could take away all the Owens ' lives.
Maria Owens, a young witch, is exiled to Maria 's Island in Massachusetts with her unborn child for escaping her execution. When her lover does not come to rescue her, she desperately casts a spell upon herself to stop falling in love due to heartbreak, only to die soon after. The spell becomes a curse for several generations. In the present day, Gillian and Sally Owens, two descendants of the Owens family, are taken in by their aunts Frances and Jet after the death of their parents. Sally is the more gifted of the two while Gillian 's talents are more in charm and persuasion, and both have been subject to ridicule during their youth. After witnessing their aunts cast a spell on a man for a woman who seems obsessed with having his love, Gillian decides to fall in love and Sally casts a true love spell to protect herself.
The sisters cast an oath to each other using blood from both of their hands and Gillian leaves for Los Angeles. Sally meets and marries Michael, a local apple salesman. Years later, the two open their botanical shop Verbena and have two young daughters, Kylie and Antonia. Michael is killed after being hit by a truck. Sally and her daughters return to the Owens home to live with the aunts, and realize that the aunts cast a spell so she could fall in love. Sally decides that she and her daughters will not perform magic. As Gillian begins a relationship with Jimmy Angelov in Orlando, Sally is devastated by her husband 's death. Gillian feels that Sally needs her, and drugs Jimmy to return to Massachusetts.
Gillian returns to Sally after Jimmy becomes abusive, but the sisters are kidnapped. Sally puts belladonna into Jimmy 's tequila, inadvertently killing him. The sisters resurrect him using the forbidden spell from their aunts ' book of spells, but Jimmy attempts to kill Gillian after being revived. Sally kills him again, and the sisters bury his remains in their home 's garden. State investigator Gary Hallett arrives from Tucson, Arizona in search of Jimmy, who is also a serial killer. As Gary begins to suspect Sally, Gillian, Kylie and Antonia create a potion to banish Gary; however, the girls realize he is the one described in Sally 's true love spell, and remove the potion. Later, Sally has Gary record her testimony and sees the letter she had once written Gillian, and realizes he must have read it more times than he had let on. Unable to deny their feelings for each other, they kiss and Sally realizes that he was there because of the spell she cast years earlier.
Sally discovers that Jimmy 's spirit has possessed Gillian 's body and Gary sees Jimmy 's spirit emerge. Jimmy attempts to possess Gary, only to be hurt by his silver star - shaped badge and is temporarily exiled. Later, Sally tells Gary that he is there because of her spell and the feelings they have for each other are not real. Gary replies that curses are only true if one believes in them and reveals that he also wished for her, before returning to Tucson.
Jimmy possesses Gillian again and attempts to kill Sally before Frances and Jet return. Sally, realizing she must embrace magic to save her sister, asks the aid of the townswomen and they form a coven to exorcise Jimmy 's spirit. Sally makes them stop when she sees that the effort might kill Gillian. Getting inside the circle, Sally and the townswomen reenact her oath with Gillian. They are able to break the Owens curse, exorcising Jimmy 's spirit and allowing the coven to exile him permanently. After leaving for Tucson, Gary clears the sisters of any suspicion of wrongdoing in Jimmy 's case and decides to return to Massachusetts to be with Sally. The Owens women celebrate All Hallow 's Eve dressed up in witch costumes, and are embraced and welcomed by the townsfolk.
Practical Magic was partially filmed on an artificial set in California. The film 's producers said the house was a big part of the depiction of the Owens ' culture, so they knew they had to build a house to accurately depict this. They built it in Coupeville, Washington. They brought much of the set from California and placed it inside the house, but it still took almost a year to perfect the image of the house and the interior. The house used is owned by the Sundstrom Family and is located on San Juan Valley Road, San Juan Island. They built a replica of the outside of the house on the west side of San Juan Island so that it looked like the house was on the waterfront, but in actuality it is in the valley. They built the house in San Juan County Park but since the house was built only for this filming, it was torn down after the movie was released. Many of the small town scenes were filmed in downtown Coupeville, Washington, located on Whidbey Island.
According to Sandra Bullock in the DVD commentary, in the scene where the Owens women are drunk and slinging insults, the actresses actually got drunk on very bad tequila brought by Kidman. The cast also thinks that the supernatural elements of the house started to affect them; the cast and crew say that they have heard ghost noises while filming the coven scene at the end of the film. For the final scene with all of the townspeople at the Owens ' home, the entire population of the town where filming took place was invited to show up in costume and appear as townsfolk.
Composer Michael Nyman 's score to the movie was abruptly replaced with music by Alan Silvestri for the theatrical release. This last - minute change resulted in the release of two soundtracks, although as primarily a compilation album, only the two tracks of newly created material were changed. A 50 - track demo (the last two tracks being "Convening the Coven '' and "Maria Owens '') of Nyman 's score has been circulating among fans as a bootleg. The complete Nyman score runs 62: 30 and contains music that would later appear, in altered form, in Ravenous and The Actors, as well as a bit of his stepwise chord progression theme from Out of the Ruins / String Quartet No. 3 / Carrington / The End of the Affair / The Claim. "Convening the Coven '', though not "Maria Owens '', was subsequently reissued on The Very Best of Michael Nyman: Film Music 1980 -- 2001, and music that uses material related to this piece has not been used elsewhere.
Singer Stevie Nicks headlined the soundtrack 's published advertisements, promoting her songs "If You Ever Did Believe '' and a new recording of her song "Crystal '', both songs featuring Sheryl Crow on back - up vocals.
Practical Magic opened at # 1 with $13.1 million in ticket sales. The film went on to gross $68.1 million worldwide, less than its $75 million production budget.
Practical Magic received negative reviews from film critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 20 % approval rating, based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4 / 10 and the site 's consensus states: "Comedy, romance and horror mix with unsatisfying results. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 1 -- 100 reviews from film critics, calculated an average rating score of 46 based on 22 reviews.
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave Practical Magic a negative review, calling it "a witch comedy so slapdash, plodding, and muddled it seems to have had a hex put on it. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times said that the film "does n't seem sure what tone to adopt, veering uncertainly from horror to laughs to romance. ''
In 2004, Warner Bros. and CBS produced Sudbury, a television pilot written by Becky Hartman Edwards, starring Kim Delaney in the role played by Bullock in the film, and Jeri Ryan in the role played by Kidman. The series, named for the Sudbury, Massachusetts location of the novel and film, was not picked up.
In 2010, Warner Bros. and ABC Family attempted to develop a reboot television series.
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who gets sent home on big brother 20 | Big Brother 20 (U.S.) - wikipedia
Big Brother 20 is the twentieth season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It is based upon the Dutch series of the same name.
It was renewed in August 2016 as part of a double renewal for seasons nineteen and twenty. Julie Chen, credited as Julie Chen Moonves from episode 35 onwards, returned as host.
Sixteen new competitors, known as House Guests, were announced to be competing and their identities were released in June 2018. Each week in the game, House Guests compete in a series of competitions and then vote to eliminate, or "evict '', one of their own until there are only two remaining. In the finale episode previous House Guests vote on who they think they should win the game with the House Guest who receives the most votes being declared the winner.
The season premiered on June 27, 2018 on CBS in the United States and is set to conclude on September 26, 2018 consisting of forty episodes and lasting for 99 days, tying the eighteenth season to be the longest U.S. season to date. The season also received many controversies and criticisms throughout the season but received mostly positive viewing figures. Despite an uncertain future for the show, CBS began accepting applications for a future season in September 2018. After 99 days in the Big Brother House, the September 26, 2018 finale saw Kaycee Clark crowned the winner of Big Brother in a 5 -- 4 vote over Tyler Crispen.
The series was announced in August 2016 as part of a double renewal for Big Brother 19 and Big Brother 20. Along with the series the 24 / 7 live feeds returned with a CBS All Access subscription and Big Brother: After Dark is also returned on Pop. The season is produced by Endemol Shine North America and Fly on the Wall Entertainment. Julie Chen returned as host and Allison Grodner as well as Rich Meehan returned as Executive Producers. CBS began allowing online applications in September 2017, however open casting calls did not begin until March 2018. Celebrity Big Brother winner and runner up Marissa Jaret Winokur and Ross Mathews host a new companion show known as Off the Block with Ross and Marissa following the end of former House Guest Jeff Schroeder 's Big Brother Live Chat.
The last remaining House Guest is set to receive a prize of $500,000.
This season 's main theme and twists centered on technology.
For the first three weeks, viewers were asked a series of questions about their opinions on the remaining House Guests. The House Guest who was named in the most overall answers was deemed the "top trending '' House Guest of the week and earned a "Power App '', which would give them an advantage in the game, while the House Guest who was answered the least was deemed "least trending '' was given a "Crap App '', which gave them a punishment. Once HouseGuests received an app, they were no longer eligible to receive one in the future.
On Day 44, following Rachel 's eviction, a new twist was unleashed on the HouseGuests called the "H@cker Competition ''. It lets one HouseGuest hack the game for a week. After the nominations, all of the HouseGuests compete in a competition at the same time in different rooms, making the winner anonymous to the other HouseGuests. The winner of the competition is able to "hack '' the game in three different ways. First, they can replace one of the Head of Household 's nominations and change it to someone of their choosing. Second, they get to select one of the three participants chosen for the Power of Veto competition. Finally, they can nullify one vote at the live eviction.
The first four jury members had the opportunity to battle each other for a chance to return to the game. The competition between Bayleigh, Rockstar, Scottie, and Faysal aired on August 30, 2018 in episode 29 following the live eviction. Scottie was the winner and returned to the game.
The HouseGuests were announced on Monday, June 18 at 7 AM PDT through the CBS website.
All evicted HouseGuests appear on the Facebook Watch exclusive Off the Block with Ross and Marissa for an extended interview following their evictions. Tyler Crispen appeared in the second episode of TKO: Total Knock Out as a contestant. Crispen finished in third place and received $2,500.
Sixteen new HouseGuests entered the newest version of the Big Brother House. After getting settled in the HouseGuests began formal introductions. Following formal introductions Julie informed the HouseGuests that the theme for the summer is "Big Brother Technology '' and the first competition of the summer began.
Following the competitions Julie informed Swaggy C that of the four original groups that moved into the Big Brother house he must keep two of the groups safe. The punishments for the two losing HouseGuests were revealed. Kaycee received the "Pinwheel of Doom '' punishment and is forced to wear a pinwheel unitard. Whenever the pinwheel spins she must stay in the room she is currently in until it stops spinning. Sam is forced to occasionally play the game as a robot, when the words "Robot online '' are announced she plays the game as a robot, but when the words "Robot offline '' are announced she plays the game as a human. Both punishments are in effect until the first live eviction. Swaggy C chose to keep groups 3 and 4 safe from eviction.
On Day 5, Tyler nominated Sam and Steve for eviction.
The HouseGuests begin speculating who received the Power App as Faysal receives non-stop delivery 's of Hamazon Swine.
At the Veto Meeting, Faysal chose not to use the PoV, thus keeping the nominations the same.
Ahead of the first eviction, with a split house, alliances begin attempting to secure votes for their side. On Day 16, by a vote of 7 - 6, Steve was the first HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house.
Following nominations the HouseGuests prepared to compete in the Power of Veto competition The HouseGuests picked to compete in the Veto competition were Kaitlyn, Scottie, Winston, Faysal, Rachel, and Tyler. The HouseGuests then received a visit from Big Brother 19 HouseGuests and winners of the 30th season of The Amazing Race, Jessica Graf and Cody Nickson, who hosted the Power of Veto competition.
Rachel then begins receiving visits from her angry reviewer as a result of her Crap App from the BB App Store. At the Veto Ceremony Tyler chose to use the PoV to remove Scottie from the block. On Day 20, Kaitlyn then named Swaggy C as the replacement nominee.
Following the Veto Ceremony Swaggy C and Winston both begin campaigning for votes. The HouseGuests then cast their votes on who the want to evict. On Day 23, by a vote of 8 - 4, Swaggy C was the second HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house.
Following nominations the HouseGuests picked players for the Veto Competition. The competitors were Scottie, Brett, Winston, Tyler, Rachel, and Rockstar.
Meanwhile, Haleigh begins suffering from her Crap App punishment. Brett and Winston begin campaigning to Scottie in an attempt to get him to take one of them off of the block. Scottie informs Kaitlyn of their secret meeting causing confrontation throughout the house. At the Veto Ceremony, Scottie chose not to use the PoV thus keeping his nominations the same.
Following the Veto Ceremony each side of the house begins looking for votes. The HouseGuests voted in the live vote and eviction. On Day 30, by a vote of 6 - 5, Winston was the third HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house. Following Winston 's eviction, a major confrontation occurs between Rockstar and Brett due to his eviction speech.
Tensions begin to flare throughout the house between different HouseGuests following the eviction.
The episode also covered a major controversy between HouseGuests JC and Bayleigh following an incident where JC used the n - word in a conversation which Bayleigh took as offensive.
On Day 31, Sam nominated Haleigh and Kaitlyn for eviction.
Sam 's nomination reasoning begins causing friction throughout the house. The HouseGuests then picked players for the Power of Veto competition. The competitors were Sam, Haleigh, Kaitlyn, JC, Rockstar, and Faysal. Former Big Brother HouseGuest, Rachel Reilly, entered the house to host the PoV competition.
At the Veto Ceremony, Fessy chose to use the PoV on Haleigh. Sam chose Rockstar to become the replacement nominee. She then informed the rest of the HouseGuests about her Bonus Life Power App.
Following the Veto Ceremony, Faysal gets caught in the middle of Haleigh and Kaitlyn. The HouseGuests then participated in the live vote eviction by voting on who they wished to evict from the house. On Day 37, by a vote of 9 - 1, Kaitlyn was the fourth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house. However, due to Sam not using her Bonus Life Power App the evictee was automatically offered chance to win re-entry into the game.
On Day 38, Bayleigh nominated Brett and Rachel for eviction.
Bayleigh shares with Rachel the fact that she has a Power App.
After Tyler asks if Bayleigh would put Angela up if he uses the veto, Bayleigh tells Rachel that Tyler 's targetting Angela. Then, Rachel tells Angela about Tyler targetting her which she does n't believe. Angela tells Kaycee and she also thinks it 's false. Kaycee tells Tyler about this, Tyler talks with Angela, who all agree Rachel should be the target, not Brett.
At the Veto Ceremony, Tyler chose to not use the PoV, thus keeping the nominations the same.
Ahead of eviction the show gives an update on Bayleigh 's family which includes Swaggy C meeting Bayleigh 's parents. The HouseGuests then participated in the live vote eviction by voting on who they wished to evict from the house. On Day 44, by a vote of 5 - 4, Rachel was the fifth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house.
Julie Chen announced after the Head of Household Competition about the "H@cker Comp ''. Each week, the HouseGuests will compete to "hack '' the week. She also announces the first competition will be on Sunday night 's nomination episode.
On Day 45, Angela nominated Rockstar and Scottie for eviction and planned to backdoor Bayleigh.
Haleigh took Scottie off the block and nominated Tyler in his place.
The H@cker, Haleigh, picked Kaycee to play in the Power of Veto competition.
At the Veto Ceremony, Anglea chose to use the PoV on Tyler and chose Rockstar to become the replacement nominee.
Haleigh calls a house meeting and tells everyone she was the H@cker. This sparks a fight between Bayleigh and Tyler. As part of the H@cker 's abilities, Haleigh chose to nullify Tyler 's vote during the live evictionThe HouseGuests then participated in the live vote eviction by voting on who they wished to evict from the house. On Day 51, by a vote of 6 - 1, Bayleigh was the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house and became the first member of the jury.
Following the HoH competition, Haleigh and Rockstar discussed who should be nominated. They decided on putting Angela and Kaycee on the block in order to eventually backdoor Tyler.
The Level 6 alliance tried to persuade Haleigh to nominate Sam instead of one of them. Then, Sam went to Haleigh after hearing that her closest allies were conspiring against her, so Haleigh spilled how Level 6 wanted Sam nominated.
On Day 59, Haleigh nominated Angela and Kaycee for eviction.
Kaycee took herself off the block and nominated Rockstar in her place.
Rockstar, Haleigh, and Faysal talk about who the h@cker is. They start to believe it is Kaycee.
The H@cker, Kaycee, picked Tyler to play in the Power of Veto competition.
At the Veto Ceremony, Tyler chose to use the PoV on Angela. Haleigh chose Kaycee to become the replacement nominee.
Following the Power of Veto ceremony, Rockstar calls Angela "entitled '' and says Kaycee "was n't supposed to go home '' after believing she has the votes to stay. Rockstar talks with Brett to ensure his vote to evict Kaycee and keep Rockstar. After talking, Rockstar believes Brett is loyal to only Rockstar and no one else, making an alliance called Mr. and Mrs. Smith. In order to make sure Rockstar fully believes it, Brett helps Rockstar with her speech. After Rockstar talks with Faysal and Haleigh about having the numbers, Faysal calls Rockstar, Haleigh, and himself "unevictable ''.
As part of the H@cker 's abilities, Kaycee chose to nullify Faysal 's vote during the live eviction. On Day 58, by a vote of 5 - 1, Rockstar was the seventh HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house and became the second member of the jury.
JC makes the plan to pin Scottie as voting out Rockstar and not Kaycee, planning to say Brett was the one vote. After Faysal invites everyone to his HoH room, he asks them who the one vote to evict Kaycee was. Scottie claimed it, then Brett did right after. Kaycee backed Brett up by saying she "felt the energy '' around him. Scottie laughed at Kaycee saying she was a bad actor and said their whole production was "cute ''. The next day, JC continuted to try to convince Faysal that Scottie should be his real target by bringing up that Scottie wants Faysal out so he can be with Haleigh.
On Day 59, Faysal nominated Brett and Scottie for eviction.
On Day 60, Zingbot went into the house to start the special Zingbot Competition.
At the Veto Ceremony, Brett chose to use the PoV on himself. Faysal chose Kaycee to become the replacement nominee.
HouseGuests start to speculate if this will be the first unanimous vote. They also say that they will keep Scottie thinking that he has their votes. On Day 65, by a unanimous vote, Scottie was the eighth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house and became the third member of the jury.
Julie Chen announces that the three jury members plus a fourth member evicted this week will compete in Week 10 in a jury battleback.
Haleigh walks in on Angela, Tyler, Kaycee, and Brett celebrating Angela 's HoH. Faysal continues to believe the alliance is genuine, but Haleigh believes she 's targetting them. Faysal continues to talk to her saying Angela "is smarter than that '' and she will put Sam and a pawn up.
Angela talks with Tyler to talk about who to nominate. She contemplates putting up Haleigh and Sam. Then, JC walks in and tells Angela that if either of them come down, she has to nominate one of her allies. Angela decides to stick with the plan of Faysal and Haleigh.
On Day 66, Angela nominated Faysal and Haleigh for eviction.
Faysal talks to the camera about how they had the power in the house for three weeks and all three weeks an alliance member went home. Haleigh says they are the worst Big Brother players ever.
At the Veto Ceremony, Kaycee chose not to use the PoV.
Faysal and Haleigh both begin canvassing for votes to keep them safe for the week. The HouseGuests then participated in the live vote and eviction by voting who they wish to evict from the game. On Day 72, by a vote of 4 - 1, Faysal was the ninth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house and became the fourth member of the jury. Following his eviction interview, Julie informed Faysal of his chance to return to the game via the Jury Battle Back. She then informed the remaining HouseGuests of the same thing.
On Day 72, Scottie returned to the Big Brother house for another chance to win the game.
On Day 73, Tyler nominated Scottie and Haleigh for eviction.
At the Veto Ceremony, Kaycee chose not to use the PoV.
On Day 79, by a unanimous vote of 5 - 0, Scottie was re-evicted from the Big Brother house. He became the tenth HouseGuest to be evicted and re-joined the jury as the fourth member.
Julie then told home viewers that Week 11 would have a double eviction episode.
Big Brother 16 HouseGuest and winner of Big Brother 18 Nicole Franzel visited the house to host a Luxury Competition. In reality, it was part of fellow Big Brother 18 HouseGuest and boyfriend Victor Arroyo 's plan to surprise her with a proposal, which she accepted. Then, former Big Brother HouseGuests, Derrick Levasseur, Britney Haynes, Daniele Donato, Josh Martinez and Paul Abrahamian arrived at the house to celebrate Victor & Nicole 's engagement.
Kaycee chose not to use the POV, keeping nominations the same.
The HouseGuests begin planning on who they wish to evict. Julie then informs the HouseGuests of the double eviction. The HouseGuests then participate in the first live vote and eviction for the evening by voting on who they wish to evict from the Big Brother house. On Day 86, by a unanimous vote of 4 - 0, Haleigh became the eleventh HouseGuest to be evicted from the game and also became the fifth member of the jury.
With only a few moments to strategize, Tyler immediately chose to nominate JC and Sam for eviction.
Angela chose to use the PoV by removing JC from the block. Tyler then nominated Brett as the replacement nominee. On Day 86, by a unanimous vote of 3 - 0, Brett was also evicted from the Big Brother house. He became the twelfth HouseGuest to be evicted and joined the jury as the sixth member.
Bebe Rexha surprises the HouseGuests with a private concert in the backyard.
Angela nominated JC and Sam for eviction.
Julie informed the HouseGuests that eviction night had come early.
Kaycee decided not to use the PoV keeping nominations the same. On Day 91, by a unanimous vote of 2 - 0, Sam was evicted from the Big Brother house. She became the thirteenth HouseGuest to be evicted and joined the jury as the seventh member.
JC nominated Angela and Tyler for eviction. Scottie and Haleigh are then shown entering the jury house as the jurors watch the competitions in the week of Scottie 's and Haleigh 's eviction. Brett and Sam are also shown entering the jury house and their competitions in the week of their evictions are also shown.
Kaycee chose not to use the Power of Veto keeping nominations the same. On Day 92, Kaycee cast to sole vote to evict Angela. Angela became the fourteenth HouseGuest to be evicted from the Big Brother house and joined the jury as the eighth member.
JC, Kaycee, and Tyler celebrated making it to the final three. Former Big Brother competitor Jeff Schroeder entered the house and the four looked back on the summer highlighting their favorite moments.
Former Big Brother HouseGuest Dr. Will Kirby then hosted the jury round table, interviewing the jury on who they think should win and why.
On Day 99, as HoH Kaycee cast the sole vote to evict JC from the Big Brother house. JC became the fifteenth and final HouseGuest to be evicted from the house and joined the jury as the ninth and final member. The Jury members then had a chance to ask Kaycee and Tyler questions. The Jury members then voted on who they think should win Big Brother. Julie then asked some of the former HouseGuests a few final questions which involved Swaggy C proposing to Bayleigh. Later on Day 99, Kaycee Clark was declared the winner of Big Brother 20, by a final jury vote of 5 - 4, against Tyler Crispen. Tyler was also subsequently crowned America 's Favorite HouseGuest.
Joseph Charles "JC '' Mounduix received criticism after he was shown using an ice cream scooper on the genitals of his other HouseGuests. Mounduix later told fellow HouseGuest Kaycee Clark to open up her vagina, saying it "feels good ''.
Viewers questioned Angela Rummans and Rachel Swindler after they were caught on the live feeds making racist remarks, referencing fellow HouseGuest, Bayleigh Dayton. Rummans called her tan "ghetto '', while Swindler compared her skin tone to Dayton 's, who is African American. CBS later released a statement and warned Rummans and Swindler with future consequences.
Since the start of the live feeds, Kaitlyn Herman has been criticized from viewers for her feelings and actions towards several men in the Big Brother House, while being in a 5 - year relationship outside of the house. In Week 3, Herman 's then - boyfriend released a statement on Twitter, stating that he wanted to distance himself from the show and situation.
Kaitlyn Herman and Joseph Charles "JC '' Mounduix both came under fire after they used the n - word in separate occasions. Herman used the word as she was singing the lyrics of a Drake song. Mounduix used the word after fellow HouseGuest Bayleigh Dayton, who is African American, asked Mounduix if there is a "difference between a midget and a dwarf ''. Offended, Mounduix said that the word "midget '' is a derogatory term and then compared it to the n - word. Many came to the defense of the two, saying that they did n't use the word towards someone. Herman later apologized for using the word on an Instagram live stream.
During a live eviction episode, HouseGuest Brett Robinson called out Angela "Rockstar '' Lantry in his eviction speech for "strategic purposes ''. Lantry responded by confronting Robinson in his face claiming that it was her daughter 's birthday. Lantry later called Robinson a "rich, snobby, white - privileged - ass dude ''. Later that night, Lantry confronted Robinson with pots and pans during which she exclaimed that Robinson has a "micropenis ''. Upon confrontation, Lantry sat between Robinson 's legs whom repeatedly asked her to get off of him.
Joseph Charles "JC '' Mounduix was criticized by fans after he asked Rachel Swindler if she was transgender, stating that she has "a big Adam 's apple. '' Mounduix proceeded to feel Swindler 's neck, but she told him to stop. Moments later, he began to touch Swindler 's neck again before being stopped by her.
Viewers perceived some of Bayleigh Dayton 's comments about Faysal Shafaat as being anti-Muslim. After Shafaat, a Muslim, complained about his in - house crush Haleigh Broucher talking about her past sexual experiences, Dayton claimed in private that Shafaat should "go find a virgin '' and that he should "go to Pakistan and (get himself) one '' because "that 's what they do. '' Many viewers interpreted "they '' as meaning Muslims.
During a conversation between Dayton and Lantry, Dayton claimed that Lantry was the only white person who she knew that did n't like white people. Dayton then said that Lantry dislikes "normal white people '' more than she does. Days later, in a conversation with Haleigh Broucher, Dayton referred to her housemates as "crazy - ass white people. '' Many viewers saw Dayton 's statements as racist.
Joseph Charles "JC '' Mounduix was criticized by both fans and his fellow housemates for making light of the # MeToo movement after making jokes at the movement 's expense.
Joseph Charles "JC '' Mounduix was once again involved in two separate sexual misconduct incidents in which he was accused of sexual harassment and sexual assault. While sleeping in the same bed, Mounduix was seen caressing Tyler Crispen 's arm, face, and chest, as well as kissing his armpit while Crispen was sleeping. The following morning Crispen stated to Kaycee Clark "I 'm sleeping alone tonight -- JC is not sleeping with me ''. Mounduix explained his version by stating that he was "comforting Crispen who was having nightmares ''. Later, Mounduix opened the toilet door while HouseGuest Haleigh Broucher was using it. Broucher repeatedly asked Mounduix to close the door whom refused and tied the door open. Broucher then yelled for assistance from production and later filed a complaint with executive producer Allison Grodner. The producers later released a statement saying that neither Crispen nor Broucher filed official complaints and that the two had expressed to them that they "did not feel threatened or unsafe by Mounduix 's actions. ''
During a live eviction speech, HouseGuest Scottie Salton made sexual and vulgar comments towards HouseGuests Tyler Crispen and Angela Rummans. He hinted that Crispen received oral sex from Rummans, which got censored out by CBS.
Haleigh Broucher was criticized by both fans and her fellow houseguests after making a joke about disabled people. During a conversation with Tyler Crispen and Joseph "JC '' Mounduix, Broucher opened a fortune cookie that read, "Nothing can stop you from reaching your goals. '' After reading the quote, she responded by saying "That is not true because if you are paralyzed, you can not reach anything. '' Crispen was quick to call her out, telling Broucher that it was "the worst thing (he had) ever heard (her) say ''. Crispen then told Broucher that she needed "to rephrase '' what she had just said, to which Mounduix added that he had seen disabled people achieve their goals.
On finale night, Swaggy C, proposed to contestant Bayleigh Dayton. This sparked controversy among rumours that she got pregnant while in the Big Brother House. They later confirmed in a video that while in the house, Bayleigh did get pregnant but she suffered a miscarriage.
Unless noted below all episode aired in the United States on Sundays and Wednesdays at 8: 00 Eastern Standard Time (7: 00 Central Standard Time) and live Thursdays at 9: 00 EST (8: 00 CST).
The American adaptation of Big Brother has aired on CBS since its inception on July 5, 2000 with Julie Chen as host. Following two articles published by The New Yorker by Ronan Farrow in July and September 2018 where several women accused Chen 's husband Les Moonves of harassment, intimidation, and sexual misconduct, effective September 9, 2018, Moonves departed CBS Corporation as President, Chairman and CEO with Joseph Ianniello appointed as President and Acting CEO. In response to the claims against him, Moonves released a statement denying the allegations. After the first article was published, Chen released a statement on Twitter in July defending her husband.
While Chen was initially confirmed to return to the ninth season of her other CBS show The Talk, she was absent from the season premiere that aired on September 10, 2018. Chen issued a statement where she was taking a few days off, but would continue with Big Brother. Chen 's first television appearance since Moonves ' departure was the live eviction on September 13, 2018, where she closed out the episode with "From outside the Big Brother house... I 'm Julie Chen Moonves, good night. '' The new sign - off broke with an established pattern that Chen has used in the past on Big Brother and showcased her support for her husband, while it received a mix response from fans and viewers on Twitter. Chen subsequently announced her departure from The Talk in a pre-recorded segment that aired on the September 18, 2018 episode where she stood outside the Big Brother house. Chen will continue to host Big Brother.
The twentieth season had been confirmed since August 10, 2016 as part of a two - year renewal between CBS and Fly on the Wall Entertainment, in association with Endemol Shine North America. Celebrity Big Brother was renewed for a second season on May 12, 2018 during CBS ' annual upfront for the 2018 -- 19 television season. Speculation on the status of the show intensified after the departure of Moonves from CBS, with fans of the show and former HouseGuests began spreading the hashtag # SaveBBUSA in an attempt to get the program renewed. Unnamed insiders close to the production of the show have cast doubt if Chen would return to host potential future installments if CBS renews the show. In an article from US Weekly, an insider noted that former HouseGuests Will Kirby, Ross Mathews, and Big Brother Canada host Arisa Cox have been mentioned as potential replacements in the event that Chen does not to return, while TMZ reported that Chen will continue with the show if the network decides to renew it.
However, despite the show 's uncertain future, CBS began accepting online applications for a twenty - first season on September 20, 2018.
Coordinates: 34 ° 8 ′ 40.12 '' N 118 ° 23 ′ 20.71 '' W / 34.1444778 ° N 118.3890861 ° W / 34.1444778; - 118.3890861
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us cities with population of 1 million or more | List of United States cities by population - wikipedia
Population
The following is a list of the most populous incorporated places of the United States. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, an "incorporated place '' includes a variety of designations, including city, town, village, borough, and municipality. A few exceptional Census Designated Places (CDPs) are also included in the Census Bureau 's listing of incorporated places. Consolidated city - counties represent a distinct type of government that includes the entire population of a county, or county equivalent. Some consolidated city - counties, however, include multiple incorporated places. This list presents only that portion (or "balance '') of such consolidated city - counties that are not a part of another incorporated place.
This list refers only to the population of individual municipalities within their defined limits, which does not include other municipalities or unincorporated suburban areas within urban agglomerations. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metropolitan area populations.
The following table lists the 307 incorporated places in the United States with a population of at least 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. Five states -- Delaware, Maine, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming -- do not have cities with populations of 100,000 or more. The table below contains the following information:
For cities with populations of 100,000 or more, the following distributions hold. Smaller incorporated places are not included.
The mean density is 4,128.21 inhabitants per square mile (1,593.91 / km).
The median is 3,160.85 inhabitants per square mile (1,220.41 / km).
The following table lists the five municipalities (municipios) of Puerto Rico with a population greater than 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. census - designated places (CDPs) with populations of at least 100,000 according to the 2010 Census. A CDP is a concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. CDPs are delineated for each decennial census as the statistical counterparts of incorporated places such as cities, towns and villages. CDPs are populated areas that lack separate municipal government, but which otherwise physically resemble incorporated places. Unlike the incorporated cities in the main list, the US Census Bureau does not release annual population estimates for CDPs.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. cities that, in past censuses, have had populations of at least 100,000 but have since decreased beneath this threshold or have been consolidated with or annexed into a neighboring city.
The table below contains the following information:
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who plays max on fresh prince of bel air | Milton Berle - wikipedia
Milton Berle (born Mendel Berlinger; July 12, 1908 -- March 27, 2002) was an American comedian and actor. Berle 's career as an entertainer spanned over 80 years, first in silent films and on stage as a child actor, then in radio, movies and television. As the host of NBC 's Texaco Star Theater (1948 -- 55), he was the first major American television star and was known to millions of viewers as "Uncle Miltie '' and "Mr. Television '' during TV 's golden age.
Milton Berle was born into a Jewish family in a five - story walkup at 68 W. 118th Street in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan. His given name was Mendel Berlinger. He chose Milton Berle as his professional name when he was 16. His father, Moses Berlinger (1873 -- 1938), was a paint and varnish salesman. His mother, Sarah (Sadie) Glantz Berlinger (1877 -- 1954), changed her name to Sandra Berle when Milton became famous.
Berle entered show business at the age of five when he won an amateur talent contest. He appeared as a child actor in silent films, beginning with The Perils of Pauline, filmed in Fort Lee, New Jersey. The director told Berle that he would portray a little boy who would be thrown from a moving train. In Milton Berle: An Autobiography, he explained, "I was scared shitless, even when he went on to tell me that Pauline would save my life. Which is exactly what happened, except that at the crucial moment they threw a bundle of rags instead of me from the train. I bet there are a lot of comedians around today who are sorry about that. ''
By Berle 's account, he continued to play child roles in other films: Bunny 's Little Brother, Tess of the Storm Country, Birthright, Love 's Penalty, Divorce Coupons and Ruth of the Range. Berle recalled, "There were even trips out to Hollywood -- the studios paid -- where I got parts in Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, with Mary Pickford; The Mark of Zorro, with Douglas Fairbanks, Sr., and Tillie 's Punctured Romance, with Charlie Chaplin, Mabel Normand and Marie Dressler. '' In 1916, Berle enrolled in the Professional Children 's School.
Around 1920, at age 12, Berle made his stage debut in a revival of the musical comedy Florodora in Atlantic City, New Jersey, which later moved to Broadway. By the time he was 16, he was working as a Master of Ceremonies in Vaudeville. By the early 1930s he was a successful stand - up comedian, patterning himself after one of Vaudeville 's top comics, Ted Healy.
In 1933, he was hired by producer Jack White to star in the theatrical featurette Poppin ' the Cork, a topical musical comedy concerning the repealing of Prohibition. Berle also co-wrote the score for this film, which was released by Educational Pictures. Berle continued to dabble in songwriting. With Ben Oakland and Milton Drake, Berle wrote the title song for the RKO Radio Pictures release Li'l Abner (1940), an adaptation of Al Capp 's comic strip, featuring Buster Keaton as Lonesome Polecat. Berle wrote a Spike Jones B - side, "Leave the Dishes in the Sink, Ma. ''
From 1934 -- 36, Berle was heard regularly on The Rudy Vallee Hour, and he attracted publicity as a regular on The Gillette Original Community Sing, a Sunday night comedy - variety program broadcast on CBS from September 6, 1936 to August 29, 1937. In 1939, he was the host of Stop Me If You 've Heard This One with panelists spontaneously finishing jokes sent in by listeners.
In the late 1940s, he canceled well - paying nightclub appearances to expand his radio career. Three Ring Time, a comedy - variety show sponsored by Ballantine Ale, was followed by a 1943 program sponsored by Campbell 's Soups. The audience participation show Let Yourself Go (1944 -- 1945) could best be described as "slapstick radio '' with studio audience members acting out long suppressed urges -- often directed at host Berle. Kiss and Make Up, on CBS in 1946, featured the problems of contestants decided by a jury from the studio audience with Berle as the judge. Berle also made guest appearances on many comedy - variety radio programs during the 1930s and 1940s.
Scripted by Hal Block and Martin Ragaway, The Milton Berle Show brought Berle together with Arnold Stang, later a familiar face as Berle 's TV sidekick. Others in the cast were Pert Kelton, Mary Schipp, Jack Albertson, Arthur Q. Bryan, Ed Begley, Brazilian singer Dick Farney, and announcer Frank Gallop. Sponsored by Philip Morris, it aired on NBC from March 11, 1947 until April 13, 1948.
Berle later described this series as "the best radio show I ever did... a hell of a funny variety show ''. It served as a springboard for Berle 's emergence as television 's first major star.
Berle would revive the structure and routines of his vaudeville act for his debut on TV. His first TV series was The Texaco Star Theatre, which began September 22, 1948 on ABC and continued until June 15, 1949 with cast members Stang, Kelton and Gallop, along with Charles Irving, Kay Armen, and double - talk specialist Al Kelly. Writers included Nat Hiken, brothers Danny and Neil Simon, Leo Fuld and Aaron Ruben.
The show began with Berle rotating hosting duties with three other comedians, but in October he became the permanent host. Berle 's highly visual style, characterized by vaudeville slapstick and outlandish costumes, proved ideal for the new medium. Berle modeled the show 's structure and skits directly from his vaudeville shows, and hired writer Hal Collins to revive his old routines.
When the show moved to NBC, it dominated Tuesday night television for the next several years, reaching the number one slot in the Nielsen ratings with as much as an 80 % share of the viewing audience. Berle and the show each won Emmy Awards after the first season. Fewer movie tickets were sold on Tuesdays. Some theaters, restaurants and other businesses shut down for the hour or closed for the evening so their customers would not miss Berle 's antics. Berle 's autobiography notes that in Detroit, "an investigation took place when the water levels took a drastic drop in the reservoirs on Tuesday nights between 9 and 9: 05. It turned out that everyone waited until the end of the Texaco Star Theatre before going to the bathroom. ''
Television set sales more than doubled after Texaco Star Theatre 's debut, reaching two million in 1949. Berle 's stature as the medium 's first superstar earned him the sobriquet "Mr. Television ''. He also earned another nickname after ending a 1949 broadcast with a brief ad - libbed remark to children watching the show: "Listen to your Uncle Miltie and go to bed. '' Francis Craig and Kermit Goell 's Near You became the theme song that closed Berle 's TV shows.
Berle risked his newfound TV stardom at its zenith to challenge Texaco when the sponsor tried to prevent black performers from appearing on his show:
I remember clashing with the advertising agency and the sponsor over my signing the Four Step Brothers for an appearance on the show. The only thing I could figure out was that there was an objection to black performers on the show, but I could n't even find out who was objecting. "We just do n't like them, '' I was told, but who the hell was "we ''? Because I was riding high in 1950, I sent out the word: "If they do n't go on, I do n't go on. '' At ten minutes of eight -- ten minutes before showtime -- I got permission for the Step Brothers to appear. If I broke the color - line policy or not, I do n't know, but later on I had no trouble booking Bill Robinson or Lena Horne.
Berle 's mother Sadie was often in the audience for his broadcasts; she had long served as a "plant '' to encourage laughter from his stage show audiences. Her unique, "piercing, roof - shaking laugh '' would stand out, especially when Berle made an entrance in an outrageous costume. After feigning surprise he would "ad lib '' a response; for example: "Lady, you 've got all night to make a fool of yourself. I 've only got an hour! ''
Berle asked NBC to switch from live broadcasts to film, which would have made possible reruns (and residual income from them); he was angered when the network refused. However, NBC did consent to make a kinescope of each show. Later, Berle was offered 25 % ownership of a company manufacturing the teleprompter by its inventor, Irving Berlin Kahn, if he would simply use the new gadget on his program. He turned the offer down.
For Berle 's contribution to television, he was inducted to the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.
At one million dollars a year, NBC signed him to an exclusive, unprecedented 30 - year television contract in 1951.
Texaco pulled out of sponsorship of the show in 1953. Buick picked it up, prompting a renaming to The Buick - Berle Show, and the program 's format was changed to show the backstage preparations to put on a variety show. Critics generally approved of the changes, but Berle 's ratings continued to fall, and Buick pulled out after two seasons. In addition, "Berle 's persona had shifted from the impetuous and aggressive style of the Texaco Star Theater days to a more cultivated, but less distinctive personality, leaving many fans somehow unsatisfied. ''
By the time the again - renamed Milton Berle Show finished its only full season (1955 -- 56), Berle was already becoming history -- though his final season was host to two of Elvis Presley 's earliest television appearances, April 3 and June 5, 1956. The final straw during that last season may have come from CBS scheduling The Phil Silvers Show opposite Berle. Ironically, Silvers was one of Berle 's best friends in show business and had come to CBS 's attention in an appearance on Berle 's program. Bilko 's creator - producer, Nat Hiken, had been one of Berle 's radio writers.
Berle knew that NBC had already decided to cancel his show before Presley appeared. Berle later appeared in the Kraft Music Hall series from 1958 to 1959, but NBC was finding increasingly fewer showcases for its one - time superstar. By 1960, he was reduced to hosting a bowling program, Jackpot Bowling, delivering his quips and interviewing celebrities between the efforts of that week 's bowling contestants.
In Las Vegas, Berle played to packed showrooms at Caesars Palace, the Sands, the Desert Inn, and other casino hotels. Berle had appeared at the El Rancho, one of the first Vegas hotels, in the late 1940s. In addition to constant club appearances, Berle performed on Broadway in Herb Gardner 's The Goodbye People in 1968. He also became a commercial spokesman for the thriving Lum 's restaurant chain.
He appeared in numerous films, including Always Leave Them Laughing (released in 1949, shortly after his TV debut) with Virginia Mayo and Bert Lahr, Let 's Make Love with Marilyn Monroe and Yves Montand, It 's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, The Loved One, The Oscar, Who 's Minding the Mint?, Lepke, Woody Allen 's Broadway Danny Rose and Driving Me Crazy.
Freed in part from the obligations of his NBC contract, Berle was signed in 1966 to a new, weekly variety series on ABC. The show failed to capture a large audience and was cancelled after one season. He later appeared as guest villain Louie the Lilac on ABC 's Batman series. Other memorable guest appearances included stints on The Barbara Stanwyck Show, The Lucy Show, The Jackie Gleason Show, Get Smart, Laugh - In, The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, The Hollywood Palace, Ironside, F Troop, Fantasy Island, I Dream of Jeannie, CHiPs, The Muppet Show and The Jack Benny Program.
Like his contemporary Jackie Gleason, Berle proved a solid dramatic actor and was acclaimed for several such performances, most notably his lead role in "Doyle Against the House '' on The Dick Powell Show in 1961, a role for which he received an Emmy nomination. He also played the part of a blind survivor of an airplane crash in Seven in Darkness, the first in ABC 's popular Movie of the Week series. (He also played it straight as an agent in The Oscar (1966) and was one of the few actors in that infamous flop to get good notices from critics.)
During this period, Berle was named to the Guinness Book of World Records for the greatest number of charity performances made by a show - business performer. Unlike the high - profile shows done by Bob Hope to entertain the troops, Berle did more shows, over a period of 50 years, on a lower - profile basis. Berle received an award for entertaining at stateside military bases in World War I as a child performer, in addition to traveling to foreign bases during World War II and the Vietnam War. The first charity telethon (for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation) was hosted by Berle in 1949. A permanent fixture at charity benefits in the Hollywood area, he was instrumental in raising millions for charitable causes.
On April 14, 1979, Berle guest - hosted NBC 's Saturday Night Live. Berle 's long reputation for taking control of an entire television production -- whether invited to do so or not -- was a cause of stress on the set. One of the show 's writers, Rosie Shuster, described the rehearsals for the Berle SNL show and the telecast as "watching a comedy train accident in slow motion on a loop. '' Upstaging, camera mugging, doing spit - takes, inserting old comedy bits, and climaxing the show with a maudlin performance of "September Song '' complete with a pre-arranged standing ovation (something producer Lorne Michaels had never sanctioned) resulted in Berle being banned from hosting the show again. The episode was also barred from being rerun until surfacing in 2003, because Michaels thought it brought down the show 's reputation.
As a guest star on The Muppet Show, Berle was memorably upstaged by the heckling theatre critics Statler and Waldorf. The Statler and Waldorf puppets were inspired by a character named Sidney Spritzer, played by comedian Irving Benson, who regularly heckled Berle from a box seat during episodes of the 1960s ABC series. Milton Berle also made a cameo appearance in The Muppet Movie as a used car dealer, taking Fozzie Bear 's 1951 Studebaker in trade for a station wagon.
In 1974, Berle had a minor altercation with younger actor / comedian Richard Pryor when both appeared as guests on The Mike Douglas Show. At the time, Berle was discussing the emotional fallout from an experience he had with impregnating a woman he was not married to, and having to decide whether or not they would keep the child. During his talk, Pryor let out a laugh, to which Berle took exception and confronted him, stating, "I wish, I wish, Richard, that I could have laughed at that time at your age, when I was your age, the way you just laughed now, but I just could n't... I told you this nine years ago, and now I 'll tell you on the air in front of millions of people: Pick your spots, baby. '' This prompted Pryor to mockingly quip back, "All right, sweetheart. ''
Another well - known incident of upstaging occurred during the 1982 Emmy Awards, when Berle and Martha Raye were the presenters of the Emmy for Outstanding Writing. Berle was reluctant to give up the microphone to the award 's recipients, from Second City Television, and interrupted actor / writer Joe Flaherty 's acceptance speech several times. After Flaherty made a joke, Berle replied sarcastically "That 's funny! '' However, Flaherty 's response of "Sorry, Uncle Miltie... go to sleep '' flustered Berle. SCTV later created a parody sketch of the incident, in which Flaherty beats up a Berle look - alike, shouting, "You 'll never ruin another acceptance speech, Uncle Miltie! ''
One of his most popular performances in his later years was guest starring in 1992 in The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air as womanizing, wise - cracking patient Max Jakey. Most of his dialogue was improvised and he shocked the studio audience by mistakenly blurting out a curse word. He also appeared in an acclaimed and Emmy - nominated turn on Beverly Hills, 90210 as an aging comedian befriended by Steve Sanders, who idolizes him, but is troubled by his bouts of senility due to Alzheimer 's disease. He also voiced the Prince of Darkness, the main antagonist in the Canadian animated television anthology special The Real Story of Au Clair De La Lune. He also appeared in 1995 as a guest star in an episode of The Nanny in the part of her lawyer and great uncle.
Berle appeared in drag in the video for "Round and Round '' by the 1980s metal band Ratt (his nephew Marshall Berle was then their manager).
In 1985, he appeared on NBC 's Amazing Stories (created by Steven Spielberg) in an episode called "Fine Tuning ''. In this episode, friendly aliens from space receive TV signals from the Earth of the 1950s and travel to Hollywood in search of their idols, Lucille Ball, Jackie Gleason, The Three Stooges, Burns and Allen, and Milton Berle. (When he realizes the aliens are doing his old material, Uncle Miltie is thunderstruck: "Stealing from Berle? Is that even possible? '') Speaking gibberish, Berle is the only person able to communicate directly with the aliens.
Berle was again on the receiving end of an onstage jibe at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards where RuPaul responded to Berle 's reference of having once worn dresses himself (during his old television days) with the quip that Berle now wore diapers. A surprised Berle replied by recycling a line he had delivered to Henny Youngman on his Hollywood Palace show in 1966: "Oh, we 're going to ad lib? I 'll check my brain and we 'll start even. ''
In 1947, Milton Berle founded the Friars Club of Beverly Hills at the old Savoy Hotel on Sunset Boulevard. Other founding members included Jimmy Durante, George Jessel, Robert Taylor, and Bing Crosby. In 1961, the club moved to Beverly Hills. The Friars is a private show business club famous for its celebrity members and roasts, where a member is mocked by his club friends in good fun.
Unlike many of his peers, Berle 's offstage lifestyle did not include drugs or drinking, but did include cigars, a "who 's who '' list of beautiful women, and a lifelong addiction to gambling, primarily horse racing. Some felt his obsession with "the ponies '' was responsible for Berle never amassing the wealth or business success of others in his position.
Berle was famous within show business for the rumored size of his penis. Phil Silvers once told a story about standing next to Berle at a urinal, glancing down, and quipping, "You 'd better feed that thing, or it 's liable to turn on you! '' In the short story ' A Beautiful Child ', Truman Capote wrote Marilyn Monroe as saying: "Christ! Everybody says Milton Berle has the biggest schlong in Hollywood. '' At a memorial service for Berle at the New York Friars ' Club, Freddie Roman solemnly announced, "On May 1st and May 2nd, his penis will be buried. '' Radio shock jock Howard Stern also barraged Berle with an endless array of penis questions when the comedian appeared on Stern 's morning talk show on Aug 5, 1988 (Berle was also a guest on the Stern show on Oct 30, 1996). In Berle 's 1988 appearance, when fielding phone calls, Stern purposely asked his producer to only air callers whose questions dealt with Berle 's penis. In his autobiography, Berle tells of a man who accosted him in a steam bath and challenged him to compare sizes, leading a bystander to remark, "go ahead, Milton, just take out enough to win ''. Berle attributed this line to comedian Jackie Gleason and said: "It was maybe the funniest spontaneous line I ever heard ''.
Though he "worked clean '' for his entire onstage and onscreen career, except for the infamous Friars Club private celebrity roasts, Berle was known offstage to have a colorful vocabulary and few limits on when it was used. He often criticized younger comedians like Lenny Bruce and George Carlin for their X-rated humor, and challenged them to be just as funny without the four - letter words.
Hundreds of younger comics, including several comedy superstars, were encouraged and guided by Berle. Despite some less than flattering stories told about Berle being difficult to work with, his son, Bill, maintains that Berle was a source of encouragement and technical assistance for many new comics. Berle 's son Bob backs up his brother 's statement. He was present many times during Berle 's Las Vegas shows and television guest appearances. Milton aided Fred Travalena, Ruth Buzzi, John Ritter, Marla Gibbs, Lily Tomlin, Dick Shawn and Will Smith. At a taping of a Donny & Marie show episode, for example, Donny and Marie Osmond recited a scripted joke routine to a studio audience, to little response. The director asked for a retake, and the Osmonds repeated the act, word for word, to even less response. A third attempt, with no variation, proved dismal -- until Milton Berle, off - camera, went into the audience, pantomiming funny faces and gestures. Ever the professional, Berle timed each gesture to coincide with an Osmond punchline, so the dialogue seemed to be getting the maximum laughs.
After twice marrying and divorcing showgirl Joyce Mathews, Berle married publicist Ruth Cosgrove in 1953; she died in 1989. In 1989, Berle stated that his mother was behind the breakup of his marriages to Mathews. He also said that she managed to damage his previous relationships: "My mother never resented me going out with a girl, but if I had more than three dates with one girl, Mama found some way to break it up. '' He married a fourth time in 1992 to Lorna Adams, a fashion designer 30 years his junior. He had three children, Victoria (adopted by Berle and Mathews), William (adopted by Berle and Cosgrove) and a biological son, Bob Williams, with showgirl Junior Standish. Berle had two stepdaughters from his marriage to Adams, Leslie and Susan Brown. He also had three grandchildren: Victoria 's sons James and Mathew, and William 's son Tyler Roe, who died in 2014.
Berle 's autobiography contains many tales of his sexual exploits. He claimed relationships with numerous famous women, including actresses Marilyn Monroe and Betty Hutton, columnist Dorothy Kilgallen, and evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson. The veracity of some of these claims has been questioned. The McPherson story, in particular, has been challenged by McPherson 's biographer and her daughter, among others.
In later life, Berle found comfort in Christian Science, and subsequently characterized himself as "a Jew and a Christian Scientist ''. Oscar Levant, when queried by Jack Paar about Berle 's conversion, quipped, "Our loss is their loss. ''
On July 15, 2000, Berle guest - starred as Uncle Leo in the Kenan & Kel special "Two Heads Are Better than None ''. This would be his last acting role.
In April 2001 Berle announced that a malignant tumor had been found in his colon, but he had declined surgery. Berle 's wife said the tumor was growing so slowly that it would take 10 to 12 years to affect him in any significant or life - threatening way. One year after the announcement, on March 27, 2002, Berle died in Los Angeles from colon cancer. He died on the same day as Dudley Moore and Billy Wilder.
Berle reportedly left arrangements to be buried with his second wife, Ruth, at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Burbank, but his body was cremated and interred at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City. (Warren Cowan, Berle 's publicist, told The New York Times, "I only know he told me he bought plots at Hillside, and it was his idea. '') In addition to his third wife, Lorna Adams, Berle was survived by his adopted daughter Victoria, his biological son Bob Williams, and his adopted son Bill.
Berle had hired the writer Hal Collins to revive old vaudeville, burlesque and radio routines that Berle has used successfully... The shows were clearly vaudeville brought into the home... Berle was the ringmaster, the master of ceremonies who did his opening monologue and introduced each new act. Keeping to his own vaudeville tradition of entering into the acts of other performers, Berle often interrupted or joined in the act. When "Buffalo Bob '' Smith came on, Berle appeared dressed as Howdy Doody.
Texaco Star emulated a vaudeville variety hour, with several guests each week, including singers, comedians, ventriloquists, acrobats, dramatic performances, and so forth.
When "Texaco '' premiered on Tuesday, June 8, 1948, the format was strictly vaudeville, a bill of dancers, jugglers, acrobats, guest stars, and sketches - in short, it was simply a video version of the already successful radio show that Berle had been doing for ABC on Wednesday nights.
Radio exists as an aural medium, and no matter how physically animated a performer may be or how clownish his or her costume... Berle 's comedic gift shone in slapstick, something he had mastered in his vaudeville experiences. Many radio stars found it difficult to make the transition to TV... Not so Berle. Radio had confined the comedian, making him reliant on his wealth of jokes and little else... Berle clearly considered no costume too outlandish, no stunt too foolish.
The city of Detroit was baffled when the reservoir water levels dropped each Tuesday evening shortly after 9: 00 pm An investigation revealed that Detroit 's citizens were waiting until Berle was off the air to go to the bathroom; the simultaneous flushing of thousands of toilets created havoc with Detroit 's water works.
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news for north east west and south crossword | List of BBC newsreaders and reporters - wikipedia
BBC News employs many presenters and correspondents who appear across television, radio and contribute to BBC Online. BBC News provides television journalism to BBC One bulletins and the rolling news channels BBC World News and the BBC News Channel in the United Kingdom. In addition BBC News runs rolling news network BBC Radio 5 Live and the international BBC World Service. They also contribute to strands across BBC Radio 4 and bulletins on all radio networks. The BBC has over 200 correspondents based both in the United Kingdom and abroad.
Many of the presenters below also work on other BBC News output, and some also work in other parts of the BBC. Other BBC News presenters also provide relief presentation on programmes broadcast on these channels. Not included in this list are presenters of the BBC News Channel programme BBC Newsroom Live which is simulcast on BBC Two. Also not included are presenters of BBC World News programmes that are simulcast overnight on BBC One and the 19: 00 edition on BBC Four.
Many of the presenters below also work on other BBC News output, and some also work in other parts of the BBC. Other BBC News presenters also provide relief presentation on programmes broadcast on this channel. Not included in this list are the presenters of the programmes BBC Breakfast, Victoria Derbyshire as well as the BBC One bulletins that are simulcast on the channel. Also not included are presenters of the BBC World News programmes that are simulcast from 21: 00 to 22: 00 and 00: 00 to 06: 00 daily, unless there mainly seen on the News Channel.
Many of the presenters below also work on other BBC News output, and some also work in other parts of the BBC. Other BBC News presenters also provide relief presentation on programmes broadcast on this channel.
The list below reflects correspondents ' normal postings. During major international events, such as the Libyan crisis of 2011 and the Gaza conflict of 2014, foreign correspondents may be redeployed from their normal bases to cover such stories temporarily on a rota (when they are usually branded "World Affairs Correspondents '' or when in Europe "Europe Correspondents ''), before returning to their normal base. This can also happen to cover holidays mainly during July / August and over Christmas periods.
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BBC News employs a number of business and sports presenters to anchor sections of news programmes.
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what happens to the winners of america's got talent | America 's Got Talent - Wikipedia
America 's Got Talent (sometimes abbreviated as AGT) is an American reality television series on the NBC television network, and part of the global Got Talent franchise. It is a talent show that features singers, dancers, magicians, comedians, and other performers of all ages competing for the advertised top prize of one million dollars. The show debuted in June 2006 for the summer television season. From season three (2008) onwards, the prize includes the one million dollars, payable in a financial annuity over 40 years, and a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. Among its significant features is that it gives an opportunity to talented amateurs or unknown performers, with the results decided by an audience vote. The format is a popular one and has often been reworked for television in the United States and the United Kingdom.
This incarnation was created by Simon Cowell, and was originally due to be a 2005 British series called Paul O'Grady 's Got Talent but was postponed due to O'Grady's acrimonious split with broadcaster ITV (later launching as Britain 's Got Talent in 2007). Therefore, the U.S. version became the first full series of the franchise.
The original judging panel consisted of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan. Sharon Osbourne replaced Norwood in season two (2007), and Howie Mandel replaced Hasselhoff in season five (2010). Howard Stern replaced Morgan in season seven (2012). Mel B replaced Osbourne in season eight (2013), while Heidi Klum joined as a fourth judge. Simon Cowell replaced Stern in season eleven (2016). Regis Philbin was the original host (season one), followed by Jerry Springer for two seasons (2007 -- 2008), followed by Nick Cannon for eight seasons (2009 -- 2016). Supermodel and host Tyra Banks replaced Cannon for the twelfth season (2017).
On August 2, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a twelfth season, which premiered on May 30, 2017. The season concluded on September 20, 2017. The series has been renewed through its thirteenth season.
Starting with the tenth season, each of the main judges invited a guest judge to join the judging panel for one night during the Judge Cuts stage of the competition. The guest judges had the ability to employ the golden buzzer to bypass the other judges and advance an act to the live shows. The first guest judge, Neil Patrick Harris, appeared at the invitation of Howard Stern in episode eight of season ten, which aired on July 14, 2015. Michael Bublé appeared at the invitation of Heidi Klum in episode nine of season ten, which aired on July 21, 2015. Marlon Wayans appeared at the invitation of Howie Mandel in episode ten of season ten, which aired on July 28, 2015. Piers Morgan appeared at the invitation of Mel B in episode eleven of season ten, which aired on August 4, 2015. Beginning with the eleventh season the guest judges were announced without any indication if they were invited by one of the regular judges. This continued into the twelfth season when the guest judges were announced by NBC through various outlets.
The general selection process of the show begins with separate producers ' auditions held in various cities across the United States, some of which host only the producers ' auditions, and some of which also host judges ' auditions held in theaters. This round is held several months before the judges ' audition. Acts that have made it through the producers ' audition then audition in front of the judges and a live audience.
Following the producers ' auditions, acts audition in front of (as of 2013) four celebrity judges. These auditions are held in theaters in various cities nationally and are later televised. Judges may individually register their disapproval of an act by pressing a red buzzer, which lights up their corresponding X above the stage. Any performer who receives X 's (3 in seasons 1 to 7, or 4 from season 8 onwards) from the judges must stop performing and is eliminated. Since season three (2008), large audiences have also been a factor in the judging process, as their reaction to an act 's performance may swing or influence a judge 's vote. If an act receives three or more "yes '' votes, they advance to the next round of competition. However, in the majority of seasons, several acts do not perform in the second round and are immediately sent home by the judges without a second performance.
Introduced in season nine, the "Golden Buzzer '' is located on the center of the judges ' desk and may be used once per season by each judge. In season 9, a judge could press the golden buzzer to save an act from elimination, regardless of the number of X 's earned from the other judges. Starting in season 10 and onward, any act that receives a golden buzzer advances directly to the live show; and in season 11, the hosts also were given the power to use the golden buzzer. The golden buzzer is also used in the Judge Cuts format.
From season two (2007) to season eight (2013), Las Vegas Week has been an intermediary televised taped round between the auditions and the live shows. This round takes place in a notable venue on the Las Vegas Strip. Names for this round in previous seasons have included "Las Vegas Callbacks '' and "Vegas Verdicts ''. The Las Vegas round generally consists of acts performing a second time for the judges (except for season four in 2009), who then pick select acts to move on to the live shows. An act eliminated in Las Vegas Week is not completely excluded from the live show competition, as several seasons have featured contestants being brought back from this round as "wild card '' acts.
Prior to the inclusion of this round, the judges would have a list containing a number of acts which advanced past the auditions during each live show. The judges would then pick ten acts from that group each week, leaving several acts without the chance to perform.
In season nine (2014), acts went to New York instead of Las Vegas to determine a place in the live shows.
From season five (2010) to season seven (2012), acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows '' part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. The most successful act of the YouTube auditions was Jackie Evancho, who went on to place second in season five and after the season ended, became the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the U.S.
Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in seasons three and four (2008 -- 2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
During the live shows, a group of acts ranging from only a Top 20 (season two), to as many as 60, compete for viewers ' and judges ' votes. In the first season, the judges could not end an act 's performance, but could either "check '' or "X '' the performance during their critique. Since season two (2007), judges have been able to end an act 's performance early, and the "check '' was removed. Generally, acts each perform first in a live round consisting of a series of quarterfinals. In seasons with YouTube auditions, the round of live judging of YouTube finalists takes place then, as part of these quarterfinals. Then there may be additional shows for "Wild Card '' acts -- acts that one or more of the judges select to be given one more chance for audience vote despite previous elimination. From these shows, the existing group is narrowed through votes by the public and / or the judges (depending on the season). Acts then move on to a semifinal round, and even further rounds (such as a "Top 8 '' or a "Top 10 '', depending on the season) through a series of weekly shows, which trim the number of acts down each time based on a public vote. In the majority of seasons, judges have had no vote from the semifinals. All these rounds culminate in a live final, which has consisted of anywhere from four to ten acts throughout the seasons. The act with the most votes is declared the winner, given $1 million, and, since season three (2008), a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
During seasons one through six (2006 -- 11), the live shows were filmed at Stage 36 of CBS Television City in Los Angeles. In season seven (2012), the live shows were held at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. From seasons eight through ten (2013 -- 15), live performances were held at Radio City Music Hall in New York. From season eleven (2016) onwards the live shows are being held at the Dolby Theatre.
For seasons five through eight (2010 -- 13), the show also made the winner the headline act of a national tour with runners up following the final show, stopping in 25 cities. For season nine, however (2014), there was no tour; two shows were held in Las Vegas for the winner and some of the runner - up acts. (See # America 's Got Talent Live, below.)
In May 2006, NBC announced the new show. The audition tour took place in June. Auditions were held in the following locations: Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. Some early ads for the show implied that the winning act would also headline a show at a casino, possibly in Las Vegas; however, this was replaced with a million dollars due to concerns of minors playing in Las Vegas, should one become a champion. More than 12 million viewers watched the series premiere (which is more than American Idol got during its premiere in 2002). The two - hour broadcast was the night 's most - watched program on U.S. television and the highest - rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 (the prime - time audience that matters most to advertisers), Nielsen Media Research reported.
On the season finale, there was an unaired segment that was scheduled to appear after Aly & AJ. The segment featured Tom Green dressing in a parrot costume and squawking with a live parrot to communicate telepathically. Green then proceeded to fly up above the audience, shooting confetti streamers out of his costume onto the crowd below.
In season one, the show was hosted by Regis Philbin and judged by actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood, and journalist Piers Morgan.
The winner of the season was 11 - year - old singer Bianca Ryan, and the runners - up were clogging group All That and musical group The Millers.
After initially announcing in June 2006 that season two would premiere in January 2007 and would air at 8 pm on Sunday nights, with no separate results show, the network changed that, pushing the show back to the summer, where the first season had enjoyed great success. This move kept the show out of direct competition with American Idol, which had a similar premise and was more popular.
In AGT 's place, another reality - based talent show, Grease: You 're The One That I Want, began airing on Sunday nights in the same time slot on NBC beginning in January. In March, NBC announced that Philbin would not return as host of the show, and that Jerry Springer would succeed him as host, with Sharon Osbourne (formerly a judge on Cowell 's UK show The X Factor) succeeding Brandy Norwood as a judge.
The season finale was shown Tuesday, August 21, with the winner being Terry Fator, a singing impressionist ventriloquist. The runner - up was singer Cas Haley.
Season three premiered on June 17, 2008. Auditions took place in Charlotte, Nashville, Orlando, New York, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Chicago from January to April. A televised MySpace audition also took place.
Season three differed from the previous two in many ways. Auditions were held in well - known theaters across the nation, and a new title card was introduced, featuring the American flag as background. The X 's matched the ones on Britain 's Got Talent as did the judges ' table. Like the previous season, the Las Vegas callbacks continued, but there were forty acts selected to compete in the live rounds, instead of twenty. This season also contained several results episodes, but not on a regular basis. The show took a hiatus for two - and - a-half weeks for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but returned with the live rounds on August 26.
Neal E. Boyd, an opera singer, was named the winner on October 1. Eli Mattson, a singer and pianist, was runner - up.
Season four premiered on Tuesday, June 23, 2009. It was the first to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions for this season were held in more than nine major cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Miami, Tacoma, Boston, and Houston. Los Angeles auditions kicked off the January 29 -- 31 tour at the Los Angeles Convention Center, followed by the February 7 -- 8 Atlanta auditions. New York and Miami auditions were held during March. Tacoma auditions were held April 25 and 26. In addition to live auditions and the ability to send in a home audition tape, season four offered the opportunity for acts to upload their video direct to NBC.com/agt with their registration. This year 's host was Nick Cannon. Jerry Springer said that he could not return as host due to other commitments.
The audition process in season four was the same as the previous season, but the ' Las Vegas Callbacks ' was renamed ' Vegas Verdicts '. This was the first season since season one where results episodes lasted one hour on a regular basis. The title card this year featured bands of the American flag and stars waving around the America 's Got Talent logo.
On September 16, country music singer Kevin Skinner was named the season 's winner. The grand prize was $1 million and a 10 - week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The runner - up was Bárbara Padilla, an opera singer.
For season five, the network had considered moving the show to the fall, after rival series So You Think You Can Dance transferred from the summer to fall season in 2009. NBC ultimately decided to keep Talent a summer show.
Open auditions were held in the winter to early spring of 2010 in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, and Portland (Oregon). Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Atlanta and Philadelphia. For the first time, online auditions were also held via YouTube.
David Hasselhoff left to host a new television show and was replaced by comedian and game show host Howie Mandel. This made Piers Morgan the only original judge left in the show. The show premiered Tuesday, June 1, 2010, at 8 pm ET. Afterward, Talent resumed the same time slot as the previous season.
On September 15, singer Michael Grimm was named the winner. He won a $1 million prize and a chance to perform at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, as well as headline the 25 - city America 's Got Talent Live Tour along with runner - up Jackie Evancho, Fighting Gravity, Prince Poppycock, and the other top ten finalists.
Season six premiered on Tuesday, May 31, 2011, with a two - hour special. Piers Morgan and Sharon Osbourne continued as judges after taking jobs on Piers Morgan Tonight and The Talk, respectively. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 27, 2010, Morgan officially stated that he had signed a three - year contract to stay on Talent.
The show held televised auditions in Los Angeles, New York, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Seattle, and Houston. Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Denver and Chicago. Previews of auditions were shown during NBC 's The Voice premiere on April 26. Online auditions via YouTube were also held for the second time in the show 's run, beginning on May 4. Finalists for this audition circuit competed live on August 9.
On Wednesday, September 14, Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., a Frank Sinatra - style singer, was named the winner. Dance group Silhouettes was runner - up.
Season seven premiered on May 14, 2012. The first round of auditions, which are judged by producers, were held in New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis, and San Francisco from October 2011 to February 2012. The show began its live theater performances at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark on February 27.
Piers Morgan did not return as a judge for season seven, due to his work hosting CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight, and he was replaced by Howard Stern. Since Stern hosts his SiriusXM radio show in New York City, the live rounds of the show were moved to nearby Newark, New Jersey. In December 2011, Simon Cowell, the show 's executive producer, announced that the show would be receiving a "top - to - bottom makeover '', confirming that there would be new graphics, lighting, theme music, show intro, logo, and a larger live audience at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. On July 2, at the first live performance show of the season, their new location and stage were unveiled in a two - and - a-half - hour live special. A new set was also unveiled with a revised judges ' desk and a refreshed design of the "X ''.
On August 6, Sharon Osbourne announced that she would leave America 's Got Talent after the current season, in response to allegations that her son Jack Osbourne was discriminated against by the producers of the upcoming NBC program Stars Earn Stripes.
On September 13, Olate Dogs were announced the winner of the season, becoming the show 's first completely non-singing act to win the competition and also the first non-solo act to win. Comedian Tom Cotter finished as the runner - up.
Season eight of AGT premiered on Tuesday, June 4, 2013. The new season was announced in a promotional video shown during a commercial break for season seven 's second live show. Sharon Osbourne initially stated that she would not return for the season, but later said that she was staying with the show "for now. '' Osbourne confirmed that she would be leaving the show after a feud with NBC on August 6, 2012.
On February 20, 2013, it was announced that one of the Spice Girls members, Mel B (Melanie Brown), would replace Sharon Osbourne as the third judge. Entertainment Weekly also reported at the same time that NBC was looking at a possible fourth judge to be added. On March 3, it was announced that supermodel Heidi Klum would be joining the show as the new fourth judge.
An Audition Cities poll for the season was announced on July 11, 2012. The first batch of Audition Cities were announced as Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, Birmingham, Memphis, Nashville, Savannah, Raleigh, Norfolk, San Antonio, New York, Columbus (Ohio), and Chicago. This season, the auditions traveled to more cities than ever before. America 's Got Talent moved its live shows to Radio City Music Hall in New York for season eight. Auditions in front of the judges and an audience began taping on March 4. The show traveled to New Orleans, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.
On September 18, 2013, martial arts dancer / mime Kenichi Ebina was announced the winner of the season, the first dance act to win the competition. Stand - up comedian Taylor Williamson was the runner - up.
Season nine premiered on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, at 8 pm ET. The producers ' auditions began on October 26, 2013, in Miami. Other audition sites included Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and New York. Contestants could also submit a video of their audition online. Auditions in front of the judges were held February 20 -- 22 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, which also hosted the live shows during season seven. Judges ' auditions were held in New York City at Madison Square Garden from April 3 to 6 and in Los Angeles at the Dolby Theatre from April 21 to 26.
The live shows return to Radio City Music Hall on July 29. There was also a new twist in the show, where "Judgment Week '' was held in New York City instead of Las Vegas. Judgment Week was originally intended to be held in front of a live studio audience, but after three acts performed, the producers scrapped the live audience concept. This season also came with the addition of a "Golden Buzzer, '' which was unveiled on that same year 's Britain 's Got Talent. Each judge can press the buzzer only once each season that can save an act, typically used when there is a tie.
For this season, contestants were invited to submit a video of their performance to The Today Show website throughout June, and the top three entrants performed their acts on The Today Show on July 23, 2014. The performer with the most votes, Cornell Bhangra, filled the 48th spot in the quarterfinals.
On September 17, magician Mat Franco was announced the winner of the season, the first magic act to win the competition. Singer Emily West was the runner - up.
Season ten premiered on May 26, 2015. Producer auditions began on November 2, 2014, in Tampa. Other audition sites included Nashville, Richmond (Virginia), New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. Online submissions were also accepted.
Howard Stern rumored on his radio show on October 1, 2014, that he might not return, but announced on December 8 that he would return for the upcoming season. Nick Cannon returned for his seventh season as host. On February 9, 2015, Howie Mandel said he would return for season ten and Mel B announced the next day that she would be returning as well. It was revealed on February 11 that Heidi Klum would also be returning.
It was announced on December 4, 2014, that Cris Judd would be named as a dance scout. He previously worked on the show as a choreographer behind the scenes, and on the New Zealand version of Got Talent as a judge.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 2, 2015, at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. They continued at the Manhattan Center in New York City and the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. A special "extreme '' audition session was held outside at the Fairplex in Pomona, California, where danger acts performed outside for the judges, who were seated at an outdoor stage.
During NBC 's summer press tour, it was announced that America 's Got Talent would be making their "Golden Buzzer '' more like Britain 's Got Talent where the contestant that gets the buzzer will be sent directly to the live shows. An official trailer for the season was released, which showed that Dunkin Donuts was the show 's official sponsor for the season, with their cups prominently placed on the judges ' desk. Dunkin replaced Snapple, which sponsored the show since season seven.
On June 24, Howard Stern announced on The Howard Stern Show that season ten would be his last season as judge. Stern said, "In all seriousness, I 've told you, I 'm just too f * cking busy... something 's got to give... NBC 's already asked me what my intentions are for next year, whether or not I 'd come back, I kind of have told them I think this is my last season. Not I think, this is my last season ''.
On September 16, Paul Zerdin was announced the winner of the season, making him the second ventriloquist to win. Comedian Drew Lynch was runner - up, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman was in Third Place.
America 's Got Talent was renewed for an eleventh season on September 1, 2015. The season will have preliminary open call auditions in Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando, and Dallas. As in years past, hopeful contestants may also submit auditions online.
On October 22, 2015, it was announced that creator Simon Cowell would replace Howard Stern as a judge for season 11. Mel B, Heidi Klum and Howie Mandel all returned as judges, with Nick Cannon returning as host. The live shows moved from New York back to Los Angeles, due to Stern 's departure, at the Dolby Theatre.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 3, 2016 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California. The season premiered on May 31, 2016.
On September 14, 12 - year - old singer - songwriter and ukulele player, Grace VanderWaal, was announced as the second female and second child to win America 's Got Talent (Bianca Ryan, age 11, was first). Magician mentalists The Clairvoyants were runners - up, and magician Jon Dorenbos was placed third.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced that host Nick Cannon and all four judges would be returning for season 12. Later that year, on October 4, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through to 2019 (Season 14).
On February 13, 2017, Cannon announced he would not return as host for the twelfth season, citing creative differences between him and executives at NBC. The resignation came in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. NBC selected Tyra Banks as the new host for season 12, which premiered on Tuesday, May 30, 2017.
On September 20, Darci Lynne Farmer won the twelfth season, becoming the third ventriloquist, third child act and the third female act to win the competition (second year in a row after VanderWaal 's win in 2016). Child singer Angelica Hale was announced as the runner - up, and Ukrainian dance act Light Balance finished in third place. Deaf musician Mandy Harvey and dog act Sara & Hero rounded out the top five.
America 's Got Talent Live is a show on the Las Vegas Strip that features the winner of each season of America 's Got Talent as the main performance.
In 2009, America 's Got Talent Live appeared on the Las Vegas Strip appearing Wednesday through Sunday at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, in a limited ten - week run from October through January featuring winner Kevin Skinner, runner - up Barbara Padilla and fourth - place finisher The Texas Tenors. It featured the final ten acts which made it to the season four (2009) finale. Jerry Springer emceed, commuting weekly between Stamford, Connecticut, tapings of his self - named show and Las Vegas.
In 2010, on the first live show of season five, the winner headlined America 's Got Talent Live from Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, which was part of a 25 - city tour that featured the season 's finalists. Jerry Springer returned as both host of the tour and the headliner of the show.
In 2012, the tour returned, featuring winners Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK 's, Jarrett and Raja, Tom Cotter, and other fan favorites.
In 2013, after the success of the 2012 tour, another tour was scheduled, featuring season eight 's winner, Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. Tone hosted the tour.
In 2014, America 's Got Talent Live announced that performances in Las Vegas on September 26 and 27 would feature Taylor Williamson, the season eight (2013) runner - up, and the top finalists for season nine: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, and Sons of Serendip.
In 2015, no tour was held. Instead, three shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas featuring winner Paul Zerdin, runner - up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon.
In 2016, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured the top two finalists for season 11, Grace VanderWaal and The Clairvoyants, as well as finalist Tape Face.
In 2017, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured winner Darci Lynne, runner - up Angelica Hale, third - placed Light Balance, and finalist Preacher Lawson.
NBC broadcast the two - hour America 's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular on December 19, 2016, hosted by Cannon with performances by Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash, Jon Dorenbos and others, and featuring the Season 11 judges, including Klum, who sang a duet with Season 11 finalist Sal Valentinetti. The special drew 9.5 million viewers.
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers, generally averaging around 11 million viewers. The show has also ranked high in the 18 -- 49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show 's ratings have been high, the network usually keeps the show 's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years, where finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most - watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18 -- 49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Sales numbers and rankings are U.S. sales only.
Many acts which have competed on America 's Got Talent, but were ultimately eliminated before the final round, have either previously competed on or went on to compete in a number of other reality shows, most notably American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew.
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on American Idol (AI):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on America 's Best Dance Crew (ABDC):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on these other shows:
In Indonesia, the eleventh season has currently been broadcast by NET. since October 22, 2016 every Saturday and Sunday at 10 pm WIB. But, since Monday, October 31, in addition to the weekend slot, the show has also been broadcast every Monday to Friday at 5 pm WIB as the replacement of the currently concluded TV drama, the second season of Kesempurnaan Cinta, which was concluded on Friday, October 28, 2016.
In the United Kingdom, TruTV, along with simulcasts on the Made Television network, show America 's Got Talent, with TruTV showing it from the tenth season.
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who elects members to the united states senate | United States Senate - wikipedia
Majority (51)
Minority (49)
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, which along with the United States House of Representatives -- the lower chamber -- comprise the legislature of the United States.
The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The Senate is composed of senators, each of whom represents a single state in its entirety, with each state being equally represented by two senators, regardless of its population, serving staggered terms of six years; with 50 states currently in the Union, there are 100 U.S. Senators. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by legislatures of the states they represented; following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, they are now popularly elected. The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol, in Washington, D.C.
As the upper house, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it; these include the ratification of treaties and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, Supreme Court justices, federal judges, other federal executive officials, flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, and other federal uniformed officers. In addition to these, in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for Vice President, the duty befalls upon the Senate to elect one of the top two recipients of electors for that office. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House. The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative and more prestigious body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere.
The presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice President of the United States, who is President of the Senate. In the Vice President 's absence, the President Pro Tempore, who is customarily the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate. In the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers.
The creators of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the Legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Commons did in the United Kingdom. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a "People 's House '' directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.
First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex meaning old man in Latin).
James Madison made the following comment about the Senate:
In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability.
The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that state 's consent. The District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation allowed to vote in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two "shadow U.S. Senators '', but they are officials of the D.C. City Government and not members of the U.S. Senate. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.
The disparity between the most and least populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state two members of the Senate and at least one member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of three presidential Electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2000 censuses. This means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, reducing the disparity of representation.
Before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures. Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, and even bribery and intimidation had gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.
Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at least 30 years old; (2) they must have been citizens of the United States for the past 9 years or longer; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust '' called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character. ''
The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator 's qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, three senators who failed to meet the age requirement were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since. In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing - in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution disqualifies from the Senate any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United States. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, however, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two - thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.
Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures, not by popular elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums. Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment.
Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one - third of the seats are up for election every two years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of one - third expired after two years, the terms of another third expired after four, and the terms of the last third expired after six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the union. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are not contested in the same general election, except when a mid-term vacancy is being filled. Current senators whose six - year terms are set to expire on January 3, 2019, belong to Class I. There is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.
The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene -- Article 1, Section 4, Clause 2 originally set that date for the third day of December. The Twentieth Amendment, however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that Congress shall assemble at least once in every year and allows Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3 provides that the President has the power to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.
A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a "senator - elect ''; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a "senator - designate ''.
Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even - numbered years, Election Day, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives. Senators are elected by their state as a whole. In most states (since 1970), a primary election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties, with the general election following a few months later. Ballot access rules for independent and minor party candidates vary from state to state. The winner is often the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote. In some states, runoffs are held if no candidate wins a majority.
The Seventeenth Amendment requires that mid-term vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a Senator must be appointed or elected, the Secretary of the Senate mails one of three forms to the state 's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator. If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state 's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office as soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six - year term expires (i.e. not for a full term).
The Seventeenth Amendment also allows state legislatures to give their governors the power "to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct ''. The temporary appointee may run in the special election in their own right.
As of 2015, forty - five states permit their governors to make such appointments. In thirty - seven of these states, the special election to permanently fill the U.S. Senate seat is customarily held at the next general election. The other ten states require that seat remain vacant until an election can be held, often a special elections be held outside of the normal two - year election cycle. In six states, the governor must appoint someone of the same political party as the previous incumbent. In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late Senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010.
In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a separate ballot referendum that took effect on the same day, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot - approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator. Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature -- not the people or the state generally -- it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature 's statute granting that authority. As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy.
The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution. Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:
I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.
The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000; the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400. In June 2003, at least 40 of the then - senators were millionaires.
Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after five years of service. Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants ' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator 's pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest 3 years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Senators are regarded as more prominent political figures than members of the House of Representatives because there are fewer of them, and because they serve for longer terms, usually represent larger constituencies (the exception being House at - large districts, which similarly cover entire states), sit on more committees, and have more staffers. Far more senators have been nominees for the presidency than representatives. Furthermore, three senators (Warren Harding, John F. Kennedy, and Barack Obama) have been elected president while serving in the Senate, while only one Representative (James Garfield) has been elected president while serving in the House, though Garfield was also a Senator - designate at the time of his election to the Presidency, having been chosen by the Ohio Legislature to fill a Senate vacancy.
According to the convention of Senate seniority, the senator with the longer tenure in each state is known as the "senior senator ''; the other is the "junior senator ''. This convention does not have official significance, though seniority generally is a factor in the selection of physical offices. In the 115th Congress, the most - senior "junior senator '' is Maria Cantwell of Washington, who was sworn in on January 3, 2001 and is currently 21st in seniority, behind Patty Murray who was sworn in on January 3, 1993 and is currently 9th in seniority. The most - junior "senior senator '' is Bill Cassidy of Louisiana, who was sworn in January 3, 2015, and is currently 81st in seniority, ahead of senator John Neely Kennedy who was sworn in January 3, 2017 and is currently 98th in seniority.
The Senate may expel a senator by a two - thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate 's history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings -- for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires only a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002.
The "Majority party '' is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president 's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next - largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not caucus with or support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party.
At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern and are divided by a wide central aisle. The Democratic Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer 's right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer 's left, regardless of which party has a majority of seats. In this respect, the Senate differs from the House of Commons of the United Kingdom and other parliamentary bodies in the Commonwealth of Nations and elsewhere.
Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center aisle. Forty - eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Further desks of similar design were added as new states entered the Union. It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on the inside of the desk 's drawer.
Except for the President of the Senate, the Senate elects its own officers, who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and interpret the Senate 's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various day - to - day functions of the Senate.
Under the Constitution, the Vice President serves as President of the Senate. He or she may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for he or she is not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, but is not required to. For much of the nation 's history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the Vice President 's principal duties (the other being to receive from the states the tally of electoral ballots cast for President and Vice President and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, '' so that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, Vice Presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the result of significant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important issue is anticipated.
The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time '') who presides over the chamber in the vice president 's absence, and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service. Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a majority - party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are usually mere mouthpieces for the Senate 's parliamentarian, who whispers what they should do ''.
The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the Speaker of the House. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of order (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes.
Each party elects Senate party leaders. Floor leaders act as the party chief spokesmen. The Senate Majority Leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip) who works to ensure that his party 's senators vote as the party leadership desires.
In addition to the Vice President, the Senate has several officers who are not members. The Senate 's chief administrative officer is the Secretary of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The Assistant Secretary of the Senate aids the secretary 's work. Another official is the Sergeant at Arms who, as the Senate 's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the Chaplain, who is elected by the Senate, and Pages, who are appointed.
The Senate uses Standing Rules for operation. Like the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually by C - SPAN 2.
Senate procedure depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order.
A "hold '' is placed when the leader 's office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at any time. A senator may place a hold simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill can be held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration.
Holds can be overcome, but require time - consuming procedures such as filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the Leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds ''. A senator may disclose that he or she has placed a hold.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum ''; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. In practice, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.
Debate, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. During debate, senators may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer, but the presiding officer is required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has little control over the course of debate. Customarily, the Majority Leader and Minority Leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises first. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President '' or "Madam President '', and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators do not refer to each other by name, but by state or position, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia '', "the gentleman from California '', or "my distinguished friend the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee ''. Senators address the Senate standing next to their desk.
Apart from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter before the Senate.
The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute. However, the right to unlimited debate is generally preserved.
Within the United States, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world 's greatest deliberative body ''.
The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the support of three - fifths of the Senate; however, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body -- this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster -- a two - thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of filibuster is more important than its use; almost any motion that does not have the support of three - fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This means that 41 senators can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, so a bill that already has bipartisan support is rarely subject to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in recent years.
If the Senate invokes cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, it is limited to 2 additional hours unless increased by another three - fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the Senate 's history was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.
Under certain circumstances, the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation '' by which Congress can pass bills related to the budget without those bills being subject to a filibuster. This is accomplished by limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Yea / Aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "Nay '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the senators present. In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their name was called may still cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. A majority of those voting determines whether the motion carries. If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie - breaking vote. If the vice president is not present, the motion fails.
Filibustered bills require a three - fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the bill. This has caused some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to approve a bill, with for example USA Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58 - 39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed carry permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That fell two votes short of the 60 needed to approve the measure ''.
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session. During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and usually held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may call for and force a closed session if the motion is seconded by at least one other member, but an agreement usually occurs beforehand. If the Senate does not approve release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy. In 1973 the House adopted a rule that all committee sessions should be open unless a majority on the committee voted for a closed session.
The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Calendar. The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor actions. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee (s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.
The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In practice, however, the choice of members is made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.
Most committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance or foreign relations. Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Committee considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The Senate also has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known as select or special committees; examples include the Select Committee on Ethics and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc basis for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees cease to exist after fulfilling their tasks.
The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led by a chair (usually a member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely by seniority; as a result, several elderly senators continued to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility. Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the committee 's agenda, and so decide how much, if any, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they act with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination by the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last role was particularly important in mid-century, when floor amendments were thought not to be collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to accomplish more good for their states than those who do not. The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform. The second - highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member. In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice chair.
Recent criticisms of the Senate 's operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of arcane rules.
Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution 's Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures.
Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate revenue bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. As Woodrow Wilson wrote:
The Senate 's right to amend general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of both houses is required for any bill, including a revenue bill, to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies.
The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that form its ability to "check and balance '' the powers of other elements of the Federal Government. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president 's government appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; it tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the event no person gets a majority of the electoral votes.
The president can make certain appointments only with the advice and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate 's approval include members of the Cabinet, heads of most federal executive agencies, ambassadors, Justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Under Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, a large number of government appointments are subject to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the appointment of many officials without the Senate 's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most significant final decision - making authority). Typically, a nominee is first subject to a hearing before a Senate committee. Thereafter, the nomination is considered by the full Senate. The majority of nominees are confirmed, but in a small number of cases each year, Senate committees purposely fail to act on a nomination to block it. In addition, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are infrequent (there have been only nine Cabinet nominees rejected outright in United States history).
The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, however, subject to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an appointment during a congressional recess without the Senate 's advice and consent. The recess appointment remains valid only temporarily; the office becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents have frequently used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may reject the nominee. Furthermore, as the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate 's advice and consent is required for the appointment of certain executive branch officials, it is not necessary for their removal. Recess appointments have faced a significant amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.S. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution against recess appointments.
The Senate also has a role in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may only "make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur '' in order to benefit from the Senate 's advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the process. However, not all international agreements are considered treaties under US domestic law, even if they are considered treaties under international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make congressional - executive agreements with the approval of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional - executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as Laurence Tribe and John Yoo to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty - ratification process. However, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting President of the United States is being tried, the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affirmation. Conviction requires a two - thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (One resigned before the Senate could complete the trial.) Only two presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral College deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only broken a deadlock once; in 1837, it elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The House elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that choice.
The party composition of the Senate during the 115th Congress:
The 115th United States Congress runs from January 3, 2017 to January 3, 2019.
The following are published by the Senate Historical Office.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 26 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.89056 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.89056; - 77.00889
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who plays hunter's grandmother on home and away | Hunter King (Home and Away) - wikipedia
Hunter King is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Home and Away, played by Scott Lee. The actor did not think he would win the role, as he believed that he had performed badly in the audition. However, after receiving a callback, Lee was cast as Hunter and he began filming the following week. His casting was revealed when he attended the 57th Logie Awards alongside other Home and Away cast members. The role marks Lee 's television acting debut. Reece Milne, who went on to play Tank Snelgrove in the show, also auditioned for the part. Lee made his first appearance as Hunter during the episode broadcast on 27 July 2015.
Hunter is portrayed as brooding, moody, and misunderstood. Hunter had a tough upbringing and was left without a male role model in his life upon his grandfather 's death. His bad actions stem from his desire to have a family and be loved. Lee enjoyed exploring the similarities between himself and his character. Hunter 's attitude began to change as he settled into Summer Bay, as he realised that his attitude was pushing people away. Hunter was introduced as the secret son of Zac MacGuire (Charlie Clausen). His presence caused Zac 's relationship with Leah Patterson - Baker (Ada Nicodemou) to become strained, as he wanted his father all to himself.
Hunter 's later storylines saw him kidnapped and drugged by Trystan Powell (Ben Mingay), and named as a suspect in his mother Charlotte King 's (Erika Heynatz) murder. Lee said Hunter loved his mother, despite the many bad things she did. Hunter formed a romantic relationship with Olivia Fraser Richards (Raechelle Banno), as she helped him deal with his grief and bond with his family. The relationship was tested by Hunter 's failure to plan for his future and an unplanned pregnancy. When they broke up in 2016, Lee hoped they would eventually reconcile, as he thought the pair were soulmates. In late 2016, Lee announced that he would leave Home and Away at the end of 2017. He will leave in 2018.
Scott Lee 's casting was revealed when he appeared alongside the Home and Away cast at the Logie Awards in May 2015. He had been filming with the show for around three months prior to his appearance. Two months later, Lee 's casting as Hunter was officially announced. Lee told his agent that he did not think he would win the role, as he believed that he had performed badly in his audition. He later received a callback and started filming the following week. Actor Reece Milne also auditioned for the role of Hunter, before he was cast as Tank Snelgrove a month later. The role marks Lee 's television acting debut. Lee commented that joining the cast was "very exciting '', and he told Kaylee Martin of The West Australian: "It 's Home and Away, you grow up watching it and I just thought ' if I 'd ever get on that show, it would be so out of this world '. It was really bizarre and strange walking past Ray Meagher and all the people who have been on there that you grow up watching, I 'm over the moon. '' Lee made his first appearance as Hunter during the episode broadcast on 27 July 2015.
Ahead of his first appearance, Lee described Hunter as being "angsty, brooding and moody ''. Lee told Stephen Downie of TV Week that Hunter 's actions stem from his desire to have a family and be loved by them. His grandfather 's death left him without a "solid '' male role model in his life, and Lee thought Hunter was "searching for support. '' Lee also thought Hunter was misunderstood, saying "he may seem very disrespectful, but at the end of the day he is a hurt soul... '' The actor also said Hunter had "a bit of a temper '' and that his issue stem from his tough upbringing. Lee found Hunter 's "bad guy '' persona fun to play, as he was nothing like that in real life. He explained, "Hunter is very misunderstood and treads on people 's toes in a big way, when you get the chance to do something different that 's away from yourself it 's really cool. ''
Lee also enjoyed exploring the similarities between himself and his character, especially with Hunter 's background being quite different to his own. As he settled into the Bay, Hunter 's attitude started to change. Lee explained that Hunter realised that he can not continue to act in the same manner, as he was pushing those around him away. Since Hunter just wanted to be loved and have a good life, he knew that he had to change what he was doing to make that happen. Lee told Kerry Harvey of Stuff.co.nz that Hunter 's emotions often took over and he forgot to stop and look at what he had. He also advised his character to stop being "so aggressive '' and relax.
Lee told Peter Way of the Macarthur Chronicle Wollondilly that Hunter 's arrival would cause trouble between some of the established couples within the show. After following his mother, Charlotte King (Erika Heynatz), to Summer Bay, Hunter burns down Leah Patterson - Baker 's (Ada Nicodemou) house and assaults Josh Barrett (Jackson Gallagher) after breaking into Summer Bay House. Hunter then asks to meet his father Zac MacGuire (Charlie Clausen), who resides in the town. Hunter later shows up to a community fundraising banquet for Zac and his fiancée Leah, and he reveals that he is Zac 's son. Lee explained that Hunter had begun to feel invisible and was no longer able to stand by and watch Zac with his "other family ''. He also said Hunter was often impulsive and did not think about the consequences of his actions. Zac is shocked by Hunter 's revelation and demands answers from Charlotte, who confirms that Hunter is telling the truth. As Zac struggles to understand why Charlotte kept Hunter a secret from him, he ends up rejecting his son. Lee called Zac 's bad reaction "a massive slap in the face '' for Hunter, and added, "he 's waited his whole life to meet his father -- he just wants to be a normal kid with a loving family. ''
Hunter 's presence causes strain in Zac and Leah 's relationship, as he makes it clear to Leah that he wants his father all to himself. Nicodemou explained that Leah does not trust Hunter and although she feels that she should be more accepting, she is uncomfortable around him. Leah also believes that Hunter is trying to get between her and Zac. After voicing her concerns to Zac, he refuses to believe his son is deliberately causing trouble for them. However, Hunter soon "makes a spectacle '' by pretending to drown in the sea, leading Zac to miss a meeting with Leah. Nicodemou commented, "After Leah hears that Hunter did n't want to go to hospital, she thinks it was just a plot to get his mum and dad back together. Of course Zac is very upset when she suggests this -- she 's accused Hunter of things before, and Zac feels she should trust him by now. '' Leah comes to realise that Zac may be forced to choose between her and Hunter in the future, so she decides to end their engagement, believing that it the best thing for her family. Hunter eventually starts to see Zac and Leah as his second family instead of something that he has to break up.
In November 2015, Hunter was involved in his mother 's blackmail storyline. Charlotte was being threatened by Trystan Powell (Ben Mingay), who wanted her to find evidence that Darryl Braxton (Steve Peacocke) was still alive. When Charlotte fails to find out any information, Trystan has Hunter kidnapped. Lee told Stephen Downie of TV Week that Hunter goes out to clear his head when he is grabbed by two men. He knows something weird is going on with his mother, and thinks that this has something to do with it. Hunter is dragged into a waiting car and drugged. His stepbrother VJ Patterson (Matt Little) witnesses everything and tries to chase the car, but it pulls away. VJ then alerts Zac and Leah to Hunter 's kidnapping and they contact the police. Meanwhile, Hunter wakes up alone in the bush and suffering with the effects of the chloroform used to knock him out. Lee explained, "He is disorientated, confused, and he does n't know where he is. Waking up in the middle of the bush is a terrifying thing to happen to someone. '' Hunter manages to stumble through the bush until he is within sight of the road, and when he thinks he hears a car approaching he tries to walk towards the sound. But still suffering from being drugged, Hunter collapses. Downie noted that things did not look good for Hunter, as he needed medical attention and was at risk of exposure after spending a night in the bush. Constable Kat Chapman (Pia Miller) eventually finds Hunter.
After Charlotte dies from being shot by a mystery assailant, a whodunnit storyline began and Hunter was named as one of ten suspects. When Kat comes to Summer Bay House with news of Charlotte 's death, Hunter is not there as he has briefly left town. When he returns home, he learns of his mother 's death and "shuts down and goes numb ''. Lee continued, "In time these feelings that he 's suppressed will comes out, but I think his first stage of grieving is to not deal with it -- it 's too much to handle. '' The actor pointed out that Hunter did love Charlotte, explaining that she was his only parent for a large part of his life and while they had some "challenging times '' before her death, she was still his mother. Producers introduced Detective Dylan Carter (Jeremy Lindsay Taylor) for the plot, and he immediately begins questioning anyone who had a reason to want Charlotte dead. Hunter is at the top of his list, and Carter thinks that Hunter is capable of killing his mother. Lee thought that there were plenty of things linking Hunter to Charlotte 's murder, as they had "a close but turbulent relationship ''. Zac and Leah also suspect that Hunter could be responsible, having witnessed him losing his temper with Charlotte at their wedding. When asked by Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap if his character was a killer, Lee replied that Hunter easily loses control and was capable of doing some "extreme stuff without thinking of the consequences ''. He added that many viewers thought that Hunter was guilty and joked that his feelings were hurt by the speculation.
After Hunter learns Andy Barrett (Tai Hara) has confessed to murdering Charlotte, he plans to get revenge. Lee quipped, "Nothing is going to stop him. '' Hunter goes to the police station and demands to speak with Andy, but his request is refused. Downie (TV Week) observed that Hunter was a "ticking time bomb '', while Lee said that his character suppressed his emotions in the wake of his mother 's death. He also feels guilty that many of the bad things she did -- such as killing his cousin Denny Miller (Jessica Grace Smith) -- were done to protect him. Struggling to control his emotions, Hunter waits outside the station. When he sees Andy being led from his cell, Hunter grabs a pair of scissors and stabs him.
Lee hoped Hunter would get a love interest at some point during his tenure, commenting "everyone wants a girlfriend! '' In August 2015, Daniel Van Boom of the Daily Mail Australia published photos showing Lee filming a romantic moment between his character and Olivia Fraser Richards played by Raechelle Banno. Hunter befriends Olivia following her return to the Bay two months later. While they are spending time together at the beach pool, Olivia asks Hunter not to look at her when she gets out of the water. However, Hunter "ca n't resist a peek '' and is shocked when he notices Olivia 's thighs are covered in scars. Hunter realises that Olivia is hiding something, and he later tells VJ about the scars, as he feels that he can not talk to Olivia about it. VJ, who is competing with Hunter for Olivia 's affections, takes the opportunity to tell Olivia that Hunter saw her scars and says he will be there for her. Olivia helps Hunter to deal with his mother 's death and bond with his new family. Their relationship is tested by Hunter 's failure to plan for the future, and the arrival of Lindsay Ford (Georgia Flood), who wants Hunter for herself.
Hunter surprises her with a romantic "high tea '' picnic in the bush. Lee called the gesture "a bit cute ''. He also said that Hunter spends the day "feeling odd '', but he does not get it checked out as he is stubborn. During the picnic, Hunter suddenly doubles over in pain and collapses. Unable to get a phone signal, Olivia leaves Hunter to run to the road and flags down the first car she sees, which happens to be Zac 's. As Hunter 's condition deteriorates, Zac manages to contact Doctor Nate Cooper (Kyle Pryor), who diagnoses Hunter with a tension pneumothorax. Lee told an Inside Soap writer that he was nervous about the scenes. He wanted them to look as accurate as possible, and was offered advice by a nurse on the set. Nate talks Zac through the procedure to ease Hunter 's condition, but as Zac makes the incision with a knife, he is momentarily reminded of the attack he suffered in prison. Zac manages to get Hunter breathing again and he is later given the all - clear at the hospital.
The "traumatic '' experience brings Hunter and Olivia closer together. Banno said Olivia wants a fresh start, and the fact that their relationship is back on track means a lot to her. When Hunter tries to initiate sex, Olivia appears to be thinking about something else. Olivia organises another picnic for them both, but she is unable to tell Hunter what is bothering her and leaves the date early. Olivia then takes a pregnancy test and learns she is pregnant. When Hunter hears the news, his instinct is to flee, but he realises that he needs to face the situation with Olivia. Banno explained, "They 're two 16 - year - olds dealing with an adult issue. He was there for her and ready to make the decisions they needed to make together. '' Hunter and Olivia make the decision to have an abortion. Olivia struggles after the procedure and begins self - harming again.
Hunter punches Jordan Walsh (Benny Turland) in the face when he gets drunk at a party. The following day, Jordan tells Olivia that she deserves better, and she considers his advice, as Hunter 's actions have really affected their relationship. Olivia attempts to reconcile with Hunter, but when she tells him what Jordan said, Hunter breaks up with her in a "jealous rage ''. Olivia then accepts that their relationship is over. The couple later reconciled, before breaking up again. Olivia was then paired with newcomer Mason Morgan (Orpheus Pledger). Banno said that Hunter and Olivia hope that they will reunite, but they both have this fear that they might not. The actress stated, "They broke up, not because they do n't love each other anymore, but because they seemed a bit toxic around each other. '' When Hunter receives a job at the Bait Shop, he immediately tells Olivia and asks her to help him celebrate. When he notices a text message on her phone from Mason, they argue and Olivia says that she might be better off with Mason. During an interview with Kerry Harvey of Stuff.co.nz Lee thought Hunter 's relationship with Olivia had calmed his character down. He said the couple were "soulmates '', who would always love each other, but their relationship had become "a little bit co-dependent ''.
In the 24 December 2016 -- 6 January 2017 edition of TV Week, Lee confirmed that he would be leaving the show at the end of 2017 to pursue his acting career in the United States. Lee stated, "I 'm excited. The times I 've had has gone so quickly and I 've learnt a lot as an actor. ''
After spending days following Zac MacGuire and Leah Patterson - Baker around Summer Bay, Hunter breaks into Summer Bay House and rummages through their drawers. Josh Barrett catches him and Hunter knocks him down the stairs. VJ Patterson gives chase and manages to pull Hunter 's backpack off of him. Hunter then visits his mother, Charlotte, at her motel room and tells her he is done waiting and wants to meet Zac, his father, now. She realises that he set fire to Zac and Leah 's house and sends him away. Upon his return, Hunter finds Zac and reveals that he is his son. VJ confronts Hunter about pushing Josh down the stairs and they fight. Zac and Hunter bond over a shared interest in basketball. Hunter has trouble accepting Leah and VJ as part of his life. He manipulates Zac into spending more time with him, causing a strain on Zac and Leah 's relationship. After arguing with them about his behaviour, Hunter breaks into Leah 's diner and steals the safe. He accidentally exposes some electrical wiring and knocks over a bucket of water, causing Marilyn Chambers (Emily Symons) to suffer a serious electric shock. Hunter feels guilty, but Charlotte refuses to let him go to the police and instead sends him to stay with his grandmother for a few days.
Hunter promises Zac that he will try to be a better son. He soon learns Charlotte has been having sex with Matt Page (Alec Snow), a high school student, and that she has stolen money from his trust fund. He moves out of their apartment and stays with Zac and Leah. Hunter is abducted by Trystan Powell, who wants revenge on Charlotte. He is drugged and left in the bush. Hunter is eventually rescued by Kat Chapman. Hunter begins a relationship with Olivia Fraser Richards. When he learns that Charlotte plans to reveal he was behind the fire at Leah 's house and that she killed his cousin, Denny Miller, Hunter leaves the Bay after flagging down passing motorist, Lindsay Ford. On his return, Hunter finds out his mother has died. He finally admits that he caused the fire at Leah 's house during Billie Ashford 's (Tessa de Josselin) arson trial. He is later accused of his mother 's murder. Lindsay tries to break up his relationship when she tells Olivia that she and Hunter kissed. Lindsay takes Alf Stewart 's (Ray Meagher) ute and knocks Hunter over when he tries to stop her. He later suffers a collapsed lung during a picnic with Olivia, and Zac performs an emergency procedure to get him breathing properly again.
Olivia falls pregnant and she and Hunter decide to have an abortion, as they are not ready to be parents. Hunter and Olivia 's relationship is strained and she starts self - harming again. Hunter stabs Andy Barrett after learning he was responsible for Charlotte 's death. Hunter is arrested and given community service work. He later learns Andy 's brother Josh shot his mother. Hunter befriends Jordan Walsh during his community service and invites him to a party at The Farmhouse. Hunter gets drunk and fights with Jordan, leading to the break up of relationship with Olivia. Olivia 's new friend Tabitha Ford (Eliza Scanlen) warns Hunter to stay away from her, before she begins manipulating Olivia. Tabitha frames Hunter when she accesses school records and changes his exam score, resulting in his suspension. Olivia eventually ends her friendship with Tabitha, who seeks revenge. She dresses in a similar style to Olivia, enters Hunter 's caravan at night and kisses him in the hope of breaking up his friendship with Olivia. Hunter rescues Olivia when Tabitha poses as Olivia 's abuser on social media. Olivia and Hunter reconcile. Hunter becomes stressed about his final exams and his lack of plans for university. He is also tempted to cheat when he is offered the English exam paper.
Olivia asks that they take a break from their relationship. Hunter clashes with John Palmer (Shane Withington), when John fails him during his Bronze Medallion exam. Hunter smashes John 's walkie talkie after he bumps into him. When a fire breaks out at the caravan park, Hunter is blamed, but John soon realises that he caused the fire and apologises. Hunter later finds John collapsed outside the surf club and he and Olivia call an ambulance. Hunter becomes jealous when Olivia begins dating Mason Morgan. When a bush fire breaks out and heads towards the Summer Grooves music festival, Hunter risks his life to find Olivia and Mason. After escaping the fire, Hunter is injured when he returns to find Olivia, who later turns up safe. The police bring Hunter in for questioning about the recent cases of arson around the town. Hunter fights with Mason, and later suggests to Olivia that they should stay away from each other. After Olivia breaks up with Mason, Hunter helps her out with her university nerves by asking Evelyn to give her a tour of the campus. Hunter and Olivia get back together. After they struggle to find time to see each other, Hunter suggests he and Olivia move in together and she agrees. They eventually find a place, but they are forced to clean it up. After they are burgled, Irene invites them to move in with her. Hunter and Olivia take out VJ to cheer him up, but when he gets drunk and tries to kiss Olivia, Hunter fights with him.
Zac falls from the roof of Summer Bay House and Hunter initially blames Leah, as Zac was trying to get her attention. When Zac makes a remark about when his break up with Charlotte occurred, Hunter starts to question his paternity. After learning Zac is planning to leave the Bay, he conducts a DNA test. When Zac says he wants Hunter to come with him, Hunter tries to stop VJ from posting the test, but he is too late. The results arrive and Hunter throws them away, before retrieving them and learning that Zac is not his father. After he tells Zac, he encourages him to leave the Bay. Hunter struggles with the revelation about his paternity and Olivia encourages him to stay in contact with Zac. Alf asks Hunter to help out with an event at the beach, and he clashes with Mason. After he tries to start a fight, Hunter breaks down and tells Mason about Zac. They apologise to each other. Hunter decides to look for his biological father and contacts his grandmother, Peggy King (Caroline Gillmer), who comes to the Bay. He tells her about Zac, but Peggy reacts badly and accuses Hunter of ruining Charlotte 's life. Olivia makes things worse when she talks with Peggy, who tells the police about the Diner robbery, leading to Hunter 's arrest. He and Olivia have a big argument. Hunter apologises to Irene, Marilyn and Leah, before learning that he will not be charged. Hunter and Peggy reconcile and she suggests that a former neighbour, Wally Burns (Julian Garner), could be his father. Hunter writes to Wally, but the letter is returned to him. However, Wally comes to the Bay and meets with Hunter. He tells him that he can not be his father, as he is infertile. Hunter asks Wally to take a DNA test, before Wally leaves. He returns a few days later and reveals that a DNA test confirmed that he is Hunter 's father. Hunter tries to bond with Wally, but finds that they do not have much in common.
Following Hunter 's early appearances, an Inside Soap writer commented, "From what we 've seen of Hunter so far, it seems he could be big trouble! '' Another writer for the publication called him a "creepy teenager ''. While Sarah Ellis branded him "volatile ''. Michael Cregan included the reveal of Hunter 's identity in his feature on the top five moments for Tuesday 22 September 2015. Cregan wrote, "At last! The identity of the mysterious stranger lurking around Summer Bay is revealed tonight, and it 's worth waiting for. Yes, the hooded stranger is none other than Charlotte 's son, Hunter. '' Lee revealed that when fans met him in real life they appeared to be scared of him due to Hunter 's actions. Kerry Harvey of Stuff.com.nz said Hunter "upset locals and fans with his wicked ways. '' Both Kaylee Martin of The West Australian and Stephen Downie of TV Week branded Hunter a "bad boy ''. Martin also wrote "brooding teenager Hunter will be creating drama and shaking things up ''. Following Charlotte 's death, a reporter for the South Wales Echo noted, "Hunter 's world is turned upside down when he finds out about Andy 's confession. '' In November 2015, 58 % of TV Week readers voted that they liked Hunter and Olivia as a couple.
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where does the phrase turning in your grave come from | Turn in one 's grave - wikipedia
(Enough to make one) turn in one 's grave is an idiom to describe an extreme level of shock or an intense level of surprise and is expressed as the vicarious sentiment of a deceased person. This hyperbolic figure of speech is used to describe the upset, disgust, horror or anger of a deceased person if he or she were alive to hear of a certain news story, action or idea -- especially a negative one. It is also said of the deceased founder (s) of governments or private institutions if their extant leadership goes against the founder (s) ' principles or pursue (s) programs that the founder (s) would not have executed or envisioned. The main idea is that instead of being able to rest in peace, the dead person in question is sleeping uncomfortably, akin to the common and often tedious "rolling around in one 's bed '' action when one can not sleep. The phrase dates from the mid - to late - nineteenth century.
The earliest known example is a 4 November 1801 House of Commons speech by a Mr. Windham warning Britain against giving too much power to France during the preliminaries to peace following the revolutionary wars: "Thus have we done a thing altogether unknown in the history of this country; a thing which would have scared all former politicians; a thing, which, if our old Whig politicians were now to hear, they would turn in their graves. '' One of the earliest uses is found in William Thackeray 's 1849 work The History of Pendennis, where Mrs. Wapshot, upset by a man 's advances on the widow of Mr. Pendennis whom the widow had "never liked, '' says it 's "enough to make poor Mr. Pendennis turn in his grave. '' Another early use of the phrase is in historian James Bryce 's 1888 work The American Commonwealth in which he said: "Jefferson might turn in his grave if he knew. '' It has also been said that circa 1906, when George Bernard Shaw was invited to Henry Irving 's funeral, he said "If I were at Westminster, Henry Irving would turn in his grave, just as Shakespeare would turn in his grave were Henry Irving at Stratford, '' implying that Irving 's productions of Shakespeare would have made the actor as offensive to Shakespeare as Shaw had made himself offensive to Irving with the numerous critical reviews he had written of Irving 's work. In 1902, the work Current Literature stated that "William Morris might well turn in his grave if he could see the uses to which his fine dreams of beautiful books have been put. '' Where the sorry state of people 's spelling / punctuation / literary skills come under criticism, the act is generally said to make "Shakespeare turn in his grave, '' as he is associated with high literary standards. One example of this is when a national newspaper opined that writing the word "cough '' with an "F '' would cause such a thing to occur.
Other forms or "fanciful variants '' of this idiom includes:
The Spanish version of the phrase is "revolverse en su tumba ''.
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how many keg restaurants are there in canada | The Keg - Wikipedia
The Keg is a Canadian - owned chain of steakhouse restaurants and bars located in Canada and the United States. The original "The Keg and Cleaver '' restaurant was founded by George Tidball, in 1971, at a location in North Vancouver, British Columbia. By February 2018, The Keg had expanded to 160 locations in Canada and the United States, when Canadian food industry giant Cara Operations (now known as Recipe Unlimited) purchased the chain for $200 million, from then owners David Aisenstat (49 %) and Fairfax Financial (51 %). Aisenstat had been the sole owner from 1997 until 2014.
It was founded in 1971 in North Vancouver, British Columbia as The Keg ' n Cleaver by George Tidball at one very small, downstairs location in an old industrial building in the Moodyville area of lower Lonsdale and today operates in nine provinces (excluding only Prince Edward Island) and five American states.
The Keg is well known for buying up historic properties, refurbishing them and turning them into restaurants. Examples of this are the Keg Mansion in Toronto, and the Keg Manor at the Maplelawn Estate in Ottawa. Also notable as heritage restorations are the Kegs in Kamloops, British Columbia, which was a CN Station and in New Westminster, British Columbia, which was formerly the city 's CPR station. The Old Strathcona location, restored and opened in Edmonton, Alberta just three years after Tidball opened the first Keg, was built in 1912 as the Scona Apartments and Scona Garage, one of the earliest automobile sales and service locations in that city.
Financial and physical operations have been managed by David Aisenstat for a number of years.. The restaurants operated as Keg Restaurants Ltd. (KRL), with Aisenstat involved in selling to the British firm Whitbread PLC in 1987. In 1997, Aisenstat arranged financing a purchased 100 % of KRL back from Whitbread.
In 2002, KRL created The Keg Royalties Income Fund, sold through a public offering on the Toronto Stock Exchange, trading as TSX: KEG. UN. The Fund owns the trademarks & intellectual property of "The Keg '', and receives an annual royalty in the amount of 4 % of gross sales for restaurant locations in the Royalty Pool. KRL kept a 99 - year license to use "The Keg '' as the name of the restaurants. KRL also provided management services to The Keg Royalties Income Fund at no cost as part of its long - term royalty and licensing agreement. The creation of The Keg Royalties Income Fund presented the first opportunity for the public to trade in any portion of The Keg group of companies, which had been fully private until that time.
On February 4, 2014, Aisenstat sold 51 % of his private holdings in The Keg to Fairfax Financial, a publicly traded Canadian holding company. The transaction also introduced another indirect way for the public to invest in The Keg, by investing in Fairfax Financial.
On January 23, 2018, it was announced that Canadian food industry giant Cara Operations was purchasing KRL for $200 million. The deal closed in February 2018, with Fairfax Financial and David Aisenstat sharing $105 million plus 3.8 million Cara subordinate voting shares. Aisenstat joined the Board of Directors of Cara, and assumed executive oversight of the higher - end brands within the 19 different restaurant chains then held by Cara. Cara also announced that the acquisition had prompted the company to change its own name, confirming on May 10, 2018, that Cara Operations would be renamed Recipe Unlimited Corporation.
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how many episodes of black clover is there | List of Black Clover episodes - wikipedia
Black Clover is a Japanese fantasy shōnen manga series written and illustrated by Yūki Tabata. The anime premiered on October 3, 2017. It is directed by Tatsuya Yoshihara, with Kazuyuki Fudeyasu writing scripts, Itsuko Takeda doing character designs, and Minako Seki composing the music. The series was initially listed as running for 13 episodes, but was later expanded to 51 episodes.
From episodes 1 - 13, Kankaku Piero performed the first opening theme, '' Haruka Mirai '' (ハルカミライ, Distant Future), while the ending theme is "Aoi Honō '' (蒼い 炎, Blue Flame) by Itowokashi. From episodes 14 - 27, the second opening theme is "PAiNT it BLACK '' by BiSH, and the ending theme is "Amazing Dreams '' by SWANKY DANK. From episodes 28 - the third opening theme is "Black Rover '' by Vickeblanka, and the ending theme is "Black to the dreamlight '' by EMPiRE. An original video animation produced by Xebec that is based on the series was shown at the 2016 Jump Festa between November 27 and December 18, 2016. It was bundled with the 11th volume of the manga, which was released on May 2, 2017.
Crunchyroll is streaming the series as it airs in Japan while Funimation has licensed the series and is streaming an English simuldub on October 29, 2017. Adult Swim 's Toonami block premiered the English dub on December 2, 2017.
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when was the last time a magician won agt | Mat Franco - wikipedia
Mat Franco (born May 10, 1988) is an American magician and the winner of the ninth season of America 's Got Talent. Franco rose above hundreds of thousands of acts to become the first magician in history to win, including the $1 million prize. Best known for his personality - driven, sleight - of - hand style of magic, Mat Franco 's TV specials marked the first time NBC produced a spin - off show around their AGT winner. Franco is currently headlining in at The LINQ Hotel and Casino at the Mat Franco Theater in Las Vegas.
Franco was born in Johnston, Rhode Island. After he saw magic on TV when he was four, he begged his parents to get him a magic set. He then began performing tricks in his kindergarten class. One of his greatest influences and the first assistant was his grandmother, who used to read magic instructions to Mat when he was too young to read for himself. One of Mat 's favorite memories is when he and his grandmother tried to figure out a way to make cards appear out of thin air, like a magician they had seen on television. They hung a black curtain in the living room and cut a hole in it. Mat 's grandmother hid on the other side and passed cards through the curtain to Mat while his grandfather watched, playing along with that "grandma must have stepped outside for a minute '' and that he had no idea how the cards were appearing.
Franco continued studying magic as a child and performed any chance he could. When he was 12, he had saved enough money from local shows to fly to Las Vegas to study performance art with some of his idols, including Jeff McBride.
Franco graduated from Johnston High School in 2006 and was captain of the wrestling team his senior year. He would go on to study at the University of Rhode Island, receiving a degree in Business Administration with a minor in Communication Studies.
In 2003, at age 15, Franco was invited to perform onstage at the Riviera Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, as part of a show hosted by the Society of American Magicians called "Stars of Tomorrow ''.
After graduating from college in 2010, Franco performed his one - man show on college campuses throughout the U.S., touring six months out of the year, for four years. He was nominated for "Fastest Rising Star '' in 2012, and in 2013 was awarded "Best College Performer '' by Campus Activities Magazine (based in Prosperity, South Carolina) in their Reader 's Choice Awards.
Franco was always encouraged by his grandmother, Eleanor Campellone, who told an interviewer, "His mother was always working and he could n't show her everything -- look mom, look mom. So the grandma was there and I had all the time in the world. I 'd spend hours watching his tricks. ''
In 2014 / 2015, Franco achieved mainstream success as the winner of America 's Got Talent.
At the conclusion of the finale, Franco was announced as the winner.
He continues to return In specials of following seasons of Americas Got Talent such asa Christmas special in 2016.
The Las Vegas Review - Journal wrote of Franco 's stint on America 's Got Talent: "Franco did a crafty job of customizing his prediction - based, sleight - of - hand magic to make maximum use of Talent judges Howard Stern and Mel B. And he displayed a personality and sense of humor that other magicians were not able to convey in their limited camera time. ''
It 's been said that Franco "specializes in creating customized, interactive presentations for his audiences that allow for spontaneity and improvisation. For Mat, magic is n't about ' tricking ' or ' fooling ' the audience; it 's about connecting with people and bringing smiles to their faces. ''
Franco began headlining in Las Vegas at LINQ Hotel & Casino on August 5, 2015. The show is titled "Mat Franco: Magic Reinvented Nightly ''. By 2016 the show was named "Best Magic Show in Las Vegas '' by the Las Vegas Review Journal.
Franco returned to Radio City Music Hall as the featured guest performer on America 's Got Talent for the first live broadcast of the show 's tenth season (August 12, 2015). He later returned for the season finale.
Franco starred in his own two - hour magic TV special titled Mat Franco 's Got Magic that aired on NBC on September 17, and December 9, 2015.
Franco started to actively post his tricks on his YouTube channel in April 2015. He currently has over 200,000 subscribers to his channel.
In 2016, his Vegas show was awarded "Best Show '' on the Las Vegas Strip in the "Las Vegas Weekly Readers ' Choice Awards ''.
In February 2017, Mat Franco returned to his alma mater University of Rhode Island for a show celebrating the university 's 125th anniversary.
On July 10th 2017, the LINQ officially renamed the theater the "Mat Franco Theater '' and the city of Las Vegas presented Franco with a key to the Las Vegas Strip and declared July 10th officially "Mat Franco Day. ''
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what is the full form of f o r t a n | Fortran - wikipedia
Fortran (/ ˈfɔːrtræn /; formerly FORTRAN, derived from Formula Translation) is a general - purpose, compiled imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing.
Originally developed by IBM in the 1950s for scientific and engineering applications, FORTRAN came to dominate this area of programming early on and has been in continuous use for over half a century in computationally intensive areas such as numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, computational physics, crystallography and computational chemistry. It is a popular language for high - performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world 's fastest supercomputers.
Fortran encompasses a lineage of versions, each of which evolved to add extensions to the language while usually retaining compatibility with prior versions. Successive versions have added support for structured programming and processing of character - based data (FORTRAN 77), array programming, modular programming and generic programming (Fortran 90), high performance Fortran (Fortran 95), object - oriented programming (Fortran 2003) and concurrent programming (Fortran 2008).
Fortran 's design was the basis for many other programming languages. Among the better known is BASIC, which is a based on FORTRAN II with a number of syntax cleanups, notably better logical structures, and other changes to more easily work in an interactive environment.
The names of earlier versions of the language through FORTRAN 77 were conventionally spelled in all - capitals (FORTRAN 77 was the last version in which the use of lowercase letters in keywords was strictly non-standard). The capitalization has been dropped in referring to newer versions beginning with Fortran 90. The official language standards now refer to the language as "Fortran '' rather than all - caps "FORTRAN ''.
In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a more practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM 704 mainframe computer. Backus ' historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Lois Haibt, and David Sayre. Its concepts included easier entry of equations into a computer, an idea developed by J. Halcombe Laning and demonstrated in the Laning and Zierler system of 1952.
A draft specification for The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System was completed by mid-1954. The first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957. This was the first optimizing compiler, because customers were reluctant to use a high - level programming language unless its compiler could generate code with performance comparable to that of hand - coded assembly language.
While the community was skeptical that this new method could possibly outperform hand - coding, it reduced the number of programming statements necessary to operate a machine by a factor of 20, and quickly gained acceptance. John Backus said during a 1979 interview with Think, the IBM employee magazine, "Much of my work has come from being lazy. I did n't like writing programs, and so, when I was working on the IBM 701, writing programs for computing missile trajectories, I started work on a programming system to make it easier to write programs. ''
The language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate faster and more efficient code. The inclusion of a complex number data type in the language made Fortran especially suited to technical applications such as electrical engineering.
By 1960, versions of FORTRAN were available for the IBM 709, 650, 1620, and 7090 computers. Significantly, the increasing popularity of FORTRAN spurred competing computer manufacturers to provide FORTRAN compilers for their machines, so that by 1963 over 40 FORTRAN compilers existed. For these reasons, FORTRAN is considered to be the first widely used programming language supported across a variety of computer architectures.
The development of Fortran paralleled the early evolution of compiler technology, and many advances in the theory and design of compilers were specifically motivated by the need to generate efficient code for Fortran programs.
The initial release of FORTRAN for the IBM 704 contained 32 statements, including:
The arithmetic IF statement was reminiscent of (but not readily implementable by) a three - way comparison instruction (CAS -- Compare Accumulator with Storage) available on the 704. The statement provided the only way to compare numbers -- by testing their difference, with an attendant risk of overflow. This deficiency was later overcome by "logical '' facilities introduced in FORTRAN IV.
The FREQUENCY statement was used originally (and optionally) to give branch probabilities for the three branch cases of the arithmetic IF statement. The first FORTRAN compiler used this weighting to perform at compile time a Monte Carlo simulation of the generated code, the results of which were used to optimize the placement of basic blocks in memory -- a very sophisticated optimization for its time. The Monte Carlo technique is documented in Backus et al. 's paper on this original implementation, The FORTRAN Automatic Coding System:
The fundamental unit of program is the basic block; a basic block is a stretch of program which has one entry point and one exit point. The purpose of section 4 is to prepare for section 5 a table of predecessors (PRED table) which enumerates the basic blocks and lists for every basic block each of the basic blocks which can be its immediate predecessor in flow, together with the absolute frequency of each such basic block link. This table is obtained by running the program once in Monte - Carlo fashion, in which the outcome of conditional transfers arising out of IF - type statements and computed GO TO 's is determined by a random number generator suitably weighted according to whatever FREQUENCY statements have been provided.
Many years later, the FREQUENCY statement had no effect on the code, and was treated as a comment statement, since the compilers no longer did this kind of compile - time simulation. A similar fate has befallen compiler hints in several other programming languages; for example C 's register keyword.
The first FORTRAN compiler reported diagnostic information by halting the program when an error was found and outputting an error code on its console. That code could be looked up by the programmer in an error messages table in the operator 's manual, providing them with a brief description of the problem.
Before the development of disk files, text editors and terminals, programs were most often entered on a keypunch keyboard onto 80 - column punched cards, one line to a card. The resulting deck of cards would be fed into a card reader to be compiled. Punched card codes included no lower - case letters or many special characters, and special versions of the IBM 026 keypunch were offered that would correctly print the re-purposed special characters used in FORTRAN.
Reflecting punched card input practice, Fortran programs were originally written in a fixed - column format, with the first 72 columns read into twelve 36 - bit words.
A letter "C '' in column 1 caused the entire card to be treated as a comment and ignored by the compiler. Otherwise, the columns of the card were divided into four fields:
Columns 73 to 80 could therefore be used for identification information, such as punching a sequence number or text, which could be used to re-order cards if a stack of cards was dropped; though in practice this was reserved for stable, production programs. An IBM 519 could be used to copy a program deck and add sequence numbers. Some early compilers, e.g., the IBM 650 's, had additional restrictions due to limitations on their card readers. Keypunches could be programmed to tab to column 7 and skip out after column 72. Later compilers relaxed most fixed - format restrictions, and the requirement was eliminated in the Fortran 90 standard.
Within the statement field, whitespace characters (blanks) were ignored outside a text literal. This allowed omitting spaces between tokens for brevity or including spaces within identifiers for clarity. For example, AVG OF X was a valid identifier, equivalent to AVGOFX, and 101010 DO101I = 1, 101 was a valid statement, equivalent to 10101 DO 101 I = 1, 101 because the zero in column 6 is treated as if it were a space (!), while 101010 DO101I = 1.101 was instead 10101 DO101I = 1.101, the assignment of 1.101 to a variable called DO101I. Note the slight visual difference between a comma and a period.
Hollerith strings, originally allowed only in FORMAT and DATA statements, were prefixed by a character count and the letter H (e.g., 26 HTHIS IS ALPHANUMERIC DATA.), allowing blanks to be retained within the character string. Miscounts were a problem.
IBM 's FORTRAN II appeared in 1958. The main enhancement was to support procedural programming by allowing user - written subroutines and functions which returned values, with parameters passed by reference. The COMMON statement provided a way for subroutines to access common (or global) variables. Six new statements were introduced:
Over the next few years, FORTRAN II would also add support for the DOUBLE PRECISION and COMPLEX data types.
Early FORTRAN compilers supported no recursion in subroutines. Early computer architectures supported no concept of a stack, and when they did directly support subroutine calls, the return location was often stored in one fixed location adjacent to the subroutine code (e.g. the IBM 1130) or a specific machine register (IBM 360 et seq), which only allows recursion if a stack is maintained by software and the return address is stored on the stack before the call is made and restored after the call returns. Although not specified in FORTRAN 77, many F77 compilers supported recursion as an option, and the Burroughs mainframes, designed with recursion built - in, did so by default. It became a standard in Fortran 90 via the new keyword RECURSIVE.
This program, for Heron 's formula, reads data on a tape reel containing three 5 - digit integers A, B, and C as input. There are no "type '' declarations available: variables whose name starts with I, J, K, L, M, or N are "fixed - point '' (i.e. integers), otherwise floating - point. Since integers are to be processed in this example, the names of the variables start with the letter "I ''. The name of a variable must start with a letter and can continue with both letters and digits, up to a limit of six characters in FORTRAN II. If A, B, and C can not represent the sides of a triangle in plane geometry, then the program 's execution will end with an error code of "STOP 1 ''. Otherwise, an output line will be printed showing the input values for A, B, and C, followed by the computed AREA of the triangle as a floating - point number occupying ten spaces along the line of output and showing 2 digits after the decimal point, the. 2 in F10. 2 of the FORMAT statement with label 601.
IBM also developed a FORTRAN III in 1958 that allowed for inline assembly code among other features; however, this version was never released as a product. Like the 704 FORTRAN and FORTRAN II, FORTRAN III included machine - dependent features that made code written in it unportable from machine to machine. Early versions of FORTRAN provided by other vendors suffered from the same disadvantage.
FORTRAN was provided for the IBM 1401 computer by an innovative 63 - phase compiler that ran entirely in its core memory of only 8000 (six - bit) characters. The compiler could be run from tape, or from a 2200 - card deck; it used no further tape or disk storage. It kept the program in memory and loaded overlays that gradually transformed it, in place, into executable form, as described by Haines. This article was reprinted, edited, in both editions of Anatomy of a Compiler and in the IBM manual "Fortran Specifications and Operating Procedures, IBM 1401 ''. The executable form was not entirely machine language; rather, floating - point arithmetic, sub-scripting, input / output, and function references were interpreted, preceding UCSD Pascal P - code by two decades.
IBM later provided a FORTRAN IV compiler for the 1400 series of computers.
Starting in 1961, as a result of customer demands, IBM began development of a FORTRAN IV that removed the machine - dependent features of FORTRAN II (such as READ INPUT TAPE), while adding new features such as a LOGICAL data type, logical Boolean expressions and the logical IF statement as an alternative to the arithmetic IF statement. FORTRAN IV was eventually released in 1962, first for the IBM 7030 ("Stretch '') computer, followed by versions for the IBM 7090, IBM 7094, and later for the IBM 1401 in 1966.
By 1965, FORTRAN IV was supposed to be compliant with the standard being developed by the American Standards Association X3. 4.3 FORTRAN Working Group.
At about this time FORTRAN IV had started to become an important educational tool and implementations such as the University of Waterloo 's WATFOR and WATFIV were created to simplify the complex compile and link processes of earlier compilers.
Perhaps the most significant development in the early history of FORTRAN was the decision by the American Standards Association (now American National Standards Institute (ANSI)) to form a committee sponsored by BEMA, the Business Equipment Manufacturers Association, to develop an American Standard Fortran. The resulting two standards, approved in March 1966, defined two languages, FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN IV, which had served as a de facto standard), and Basic FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN II, but stripped of its machine - dependent features). The FORTRAN defined by the first standard, officially denoted X3. 9 - 1966, became known as FORTRAN 66 (although many continued to term it FORTRAN IV, the language on which the standard was largely based). FORTRAN 66 effectively became the first industry - standard version of FORTRAN. FORTRAN 66 included:
After the release of the FORTRAN 66 standard, compiler vendors introduced several extensions to Standard Fortran, prompting ANSI committee X3J3 in 1969 to begin work on revising the 1966 standard, under sponsorship of CBEMA, the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (formerly BEMA). Final drafts of this revised standard circulated in 1977, leading to formal approval of the new FORTRAN standard in April 1978. The new standard, called FORTRAN 77 and officially denoted X3. 9 - 1978, added a number of significant features to address many of the shortcomings of FORTRAN 66:
In this revision of the standard, a number of features were removed or altered in a manner that might invalidate formerly standard - conforming programs. (Removal was the only allowable alternative to X3J3 at that time, since the concept of "deprecation '' was not yet available for ANSI standards.) While most of the 24 items in the conflict list (see Appendix A2 of X3. 9 - 1978) addressed loopholes or pathological cases permitted by the prior standard but rarely used, a small number of specific capabilities were deliberately removed, such as:
Control Data Corporation computers had another version of FORTRAN 77, called Minnesota FORTRAN (MNF), designed especially for student use, with variations in output constructs, special uses of COMMONs and DATA statements, optimizations code levels for compiling, and detailed error listings, extensive warning messages, and debugs.
The development of a revised standard to succeed FORTRAN 77 would be repeatedly delayed as the standardization process struggled to keep up with rapid changes in computing and programming practice. In the meantime, as the "Standard FORTRAN '' for nearly fifteen years, FORTRAN 77 would become the historically most important dialect.
An important practical extension to FORTRAN 77 was the release of MIL - STD - 1753 in 1978. This specification, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, standardized a number of features implemented by most FORTRAN 77 compilers but not included in the ANSI FORTRAN 77 standard. These features would eventually be incorporated into the Fortran 90 standard.
The IEEE 1003.9 POSIX Standard, released in 1991, provided a simple means for FORTRAN 77 programmers to issue POSIX system calls. Over 100 calls were defined in the document -- allowing access to POSIX - compatible process control, signal handling, file system control, device control, procedure pointing, and stream I / O in a portable manner.
The much - delayed successor to FORTRAN 77, informally known as Fortran 90 (and prior to that, Fortran 8X), was finally released as ISO / IEC standard 1539: 1991 in 1991 and an ANSI Standard in 1992. In addition to changing the official spelling from FORTRAN to Fortran, this major revision added many new features to reflect the significant changes in programming practice that had evolved since the 1978 standard:
Unlike the prior revision, Fortran 90 removed no features. (Appendix B. 1 says, "The list of deleted features in this standard is empty. '') Any standard - conforming FORTRAN 77 program is also standard - conforming under Fortran 90, and either standard should be usable to define its behavior.
A small set of features were identified as "obsolescent '' and expected to be removed in a future standard.
from outside a block
Fortran 95, published officially as ISO / IEC 1539 - 1: 1997, was a minor revision, mostly to resolve some outstanding issues from the Fortran 90 standard. Nevertheless, Fortran 95 also added a number of extensions, notably from the High Performance Fortran specification:
A number of intrinsic functions were extended (for example a dim argument was added to the maxloc intrinsic).
Several features noted in Fortran 90 to be "obsolescent '' were removed from Fortran 95:
An important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report TR - 15581: Enhanced Data Type Facilities, informally known as the Allocatable TR. This specification defined enhanced use of ALLOCATABLE arrays, prior to the availability of fully Fortran 2003 - compliant Fortran compilers. Such uses include ALLOCATABLE arrays as derived type components, in procedure dummy argument lists, and as function return values. (ALLOCATABLE arrays are preferable to POINTER - based arrays because ALLOCATABLE arrays are guaranteed by Fortran 95 to be deallocated automatically when they go out of scope, eliminating the possibility of memory leakage. In addition, elements of allocatable arrays are contiguous, and aliasing is not an issue for optimization of array references, allowing compilers to generate faster code than in the case of pointers.)
Another important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report TR - 15580: Floating - point exception handling, informally known as the IEEE TR. This specification defined support for IEEE floating - point arithmetic and floating point exception handling.
In addition to the mandatory "Base language '' (defined in ISO / IEC 1539 - 1: 1997), the Fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules:
which, together, compose the multi-part International Standard (ISO / IEC 1539).
According to the standards developers, "the optional parts describe self - contained features which have been requested by a substantial body of users and / or implementors, but which are not deemed to be of sufficient generality for them to be required in all standard - conforming Fortran compilers. '' Nevertheless, if a standard - conforming Fortran does provide such options, then they "must be provided in accordance with the description of those facilities in the appropriate Part of the Standard ''.
Fortran 2003, officially published as ISO / IEC 1539 - 1: 2004, is a major revision introducing many new features. A comprehensive summary of the new features of Fortran 2003 is available at the Fortran Working Group (ISO / IEC JTC1 / SC22 / WG5) official Web site.
From that article, the major enhancements for this revision include:
An important supplement to Fortran 2003 was the ISO technical report TR - 19767: Enhanced module facilities in Fortran. This report provided sub-modules, which make Fortran modules more similar to Modula - 2 modules. They are similar to Ada private child sub-units. This allows the specification and implementation of a module to be expressed in separate program units, which improves packaging of large libraries, allows preservation of trade secrets while publishing definitive interfaces, and prevents compilation cascades.
The most recent standard, ISO / IEC 1539 - 1: 2010, informally known as Fortran 2008, was approved in September 2010. As with Fortran 95, this is a minor upgrade, incorporating clarifications and corrections to Fortran 2003, as well as introducing a select few new capabilities. The new capabilities include:
The Final Draft international Standard (FDIS) is available as document N1830.
An important supplement to Fortran 2008 is the ISO Technical Specification (TS) 29113 on Further Interoperability of Fortran with C, which has been submitted to ISO in May 2012 for approval. The specification adds support for accessing the array descriptor from C and allows ignoring the type and rank of arguments.
The next revision of the language (Fortran 2018) was earlier referred to as Fortran 2015. It is a significant revision and is planned for release in mid-2018.
Fortran 2018 incorporates two previously published Technical Specifications:
Additional changes and new features include support for ISO / IEC / IEEE 60559: 2011, hexadecimal input / output, IMPLICIT NONE enhancements and other changes
Although a 1968 journal article by the authors of BASIC already described FORTRAN as "old - fashioned '', since Fortran has been in use for several decades there is a vast body of Fortran software in daily use throughout the scientific and engineering communities. Jay Pasachoff wrote in 1984 that "physics and astronomy students simply have to learn FORTRAN. So much exists in FORTRAN that it seems unlikely that scientists will change to Pascal, Modula - 2, or whatever. '' In 1993, Cecil E. Leith called FORTRAN the "mother tongue of scientific computing '' adding that its replacement by any other possible language "may remain a forlorn hope ''.
It is the primary language for some of the most intensive super-computing tasks, such as astronomy, weather and climate modeling, numerical linear algebra (LAPACK), numerical libraries (IMSL and NAG), structural engineering, hydrological modeling, optimization, satellite simulation and data analysis, computational fluid dynamics, physical cosmology, computational chemistry, computational economics and computational physics. Many of the floating - point benchmarks to gauge the performance of new computer processors -- such as CFP2006, the floating - point component of the SPEC CPU2006 benchmarks -- are written in Fortran.
On the other hand, more modern code generally uses large program libraries such as PETSc or Trilinos for linear algebra capabilities, METIS for graph partitioning, deal. II or FEniCS for mesh and finite element support, and other generic libraries. Since the late 1990s, almost all of the most widely used support libraries have been written in C and, more often, C++. Consequently, a growing fraction of scientific code is also written in these languages. For this reason, facilities for inter-operation with C were added to Fortran 2003, and enhanced by ISO / IEC technical specification 29113, which will be incorporated into Fortran 2018. This shift is also evident in the selection of applications between the SPEC CPU 2000 and SPEC CPU 2006 floating point benchmarks.
Software for NASA probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 was originally written in FORTRAN 5, and later ported to FORTRAN 77. As of 25 September 2013 some of the software is still in Fortran and some has been ported to C.
The precise characteristics and syntax of Fortran 95 are discussed in Fortran 95 language features.
Portability was a problem in the early days because there was no agreed upon standard -- not even IBM 's reference manual -- and computer companies vied to differentiate their offerings from others by providing incompatible features. Standards have improved portability. The 1966 standard provided a reference syntax and semantics, but vendors continued to provide incompatible extensions. Although careful programmers were coming to realize that use of incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems, and were therefore using programs such as The PFORT Verifier, it was not until after the 1977 standard, when the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) published FIPS PUB 69, that processors purchased by the U.S. Government were required to diagnose extensions of the standard. Rather than offer two processors, essentially every compiler eventually had at least an option to diagnose extensions.
Incompatible extensions were not the only portability problem. For numerical calculations, it is important to take account of the characteristics of the arithmetic. This was addressed by Fox et al. in the context of the 1966 standard by the PORT library. The ideas therein became widely used, and were eventually incorporated into the 1990 standard by way of intrinsic inquiry functions. The widespread (now almost universal) adoption of the IEEE 754 standard for binary floating - point arithmetic has essentially removed this problem.
Access to the computing environment (e.g., the program 's command line, environment variables, textual explanation of error conditions) remained a problem until it was addressed by the 2003 standard.
Large collections of library software that could be described as being loosely related to engineering and scientific calculations, such as graphics libraries, have been written in C, and therefore access to them presented a portability problem. This has been addressed by incorporation of C interoperability into the 2003 standard.
It is now possible (and relatively easy) to write an entirely portable program in Fortran, even without recourse to a preprocessor.
Fortran 5 was marketed by Data General Corp in the late 1970s and early 1980s, for the Nova, Eclipse, and MV line of computers. It had an optimizing compiler that was quite good for minicomputers of its time. The language most closely resembles FORTRAN 66. The name is a pun on the earlier FORTRAN IV.
FORTRAN V was distributed by Control Data Corporation in 1968 for the CDC 6600 series. The language was based upon FORTRAN IV.
Univac also offered a compiler for the 1100 series known as FORTRAN V. A spinoff of Univac Fortran V was Athena FORTRAN.
Fortran 6 or Visual Fortran 2001 was licensed to Compaq by Microsoft. They have licensed Compaq Visual Fortran and have provided the Visual Studio 5 environment interface for Compaq v6 up to v6. 1.
Vendors of high - performance scientific computers (e.g., Burroughs, Control Data Corporation (CDC), Cray, Honeywell, IBM, Texas Instruments, and UNIVAC) added extensions to Fortran to take advantage of special hardware features such as instruction cache, CPU pipelines, and vector arrays. For example, one of IBM 's FORTRAN compilers (H Extended IUP) had a level of optimization which reordered the machine code instructions to keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously. Another example is CFD, a special variant of FORTRAN designed specifically for the ILLIAC IV supercomputer, running at NASA 's Ames Research Center. IBM Research Labs also developed an extended FORTRAN - based language called VECTRAN for processing vectors and matrices.
Object - Oriented Fortran was an object - oriented extension of Fortran, in which data items can be grouped into objects, which can be instantiated and executed in parallel. It was available for Sun, Iris, iPSC, and nCUBE, but is no longer supported.
Such machine - specific extensions have either disappeared over time or have had elements incorporated into the main standards. The major remaining extension is OpenMP, which is a cross-platform extension for shared memory programming. One new extension, Coarray Fortran, is intended to support parallel programming.
FOR TRANSIT was the name of a reduced version of the IBM 704 FORTRAN language, which was implemented for the IBM 650, using a translator program developed at Carnegie in the late 1950s. The following comment appears in the IBM Reference Manual (FOR TRANSIT Automatic Coding System C28 - 4038, Copyright 1957, 1959 by IBM):
The FORTRAN system was designed for a more complex machine than the 650, and consequently some of the 32 statements found in the FORTRAN Programmer 's Reference Manual are not acceptable to the FOR TRANSIT system. In addition, certain restrictions to the FORTRAN language have been added. However, none of these restrictions make a source program written for FOR TRANSIT incompatible with the FORTRAN system for the 704.
The permissible statements were:
Up to ten subroutines could be used in one program.
FOR TRANSIT statements were limited to columns 7 through 56, only. Punched cards were used for input and output on the IBM 650. Three passes were required to translate source code to the "IT '' language, then to compile the IT statements into SOAP assembly language, and finally to produce the object program, which could then be loaded into the machine to run the program (using punched cards for data input, and outputting results onto punched cards).
Two versions existed for the 650s with a 2000 word memory drum: FOR TRANSIT I (S) and FOR TRANSIT II, the latter for machines equipped with indexing registers and automatic floating point decimal (bi-quinary) arithmetic. Appendix A of the manual included wiring diagrams for the IBM 533 card reader / punch control panel.
Prior to FORTRAN 77, a number of preprocessors were commonly used to provide a friendlier language, with the advantage that the preprocessed code could be compiled on any machine with a standard FORTRAN compiler. These preprocessors would typically support structured programming, variable names longer than six characters, additional data types, conditional compilation, and even macro capabilities. Popular preprocessors included FLECS, iftran, MORTRAN, SFtran, S - Fortran, Ratfor, and Ratfiv. Ratfor and Ratfiv, for example, implemented a C - like language, outputting preprocessed code in standard FORTRAN 66. Despite advances in the Fortran language, preprocessors continue to be used for conditional compilation and macro substitution.
One of the earliest versions of FORTRAN, introduced in the ' 60s, was popularly used in colleges and universities. Developed, supported, and distributed by the University of Waterloo, WATFOR was based largely on FORTRAN IV. A student using WATFOR could submit their batch FORTRAN job and, if there were no syntax errors, the program would move straight to execution. This simplification allowed students to concentrate on their program 's syntax and semantics, or execution logic flow, rather than dealing with submission Job Control Language (JCL), the compile / link - edit / execution successive process (es), or other complexities of the mainframe / minicomputer environment. A down side to this simplified environment was that WATFOR was not a good choice for programmers needing the expanded abilities of their host processor (s), e.g., WATFOR typically had very limited access to I / O devices. WATFOR was succeeded by WATFIV and its later versions.
(line programming)
LRLTRAN was developed at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to provide support for vector arithmetic and dynamic storage, among other extensions to support systems programming. The distribution included the LTSS operating system.
The Fortran - 95 Standard includes an optional Part 3 which defines an optional conditional compilation capability. This capability is often referred to as "CoCo ''.
Many Fortran compilers have integrated subsets of the C preprocessor into their systems.
SIMSCRIPT is an application specific Fortran preprocessor for modeling and simulating large discrete systems.
The F programming language was designed to be a clean subset of Fortran 95 that attempted to remove the redundant, unstructured, and deprecated features of Fortran, such as the EQUIVALENCE statement. F retains the array features added in Fortran 90, and removes control statements that were made obsolete by structured programming constructs added to both FORTRAN 77 and Fortran 90. F is described by its creators as "a compiled, structured, array programming language especially well suited to education and scientific computing ''.
Lahey and Fujitsu teamed up to create Fortran for the Microsoft. NET Framework. Silverfrost FTN95 is also capable of creating. NET code.
The following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation and array - based operations, two features introduced with Fortran 90. Particularly noteworthy is the absence of DO loops and IF / THEN statements in manipulating the array; mathematical operations are applied to the array as a whole. Also apparent is the use of descriptive variable names and general code formatting that conform with contemporary programming style. This example computes an average over data entered interactively.
During the same FORTRAN standards committee meeting at which the name "FORTRAN 77 '' was chosen, a satirical technical proposal was incorporated into the official distribution bearing the title "Letter O Considered Harmful ''. This proposal purported to address the confusion that sometimes arises between the letter "O '' and the numeral zero, by eliminating the letter from allowable variable names. However, the method proposed was to eliminate the letter from the character set entirely (thereby retaining 48 as the number of lexical characters, which the colon had increased to 49). This was considered beneficial in that it would promote structured programming, by making it impossible to use the notorious GO TO statement as before. (Troublesome FORMAT statements would also be eliminated.) It was noted that this "might invalidate some existing programs '' but that most of these "probably were non-conforming, anyway ''.
When assumed - length arrays were being added, there was a dispute as to the appropriate character to separate upper and lower bounds. In a comment examining these arguments, Dr. Walt Brainerd penned an article entitled "Astronomy vs. Gastroenterology '' because some proponents had suggested using the star or asterisk ("* ''), while others favored the colon (": '').
In FORTRAN 77, variable names beginning with the letters I -- N had a default type of integer, while variables starting with any other letters defaulted to real, although programmers could override the defaults with an explicit declaration. This led to the joke: "In Fortran, GOD is REAL (unless declared INTEGER). ''
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where did the term pinch hitter come from | Pinch hitter - Wikipedia
In baseball, a pinch hitter is a substitute batter. Batters can be substituted at any time while the ball is dead (not in active play); the manager may use any player who has not yet entered the game as a substitute. Unlike basketball, American football, or ice hockey, baseball does not have a "free substitution rule '' and thus the replaced player in baseball is not allowed back into that game. The pinch hitter assumes the spot in the batting order of the player whom he replaces.
The player chosen to be a pinch hitter is often a backup infielder or outfielder. In the major leagues, catchers are less likely to be called upon because most teams have only two catchers, while pitchers are almost never used as pinch - hitters, because they tend to be worse hitters than other players on the team. The pinch hitter may not re-enter the game after being replaced with another player.
The American League of Major League Baseball, the Pacific League in Japan, the KBO League in Korea, and various other leagues use the designated hitter rule, such that pitchers seldom bat. This removes one possible situation where a pinch hitter may be desired.
For statistical and scorekeeping purposes, the pinch hitter is denoted by PH.
Pinch hitters are often used to replace a starting player when the pinch hitter is thought to have a better chance of reaching base or helping other runners to score.
In the National League of Major League Baseball, the Central League in Japan, and various other minor leagues, pinch hitters are often substituted for the pitcher in the middle or late innings of a game. This is because pitchers are often poor hitters and get tired after six to seven innings of pitching. Thus, as the manager often plans to replace the pitcher in the next inning, the major downside of using a pinch hitter, namely that the player being replaced can not re-enter the game, is taken away.
This use of a pinch hitter is often part of a double switch, in which a relief pitcher replaces a defensive player who will not bat soon, and at the same time a defensive player replaces the pitcher who is scheduled to bat soon.
The pinch hitter may remain in the game following a pinch - hit at - bat and need not (but may) assume the same position as the player for whom he pinch - hits as long as some other player assumes that position. For example, on 16 August 2009, the Washington Nationals ' Ryan Zimmerman pinch - hit for second baseman Alberto Gonzalez and then remained in the game at third base, with previous third baseman Ronnie Belliard switching positions to play second base after the change. Alternatively, the manager may designate another player to replace the pinch - hitter; this scenario is common when a team pinch - hits for a pitcher without executing a double switch, such that the new pitcher then replaces the pinch hitter and assumes the previous pitcher 's place in the batting order.
If a pinch hitter hits for the DH, the new pinch hitter stays in the game as a DH, and may not be used in the field. If the new DH does take the field, then the team forfeits the DH.
This is a list of players with the most pinch - hits in Major League Baseball history. Names which appear in bold are active players. Includes games through July 22, 2011.
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how many bees in a yellow jacket nest | Yellowjacket - wikipedia
Yellowjacket or Yellow jacket is the common name in North America for predatory social wasps of the genera Vespula and Dolichovespula. Members of these genera are known simply as "wasps '' in other English - speaking countries. Most of these are black and yellow like the eastern yellowjacket Vespula maculifrons and the aerial yellowjacket Dolichovespula arenaria; some are black and white like the bald - faced hornet, Dolichovespula maculata. Others may have the abdomen background color red instead of black. They can be identified by their distinctive markings, their occurrence only in colonies, and a characteristic, rapid, side - to - side flight pattern prior to landing. All females are capable of stinging. Yellowjackets are important predators of pest insects.
Yellowjackets are sometimes mistakenly called "bees '' (as in "meat bees ''), given that they are similar in size and sting, but yellowjackets are actually wasps. They may be confused with other wasps, such as hornets and paper wasps. Polistes dominula, a species of paper wasp, is very frequently misidentified as a yellowjacket. A typical yellowjacket worker is about 12 mm (0.5 in) long, with alternating bands on the abdomen; the queen is larger, about 19 mm (0.75 in) long (the different patterns on their abdomens help separate various species). Workers are sometimes confused with honey bees, especially when flying in and out of their nests. Yellowjackets, in contrast to honey bees, have yellow or white markings, are not covered with tan - brown dense hair on their bodies, do not carry pollen, and do not have the flattened hairy hind legs used to carry it.
These species have lance - like stingers with small barbs, and typically sting repeatedly, though occasionally a stinger becomes lodged and pulls free of the wasp 's body; the venom, like most bee and wasp venoms, is primarily only dangerous to humans who are allergic or are stung many times. All species have yellow or white on their faces. Their mouthparts are well - developed with strong mandibles for capturing and chewing insects, with probosces for sucking nectar, fruit, and other juices. Yellowjackets build nests in trees, shrubs, or in protected places such as inside man - made structures, or in soil cavities, tree stumps, mouse burrows, etc. They build them from wood fiber they chew into a paper - like pulp. Many other insects exhibit protective mimicry of aggressive, stinging yellowjackets; in addition to numerous bees and wasps (Müllerian mimicry), the list includes some flies, moths, and beetles (Batesian mimicry).
Yellowjackets ' closest relatives, the hornets, closely resemble them, but have larger heads, seen especially in the large distance from the eyes to the back of the head.
Yellowjackets are social hunters living in colonies containing workers, queens, and males (drones). Colonies are annual with only inseminated queens overwintering. Fertilized queens are found in protected places such as in hollow logs, in stumps, under bark, in leaf litter, in soil cavities, and man - made structures. Queens emerge during the warm days of late spring or early summer, select a nest site, and build a small paper nest in which they lay eggs. After eggs hatch from the 30 to 50 brood cells, the queen feeds the young larvae for about 18 to 20 days. Larvae pupate, then emerge later as small, infertile females called workers. Workers in the colony take over caring for the larvae, feeding them with chewed up meat or fruit. By midsummer, the first adult workers emerge and assume the tasks of nest expansion, foraging for food, care of the queen and larvae, and colony defense.
From this time until her death in the autumn, the queen remains inside the nest, laying eggs. The colony then expands rapidly, reaching a maximum size of 4000 to 5000 workers and a nest of 10,000 to 15,000 cells in late summer. (This is true of most species in most areas; however, Vespula squamata, in the southern part of its range, may build much larger perennial colonies populated by scores of queens, tens of thousands of workers, and hundreds of thousands of cells.) At peak size, reproductive cells are built with new males and queens produced. Adult reproductives remain in the nest fed by the workers. New queens build up fat reserves to overwinter. Adult reproductives leave the parent colony to mate. After mating, males quickly die, while fertilized queens seek protected places to overwinter. Parent colony workers dwindle, usually leaving the nest to die, as does the foundress queen. Abandoned nests rapidly decompose and disintegrate during the winter. They can persist as long as they are kept dry, but are rarely used again. In the spring, the cycle is repeated; weather in the spring is the most important factor in colony establishment.
The diet of the adult yellowjacket consists primarily of items rich in sugars and carbohydrates, such as fruits, flower nectar, and tree sap. Larvae feed on proteins derived from insects, meats, and fish, which are collected by the adults, which chew and condition them before feeding them to the larvae. Many of the insects collected by the adults are considered pest species, making the yellowjacket beneficial to agriculture. Larvae, in return, secrete a sugar material to be eaten by the adults; this exchange is a form of trophallaxis. In late summer, foraging workers pursue other food sources from meats to ripe fruits, or scavenge human garbage, sodas, picnics, etc., as additional sugar is needed to foster the next generation 's queens.
Dolichovespula species such as the aerial yellowjacket, D. arenaria, and the bald - faced hornet, tend to create exposed aerial nests. This feature is shared with some true hornets, which has led to some naming confusion.
Vespula species, in contrast, build concealed nests, usually underground.
Yellowjacket nests usually last for only one season, dying off in winter. The nest is started by a single queen, called the "foundress ''. Typically, a nest can reach the size of a basketball by the end of a season. In parts of Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, and southwestern coastal areas of the United States, the winters are mild enough to allow nest overwintering. Nests that survive multiple seasons become massive and often possess multiple egg - laying queens.
In 1975, the German yellowjacket (V. germanica) first appeared in Ohio, and has now become the dominant species over the eastern yellowjacket. It is bold and aggressive, and can sting repeatedly and painfully. It will mark aggressors, and will pursue them. It is often confused with Polistes dominula, an invasive species in the United States, due to their very similar pattern. The German yellowjacket builds its nests in cavities -- not necessarily underground -- with the peak worker population in temperate areas between 1000 and 3000 individuals between May and August. Each colony produces several thousand new reproductives after this point through November. The eastern yellowjacket builds its nests underground, also with the peak worker population between 1000 and 3000 individuals, similar to the German yellowjacket. Nests are built entirely of wood fiber and are completely enclosed except for a small entrance at the bottom. The color of the paper is highly dependent on the source of the wood fibers used. The nests contain multiple, horizontal tiers of combs within. Larvae hang within the combs.
In the southeastern United States, where southern yellowjacket (Vespula squamosa) nests may persist through the winter, colony sizes of this species may reach 100,000 adult wasps. The same kind of nest expansion has occurred in Hawaii with the invasive western yellowjacket (V. pensylvanica).
The yellowjacket 's most visible place in American popular culture is as a mascot, most famously with the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets, represented by the mascot Buzz. Other college and university examples include the American International College, Baldwin - Wallace University, Black Hills State University, Cedarville University, Defiance College, Graceland University, Howard Payne University, LeTourneau University, Montana State University Billings, Randolph - Macon College, University of Rochester, University of Wisconsin -- Superior, West Virginia State University, and Waynesburg University.
Note that yellowjacket is often spelled as two words (yellow jacket) in popular culture and even in some dictionaries. The proper entomological spelling, according to the Entomological Society of America, is as a single word (yellowjacket).
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who was in favor of the president serving a life term | President for Life - wikipedia
President for Life is a title assumed by some authoritarian leaders to remove their term limit irrevocably as a way of removing future challenges to their authority and legitimacy. The title sometimes confers on the holder the right to nominate or appoint a successor. The usage of the title of "President '' rather than a traditionally autocratic title such as that of a monarch implies the subversion of democracy by the titleholder. Indeed, sometimes a President for Life can go on to establish a Self - proclaimed monarchy, such Jean - Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe in Haiti.
A President - for - life may be regarded as a de facto monarch. In fact, other than the title, political scientists often face difficulties in differentiating a state ruled by a president - for - life (especially one who inherits the job from a family dictatorship) and a monarchy.
Most leaders who have proclaimed themselves President for Life have not in fact gone on to successfully serve a life term. Most have been deposed long before their death while others truly fulfill their title by being assassinated while in office. However, some, such as José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Alexandre Pétion, Rafael Carrera, Yuan Shikai, François Duvalier, Josip Broz Tito and Saparmurat Niyazov have managed to rule until their (natural) deaths. Others made unsuccessful attempts to have themselves named President for Life, such as Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972.
One of the most well - known incidents of a republican leader extending his term indefinitely was Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who made himself "Perpetual Dictator '' in 45 BC. Traditionally, the office of dictator could only be held for six months, and although he was not the first Roman dictator to be given the office with no term limit, it was Caesar 's dictatorship that inspired the string of Roman emperors who ruled after his assassination.
Caesar 's actions would later be copied by the French Consul Napoleon Bonaparte who was appointed "First Consul for life '' in 1802 before elevating himself to the rank of Emperor two years later. Since then, many dictators have adopted similar titles, either on their own authority or having it granted to them by rubber stamp legislatures.
After Kim Il - sung 's death in 1994, the North Korean government wrote the presidential office out of the constitution, declaring him "Eternal President '' in 1998 in order to honor his memory forever. Since there can be no succession in a system where the President reigns over a nation beyond death, the powers of the president are nominally and effectively split between the chairman of the Supreme People 's Assembly, the prime minister, the president, and the chairman of the National Defence Commission. However, his son and grandson have been in control of the country since his death (Kim Jong - il from 1994 until his death in 2011, and Kim Jong - un since 2011).
Note: the first date listed in each entry is the date of proclamation of their status as President for Life.
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who needs a visa to go to colombia | Visa policy of Colombia - wikipedia
Visitors to Colombia must obtain a visa from one of the Colombian diplomatic missions unless they come from one of the visa exempt countries.
Holders of passports of the following 101 jurisdictions do not require visa to enter Colombia for a maximum stay of 90 days (unless otherwise noted):
Cancelled:
Citizens of Nicaragua who are residents of North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region and South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region may enter Colombia without a visa.
Holders of passports issued by the following countries or territories are granted visa - free access for a maximum of 90 days (unless otherwise noted) if they hold visas or residence permits issued by United States or a Schengen Area country:
The visa exemption also applies to Green Card holders, but does not apply to holders of C1 visas issued by the U.S. Holders of U.S. or Schengen visas must ensure their visa is valid for at least 180 days from their arrival date.
Visitors who require a visa for Colombia may apply online in some cases.
Most visitors arriving to Colombia were from the following countries of nationality:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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where does the humerus attach to the scapula | Humerus - wikipedia
The humerus (/ ˈhjuːmərəs /, Plural: humeri) is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna, and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles, sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea & capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). As well as its true anatomical neck, the constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to fracture, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons.
The word "humerus '' is derived from Latin: humerus, umerus meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams shoulder and Greek ōmos.
At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula. More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius, and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna.
The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus 's glenohumeral joint, has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery. Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of the normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion.
The radial nerve follows the humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove. A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury.
The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as ' the funny bone ', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny '' feeling), as well as the fact that the bone 's name is a homophone of ' humorous '. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries.
The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle, acromion and the crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder.
The pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi insert at the intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex the elbow. (The biceps do not attach to the humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus.
The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo - ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff. This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint. The other muscles are used as counterbalances for the actions of lifting / pulling and pressing / pushing.
Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting the upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods, however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans; connecting their extremities. In many reptiles and some primitive mammals, the lower extremity includes a large foramen, or opening, which allows nerves and blood vessels pass through.
Position of humerus (shown in red). Animation.
Left humerus. Animation.
Human arm bones diagram.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Trochlea. Posterior view.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Upper end Accompanies shaft in 20th year. The parts which form upper end - Head Starts from 1st year, Greater tubercle Starts from 3rd year, Lesser tubercle Starts from the fifth year.
Lower end Accompanies shaft in 16th to 17th year. The parts which form lower end are - Capitulum and the lateral flange of trochlea Sarts from 2nd year, Medial part of trochlea starts from 10th year, Lateral epicondyle starts from 12th year and Medial epicondyle starts from the sixth year.
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when did the english settlers first begin to colonise the eastern coast of america | British colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The British colonization of the Americas (including colonization by both the English and the Scots) began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia, and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas. The English, and later the British, were among the most important colonizers of the Americas, and their American empire came to rival the Spanish American colonies in military and economic might.
Three types of colonies were established in the English overseas possessions in America of the 17th century and continued into the British Empire at the height of its power in the 18th century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies, and royal colonies. A group of 13 British American colonies collectively broke from the British Empire in the 1770s through a successful revolution, establishing the modern United States. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1803 -- 15), the remaining British territories in North America were slowly granted more responsible government. In 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible government for Canada, but this was not fully implemented for another decade. Eventually, with the Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted significant autonomy and became a self - governing Dominion in 1867. Other colonies in the Americas followed at a much slower pace. In this way, two countries in North America, ten in the Caribbean, and one in South America have received their independence from Great Britain or the later United Kingdom. All of these, except the United States, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations and nine are Commonwealth realms. The eight current British overseas territories in the Americas have varying degrees of self - government.
A number of English colonies were established under a system of Proprietary Governors, who were appointed under mercantile charters to English joint stock companies to found and run settlements.
In 1664, England took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland (including its capital of New Amsterdam) which England renamed the Province of New York. With New Netherland, the English also came to control the former New Sweden (in what is now Delaware), which the Dutch had conquered earlier. This later became part of Pennsylvania after that was established in 1680.
The Kingdom of Scotland tried unsuccessfully to establish a colony at Darién, and the Scottish colonization of Nova Scotia (New Scotland) lasted from 1629 to 1632. Thousands of Scotsmen also participated in English colonization before the two countries were united in 1707.
The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada and the Spanish colony of Florida in 1763. After being renamed the Province of Quebec, the former French Canada was divided into two Provinces, the Canadas, consisting of the old settled country of Lower Canada (today Quebec) and the newly settled Upper Canada (today Ontario).
In the north, the Hudson 's Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, and had competed with French, Aboriginal, and Métis fur traders. The company came to control the entire drainage basin of Hudson Bay, called Rupert 's Land. The small part of the Hudson Bay drainage south of the 49th parallel went to the United States in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
Thirteen of Great Britain 's colonies rebelled in the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1775, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues, and established the United States of America, which was recognised internationally with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September 1783.
Great Britain also colonised the west coast of North America, indirectly via the Hudson 's Bay Company licenses west of the Rocky Mountains: the Columbia District and New Caledonia fur district. Most of these were jointly claimed as the Oregon Country by the United States from 1818 until the 49th parallel was established as the international boundary west of the Rockies by the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The Colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and the Colony of British Columbia, founded in 1858, were combined in 1866 under the name Colony of British Columbia, and joined the Confederation in 1871. British Columbia was expanded with the inclusion of the Stikine Territory in 1863; and upon joining Confederation the Peace River Block, formerly part of Rupert 's Land, was added.
In 1867, the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (the southern portion of modern - day Ontario and Quebec) combined to form a self - governing dominion, named Canada, within the British Empire (the term "kingdom '' was avoided so as to not provoke the United States). Quebec (including what is now the southern portion of Ontario) and Nova Scotia (including what is now New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) had been ceded to Britain by the French. The colonies of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined over the next six years, and Newfoundland joined in 1949. Rupert 's Land and the North - Western Territory were ceded to Canada in 1870. This area now consists of the provinces of Manitoba (admitted after negotiation between Canada and a Métis provisional government in 1870), Saskatchewan, and Alberta (both created in 1905), as well as the Northwest Territories, the Yukon Territory (created 1898, following the start of the Klondike Gold Rush), and Nunavut (created in 1999).
In order of settlement or founding:
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how many nfl players came from east mississippi | East Mississippi Community College - wikipedia
East Mississippi Community College (EMCC), formerly known as East Mississippi Junior College, is a community college in Scooba, Mississippi. EMCC serves and is supported by Clay, Kemper, Lauderdale, Lowndes, Noxubee and Oktibbeha counties in east central Mississippi. The college has two principal campuses and offers courses at five other locations. One of fifteen community colleges in Mississippi, EMCC is the home of the 2011, 2013, 2014, and 2017 NJCAA National Championship EMCC Lions Football team.
EMCC is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC) to award the Associate of Applied Science degree and the Associate of Arts degree. The college offers a broad range of academic / university parallel, career - technical and workforce training programs.
Community colleges in Mississippi were originally designed to make educational opportunities more accessible for residents of rural areas throughout the state.
East Mississippi Community College 's original campus is located in the Kemper County town of Scooba. It was founded in 1927 following its beginnings 15 years earlier as Kemper County Agricultural High School. The town is adjacent to the Kansas City Southern Railroad, U.S. Route 45, and Mississippi Highway 16, 35 miles north of Meridian and 50 miles south of Columbus. The college owns 287 acres of land, 25 of which make up the campus. The central administrative office for all of EMCC 's locations is in the Thomas L. Davis Jr. Administration Building.
Other buildings include the F.R. Young Student Union (includes cafeteria and bookstore), Wallace Hall (business and financial aid offices), Wellness and Fitness Center, Physical Plant Complex, Chapel in the Pines, Orr Center for Christian Activity, Scooba Campus Police Department and EMCC president 's residence.
Athletic facilities include Athletic Instruction and Training Building / Lions Field House, Sullivan - Windham Field (5,000 - seat, artificial turf football stadium), Keyes Currie Coliseum (900 - seat basketball arena), Gerald Poole Baseball Field, Lady Lions Softball Field and rodeo training arena.
The college maintains six residence halls and thirty cottages on the Scooba Campus which house nearly 600 students. Student residences are air - conditioned and equipped with furniture, cable TV outlets, Wi - Fi, security and laundry facilities.
Gilbert - Anderson Hall, the main residence hall for women, has living accommodations for 170 students. The Women 's Honor Residence Hall can house 46 students; assignment to this residence hall requires students to demonstrate, and maintain, high grade point averages.
Residence halls for men include Lauderdale Hall (78 students), Noxubee Hall (84 students) and Sullivan Hall (60 students). The Men 's Honor Residence can house 46 students; assignment to this residence hall requires students to demonstrate, and maintain, high grade point averages.
The campus also includes three athletic villages made up of 30 Katrina - style cottages, each housing four or five students, for a combined capacity of 104.
New dorm: Due to increasing demand, a new residence hall for the Scooba campus is currently in the planning stages.
The Golden Triangle campus was opened in 1968. It is located in Mayhew, an unincorporated area in Lowndes County. on 83.46 acres adjacent to the frontage road of Highway 182 and the Illinois Central Gulf Railroad and 1 mile east of the intersection of U.S. Route 45 Alternate and U.S. Route 82. The campus is 10 miles east of Starkville, 10 miles south of West Point, and 12 miles west of Columbus. The Golden Triangle campus of multiple building with more than 200,000 square feet.
Thomas Douglas Building: Originally built as a vocational education center, the building has been expanded over time into a large complex, which houses classrooms for both academic and technical instruction. In addition, the Counseling Center, classrooms and laboratories for career - technical programs, computer applications, IT, Administrative Computing, ABE - GED and developmental education are located in this facility. Also located in the Douglas Building is the Aaron Langston Student Center, which houses the bookstore, lounge area and 155 Grill.
Thomas Douglas Annex: This facility includes classrooms, labs, and office space for three career - technical programs, Automotive Technology, Welding and Fabrication and Industrial Maintenance.
Center for Manufacturing Technology Excellence: Located on the west side of the campus, the CMTE is the home of EMCC 's Manufacturing Technology & Engineering Division, which provides workforce training for Golden Triangle area industries. It includes 7,800 square feet of high bay manufacturing space, a 4,400 - square - foot multi-purpose commons area, classrooms, a 70 - seat elevated seminar room, and an administration area which includes office space, workrooms and a conference room.
Math and Science Building: This facility provides classrooms and additional office space for faculty, recruiting staff, and the Dean of Students. It contains three science laboratories, which are used concurrently as chemistry, physics and biology classrooms. A 70 - seat elevated seminar classroom for larger group instruction is supported by laptop connections.
Library: With more than 8,000 square feet, the library has two study rooms, a computer lab with 17 computers, and a multi-media center.
Administration and Student Services Building: This facility houses administrative offices, the business office, financial aid offices, the registrar 's office and other student services offices.
Humanities and Fine Arts Building: Opened in 2008, this facility includes classrooms and offices for faculty, as well as the campus art studio. A central administrative suite contains the offices of the Vice President for Instruction and the Associate Deans of Instruction.
Student Union: A new 76,000 - square - foot Student Union is scheduled to open during fall 2016. The building will house a full - service cafeteria with a large open dining room and a much larger bookstore, with lounge areas and additional retail space for online e-books, laptop computers and tablets. Also included are a special events dining room, 12 multi-purpose classrooms, large elevated lecture hall, computer lab with 100 work stations, office suites, art gallery, convenience store and Starbucks coffee shop.
East Mississippi Community College opened an extension campus at Columbus Air Force Base in 1972, just four years after the Golden Triangle campus in Mayhew. CAFB is located 11 miles north of Columbus. The extension campus offers daytime, evening and online classes. Military students can complete their associate degrees with EMCC, or transfer credits to the Community College of the Air Force and pick up where they left off at their next duty station. Generally, about a third of CAFB Extension 's students are active - duty military or military dependents. The other two - thirds are civilians from the Lowndes County area.
Since 1989, East Mississippi Community College has offered classes year - round at its Naval Air Station Meridian Extension, located 20 miles north of Meridian. Military students can complete their associate degrees with EMCC, or pick up where they left off at their next duty station through an agreement with the Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges and the American Council on Education. Students include active - duty military, military dependents and civilians from the Lauderdale County area.
In October 2012, East Mississippi Community College purchased the land and buildings of the former Columbus Country Club in Columbus, Miss., in U.S. Bankruptcy Court. After renovations, the facility re-opened the following year as Lion Hills Center, an extension campus of EMCC.
Education and training is the centerpiece of Lion Hills Center 's service to the community. The facility is the home of EMCC 's Hotel and Restaurant Management, Culinary Arts, and Golf and Recreational Turf Management programs. In addition to these college credit programs, Lion Hills hosts continuing education and community interest courses, educational and corporate seminars, and small conferences that serve local and regional interests.
EMCC has retained the facility 's identity as a community meeting place. Lion Hills Center operates as a dining facility with professionally trained staff and opportunities for EMCC Hotel and Restaurant and Culinary Arts students to benefit from hands - on experience. Culinary camps are offered in the summer to area children. Lion Hills Center also hosts civic club meetings, banquets, receptions, holiday parties and family gatherings.
Lion Hills Center continues to operate the golf course, swimming pool and tennis courts. Community groups host fund - raising golf tournaments. Golf, swimming and tennis lessons are offered to area children. As with the restaurant operation, EMCC Golf and Recreational Turf Management students work with professional groundskeepers to put classroom lessons into practice.
EMCC opened the West Point - Clay County Center in August 2007 after a plant closing in West Point resulted in the loss of 1,600 jobs and a double - digit unemployment rate in Clay County. The West Point facility is the result of a collaborative effort among the city of West Point, Clay County and EMCC. It began with the signing of an interlocal agreement providing for the renovation of three buildings donated by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The West Point - Clay County Center is the home of EMCC 's Commercial Truck Driving and Residential Carpentry programs. Through EMCC 's Manufacturing Technology & Engineering Division, students can also take Adult Basic Education and GED preparation classes. Workforce classes in welding are offered in the evening. In addition, Yokohama Tire Manufacturing Mississippi, located in West Point, requires all potential employees to complete workforce classes at EMCC before applying for jobs. These classes, as well as classes and training for current Yokohama employees, are conducted at the West Point - Clay County Center.
In the mid-1980s, East Mississippi Community College established extension offerings in Macon, which is located in Noxubee County. Core classes are taught at various locations, including Noxubee County High School, Noxubee County Public Library, Noxubee County Civic Center and Hensleigh Training Center.
Roughly three - quarters of all freshmen in the state of Mississippi are enrolled in community colleges. EMCC offers a broad range of academic / university parallel, career - technical, and workforce training options. These include "stackable '' education credentials. At EMCC, one student could progress seamlessly though these steps, earning in order: GED, industry certificate through a non-credit workforce class, vocational certificate through a for - credit career - technical program, two - year associate degree in a career - technical program. Some EMCC graduates enter the workforce at different points along this path; others transfer to four - year colleges and universities.
EMCC offers a full range of academic classes that prepare students for transfer to four - year colleges and universities. Graduates earn an Associate of Arts degree. The college has Honors programs and Phi Theta Kappa chapters at its Scooba and Golden Triangle campuses.
EMCC offers career - technical programs at its Scooba and Golden Triangle campuses, as well as Lions Hills Center and the West Point - Clay County Center. In many programs, students have the option of earning a vocational certificate through a short - term curriculum plan or an Associate of Applied Science degree over the course of two years of study. Career - technical programs related to industry and manufacturing are overseen by EMCC 's Manufacturing Technology and Engineering (MTE) Division.
EMCC 's Manufacturing Technology & Engineering Division offers workforce training designed around the needs of the Golden Triangle area 's high - tech industries. Students learn the skills needed by potential employers, earn certificates and degrees recognized by industry and are prepared to compete successfully for jobs. Industry leaders have the unique opportunity to partner with EMCC and build training models to ensure that new hires will start their jobs with a skill set suited to their duties.
EMCC established the Workforce Development program in 1993. The staff now works with more than 70 industrial and business partners and is working to increase the number of workforce offerings throughout EMCC 's six - county district. Workforce Development and the new Manufacturing Technology & Engineering Division are headquartered at the Golden Triangle campus in the Center for Manufacturing Technology Excellence (CMTE).
Expansion: In 2018, EMCC is scheduled to open a large - scale workforce training center on land adjoining the Golden Triangle Regional Global Industrial Aerospace Park. Known as the "Communiversity '' in the Golden Triangle area, it will replace the current CMTE. The 140,000 - square - foot facility will accommodate EMCC Manufacturing Technology & Engineering Division credit and non-credit courses related to training workers for careers in advanced manufacturing. It is intended to enhance a growing manufacturing sector in East Mississippi by supporting workforce development for existing and prospective industries.
Workforce / Manufacturing Technology & Engineering oversees nine career - technical programs offering vocational certificate and / or associate degree options: Automation & Control, Automotive Technology, Drafting and Design, Electrical Technology, Electro - Mechanical Technology / Mechatronics, Electronics Technology, Industrial Maintenance, Precision Manufacturing & Machining, and Welding & Fabrication Technology.
Non-credit workforce training options include customized programs for individual industries. EMCC also offers non-credit workforce classes in computer applications, leadership, manufacturing skills, medical technology and health care, construction, electrical work, machining, HVAC, AutoCAD and welding. The MTE Division also offers employability skills classes for young adults and a summer camp for students in grades 7 -- 12.
The Manufacturing Technology and Engineering Division oversees the EMCC Launch Pad, which offers Adult Basic Education and GED preparation classes.
East Mississippi Community College was organized in 1927 following its beginnings as Kemper County Agricultural High School in Scooba. While the Scooba location has always been the primary campus, the Golden Triangle campus has been growing at an increasing rate since the 1990s. Founded as the Golden Triangle Vo - Tech Center in 1968, it serves the Golden Triangle region of Mississippi and is the primary location for workforce training and career - technical programs.
Historical highlights:
EMCC offers men 's athletics programs in baseball, basketball, cheerleading, football, golf and rodeo. Women 's teams are fielded in basketball, cheerleading, rodeo, and softball.
The Lions of East Mississippi Community College are affiliated with the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) and the Mississippi Association of Community and Junior Colleges (MACJC). EMCC competes at the NJCAA Division I level in football and basketball while participating at the Division II level in baseball, softball and men 's golf. The College 's athletic teams in football and basketball currently compete within the MACJC 's North Division.
Over the past decade (beginning with 2008 -- 09 season), East Mississippi Community College 's athletic teams have combined for four NJCAA national championships, 10 NJCAA national postseason appearances, nine NJCAA Region 23 championships, four MACJC state championships, and 16 MACJC North Division regular - season titles. Individually since 2008 -- 09, EMCC has had a composite total of 30 NJCAA All - Americans in football, men 's basketball, women 's basketball and men 's golf combined. In addition, Marcus Theriot claimed the national collegiate championships (National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association) in men 's All - Around and tie - down roping at the 2016 College National Finals Rodeo.
The 2015 and 2016 football seasons were documented in the first and second seasons of the Netflix series Last Chance U.
Sunrisetime MACJC North Division also on Netflix
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where is kidney and liver located in human body | Liver - wikipedia
The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion. In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells and the production of hormones.
The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound which helps the breakdown of fat. Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The gallbladder, a small pouch that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the liver. The liver 's highly specialized tissue consisting of mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high - volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions. Estimates regarding the organ 's total number of functions vary, but textbooks generally cite it being around 500.
Terminology related to the liver often starts in hepat - from ἡπατο -, the Greek word for liver.
No way is yet known to compensate for the absence of liver function in the long term, although liver dialysis techniques can be used in the short term. Artificial livers are yet to be developed to promote long - term replacement in the absence of the liver. As of 2018, liver transplantation is the only option for complete liver failure.
The liver is a reddish - brown, wedge - shaped organ with four lobes of unequal size and shape. A human liver normally weighs 1.44 -- 1.66 kg (3.2 -- 3.7 lb), and has a width of about 15 cm. It is both the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body. Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity, it rests just below the diaphragm, to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder.
The liver is connected to two large blood vessels: the hepatic artery and the portal vein. The hepatic artery carries oxygen - rich blood from the aorta via the celiac plexus, whereas the portal vein carries blood rich in digested nutrients from the entire gastrointestinal tract and also from the spleen and pancreas. These blood vessels subdivide into small capillaries known as liver sinusoids, which then lead to lobules.
Lobules are the functional units of the liver. Each lobule is made up of millions of hepatic cells (hepatocytes), which are the basic metabolic cells. The lobules are held together by a fine, dense, irregular, fibroelastic connective tissue layer which extends from the fibrous capsule covering the entire liver known as Glisson 's capsule. This extends into the structure of the liver, by accompanying the blood vessels (veins and arteries), ducts, and nerves at the hepatic hilum. The whole surface of the liver except for the bare area, is covered in a serous coat derived from the peritoneum, and this firmly adheres to the inner Glisson 's capsule.
The liver is grossly divided into two parts when viewed from above -- a right and a left lobe, and four parts when viewed from below (left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes).
The falciform ligament, divides the liver into a left and right lobe. From below, the two additional lobes are located between the right and left lobes, one in front of the other. A line can be imagined running from the left of the vena cava and all the way forward to divide the liver and gallbladder into two halves. This line is called "Cantlie 's line ''.
Other anatomical landmarks include the ligamentum venosum and the round ligament of the liver (ligamentum teres), which further divide the left side of the liver in two sections. An important anatomical landmark, the porta hepatis, divides this left portion into four segments, which can be numbered starting at the caudate lobe as I in an anticlockwise manner. From this parietal view, seven segments can be seen, because the eighth segment is only visible in the visceral view.
On the diaphragmatic surface, apart from a triangular bare area where it connects to the diaphragm, the liver is covered by a thin, double - layered membrane, the peritoneum, that helps to reduce friction against other organs. This surface covers the convex shape of the two lobes where it accommodates the shape of the diaphragm. The peritoneum folds back on itself to form the falciform ligament and the right and left triangular ligaments.
These peritoneal ligaments are not related to the anatomic ligaments in joints, and the right and left triangular ligaments have no known functional importance, though they serve as surface landmarks. The falciform ligament functions to attach the liver to the posterior portion of the anterior body wall.
The visceral surface or inferior surface, is uneven and concave. It is covered in peritoneum apart from where it attaches the gallbladder and the porta hepatis.
Several impressions on the surface of the liver accommodate the various adjacent structures and organs. Underneath the right lobe and to the right of the gallbladder fossa are two impressions, one behind the other and separated by a ridge. The one in front is a shallow colic impression, formed by the hepatic flexure and the one behind is a deeper renal impression accommodating part of the right kidney and part of the suprarenal gland.
The suprarenal impression is a small, triangular, depressed area on the liver. It is located close to the right of the fossa, between the bare area and the caudate lobe, and immediately above the renal impression. The greater part of the suprarenal impression is devoid of peritoneum and it lodges the right suprarenal gland.
Medial to the renal impression is a third and slightly marked impression, lying between it and the neck of the gall bladder. This is caused by the descending portion of the duodenum, and is known as the duodenal impression.
The inferior surface of the left lobe of the liver presents behind and to the left the gastric impression. This is moulded over the upper front surface of the stomach, and to the right of this is a rounded eminence, the tuber omentale, which fits into the concavity of the lesser curvature of the stomach and lies in front of the anterior layer of the lesser omentum.
Microscopically, each liver lobe is seen to be made up of hepatic lobules. The lobules are roughly hexagonal, and consist of plates of hepatocytes radiating from a central vein. The central vein joins to the hepatic vein to carry blood out from the liver. A distinctive component of a lobule is the portal triad, which can be found running along each of the lobule 's corners. The portal triad, misleadingly named, consists of five structures: a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct, as well as lymphatic vessels and a branch of the vagus nerve. Between the hepatocyte plates are liver sinusoids, which are enlarged capillaries through which blood from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery enters via the portal triads, then drains to the central vein.
Histology, the study of microscopic anatomy, shows two major types of liver cell: parenchymal cells and nonparenchymal cells. About 70 -- 85 % of the liver volume is occupied by parenchymal hepatocytes. Nonparenchymal cells constitute 40 % of the total number of liver cells but only 6.5 % of its volume. The liver sinusoids are lined with two types of cell, sinusoidal endothelial cells, and phagocytic Kupffer cells. Hepatic stellate cells are nonparenchymal cells found in the perisinusoidal space, between a sinusoid and a hepatocyte. Additionally, intrahepatic lymphocytes are often present in the sinusoidal lumen.
The central area or hepatic hilum, includes the opening known as the porta hepatis which carries the common bile duct and common hepatic artery, and the opening for the portal vein. The duct, vein, and artery divide into left and right branches, and the areas of the liver supplied by these branches constitute the functional left and right lobes. The functional lobes are separated by the imaginary plane, Cantlie 's line, joining the gallbladder fossa to the inferior vena cava. The plane separates the liver into the true right and left lobes. The middle hepatic vein also demarcates the true right and left lobes. The right lobe is further divided into an anterior and posterior segment by the right hepatic vein. The left lobe is divided into the medial and lateral segments by the left hepatic vein.
The hilar area of the liver is described in terms of three plates that contain the bile ducts and blood vessels. The contents of the whole plate system are surrounded by a sheath. The three plates are the hilar plate, the cystic plate and the umbilical plate and the plate system is the site of the many anatomical variations to be found in the liver.
In the widely used Couinaud system, the functional lobes are further divided into a total of eight subsegments based on a transverse plane through the bifurcation of the main portal vein. The caudate lobe is a separate structure that receives blood flow from both the right - and left - sided vascular branches. The Couinaud classification of liver anatomy divides the liver into eight functionally independent liver segments. Each segment has its own vascular inflow, outflow and biliary drainage. In the centre of each segment are branches of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct. In the periphery of each segment is vascular outflow through the hepatic veins. The classification system uses the vascular supply in the liver to separate the functional units (numbered I to VIII), with unit 1, the caudate lobe, receiving its supply from both the right and the left branches of portal vein. It contains one or more hepatic veins which drain directly into the inferior vena cava. The remainder of the units (II to VIII) are numbered in a clockwise fashion:
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 60 % of these genes are expressed in a normal, adult liver. Over 400 genes are more specifically expressed in the liver, with some 150 genes highly specific for liver tissue. A large fraction of the corresponding liver specific proteins are mainly expressed in hepatocytes and secreted into the blood and constitute plasma proteins. Other liver specific proteins are certain liver enzymes such as HAO1 and RDH16, proteins involved in bile synthesis such as BAAT and SLC27A5, and transporter proteins involved in the metabolism of drugs, such as ABCB11 and SLC2A2. Examples of highly liver - specific proteins include apolipoprotein A II, coagulation factors F2 and F9, complement factor related proteins, and the fibrinogen beta chain protein.
Organogenesis, the development of the organs takes place from the third to the eighth week during embryogenesis. The origins of the liver lie in both the ventral portion of the foregut endoderm (endoderm being one of the three embryonic germ layers) and the constituents of the adjacent septum transversum mesenchyme. In the human embryo, the hepatic diverticulum is the tube of endoderm that extends out from the foregut into the surrounding mesenchyme. The mesenchyme of septum transversum induces this endoderm to proliferate, to branch, and to form the glandular epithelium of the liver. A portion of the hepatic diverticulum (that region closest to the digestive tube) continues to function as the drainage duct of the liver, and a branch from this duct produces the gallbladder. Besides signals from the septum transversum mesenchyme, fibroblast growth factor from the developing heart also contributes to hepatic competence, along with retinoic acid emanating from the lateral plate mesoderm. The hepatic endodermal cells undergo a morphological transition from columnar to pseudostratified resulting in thickening into the early liver bud. Their expansion forms a population of the bipotential hepatoblasts. Hepatic stellate cells are derived from mesenchyme.
After migration of hepatoblasts into the septum transversum mesenchyme, the hepatic architecture begins to be established, with liver sinusoids and bile canaliculi appearing. The liver bud separates into the lobes. The left umbilical vein becomes the ductus venosus and the right vitelline vein becomes the portal vein. The expanding liver bud is colonized by hematopoietic cells. The bipotential hepatoblasts begin differentiating into biliary epithelial cells and hepatocytes. The biliary epithelial cells differentiate from hepatoblasts around portal veins, first producing a monolayer, and then a bilayer of cuboidal cells. In ductal plate, focal dilations emerge at points in the bilayer, become surrounded by portal mesenchyme, and undergo tubulogenesis into intrahepatic bile ducts. Hepatoblasts not adjacent to portal veins instead differentiate into hepatocytes and arrange into cords lined by sinudoidal epithelial cells and bile canaliculi. Once hepatoblasts are specified into hepatocytes and undergo further expansion, they begin acquiring the functions of a mature hepatocyte, and eventually mature hepatocytes appear as highly polarized epithelial cells with abundant glycogen accumulation. In the adult liver, hepatocytes are not equivalent, with position along the portocentrovenular axis within a liver lobule dictating expression of metabolic genes involved in drug metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, ammonia detoxification, and bile production and secretion. WNT / β - catenin has now been identified to be playing a key role in this phenomenon.
At birth, the liver comprises roughly 4 % of body weight and weighs on average 120 g. Over the course of further development, it will increase to 1.4 -- 1.6 kg but will only take up 2.5 -- 3.5 % of body weight.
In the growing fetus, a major source of blood to the liver is the umbilical vein, which supplies nutrients to the growing fetus. The umbilical vein enters the abdomen at the umbilicus and passes upward along the free margin of the falciform ligament of the liver to the inferior surface of the liver. There, it joins with the left branch of the portal vein. The ductus venosus carries blood from the left portal vein to the left hepatic vein and then to the inferior vena cava, allowing placental blood to bypass the liver.
In the fetus, the liver does not perform the normal digestive processes and filtration of the infant liver because nutrients are received directly from the mother via the placenta. The fetal liver releases some blood stem cells that migrate to the fetal thymus, creating the T - cells or T - lymphocytes. After birth, the formation of blood stem cells shifts to the red bone marrow.
After 2 -- 5 days, the umbilical vein and ductus venosus are completely obliterated; the former becomes the round ligament of liver and the latter becomes the ligamentum venosum. In the disorders of cirrhosis and portal hypertension, the umbilical vein can open up again.
The various functions of the liver are carried out by the liver cells or hepatocytes. The liver is thought to be responsible for up to 500 separate functions, usually in combination with other systems and organs. Currently, no artificial organ or device is capable of reproducing all the functions of the liver. Some functions can be carried out by liver dialysis, an experimental treatment for liver failure. The liver also accounts for about 20 % of resting total body oxygen consumption.
The liver receives a dual blood supply from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries. The hepatic portal vein delivers around 75 % of the liver 's blood supply, and carries venous blood drained from the spleen, gastrointestinal tract, and its associated organs. The hepatic arteries supply arterial blood to the liver, accounting for the remaining quarter of its blood flow. Oxygen is provided from both sources; about half of the liver 's oxygen demand is met by the hepatic portal vein, and half is met by the hepatic arteries. The hepatic artery also has both alpha - and beta - adrenergic receptors; therefore, flow through the artery is controlled, in part, by the splanchnic nerves of the autonomic nervous system.
Blood flows through the liver sinusoids and empties into the central vein of each lobule. The central veins coalesce into hepatic veins, which leave the liver and drain into the inferior vena cava.
The biliary tract is derived from the branches of the bile ducts. The biliary tract, also known as the biliary tree, is the path by which bile is secreted by the liver then transported to the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum. The bile produced in the liver is collected in bile canaliculi, small grooves between the faces of adjacent hepatocytes. The canaliculi radiate to the edge of the liver lobule, where they merge to form bile ducts. Within the liver, these ducts are termed intrahepatic bile ducts, and once they exit the liver, they are considered extrahepatic. The intrahepatic ducts eventually drain into the right and left hepatic ducts, which exit the liver at the transverse fissure, and merge to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct from the gallbladder joins with the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The biliary system and connective tissue is supplied by the hepatic artery alone
Bile either drains directly into the duodenum via the common bile duct, or is temporarily stored in the gallbladder via the cystic duct. The common bile duct and the pancreatic duct enter the second part of the duodenum together at the hepatopancreatic ampulla, also known as the ampulla of Vater.
The liver plays a major role in carbohydrate, protein, amino acid, and lipid metabolism.
The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism: The liver synthesizes and stores around 100 g of glycogen via glycogenesis, the formation of glycogen from glucose. When needed, the liver releases glucose into the blood by performing glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. The liver is also responsible for gluconeogenesis, which is the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate, or glycerol. Adipose and liver cells produce glycerol by breakdown of fat, which the liver uses for gluconeogenesis.
The liver is responsible for the mainstay of protein metabolism, synthesis as well as degradation. It is also responsible for a large part of amino acid synthesis. The liver plays a role in the production of clotting factors, as well as red blood cell production. Some of the proteins synthesized by the liver include coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XIII, as well as protein C, protein S and antithrombin. In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production. By the 32nd week of gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task. The liver is a major site of production for thrombopoietin, a glycoprotein hormone that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow.
The liver plays several roles in lipid metabolism: it performs cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and the production of triglycerides, and a bulk of the body 's lipoproteins are synthesized in the liver.
The liver plays a key role in digestion, as it produces and excretes bile (a yellowish liquid) required for emulsifying fats and help the absorption of vitamin K from the diet. Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder.
The liver also produces insulin - like growth factor 1, a polypeptide protein hormone that plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults.
The liver is responsible for the breakdown of insulin and other hormones. The liver breaks down bilirubin via glucuronidation, facilitating its excretion into bile. The liver is responsible for the breakdown and excretion of many waste products. It plays a key role in breaking down or modifying toxic substances (e.g., methylation) and most medicinal products in a process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor. Preferably, the toxins are conjugated to avail excretion in bile or urine. The liver breaks down ammonia into urea as part of the urea cycle, and the urea is excreted in the urine.
The oxidative capacity of the liver decreases with aging and therefore any medications that require oxidation (for instance, benzodiazepines) are more likely to accumulate to toxic levels. However, medications with shorter half - lives, such as lorazepam and oxazepam, are preferred in most cases when benzodiazepines are required in regard to geriatric medicine.
The liver is a vital organ and supports almost every other organ in the body. Because of its strategic location and multidimensional functions, the liver is also prone to many diseases. The bare area of the liver is a site that is vulnerable to the passing of infection from the abdominal cavity to the thoracic cavity.
Hepatitis is a common condition of inflammation of the liver. The most usual cause of this is viral, and the most common of these infections are hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Some of these infections are sexually transmitted. Inflammation can also be caused by other viruses in the family Herpesviridae such as the herpes simplex virus. Chronic (rather than acute) infection with hepatitis B virus or hepatitis C virus is the main cause of liver cancer. Globally, about 248 million individuals are chronically infected with HBV (with 843,724 in the U.S.) and 142 million are chronically infected with HCV (with 2.7 million in the U.S.). Globally there are about 114 million and 20 million cases of hepatitis A and hepatitis E respectively, but these generally resolve, and do not become chronic (see Hepatitis A, Hepatitis E). Hepatitis D virus is a "satellite '' of hepatitis B virus (can only infect in the presence of hepatitis B), and co-infects nearly 20 million people with hepatitis B, globally (see Hepatitis D).
Hepatic encephalopathy is caused by an accumulation of toxins in the bloodstream that are normally removed by the liver. This condition can result in coma and can prove fatal.
Other disorders caused by excessive alcohol consumption are grouped under alcoholic liver diseases and these include alcoholic hepatitis, fatty liver, and cirrhosis. Factors contributing to the development of alcoholic liver diseases are not only the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, but can also include gender, genetics, and liver insult.
Liver damage can also be caused by drugs, particularly paracetamol and drugs used to treat cancer. A rupture of the liver can be caused by a liver shot used in combat sports.
Budd -- Chiari syndrome is a condition caused by blockage of the hepatic veins (including thrombosis) that drain the liver. It presents with the classical triad of abdominal pain, ascites and liver enlargement.
Primary biliary cholangitis is an autoimmune disease of the liver. It is marked by slow progressive destruction of the small bile ducts of the liver, with the intralobular ducts (Canals of Hering) affected early in the disease. When these ducts are damaged, bile and other toxins build up in the liver (cholestasis) and over time damages the liver tissue in combination with ongoing immune related damage. This can lead to scarring (fibrosis) and cirrhosis. Cirrhosis increases the resistance to blood flow in the liver, and can result in portal hypertension. Congested anastomoses between the portal venous system and the systemic circulation, can be a subsequent condition.
Many diseases of the liver are accompanied by jaundice caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the system. The bilirubin results from the breakup of the hemoglobin of dead red blood cells; normally, the liver removes bilirubin from the blood and excretes it through bile.
There are also many pediatric liver diseases, including biliary atresia, alpha - 1 antitrypsin deficiency, alagille syndrome, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, Langerhans cell histiocytosis and hepatic hemangioma a benign tumour the most common type of liver tumour, thought to be congenital. A genetic disorder causing multiple cysts to form in the liver tissue, usually in later life, and usually asymptomatic, is polycystic liver disease. Diseases that interfere with liver function will lead to derangement of these processes. However, the liver has a great capacity to regenerate and has a large reserve capacity. In most cases, the liver only produces symptoms after extensive damage.
Hepatomegaly refers to an enlarged liver and can be due to many causes. It can be palpated in a liver span measurement.
Liver diseases may be diagnosed by liver function tests -- blood tests that can identify various markers. For example, acute - phase reactants are produced by the liver in response to injury or inflammation.
The classic symptoms of liver damage include the following:
The diagnosis of liver disease is made by liver function tests, groups of blood tests, that can readily show the extent of liver damage. If infection is suspected, then other serological tests will be carried out. A physical examination of the liver can only reveal its size and any tenderness, and some form of imaging such as an ultrasound or CT scan may also be needed. Sometimes a liver biopsy will be necessary, and a tissue sample is taken through a needle inserted into the skin just below the rib cage. This procedure may be helped by a sonographer providing ultrasound guidance to an interventional radiologist.
Axial CT image showing anomalous hepatic veins coursing on the subcapsular anterior surface of the liver.
Maximum intensity projection (MIP) CT image as viewed anteriorly showing the anomalous hepatic veins coursing on the anterior surface of the liver
Lateral MIP view in the same patient
A CT scan in which the liver and portal vein are shown.
The liver is the only human internal organ capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue; as little as 25 % of a liver can regenerate into a whole liver. This is, however, not true regeneration but rather compensatory growth in mammals. The lobes that are removed do not regrow and the growth of the liver is a restoration of function, not original form. This contrasts with true regeneration where both original function and form are restored. In some other species, such as fish, the liver undergoes true regeneration by restoring both shape and size of the organ. In the liver, large areas of the tissues are formed but for the formation of new cells there must be sufficient amount of material so the circulation of the blood becomes more active.
This is predominantly due to the hepatocytes re-entering the cell cycle. That is, the hepatocytes go from the quiescent G0 phase to the G1 phase and undergo mitosis. This process is activated by the p75 receptors. There is also some evidence of bipotential stem cells, called hepatic oval cells or ovalocytes (not to be confused with oval red blood cells of ovalocytosis), which are thought to reside in the canals of Hering. These cells can differentiate into either hepatocytes or cholangiocytes. Cholangiocytes are the epithelial lining cells of the bile ducts. They are cuboidal epithelium in the small interlobular bile ducts, but become columnar and mucus secreting in larger bile ducts approaching the porta hepatis and the extrahepatic ducts. Research is being carried out on the use of stem cells for the generation of an artificial liver.
Scientific and medical works about liver regeneration often refer to the Greek Titan Prometheus who was chained to a rock in the Caucasus where, each day, his liver was devoured by an eagle, only to grow back each night. The myth suggests the ancient Greeks may have known about the liver 's remarkable capacity for self - repair.
Human liver transplants were first performed by Thomas Starzl in the United States and Roy Calne in Cambridge, England in 1963 and 1967, respectively.
Liver transplantation is the only option for those with irreversible liver failure. Most transplants are done for chronic liver diseases leading to cirrhosis, such as chronic hepatitis C, alcoholism, and autoimmune hepatitis. Less commonly, liver transplantation is done for fulminant hepatic failure, in which liver failure occurs over days to weeks.
Liver allografts for transplant usually come from donors who have died from fatal brain injury. Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person 's liver is removed (hepatectomy) and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Only 20 percent of an adult 's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small child.
More recently, adult - to - adult liver transplantation has been done using the donor 's right hepatic lobe, which amounts to 60 percent of the liver. Due to the ability of the liver to regenerate, both the donor and recipient end up with normal liver function if all goes well. This procedure is more controversial, as it entails performing a much larger operation on the donor, and indeed there have been at least two donor deaths out of the first several hundred cases. A recent publication has addressed the problem of donor mortality, and at least 14 cases have been found. The risk of postoperative complications (and death) is far greater in right - sided operations than that in left - sided operations.
With the recent advances of noninvasive imaging, living liver donors usually have to undergo imaging examinations for liver anatomy to decide if the anatomy is feasible for donation. The evaluation is usually performed by multidetector row computed tomography (MDCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MDCT is good in vascular anatomy and volumetry. MRI is used for biliary tree anatomy. Donors with very unusual vascular anatomy, which makes them unsuitable for donation, could be screened out to avoid unnecessary operations.
MDCT image. Arterial anatomy contraindicated for liver donation
MDCT image. Portal venous anatomy contraindicated for liver donation
MDCT image. 3D image created by MDCT can clearly visualize the liver, measure the liver volume, and plan the dissection plane to facilitate the liver transplantation procedure.
Phase contrast CT image. Contrast is perfusing the right liver but not the left due to a left portal vein thrombus.
Some cultures regard the liver as the seat of the soul.
In Greek mythology, the gods punished Prometheus for revealing fire to humans by chaining him to a rock where a vulture (or an eagle) would peck out his liver, which would regenerate overnight. (The liver is the only human internal organ that actually can regenerate itself to a significant extent.) Many ancient peoples of the Near East and Mediterranean areas practiced a type of divination called haruspicy or hepatomancy, where they tried to obtain information by examining the livers of sheep and other animals.
In Plato, and in later physiology, the liver was thought to be the seat of the darkest emotions (specifically wrath, jealousy and greed) which drive men to action. The Talmud (tractate Berakhot 61b) refers to the liver as the seat of anger, with the gallbladder counteracting this.
The Persian, Urdu, and Hindi languages (جگر or जिगर or jigar) refer to the liver figurative speech to indicate courage and strong feelings, or "their best ''; e.g., "This Mecca has thrown to you the pieces of its liver! ''. The term jan e jigar, literally "the strength (power) of my liver '', is a term of endearment in Urdu. In Persian slang, jigar is used as an adjective for any object which is desirable, especially women. In the Zulu language, the word for liver (isibindi) is the same as the word for courage.
The legend of Liver - Eating Johnson (died 1900) says that he would cut out and eat the liver of each man killed after dinner.
In the motion picture The Message, Hind bint Utbah is implied or portrayed eating the liver of Hamza ibn ' Abd al - Muttalib during the Battle of Uhud in 624. Although there are narrations that suggest that Hind "tasted '' (rather than ate) the liver of Hamza, the authenticity of these narrations has to be questioned.
On November 26, 1987, the city of Ferrol, Spain, inaugurated what is believed to be the only monument to the liver in the world. The then - mayor, Jaime Quintanilla, also happened to be a doctor, and thought it appropriate to promote the monument. At an approximate cost of $3.200, the monument stands in the village of Balón. A plaque reads (in Galician, free translation): "The Liver (is the) basis of Life '', and below "Through History, Mankind tried to cure all illness. By helping it on this duty, you are doing a great job. We are grateful for it ''.
Humans commonly eat the livers of mammals, fowl, and fish as food. Domestic pig, ox, lamb, calf, chicken, and goose livers are widely available from butchers and supermarkets.
Liver can be baked, boiled, broiled, fried, stir - fried, or eaten raw (asbeh nayeh or sawda naye in Lebanese cuisine, or liver sashimi in Japanese cuisine. In many preparations, pieces of liver are combined with pieces of meat or kidneys, as in the various forms of Middle Eastern mixed grill (e.g. meurav Yerushalmi). Well - known examples include liver pâté, foie gras, chopped liver, and leverpastej. Liver sausages such as Braunschweiger and liverwurst are also a valued meal. Liver sausages may also be used as spreads. A traditional South African delicacy, skilpadjies, is made of minced lamb 's liver wrapped in netvet (caul fat), and grilled over an open fire.
Animal livers are rich in iron, vitamin A and vitamin B; and cod liver oil is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Traditionally, some fish livers were valued as food, especially the stingray liver. It was used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England, as well as the beignets de foie de raie and foie de raie en croute in French cuisine.
The liver is found in all vertebrates, and is typically the largest visceral (internal) organ. Its form varies considerably in different species, and is largely determined by the shape and arrangement of the surrounding organs. Nonetheless, in most species it is divided into right and left lobes; exceptions to this general rule include snakes, where the shape of the body necessitates a simple cigar - like form. The internal structure of the liver is broadly similar in all vertebrates.
An organ sometimes referred to as a liver is found associated with the digestive tract of the primitive chordate Amphioxus. Although it performs many functions of a liver, it is not considered a true liver but a homolog of the vertebrate liver. The amphioxus hepatic caecum produces the liver - specific proteins vitellogenin, antithrombin, plasminogen, alanine aminotransferase, and insulin / Insulin - like growth factor (IGF)
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when was the first tube station built in london | London Underground - wikipedia
The London Underground (also known simply as the Underground, or by its nickname the Tube) is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom.
The world 's first underground railway, the Metropolitan Railway, which opened in 1863, is now part of the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines; the first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2016 -- 17 carried 1.379 billion passengers, making it the world 's 11th busiest metro system. The 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day.
The system 's first tunnels were built just below the surface, using the cut - and - cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels -- which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube -- were dug through at a deeper level. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles (400 km) of track. Despite its name, only 45 % of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, with less than 10 % of the stations located south of the River Thames.
The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the "UndergrounD '' brand in the early 20th century and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92 % of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares. The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014.
The LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other TfL transport systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground and TfL Rail. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916.
The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with some of the railway termini in its urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854. To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up. The world 's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas - lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground "inner circle '' connecting London 's main - line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method. Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 km) from Baker Street and the centre of London.
For the first deep - level tube line, the City and South London Railway, two 10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m) diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today 's Monument station) and Stockwell, under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface. This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, known as the "twopenny tube ''. These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m) and 12 feet 2.5 inches (3.721 m), whereas the Great Northern and City Railway, which opened in 1904, was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had 16 - foot (4.9 m) diameter tunnels.
In the early 20th century, the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system, the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle. The District, needing to raise the finance necessary, found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways. The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted.
Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (Bakerloo), the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (Hampstead) and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, (Piccadilly), which all opened between 1906 and 1907. When the "Bakerloo '' was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified "gutter title ''. By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.
In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway, as well as many of London 's bus and tram operators. Only the Metropolitan Railway, along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway, and the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway, remained outside of the Underground Group 's control.
A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps, joint publicity, through ticketing and UNDERGROUND signs outside stations in Central London. The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen 's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and completed in 1920. After the war government - backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington, although the combined service was not named the Northern line until later. The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the "Metro - land '' brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932. The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow.
In 1933, most of London 's underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, which used the London Transport brand. The Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, Harry Beck 's diagrammatic tube map appeared for the first time.
In the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936. The 1935 -- 40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan 's Stanmore branch. World War II suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941. Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London Line were suspended, leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl 's Court began after the war. After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London, these were complete in 1949.
During the war many tube stations were used as air - raid shelters. On 3 March 1943, a test of the air - raid warning sirens, together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green tube station. A total of 173 people, including 62 children, died, making this both the worst civilian disaster of World War II, and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.
On 1 January 1948, under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947, the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive, becoming a subsidiary organisation of the British Transport Commission, which was formed on the same day. Under the same act, the country 's main line railways were also nationalised, and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed.
However, the District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953, this becoming the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, British Railways providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury. In 1962, the British Transport Commission was abolished, and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board, reporting directly to the Minister of Transport. Also during the 1960s, the Victoria line was dug under central London and, unlike the earlier tubes, the tunnels did not follow the roads above. The line opened in 1968 -- 71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms.
On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government, in the form of the Greater London Council (GLC), and the London Transport Board was abolished. The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC.
On Friday 28 February 1975, a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and ploughed into the wall at the end of the tunnel. In the resulting tube crash, 43 people died and a further 74 were injured, this being the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground. In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park, a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident.
In 1979 another new tube, the Jubilee line, named in honour of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee, took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line, linking it to a newly constructed tube between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations. Under the control of the Greater London Council, London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981. Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced.
In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport, whilst still retaining the London Transport brand. One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s.
On 18 November 1987, fire broke out in an escalator at King 's Cross St. Pancras tube station. The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100. London Underground were strongly criticised in the aftermath for their attitude to fires underground, and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport. To comply with new safety regulations issued as a result of the fire, and to combat graffiti, a train refurbishment project was launched in July 1991.
In April 1994, the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line, was transferred to the London Underground. In 1999, the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park station through Docklands to Stratford station, resulting in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations, and including the first stations on the London Underground to have platform edge doors.
Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London 's transport system. TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules. The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London, who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London. However the day - to - day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London.
TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport, and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand. The transfer of responsibility was staged, with transfer of control of the London Underground delayed until July 2003, when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL. Between 2000 and 2003, London Underground was reorganised in a Public - Private Partnership where private infrastructure companies (infracos) upgraded and maintained the railway. This was undertaken before control passed to TfL, who were opposed to the arrangement. One infraco went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over the responsibilities, TfL taking over the other in 2010.
Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was introduced in 2003. London Underground services on the East London line ceased in 2007 so that it could be extended and converted to London Overground operation, and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith. From September 2014, passengers have been able to use contactless cards on the Tube, the use of which has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
The Underground serves 270 stations. Fourteen Underground stations are outside Greater London, of which five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line, and Epping on the Central line), are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the 32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street and Manor House only just inside its boundaries. Lewisham used to be served by the East London Line (stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate). The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010.
London Underground 's eleven lines total 402 kilometres (250 mi) in length, making it the third longest metro system in the world. These are made up of the sub-surface network and the deep - tube lines. The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network, with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines. The Hammersmith & City and Circle lines share stations and most of their track with each other, as well as with the Metropolitan and District lines. The Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep - level tubes, with smaller trains that run in two circular tunnels (tubes) with a diameter about 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m). These lines have the exclusive use of a pair of tracks, except for the Piccadilly line, which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge; and the Bakerloo line, which shares track with London Overground services north of Queen 's Park.
Fifty - five per cent of the system runs on the surface. There are 20 miles (32 km) of cut - and - cover tunnel and 93 miles (150 km) of tube tunnel. Many of the central London underground stations on deep - level tube lines are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing. Trains generally run on the left - hand track. However, in some places, the tunnels are above each other (for example, the Central line east of St Paul 's station), or the running tunnels are on the right (for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King 's Cross St. Pancras, to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston).
The lines are electrified with a four - rail DC system: a conductor rail between the rails is energised at − 210 V and a rail outside the running rails at + 420 V, giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains, such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond, and the Bakerloo line north of Queen 's Park, the centre rail is bonded to the running rails.
The London Underground was used by 1.34 billion passengers in 2015 / 2016.
The Underground uses a number of railways and alignments that were built by main - line railway companies.
Some tracks now in LU ownership remain in use by main line services.
London Underground trains come in two sizes, larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep - tube trains. Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000. All lines use fixed length trains with between six and eight cars, except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars. New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems. Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs, and the size and location of door controls. All underground trains are required to comply with The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 (RVAR 2010) by 2020.
Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter (such as S Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line).
The Underground is served by the following depots:
When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906 it was advertised with a maximum temperature of 60 ° F (16 ° C), but over time the tube tunnels have warmed up. In 1938 approval was given for a ventilation improvement programme, and a refrigeration unit was installed in a lift shaft at Tottenham Court Road. Temperatures of 47 ° C (117 ° F) were reported in the 2006 European heat wave. It was claimed in 2002 that, if animals were being transported, temperatures on the Tube would break European Commission animal welfare laws. A 2000 study reported that air quality was seventy - three times worse than at street level, with a passenger breathing the same mass of particulates during a twenty - minute journey on the Northern line as when smoking a cigarette. The main purpose of the London Underground 's ventilation fans is to extract hot air from the tunnels, and fans across the network are being refurbished, although complaints of noise from local residents preclude their use at full power at night.
In June 2006 a groundwater cooling system was installed at Victoria station. In 2012, air - cooling units were installed on platforms at Green Park station using cool deep groundwater and at Oxford Circus using chiller units at the top of an adjacent building. New air - conditioned trains are being introduced on the sub-surface lines, but space is limited on tube trains for air - conditioning units and these would heat the tunnels even more. The Deep Tube Programme, investigating replacing the trains for the Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines, is looking for trains with better energy conservation and regenerative braking, on which it might be possible to install a form of air conditioning.
In the original Tube design, trains passing through close fitting tunnels act as pistons to create air pressure gradients between stations. This pressure difference drives ventilation between platforms and the surface exits through the passenger foot network. This system depends on adequate cross sectional area of the airspace above the passengers ' heads in the foot tunnels and escalators, where laminar airflow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, the Hagen -- Poiseuille equation. It also depends on an absence of turbulence in the tunnel headspace. In many stations the ventilation system is now ineffective because of alterations that reduce tunnel diameters and increase turbulence. An example is Green Park tube station, where false ceiling panels attached to metal frames have been installed that reduce the above - head airspace diameter by more than half in many parts. This has the effect of reducing laminar airflow by some 94 %.
Originally air turbulence was kept to a minimum by keeping all signage flat to the tunnel walls. Now the ventilation space above head height is crowded with ducting, conduits, cameras, speakers and equipment acting as a baffle plates with predictable reductions in flow. Often electronic signs have their flat surface at right angles to the main air flow, causing choked flow. Temporary sign boards that stand at the top of escalators also maximise turbulence. The alterations to the ventilation system are important, not only to heat exchange, but also the quality of the air at platform level, particularly given its asbestos content.
Originally access to the deep - tube platforms was by a lift. Each lift was staffed, and at some quiet stations in the 1920s the ticket office was moved into the lift, or it was arranged that the lift could be controlled from the ticket office. The first escalator on the London Underground was installed in 1911 between the District and Piccadilly platforms at Earl 's Court and from the following year new deep - level stations were provided with escalators instead of lifts. The escalators had a diagonal shunt at the top landing. In 1921 a recorded voice instructed passengers to stand on the right and signs followed in World War II. Travellers were asked to stand on the right so that anyone wishing to overtake them would have a clear passage on the left side of the escalator. The first ' comb ' type escalator was installed in 1924 at Clapham Common. In the 1920s and 1930s many lifts were replaced by escalators. After the fatal 1987 King 's Cross fire, all wooden escalators were replaced with metal ones and the mechanisms are regularly degreased to lower the potential for fires. The only wooden escalator not to be replaced was at Greenford station, which remained until October 2015 when TfL replaced it with the first incline lift on the UK transport network.
There are 426 escalators on the London Underground system and the longest, at 60 metres (200 ft), is at Angel. The shortest, at Stratford, gives a vertical rise of 4.1 metres (13 ft). There are 164 lifts, and numbers have increased in recent years because of a programme to increase accessibility.
In summer 2012 London Underground, in partnership with Virgin Media, tried out Wi - Fi hot spots in many stations, but not in the tunnels, that allowed passengers free internet access. The free trial proved successful and was extended to the end of 2012 whereupon it switched to a service freely available to subscribers to Virgin Media and others, or as a paid - for service. It is not currently possible to use mobile phones underground using native 2G, 3G or 4G networks, and a project to extend coverage before the 2012 Olympics was abandoned because of commercial and technical difficulties. UK subscribers to the O2 or Three mobile networks can use the Tu Go or InTouch apps respectively to route their voice calls and texts messages via the Virgin Media Wifi network at 138 London Transport stations. The EE network also has recently released a WiFi calling feature available on the iPhone.
The Elizabeth line, under the project name Crossrail, is under construction and expected to open in stages until 2018, providing a new underground route across central London integrated with, but not part of the London Underground system. A part of National Rail which will become part of Crossrail, and which has already been completed, is currently running under the name "TfL Rail ''. The new line will use Class 345 trains, currently built and tested by Bombardier in Derby, UK, and serve 40 stations. Two options are being considered for the route of Crossrail 2 on a north - south alignment across London, with hopes that it could be open by 2033.
The Croxley Rail Link involves re-routing the Metropolitan line 's Watford branch from the current terminus at Watford over part of the disused Croxley Green branch line to Watford Junction with stations at Cassiobridge, Watford Vicarage Road and Watford High Street (which is currently only a part of London Overground). Funding was agreed in December 2011, and the final approval for the extension was given on 24 July 2013. Work started in 2016, with the aim of completion by 2020.
It is planned that the Northern line be extended to Battersea with an intermediate station at Nine Elms. In December 2012, the Treasury confirmed that it will provide a guarantee that allows the Greater London Authority to borrow up to £ 1 billion from the Public Works Loan Board, at a preferential rate, to finance the construction of the line. In April 2013, Transport for London applied for the legal powers of a Transport and Works Act Order to proceed with the extension. Preparation works started in Spring 2015. The main tunnelling started in 2017. The stations could open in 2020.
Provision will be made for a possible future extension to Clapham Junction by notifying the London Borough of Wandsworth of a reserved course under Battersea Park and subsequent streets.
In 1931 the extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Camberwell was approved, with stations at Albany Road and an interchange at Denmark Hill. However, with post-war austerity, the plan was abandoned. In 2006 Ken Livingstone, the then Mayor of London, announced that within twenty years Camberwell would have a tube station. Transport for London has indicated that extensions, possibly to Camberwell, could play a part in the future transport strategy for South London over the coming years. However, no such planning of an extension has been revealed. There have also been many other proposals to extend the line to Streatham, Lewisham, and even beyond Lewisham, taking over the suburban Hayes line via Catford Bridge to relieve some capacity on the suburban rail network.
In 2006, as part of the planning for the transfer of the North London Line to what became London Overground, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to Watford Junction.
The London Borough of Hillingdon has proposed that the Central line be extended from West Ruislip to Uxbridge via Ickenham, claiming this would cut traffic on the A40 in the area.
In Summer 2014 Transport for London issued a tender for up to 18 trains for the Jubilee line and up to 50 trains for the Northern line. These would be used to increase frequencies and cover the Battersea extension on the Northern line.
In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Piccadilly, Central and Waterloo & City line rolling - stock replacement project was renamed New Tube for London (NTfL) and moved from the feasibility stage to the design and specification stage. The study had showed that, with new generation trains and re-signalling:
The project is estimated to cost £ 16.42 billon (£ 9.86 bn at 2013 prices). A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains. On 9 October 2014 TFL published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £ 1.0 billion and £ 2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode. The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety. The Invitation to Tender for the trains was issued in January 2016; the specifications for the Piccadilly line infrastructure are expected in 2016, and the first train is due to run on the Piccadilly line in 2022.
The Underground received £ 2.669 billion in fares in 2016 / 17 and uses Transport for London 's zonal fare system to calculate fares. There are nine zones, zone 1 being the central zone, which includes the loop of the Circle line with a few stations to the south of River Thames. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies. Paper tickets, the contactless Oyster cards, contactless debit or credit cards and Apple Pay smartphones and watches can be used for travel. Single and return tickets are available in either format, but Travelcards (season tickets) for longer than a day are available only on Oyster cards.
TfL introduced the Oyster card in 2003; this is a pre-payment smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip. It can be loaded with Travelcards and used on the Underground, the Overground, buses, trams, the Docklands Light Railway, and National Rail services within London. Fares for single journeys are cheaper than paper tickets, and a daily cap limits the total cost in a day to the price of a Day Travelcard. The Oyster card must be ' touched in ' at the start and end of a journey, otherwise it is regarded as ' incomplete ' and the maximum fare charged. In March 2012 the cost of this in the previous year to travellers was £ 66.5 million. Contactless payment cards can be used instead of an Oyster card on buses, and this was extended to London Underground, London Overground, DLR and most National Rail services in London from 16 September 2014. The use of these has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
A concessionary fare scheme is operated by London Councils for residents who are disabled or meet certain age criteria. Residents born before 1951 were eligible after their 60th birthday, whereas those born in 1955 will need to wait until they are 66. Called a "Freedom Pass '' it allows free travel on TfL - operated routes at all times and is valid on some National Rail services within London at weekends and after 09: 30 on Monday to Fridays. Since 2010, the Freedom Pass has included an embedded holder 's photograph; it lasts five years between renewals.
In addition to automatic and staffed faregates at stations, the Underground also operates on a proof - of - payment system. The system is patrolled by both uniformed and plain - clothes fare inspectors with hand - held Oyster - card readers. Passengers travelling without a valid ticket must pay a penalty fare of £ 80 (or £ 40 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 and Transport for London Byelaws.
The tube closes overnight. The first trains run from about 05: 00 and the last trains until just after 01: 00, with later starting times at weekends. The nightly closures are used for maintenance, but some lines stay open on New Year 's Eve and run for longer hours during major public events such as the 2012 London Olympics. Some lines are occasionally closed for scheduled engineering work at weekends.
The Underground runs a limited service on Christmas Eve with some lines closing early, and does not operate on Christmas Day. Since 2010 a dispute between London Underground and trade unions over holiday pay has resulted in a limited service on Boxing Day.
On 19 August 2016, London Underground launched a 24 - hour service on the Victoria and Central lines with plans in place to extend this to the Piccadilly, Northern and Jubilee lines in the autumn starting on Friday morning and continuing right through until Sunday evening. The Night Tube proposal was originally scheduled to start on 12 September 2015, following completion of upgrades, but in August 2015 it was announced that the start date for the Night Tube had been pushed back because of ongoing talks about contract terms between trade unions and London Underground. On 23 May 2016 it was announced that the night service would launch on 19 August 2016 for the Central and Victoria lines. The service operates on the:
The Jubilee, Piccadilly and Victoria lines operate at 10 - minute intervals, and the Central line between White City and Leytonstone, but operates at 20 - minute intervals from Leytonstone to Hainault / Loughton, and 20 minutes between White City and Ealing Broadway. The Northern line operates at roughly 8 - minute intervals between Morden and Camden Town via Charing Cross, and 15 - minute intervals from Camden Town to Edgware / High Barnet.
No services will operate on the other lines for the time being. When the upgrade of the Circle, Hammersmith & City, District and Metropolitan lines is complete and the new signalling system has been fully introduced, along with new trains already in operation, the Night Tube service will be extended to these lines.
Accessibility for people with limited mobility was not considered when most of the system was built, and before 1993 fire regulations prohibited wheelchairs on the Underground. The stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, opened in 1999, were designed for accessibility, but retrofitting accessibility features to the older stations is a major investment that is planned to take over twenty years. A 2010 London Assembly Report concluded that over 10 % of people in London had reduced mobility and, with an ageing population, numbers will increase in the future.
The standard issue tube map indicates stations that are step - free from street to platforms. There can also be a step from platform to train as large as 12 inches (300 mm) and a gap between the train and curved platforms, and these distances are marked on the map. Access from platform to train at some stations can be assisted using a boarding ramp operated by staff, and a section has been raised on some platforms to reduce the step.
As of December 2012 there are 66 stations with step - free access from platform to train, and there are plans to provide step - free access at another 28 in ten years. By 2016 a third of stations are to have platform humps that reduce the step from platform to train. New trains, such as those being introduced on the sub-surface network, have access and room for wheelchairs, improved audio and visual information systems and accessible door controls.
During peak hours, stations can get so crowded that they need to be closed. Passengers may not get on the first train and the majority of passengers do not find a seat on their trains, some trains having more than four passengers every square metre. When asked, passengers report overcrowding as the aspect of the network that they are least satisfied with, and overcrowding has been linked to poor productivity and potential poor heart health. Capacity increases have been overtaken by increased demand, and peak overcrowding has increased by 16 per cent since 2004 / 5.
Compared with 2003 / 4, the reliability of the network had increased in 2010 / 11, with Lost Customer Hours reduced from 54 million to 40 million. Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL, and in 2010, 330,000 passengers of a potential 11 million Tube passengers claimed compensation for delays. A number of mobile phone apps and services have been developed to help passengers claim their refund more efficiently.
London Underground is authorised to operate trains by the Office of Rail Regulation, and the latest Safety Certification and Safety Authorisation is valid until 2017. As at 19 March 2013 there had been 310 days since the last major incident, when a passenger had died after falling on the track. As of 2015 there have been nine consecutive years in which no employee fatalities have occurred.
In November 2011 it was reported that 80 people had committed suicide in the previous year on the London Underground, up from 46 in 2000. Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits, often referred to as ' suicide pits ', beneath the track. These were constructed in 1926 to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but halve the likelihood of a fatality when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train.
Early maps of the Metropolitan and District railways were city maps with the lines superimposed, and the District published a pocket map in 1897. A Central London Railway route diagram appears on a 1904 postcard and 1905 poster, similar maps appearing in District Railway cars in 1908. In the same year, following a marketing agreement between the operators, a joint central area map that included all the lines was published. A new map was published in 1921 without any background details, but the central area was squashed, requiring smaller letters and arrows. Harry Beck had the idea of expanding this central area, distorting geography, and simplifying the map so that the railways appeared as straight lines with equally spaced stations. He presented his original draft in 1931, and after initial rejection it was first printed in 1933. Today 's tube map is an evolution of that original design, and the ideas are used by many metro systems around the world.
The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Emirates Air Line, London Tramlink and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes suburban railway services. The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground 's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine.
While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the trademark of the London General Omnibus Company registered in 1905, it was first used on the Underground in 1908 when the UERL placed a solid red circle behind station nameboards on platforms to highlight the name. The word "UNDERGROUND '' was placed in a roundel instead of a station name on posters in 1912 by Charles Sharland and Alfred France, as well as on undated and possibly earlier posters from the same period. Frank Pick thought the solid red disc cumbersome and took a version where the disc became a ring from a 1915 Sharland poster and gave it to Edward Johnston to develop, and registered the symbol as a trademark in 1917. The roundel was first printed on a map cover using the Johnston typeface in June 1919, and printed in colour the following October.
After the UERL was absorbed into the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, it used forms of the roundel for buses, trams and coaches, as well as the Underground. The words "London Transport '' were added inside the ring, above and below the bar. The Carr - Edwards report, published in 1938 as possibly the first attempt at a graphics standards manual, introduced stricter guidelines. Between 1948 and 1957 the word "Underground '' in the bar was replaced by "London Transport ''. As of 2013, forms of the roundel, with differing colours for the ring and bar, is used for other TfL services, such as London Buses, Tramlink, London Overground, London River Services and Docklands Light Railway. Crossrail, due to open in 2018, is to be identified with a roundel. The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.
Seventy of the 270 London Underground stations use buildings that are on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest, and five have entrances in listed buildings. The Metropolitan Railway 's original seven stations were inspired by Italianate designs, with the platforms lit by daylight from above and by gas lights in large glass globes. Early District Railway stations were similar and on both railways the further from central London the station the simpler the construction. The City & South London Railway opened with red - brick buildings, designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis, topped with a lead - covered dome that contained the lift mechanism. The Central London Railway appointed Harry Bell Measures as architect, who designed its pinkish - brown steel - framed buildings with larger entrances.
In the first decade of the 20th century Leslie Green established a house style for the tube stations built by the UERL, which were clad in ox - blood faience blocks. Green pioneered using building design to guide passengers with direction signs on tiled walls, with the stations given a unique identity with patterns on the platform walls. Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas. Harry W. Ford was responsible for the design of at least 17 UERL and District Railway stations, including Barons Court and Embankment, and claimed to have first thought of enlarging the U and D in the UNDERGROUND wordmark. The Met 's architect Charles Walter Clark had used a neo-classical design for rebuilding Baker Street and Paddington Praed Street stations before World War I and, although the fashion had changed, continued with Farringdon in 1923. The buildings had metal lettering attached to pale walls. Clark would later design "Chiltern Court '', the large, luxurious block of apartments at Baker Street, that opened in 1929. In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art - deco stations some of which he described as his ' brick boxes with concrete lids '. Holden 's design for the Underground 's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant - garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore.
When the Central line was extended east, the stations were simplified Holden proto - Brutalist designs, and a cavernous concourse built at Gants Hill in honour of early Moscow Metro stations. Few new stations were built in the 50 years after 1948, but Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria line, contributing to the line 's uniform look, with each station having an individual tile motif. Notable stations from this period include Moor Park, the stations of the Piccadilly line extension to Heathrow and Hillingdon. The stations of the 1990s extension of the Jubilee line were much larger than before and designed in a high - tech style by architects such as Norman Foster and Michael Hopkins, making extensive use of exposed metal plating. West Ham station was built as a homage to the red brick tube stations of the 1930s, using brick, concrete and glass.
Many platforms have unique interior designs to help passenger identification. The tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes 's silhouette and at Tottenham Court Road semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi feature musical instruments, tape machines and butterflies. Robyn Denny designed the murals on the Northern line platforms at Embankment.
The first posters used a number of type fonts, as was contemporary practice, and station signs used sans serif block capitals. The Johnston typeface was developed in upper and lower case in 1916, and a complete set of blocks, marked Johnston Sans, was made by the printers the following year. A bold version of the capitals was developed by Johnston in 1929. The Met changed to a serif letterform for its signs in the 1920s, used on the stations rebuilt by Clark. However, Johnston was adopted systemwide after the formation of the LPTB in 1933 and the LT wordmark was applied to locomotives and carriages. Johnston was redesigned, becoming New Johnston, for photo - typesetting in the early 1980s when Elichi Kono designed a range that included Light, Medium and Bold, each with its italic version. The typesetters P22 developed today 's electronic version, sometimes called TfL Johnston, in 1997.
Early advertising posters proclaimed the advantages of travelling using various letter forms. Graphic posters first appeared in the 1890s, and it became possible to print colour images economically in the early 20th century. The Central London Railway used colour illustrations in their 1905 poster, and from 1908 the underground group, under Pick 's direction, used images of country scenes, shopping and major events on posters to encourage use of the tube. Pick found he was limited by the commercial artists the printers used, and so commissioned work from artists and designers such as Dora Batty, Edward McKnight Kauffer, the cartoonist George Morrow, Herry (Heather) Perry, Graham Sutherland, Charles Sharland and the sisters Anna and Doris Zinkeisen. According to Ruth Artmonsky, over 150 women artists were commissioned by Pick and latterly Christian Barman to design posters for London Underground, London Transport and London County Council Tramways. The Johnston Sans letter form began appearing on posters from 1917. The Met, strongly independent, used images on timetables and on the cover of its Metro - land guide that promoted the country it served for the walker, visitor and later the house - hunter. By the time London Transport was formed in 1933 the UERL was considered a patron of the arts and over 1000 works were commissioned in the 1930s, such as the cartoon images of Charles Burton and Kauffer 's later abstract cubist and surrealist images. Harold Hutchison became London Transport publicity officer in 1947, after World War II and nationalisation, and introduced the "pair poster '', where an image on a poster was paired with text on another. Numbers of commissions dropped, to eight a year in the 1950s and just four a year in the 1970s, with images from artists such Harry Stevens and Tom Eckersley.
Art on the Underground was introduced in 1986 by Henry Fitzhugh to revive London Transport as a patron of the arts with the Underground commissioning six works a year, judged first on artistic merit. In that year Peter Lee, Celia Lyttleton and a poster by David Booth, Malcolm Fowler and Nancy Fowler were commissioned. Today commissions range from the pocket tube map cover to installations in a station.
Similarly, Poems on the Underground has commissioned poetry since 1986 that are displayed in carriages.
The Underground (including several fictitious stations) has been featured in many movies and television shows, including Skyfall, Die Another Day, Sliding Doors, An American Werewolf in London, Creep, Tube Tales, Sherlock and Neverwhere. The London Underground Film Office received over 200 requests to film in 2000. The Underground has also featured in music such as The Jam 's "Down in the Tube Station at Midnight '' and in literature such as the graphic novel V for Vendetta. Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 has a level named Mind The Gap where most of the level takes place between the dockyards and Westminster while the player and a team of SAS attempt to take down terrorists attempting to escape using the London Underground via a hijacked train. The game also features the map "Underground '', in which players are put in a fictitious Underground station. The London Underground map serves as a playing field for the conceptual game of Mornington Crescent (which is named after a station on the Northern line) and the board game The London Game.
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what is the song all of my love about | All My Love (Led Zeppelin song) - wikipedia
"All My Love '' is the sixth track on Led Zeppelin 's 1979 album In Through the Out Door. Credited to Robert Plant and John Paul Jones, it is a rock ballad that features a synthesizer solo by Jones. It was written in honour of Plant 's son Karac, who died while Led Zeppelin was on their 1977 North American tour.
"All My Love '' is a mid-tempo rock - style ballad, which biographer Nigel Williamson describes as "underpinned by a semi-classical arrangement of the kind popular at the time with the likes of Genesis and ELO ''. The original working title was "The Hook ''. The song was recorded between November and December 1978 at Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. A studio outtake of an extended version of the song exists, timed around 7: 55 (the song itself would be timed around 6: 57). It has a complete ending, with Plant extending the last chorus with much ad - libbing and a twangy B - Bender guitar solo by Page. This version is found on several Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings.
Led Zeppelin performed the song during their concert tour of Europe in 1980. It was one of the most well received performances of the tour. "All My Love '' is also included on the Led Zeppelin compilations Early Days and Latter Days, Remasters and Mothership.
In a review for In Through the Out Door (Deluxe Edition), Andrew Doscas of PopMatters described "All My Love '' as "the saddest and most heartfelt Zeppelin song. '' Doscas described the song as "a fitting ode to Plant 's son, which hauntingly enough sounds like a foreshadowing of a band on the path to an impending and unforeseeable dissolution.
In an interview he later gave to rock journalist Cameron Crowe, Plant stated that this song was one of Led Zeppelin 's "finest moments ''. However, guitarist Jimmy Page expressed less fondness for the song:
We (drummer John Bonham and I) both felt In Through the Out Door was a little soft. I was n't really keen on "All My Love. '' I was a little worried about the chorus. I could just imagine people doing the wave and all of that. And I thought, ' That 's not us. ' In its place it was fine, but I would n't have wanted to pursue that direction in the future.
A mono mix of the song was re-released in 2015 on In Through the Out Door (Deluxe Edition), under the title "The Hook ''.
1979 7 '' single edition (Brazil: Swan Song SS 11105, Paraguay: Swan Song 11.105)
1979 7 '' single edition (Argentina: Swan Song SS 79435)
1980 7 '' single edition (Peru: Capricornio 030 (RI 16288))
Notes: (*) B - side by Herb Alpert
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when did the spanish settle in the new world | Spanish colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492 -- 1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850 -- 1950).
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain 's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas.
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans - Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish - occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present - day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas, in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa 's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519 -- 21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico 's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations. But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city - states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city - states ' political hierarchy and social structure in place.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present - day Mexico and northern Central America. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519, marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established by Charles V in 1535 with the appointment of Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first viceroy.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad '' and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires. '' The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
Between 1537 and 1543, six Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern - day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.
Spain 's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, México City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and promote greater efficiency.
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators '') were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas - born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present - day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present - day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain 's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish -- American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self - governing unincorporated territory.
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians '' estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus 's arrival in 1492.
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90 % (reduced to 1 -- 2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. The overwhelming cause of decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896 -- 1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821 -- 1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846 -- 1910).
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metro north fare from harlem to white plains | Harlem line - wikipedia
Metro - North 's Harlem Line, originally chartered as the New York and Harlem Railroad, is an 82 - mile (132 km) commuter rail line running north from New York City into eastern Dutchess County. The lower 53 miles (86 km) from Grand Central Terminal to Southeast, in Putnam County, is electrified with a third rail and has two (or more) tracks; north of that point, trains use diesel locomotives on a single track. The diesel trains run as a shuttle on the northern end of the line except during rush hours, when they run as expresses to or from Grand Central. There is also one direct roundtrip to Grand Central on weekends. While the line has traditionally served to bring commuters from Westchester County to jobs in the city, in recent years it has begun to see more "reverse commuting '', as Bronx residents use it to reach jobs in Southern Westchester where many stations are within walking distance of city centers. The northern reaches of the line are also close enough to Western Massachusetts to enable residents of part of that region to commute to jobs in the city as well.
With 38 stations, the Harlem Line has the most of any Metro - North main line. Its northern terminal, Wassaic, is the northernmost station in the system. It is the only Metro - North line used exclusively by that carrier (no use by Amtrak, though CSX services freight customers as far north as Mount Vernon) and the only one that uses the entirety of existing track. Metro - North has assigned it the color code blue, used as trim on station signs and spot color on printed timetables. The blue color - coding appears to have started with timetables issued by predecessor New York Central as far back as 1965.
The Harlem Line hews closely to roads along river - based transportation corridors dating back to even pre-rail times. It follows three major parkways closely from the Bronx northwards through Westchester: the Bronx River Parkway (and a short portion that becomes the Taconic State Parkway), the Saw Mill River Parkway and Interstate 684. In the last section it also begins to run close to NY 22, the long north - south two - lane state highway that parallels the eastern border of the state.
In Westchester, it serves some of that county 's most affluent communities as it slowly trends eastward.
The Harlem Line begins at Grand Central Terminal. The train tracks rise to ground level north of 97th Street in Manhattan. After stopping at Harlem -- 125th Street, the Harlem Line crosses the Harlem River at 135th Street in Manhattan, entering the Bronx.
In the Bronx, the Harlem Line cuts through the neighborhoods of the southwest Bronx, with two stations: Melrose, at 162nd Street (it then runs under the Cross Bronx Expressway (I - 95) and Tremont, at 177th Street. Fordham station is next, at Fordham Road (190th Street). The Harlem Line then parallels the western edge of Fordham University until the Botanical Garden station at Bedford Park Boulevard (200th Street).
The Harlem Line then cuts northeast to join the Bronx River Parkway, which lies to the east of the tracks. The Williams Bridge station is next, at Gun Hill Road (210th Street). After the Williams Bridge station, Woodlawn Cemetery begins to the west of the tracks, with Webster Avenue in between the cemetery and tracks. The Woodlawn station is at 233rd Street, and it is north of here that the New Haven Line diverges to head east towards the Northeast Corridor.
The Harlem Line then goes under a bridge for the parkway, and it remains to the west of the tracks until Scarsdale station. The Wakefield station at 241st Street concludes the Bronx portion of the Harlem Line.
The Westchester portion of the Harlem Line begins at Bronx River Road in southeastern Yonkers. After the Mount Vernon West station, the Harlem Line runs along the on - ramp to the Cross County Parkway eastbound, right before Fleetwood station. After the Bronxville station, the Harlem Line parallels the Bronx River Parkway all the way up to White Plains.
From White Plains, the railroad winds its way through the city and passing through the yards at North White Plains which until 1984 was the northern boundary of third - rail electrification. The stretch north of North White Plains is unique because it is the only third - rail electrified stretch of Metro - North 's network that has grade crossings, a byproduct of its existence pre-electrification. Katonah and Brewster are located right next to grade crossings.
After North White Plains, the next station is Valhalla adjacent to the Taconic State Parkway. The double - track railroad then curves to follow the Saw Mill River Valley and the eponymous parkway. Rail and road briefly separate at Mount Kisco, but then remain close by at the last stop along the Saw Mill, Bedford Hills (although the parkway can not be seen from the station).
Past Katonah, the railroad runs between the Croton River and I - 684. Golden 's Bridge and Purdy 's are both located very close to the interstate, although only the former can be seen from it. North of the latter, the tracks follow the river to Croton Falls, and pick up Route 22 for the first time.
After Croton Falls station, the Harlem Line runs along East Branch Reservoir and crosses into Putnam County and its rural landscape. Above Brewster station, the railroad passes through the yards at Putnam Junction to Southeast station (formerly Brewster North). This is the northern boundary of third rail electrification. Diesel territory and single track operation begins here, near the track 's passage under Interstate 84. The Wassaic Branch is not signalized, and manual block system rules are used to direct train movements. The track finally follows its own course, away from any road or river, past the former Dykemans and abandoned Towners stations up to Patterson and into Dutchess County.
Shortly before reaching Pawling, the line enters the Harlem Valley (which it takes its name from the railroad, which is named for the Harlem River noted above) and begins to parallel Route 22, although not as closely as it did the roads further south. A few miles north of Pawling the Appalachian Trail crossing has its own stop to allow thru - hikers to take a break in the city and day hikers to visit the nearby Pawling Nature Preserve.
The next two stops, Harlem Valley -- Wingdale and Dover Plains, are roughly eight miles (13 km) apart, the longest distance between any two stops on the Harlem Line. From 1972 to 2000, Dover Plains was the last stop on the line, but then tracks remaining from the NYCRR era that had not yet been torn up were renovated and the line was extended to Tenmile River and its new northern terminus, Wassaic. A small yard where diesel trains await their routes just past the station marks the end of the line.
The Harlem Line in its current form originated from the New York and Harlem Railroad, which was the first streetcar company in the United States and in the world. It was franchised, on April 25, 1831, to run between the original city core in lower Manhattan to the suburb of Harlem, several miles to the north on Manhattan Island. The line was originally planned to run between 23rd Street and any point on the Harlem River between Eighth and Third Avenue. While the company wanted to run the line as a steam line, the portion of the line south of 14th Street was run by horse power, at the request of the city. On September 13, 1831, the Board of Directors of the railroad approved its route along Fourth Avenue from 23rd Street to the Harlem River. Ground broke on the construction of the line on February 23, 1832 at Murray Hill on Fourth Avenue. On April 6, 1832, the railroad 's charter was amended to allow the line to be extended south to 14th Street.
The first section, along Bowery from Prince Street north to 14th Street, opened on November 26, 1832. Service was then extended northward along Fourth Avenue to 32nd Street on June 10, 1833. Service was extended north along Fourth Avenue to Yorkville on May 9, 1834, including the Murray Hill Tunnel. Service was extended 2 miles (3.2 km) to finally reach Harlem on October 26, 1837, with the Yorkville Tunnel constructed to reach this point. At the time, Harlem was just a small suburb of the city. Service was also extended further south. On May 4, 1839 the line was extended south along Bowery, Broome Street and Centre Street to City Hall at Centre Street and Park Row. Service was extended south on November 26, 1852 along Park Row to Astor House at Park Row and Broadway.
On May 7, 1840, the New York State Legislature granted the railroad the right to extend into Westchester as the New York and Albany Railroad Company failed to build its line from the Harlem River to Albany. The necessary land for the extension was acquired due to the diplomatic skills of Gouverneur Morris of Morrisania, who was able to convince landowners that their prejudices against the railroad were unjust. The New York and Albany Railroad had been granted its charter on April 17, 1832, allowing it to build a single or double - track line from Albany to New York along the Harlem River. Ground on this line was broken in various areas, and some portions were completed. The line was not being completed as quickly as its charter said it would, so the New York State Legislature granted it multiple extensions to allow for the work to be completed. The last time an extension was granted was on April 11, 1842. The New York and Harlem Railroad bought that company for $35,000 on March 9, 1846, as it had failed to make any progress on the construction of the line. The right - of - way and land for that line was sold as part of this transaction, on which, it built its line into Westchester, Putnam, Dutchess, and Columbia Counties.
Service was extended into Westchester in multiple stages. The line was first extended north 4 miles (6.4 km) into Westchester on December 14, 1840, before reaching Fordham on March 1, 1841. Extended service reached Williams Bridge on September 3, 1842, and then in the summer of 1844, the line reached Tuckahoe. On December 1, 1844, the line 's terminus became White Plains, but in October 1846, trains began ending their runs at Pleasantville. Service reached Mount Kisco and Croton Falls, in February 1847, and on June 1, 1847, respectively. On December 31, 1848, Harlem Railroad service was extended to Dover Plains, providing service to parts of Putnam County and Dutchess County. On May 10, 1852, the line was extended north to Chatham Four Corners in Dutchess County with a connection to the Boston and Albany Railroad, and trackage rights northwest to Albany. In the years following, the Harlem Railroad ran some of its trains over the Boston and Albany Railroad from Chatham to Albany.
A freight branch, 1.84 miles (2.96 km) long, was built to Port Morris, from the 1853 purchase of the Spuyten Duyvil and Port Morris Railroad.
Prior to becoming part of the Metro - North system, the line continued all the way north to Chatham, New York, where connections could be made for Albany to the west or Boston to the east on the Boston and Albany Railroad. Additional connections could be made to railroads serving North Bennington, Vermont and other points in western Vermont. Chatham is about 52 miles past the current terminal at Wassaic. In Boston Corners, about 12 miles north of Wassaic, passengers could make connections to the Central New England Railroad. To the east, the CNE went to Hartford, Connecticut. Westward, passengers could travel to Poughkeepsie, cross the Poughkeepsie Bridge, finally to Campbell Hall.
In 1871, the depot that the line used was changed from being at 26th Street and Fourth Avenue to Grand Central Depot at 42nd Street.
On April 1, 1873, the New York and Harlem Railroad was leased for 401 years to the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company. The line then became the Harlem Division of the New York Central. The lease did not include the portion of the line using horse cars. Horse cars were replaced with an underground trolley system in 1897 when it was leased to the Metropolitan Street Railway Company.
In 1875, the line was grade - separated and put in an open cut and a viaduct between Grand Central and the Harlem River to reduce the loss of life and to increase speeds. The work was completed for $6,000,000, of which half was paid by the city.
On May 15, 1876, partial rapid transit began on the Harlem Line, with sixteen trains a day running between Grand Central Depot and William 's Bridge. These trains made all stops between Grand Central and William 's Bridge, with the exception of Jerome Park, which was skipped by half of trains. This was in addition to eight regular trains per day that stopped at William 's Bridge. Two new stations were opened at 86th Street and 110th Street, both being exclusively served by the rapid transit service.
On February 15, 1897, trains on the Harlem Division started running over the new drawbridge over the Harlem River and the elevated structure connecting to it. As part of the project, the line north of 106th Street to the Harlem River was elevated so that it could reach the height of the new four - track drawbridge, the only one in the country at the time. The project was known as the Park Avenue Improvement. The new line went via a steel viaduct, replacing a masonry viaduct and an open cut. The 400 feet (120 m) bridge was built for about $500,000 by the King Bridge Company. The new bridge is 24 feet (7.3 m) higher than the old bridge, as mandated by the Federal Government. During the course of construction, trains ran over a temporary wooden structure along with a temporary wooden drawbridge. The station at Mott Haven on the Bronx side of the Harlem River had to be elevated. The entire cost was $2,000,000.
On October 15, 1897, a spacious new station in Harlem was opened at 125th Street, replacing a small, dingy station in the old Park Avenue open cut. The new station was built atop the old open cut and directly under the new Park Avenue Viaduct. The platforms, which was built on the viaduct, was built to be 400 feet (120 m) long.
In November 1907, the first electric train operated on the Harlem Division, running between Grand Central Terminal and Wakefield. On October 10, 1909, the New York Central began installing third rail between Mount Vernon and White Plains. On March 14, 1910, electric service was extended to North White Plains. Passengers that used the Upper Harlem Division were attracted to this cleaner, faster service. Property values along the line increased. Other improvements were made to the Harlem Division at the same time: grade crossings were being eliminated, tracks were being straightened, and new stations were built at White Plains and Mount Vernon.
In 1910, a yard dating back to the 1870s in Dover Plains was relocated to Putnam Junction in Brewster.
On October 18, 1930, the Public Service Commission listed the elimination of a grade crossing in Amenia, Benson crossing, as one of its projects to consider. The cost estimate for eliminating it was $100,000.
On September 12, 1952, the New York Central 's last steam - powered train run in the metropolitan area ran on the Harlem Division, being replaced by diesel locomotives. However, they began wearing out in the 1970s, leading to a decline in service.
On December 20, 1956, the state opened up bids for the elimination of grade - crossings in Pleasantville. Planned for 25 years, it was expected to cost $3,857,000. The crossings to be eliminated were at Manville and Bedford Roads. The tracks were lowered for 7,000 feet (2,100 m) and the two roads were bridged over the railroad. The station at Pleasantville was moved.
On August 12, 1960, the New York Public Service Commission ordered the New York Central to continue the level of service to Chatham until it determined how much service was required. The Central had wanted to cut one train each way daily, leaving only one round trip.
Starting on October 25, 1961, some trains became equipped with two - way radio communication on the Harlem Line to test the technology with the hope of adding them to all commuter trains on the New York Central. They were meant to be used when delays in service occurred.
On January 10, 1964, the Public Service Commission approved plans by the New York Central to implement zoned fares in the southern part of the New York commutation area (north to North White Plains). The plan went into effect on January 22. Though it was meant to be experimental, and to last one year, this was kept in place.
In May 1970, the Penn Central planned to discontinue service from Dover Plains to Chatham when Amtrak declined to take over that service. However, the Attorney General maintained that this service was within the commuter area, and therefore not subject to discontinuation. Without the objection, this service would have been eliminated on May 1, 1971 when the Amtrak passenger service went into effect. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) held hearings on this in May 1971, and it ruled on June 28, 1971 that the service to Chatham was intercity -- not commuter. On that same day, a bill that would have extended the power of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority to Chatham was vetoed by Governor Nelson Rockefeller. On July 31, 1971, Penn Central announced that it would discontinue all service to Chatham the following day. The railroad claimed that it lost $300,000 a year on the one round trip between Chatham and Grand Central.
The Attorney General appealed the ICC 's ruling, and this appeal was tried in March 1972, but failed, resulting in the discontinuation of service from Dover Plains to Chatham on March 20, 1972. Penn Central operated the last southbound passenger train between Chatham and Grand Central Terminal on March 20, 1972, ending service in the middle of the day. Train 935, which was scheduled to leave Grand Central at 4: 25 PM and run to Chatham was cut back to Dover Plains. With no scheduled return trip to Chatham, passengers who had gone south in the morning were left stranded, with service going only as far north as Dover Plains (52 miles shy of Chatham). Tracks were removed north of Millerton shortly thereafter. The cutback of service to Chatham was strongly opposed by the Harlem Valley Transportation Association (HVTA), which was led by Lettie Gay Carson.
Prior to the discontinuation of service to Chatham, the quality of service on the line decreased. Trains that could once run the 127 miles (204 km) to Chatham in 2 hours 45 minutes now took 3 hours and 45 minutes. Service had been decreased from five trains a day to one train in each direction. As service was discontinued, a bill was put before the State Legislature that would have authorized the state to run trains to Chatham between New York and Montreal and from Albany toward Boston. The bill did not pass.
Several other stations had their service discontinued in 1972, including: 138th Street, Morrisania, and 183rd Street stations in the South Bronx, and Holland Avenue station in White Plains, although that one was replaced.
The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) leased the line south of Dover Plains from Penn Central on June 1, 1972. On March 28, 1980, the last freight train ran between Dover Plains and Millerton, and the line was abandoned three days later after the line 's largest shipper decided to switch to using trucks. All freight service ended in 1993. Tracks were removed from Wassaic to Millerton. In 1989, New York State purchased 21 miles (34 km) of the right - of - way between Wassaic and Copake Falls for the development of the Harlem Valley Rail Trail. The segment of the line that ran from Wassaic to Craryville, New York is now under control of the Harlem Valley Rail Trail Association, which currently has trails operating from Wassaic to the former Millerton station and between Under Mountain Road and Copake Falls, known as the Harlem Valley Rail Trail.
In April 1971, a project to install high - level platforms at stations along the Harlem Line started. This was necessary as the new Metropolitan cars did not have any stairs to reach the low - level platforms. By having high - level platforms, dwell times could be cut in half. Most of the new platforms were built as island platforms. These cars started entering into service in September 1971. At the same, time reverse signaling was installed to allow trains to use either track in either direction, enabling both tracks to be used in one direction during the peak of the rush hour.
The extension of electric service to Brewster had been discussed since the late 1920s. Numerous improvement studies were undertaken to evaluate the feasibility and benefits of extending electrification north from North White Plains. In 1976, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, undertook a study on the existing traction power system and it identified extending electric service to Brewster as a priority.
On February 8, 1980, Metro - North announced its plan to extend electrification to Brewster. Metro - North undertook a project to electrify the territory north of North White Plains to Brewster North (now known as Southeast) in 1984 for $30 million. For $45 million, high - level platforms were installed to reduce dwell times, and electric substations were built to supply the power needed for third - rail operation. The project was started out of dissatisfaction by riders on the line, and Governor Hugh Carey approved the project, owing to the advocacy of commuter organizations. Initially, the work was to be completed by the end of 1983, but due to a strike, its completion was delayed to 1984. Initially, service was provided with a mixture of new and old electric cars, but these were replaced by the new M3s. Work on the project was completed during off - peak hours to allow for service on the line to be maintained. Thirteen of the stations received new high - level center island platforms. Mount Pleasant station got side platforms, while the station at Thornwood was closed because of excessive curvature of the track, which would have resulted in a large gap between the train and the platform. The new stations received glass - enclosed overpasses and elevators.
The first electric train ran on April 30, 1984, beginning at Brewster North. As additional new M3s were put into service that spring, electric service increased. On September 1, 1984, a new schedule was put out, and running times decreased by 18 minutes on peak hour trains. On September 10, 1984, super express service was inaugurated on the Harlem Line, with trains running non-stop between Katonah and Grand Central. The last diesel train left Brewster on November 2, 1984, marking the completion of the electrification project.
With electrification completed, service north of Southeast is now operated as either diesel shuttle or through service. Although service to Wassaic is separately stated in the Harlem Line timetable and is publicly referred to as the "Wassaic Branch '', it is operationally part of the main line.
As a result of the project, there was tremendous ridership growth. Prior to this, the line was operated primarily in two zones: electric south of North White Plains, and diesel through - service or RDC shuttle service north. Between 1984 and 1994, the Brewster and Brewster North stations, the two northernmost stations in the electrified zone experienced 135 % growth, and stations on the Dover Plains Branch experienced 440 % growth.
The introduction of new coaches allowed for improvements in service on the Dover Plains Branch. The first peak through service since the 1970s was inaugurated in October 1991. At the same time, a Sunday night through train was added. The reduced travel times made the line more attractive to commuters. In 1994, Metro - North conducted a train movement analysis of service on the branch to determine whether trains would pass one another based on speeds and the condition of tracks. As a result, a new 1,000 feet (0.30 km) passing siding was constructed at Wingdale, increasing service flexibility and allowing for increased service in 1996. Also around this time, 447 additional parking spaces were added to stations on the Branch. In 1996, four car length high - level platforms with heated shelters were built at Patterson, Pawling, Harlem Valley -- Wingdale and Dover Plains, replacing low - level platforms that could only accommodate two cars. These platforms were made to be compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Travel times could be reduced further as it would take less time for passengers to exit and board the trains.
A new station, Appalachian Trail, was built in 1991 for the cost of $10,000. Its creation was the suggestion of George Zoebelein, who was an avid hiker and a veteran of the NY / NJ Trail Conference as well as both the NY / NJ Appalachian Trail Conferences, and also served as a member of the Metro - North Railroad Commuter Council (MNRCC) of the Permanent Citizens Advisory Committee (PCAC) to the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. It is one of three limited service stops operated by Metro - North primarily for hikers -- the other two being Breakneck Ridge and Manitou on the Hudson Line.
On December 9, 1992, the Interstate Commerce Commission authorized Conrail to convey its freight rights on the Harlem Line north of North White Plains to the Danbury Terminal Railway Company (DTRC). In 1995, the ICC directed the DTRC to discontinue freight operations on the line, as it had not been used for freight service in several years.
On January 23, 1997, Metro - North acquired the property necessary for the extension of service on the Upper Harlem Division to Wassaic. In August 1997, the Final Environmental Impact Study for the Wassaic extension was completed, recommending that preferred option, the extension of service to Wassaic be completed. One of the rejected alternatives, was the restoration of service to Millerton and Mount Riga in Dutchess County. A layover yard would have also been built as part of this alternative. This alternative was rejected due to the presence of the Harlem Valley Rail Trail, and replacing it with rail service would have required an in - kind replacement of any taking of parkland. Since a majority of the line was not owned by Metro - North it was viewed as being cost - prohibitive.
On July 9, 2000, Metro - North restored service between Dover Plains and Wassaic, a move the railroad billed as its first service expansion since it was created in 1983. As part of the project, the trailhead of the Harlem Valley Rail Trail was moved from milepoint 81.6 to milepoint 82. 6,152 feet of right - of - way had to be acquired from the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historical Preservation. To make up for this loss, $490,800 was received by the Transportation Enhancement Program to design and construct an access pathway from Wassaic station to the new trailhead. Wassaic was designed as and is a regional transportation hub for people living and going to Dutchess County in New York, Litchfield County in Connecticut and for Western Massachusetts. The station was built with a 250 - space parking lot that, with expansion, could have 1000 parking spaces, and with a layover yard, and a light maintenance facility. One of the goals of the expansion was to provide additional parking capacity for the line. Prior to the opening of the yard at Wassaic, trains terminating at Dover Plains had to deadhead 23 miles to get to the yard at Southeast, reducing capacity on the line, while being very costly. A station was also opened at Tenmile River to serve the Taconic Developmental Disabilities Service Office. Under an alternative plan, this would have been the terminus of the line. In order to build ridership, the extension has received the same amount of service as has the line south of Dover Plains, with four AM and four PM rush hour trains with direct service to Grand Central.
In August 2001, construction started on a project to built a 2.5 miles (4.0 km) third track between Mount Vernon West and Crestwood for $57 million in order to eliminate a bottleneck, and to allow for an increase in service. The project was initiated as, during the late 1990s, ridership on the Harlem Line was growing, with an expected 31 million people using the line in 2020. Without the construction of an additional track, only one southbound peak - hour train could have been added without cutting local service, express service, or reverse peak service. The project was completed in 2004. The Fleetwood and Crestwood stations were expanded through the adding of island platforms to allow for the third track to stop there. The right - of - way was wide enough to fit the third track, requiring no taking of property. The plan for the installation of a third track was first conceived in 1989, but it was faced with strong community opposition due to concerns over noise, vibrations, and as they had illegally built structures on Metro - North property which they did not want removed. Once opened, the third track resulted in improved service. Reverse - peak trains were able to run every 30 minutes instead of every 90 minutes, helping fuel a 30 percent increase in ridership along the line through Southern Westchester and the Bronx. Most of the new reverse - peak users came from the Bronx. The increased service helped revitalize White Plains ' downtown, helping anchor the economy of central Westchester. Express trains could skip stops via the express track while additional local trains could make stops in Westchester and the Bronx.
On February 3, 2015, a Harlem line train struck a car on the tracks near Valhalla and caught fire. Seven people were killed and service was temporarily suspended between Pleasantville and North White Plains.
With the entire existing track in use since service to Wassaic was restored in 2000, there is little talk of expansion or branching. However, Metro - North will revisit a future extension northward if circumstances change. When plans were drawn up for extending the line northward from Dover Plains, the goal for Metro - North was to extend the line as far north as possible for a new yard, and to attract the most new passengers. Wassaic was the best site, and service was not extended to Millerton as the Harlem Valley Rail Trail was using the right - of - way. This is directly contrasts one of the main purposes of rail trails: to preserve the right - of - way to allow for rail service to be restored in the future. For now, Metro - North and the MTA have focused on improving existing facilities on the line, particularly stations such as Brewster where increasing usage has caused parking shortages.
In the 2015 -- 2034 MTA Twenty - Year Capital Needs Assessment, two possible Harlem Line projects that would provide capacity to deal with increasing ridership and to expand service are mentioned. The first is the extension of a third track from Crestwood north to North White Plains. This would allow for increased reverse - peak service, increased local and express service - the same goals of the original third track project from Mount Vernon West to Crestwood. The second project would be the construction of a new flyover at Woodlawn at the junction with the New Haven Line. However, funding for these projects have not been identified as there are ongoing needs to maintain basic infrastructure.
The Harlem Line currently has no operational branches. Under New York Central ownership, it previously operated a 7.22 mi (11.62 km) branch to Lake Mahopac, NY to a connection with the Putnam Division. This line was originally a subsidiary known as the New York and Mahopac Railroad (1871 - 1880), and had one station between the two lines in Lincolndale. The line opened on June 17, 1872, and it extended to Golden 's Bridge. It cost $266,000 to build it. After the discontinuance of passenger service on the Putnam Division in 1958, the Central operated a shuttle service known as "around the horn '' which continued on Putnam Division trackage north of Lake Mahopac to Mahopac, Carmel, and Brewster where it reconnected with the Harlem Division main line. This service lasted until 1959. The only active remnant of this branch is a wye north of Brewster station known as Putnam Junction. There are some remains of the right - of - way of the branch, including a bridge just west of the Golden 's Bridge station, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
North of Brewster is a connection with Metro - North 's Beacon Line, which was purchased by Metro - North for preservation for future use. There are currently no plans for branch service on this line, which runs north and west to Hopewell Junction, and then south and west to Beacon. It also runs east to Danbury, but a reverse move would be required.
In the opposite direction, there was the freight - only Port Morris Branch. This was part of a line which was originally part of the Spuyten Duyvil and Port Morris Railroad which was established in 1842. The railroad was bought by the New York and Harlem Railroad in 1853, and the segment north of Mott Haven Junction became part of the NYC Hudson Division. The Port Morris Branch began at a wye north of Melrose Station, then extended southeast through The Hub, through a tunnel under St. Mary 's Park, and finally Port Morris along the East River just after crossing a bridge beneath the Harlem River and Port Chester Branch of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The only two stations along this branch were at Westchester Avenue between Brook and St Mary 's Avenues and at Port Morris itself across the river from North Brother Island. After the construction of the Oak Point Link at the Bronx 's southern tip and its subsequent opening in 1998, the Port Morris Branch ceased to be used in 1999; formal abandonment was declared in 2003, when CSX Transportation declared that the branch could be vacated due to the lack of use in the preceding two years.
On the electrified portions of the line, M3As and M7As are usually used. As with the Hudson Line, diesel - powered trains are driven by dual - mode Genesis and BL20 - GH locomotives, paired with Shoreliner coaches. While some peak - period trains operate directly to and from Grand Central Terminal, most Harlem Line diesel - only territory is operated as shuttle service between Southeast (where electrification ends) and Wassaic, 29 miles (47 km) north in Dutchess County.
Built by the New York and Mahopac Railroad in 1871; The entire branch was abandoned on April 2, 1959.
The entire line was in the Bronx, used exclusively for freight, and formally abandoned in 2004.
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when does the grinch come out on dvd | The Grinch (film) - Wikipedia
The Grinch (also known as Dr. Seuss ' The Grinch) is an upcoming 2018 American 3D computer - animated comedy Christmas film produced by Illumination Entertainment. Based on the 1957 Dr. Seuss story How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, it is the third screen adaptation of the story, following the 1966 TV special of the same name and the 2000 live - action feature - length film How the Grinch Stole Christmas, also of the same name. It is directed by Yarrow Cheney and Scott Mosier, written by Michael LeSieur and Tommy Swerdlow, narrated by Pharrell Williams, and starring the voices of Benedict Cumberbatch, Rashida Jones, Kenan Thompson, Cameron Seely and Angela Lansbury. The film is scheduled to be released by Universal Pictures in the United States on November 9, 2018 in RealD 3D and selected IMAX theaters.
The Grinch hatches a scheme with his trusted canine Max to ruin Christmas when the residents of Whoville plan to make their annual holiday three times bigger that year. Meanwhile, Cindy Lou Who plans to seek out Santa Claus to thank him for helping her widowed mother every Christmas, but little does she know she is trying to blow the Grinch 's cover.
In February 2013, it was announced that Illumination Entertainment is developing a 3D animated feature film based on the Dr. Seuss book, with Peter Candeland and Yarrow Cheney set to direct it.
Benedict Cumberbatch had been cast as the titular character in April 2016. By September 2018, Pharrell Williams has been cast as the narrator while Angela Lansbury will voice the Mayor of Whoville. Rashida Jones, Cameron Seely, and Kenan Thompson have also been cast in the film.
Like almost all of Illumination 's other films, the animation was created entirely in France by Illumination Mac Guff. The movie 's animation was made using Autodesk Maya.
In November 20, 2017, Danny Elfman was revealed to be composing the film 's score. Tyler, the Creator wrote a new song for the film titled "I Am the Grinch '', which was featured in the final trailer. Tyler and Elfman collaborated on a new version of the song "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch '' for the film.
The film was originally scheduled to be released on November 10, 2017, but in June 2016 it was pushed back to November 9, 2018.
The first official trailer was released on March 8, 2018. The second trailer was released on June 14, 2018. The third and final trailer was released on September 18, 2018, along with a new poster.
In the United States and Canada, The Grinch will be released alongside The Girl in the Spider 's Web and Overlord, and is projected to gross around $50 million in its opening weekend.
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what is the meaning of the greenhouse effect | Greenhouse effect - wikipedia
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The intensity of the downward radiation -- that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.
Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have strengthened the greenhouse effect and caused global warming.
The term "greenhouse effect '' arose from a faulty analogy with the effect of sunlight passing through glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different, as a greenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow so that warm air is kept inside.
The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by John Tyndall in 1859, who measured the radiative properties of specific greenhouse gases. The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, the term "greenhouse '' was not used to refer to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.
Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near - infrared radiation. About 26 % of the incoming solar energy is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds, and 19 % is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth 's surface is colder than the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.
An ideal thermally conductive blackbody at the same distance from the Sun as Earth would have a temperature of about 5.3 ° C. However, because Earth reflects about 30 % of the incoming sunlight, this idealized planet 's effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) would be about − 18 ° C. The surface temperature of this hypothetical planet is 33 ° C below Earth 's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 ° C.
The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window '' bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface '' in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.
Within the region where radiative effects are important, the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic. Earth 's surface, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long - wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4 -- 100 μm. At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent. Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. It reradiates in all directions, both upwards and downwards; in equilibrium (by definition) the same amount as it has absorbed. This results in more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and reradiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.
Greenhouse gases -- including most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO) and all gases with three or more atoms -- are able to absorb and emit infrared radiation. Though more than 99 % of the dry atmosphere is IR transparent (because the main constituents -- N, O, and Ar -- are not able to directly absorb or emit infrared radiation), intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by the greenhouse gases to be shared with the other, non-IR - active, gases.
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:
It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above). Clouds also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus affect the radiative properties of the atmosphere.
Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect. This increase in radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. According to the latest Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century ''.
CO is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation. Measurements of CO from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm) in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010. It reached the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013. The current observed amount of CO exceeds the geological record maxima (~ 300 ppm) from ice core data. The effect of combustion - produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.
Over the past 800,000 years, ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm. Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.
The "greenhouse effect '' of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight. However, a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the "greenhouse effect ''. "Greenhouse effect '' is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection, while the "greenhouse effect '' works by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through radiative transfer.
A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight usually glass, or plastic. The sun warms the ground and contents inside just like the outside, which then warms the air. Outside, the warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft, keeping the temperature lower than inside, where the air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (R.W. Wood, 1909) that a (not heated) "greenhouse '' with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.
Heated greenhouses are yet another matter, having an internal source of heating they leak heat out, which must be prevented. So it again makes sense to try to prevent radiative cooling through the use of adequate glazing.
The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar and symmetrical to the greenhouse effect: greenhouse effect is about atmosphere letting radiation in, while not letting thermal radiation out, which warms the body surface; anti-greenhouse effect is about atmosphere NOT letting radiation in, while letting thermal radiation out, which lowers the equilibrium surface temperature. Such an effect has been cited about Titan
A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has long ago been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus, this idea is still largely accepted.
The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide. "Venus experienced a runaway greenhouse in the past, and we expect that Earth will in about 2 billion years as solar luminosity increases ''.
Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to outgoing infrared radiation.
Pluto is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.
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who decided on the seven wonders of the ancient world | Seven Wonders of the Ancient World - wikipedia
The Seven Wonders of the World or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is a list of remarkable constructions of classical antiquity given by various authors in guidebooks or poems popular among ancient Hellenic tourists. Although the list, in its current form, did not stabilise until the Renaissance, the first such lists of seven wonders date from the 1st - 2nd century BC. The original list inspired innumerable versions through the ages, often listing seven entries. Of the original Seven Wonders, only one -- the Great Pyramid of Giza (also called the Pyramid of Khufu, after the pharaoh who built it), the oldest of the ancient wonders -- remains relatively intact. The Colossus of Rhodes, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were all destroyed. The location and ultimate fate of the Hanging Gardens are unknown, and there is speculation that they may not have existed at all.
The Greek conquest of much of the known western world in the 4th century BC gave Hellenistic travellers access to the civilizations of the Egyptians, Persians, and Babylonians. Impressed and captivated by the landmarks and marvels of the various lands, these travellers began to list what they saw to remember them.
Instead of "wonders '', the ancient Greeks spoke of "theamata '' (θεάματα), which means "sights '', in other words "things to be seen '' (Τὰ ἑπτὰ θεάματα τῆς οἰκουμένης (γῆς) Tà heptà theámata tēs oikoumenēs (gēs)). Later, the word for "wonder '' ("thaumata '' θαύματα, "wonders '') was used. Hence, the list was meant to be the Ancient World 's counterpart of a travel guidebook.
The first reference to a list of seven such monuments was given by Diodorus Siculus. The epigrammist Antipater of Sidon who lived around or before 100 BC, gave a list of seven such monuments, including six of the present list (substituting the walls of Babylon for the lighthouse):
I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man - made mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of Artemis that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself has never looked upon its equal outside Olympus. -- Greek Anthology IX. 58
Another 2nd century BC observer, who claimed to be the mathematician Philo of Byzantium, wrote a short account entitled The Seven Sights of the World. However, the incomplete surviving manuscript only covered six of the supposedly seven places, which agreed with Antipater 's list.
Earlier and later lists by the historian Herodotus (484 BC -- ca. 425 BC) and the architect Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305 -- 240 BC), housed at the Museum of Alexandria, survived only as references.
The Colossus of Rhodes was the last of the seven to be completed, after 280 BC, and the first to be destroyed, by an earthquake in 226 / 225 BC. Hence, all seven existed at the same time for a period of less than 60 years.
The list covered only the sculptural and architectural monuments of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions, which then comprised the known world for the Greeks. Hence, extant sites beyond this realm were not considered as part of contemporary accounts.
The primary accounts, coming from Hellenistic writers, also heavily influenced the places included in the wonders list. Five of the seven entries are a celebration of Greek accomplishments in the arts and architecture (the exceptions being the Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon).
The seven wonders on Antipater 's list won praises for their notable features, ranging from superlatives of the highest or largest of their types, to the artistry with which they were executed. Their architectural and artistic features were imitated throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond.
The Greek influence in Roman culture, and the revival of Greco - Roman artistic styles during the Renaissance caught the imagination of European artists and travellers. Paintings and sculptures alluding to Antipater 's list were made, while adventurers flocked to the actual sites to personally witness the wonders. Legends circulated to further complement the superlatives of the wonders.
Of Antipater 's wonders, the only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. Its brilliant white stone facing had survived intact until around 1300 AD, when local communities removed most of the stonework for building materials. The existence of the Hanging Gardens has not been proven, although theories abound. Records and archaeology confirm the existence of the other five wonders. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were destroyed by fire, while the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and tomb of Mausolus were destroyed by earthquakes. Among the artifacts to have survived are sculptures from the tomb of Mausolus and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in London.
Still, the listing of seven of the most marvellous architectural and artistic human achievements continued beyond the Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and to the modern age. The Roman poet Martial and the Christian bishop Gregory of Tours had their versions. Reflecting the rise of Christianity and the factor of time, nature and the hand of man overcoming Antipater 's seven wonders, Roman and Christian sites began to figure on the list, including the Colosseum, Noah 's Ark and Solomon 's Temple. In the 6th century, a list of seven wonders was compiled by St. Gregory of Tours: the list included the Temple of Solomon, the Pharos of Alexandria and Noah 's Ark.
Modern historians, working on the premise that the original Seven Ancient Wonders List was limited in its geographic scope, also had their versions to encompass sites beyond the Hellenistic realm -- from the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World to the Seven Wonders of the World. Indeed, the "seven wonders '' label has spawned innumerable versions among international organizations, publications and individuals based on different themes -- works of nature, engineering masterpieces, constructions of the Middle Ages, etc. Its purpose has also changed from just a simple travel guidebook or a compendium of curious places, to lists of sites to defend or to preserve.
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when would the firm remain in business in the short run even if incurring a loss | Shutdown (economics) - wikipedia
In economics, a firm will choose to implement a shutdown of production when the revenue received from the sale of the goods or services produced can not even cover the fixed costs of production. In that situation, the firm will experience a higher loss when it produces, compared to not producing at all.
Technically, shutdown occurs if marginal revenue is below average variable cost at the profit - maximizing positive level of output. Producing anything would not generate revenue significant enough to offset the associated variable costs; producing some output would add losses (additional costs in excess of revenues) to the costs inevitably being incurred (the fixed costs). By not producing, the firm loses only the fixed costs.
The goal of a firm is to maximize profits or minimize losses. The firm can achieve this goal by following two rules. First, the firm should operate, if at all, at the level of output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Second, the firm should shut down rather than operate if it can reduce losses by doing so.
Generally, a firm must have revenue R ≥ TC, total costs, in order to avoid losses. However, in the short run, all fixed costs are sunk costs. Netting out fixed costs, a firm then faces the requirement that R ≥ VC, variable costs, in order to continue operating. Thus, a firm will find it more profitable to operate so long as the market price p ≥ AVC, average variable cost. Conventionally stated the shutdown rule is: "in the short run a firm should continue to operate if price exceeds average variable costs. '' Restated, the rule is that to produce in the short run a firm must earn sufficient revenue to cover its variable costs. The rationale for the rule is straightforward. By shutting down a firm avoids all variable costs. However, the firm must still pay fixed costs. Because fixed cost must be paid regardless of whether a firm operates they should not be considered in deciding whether to produce or shut down.
Thus in determining whether to shut down a firm should compare total revenue to total variable costs (VC) rather than total costs (FC (fixed costs) + VC). If the revenue the firm is receiving is greater than its variable cost (R > VC) then the firm is covering all variable cost plus there is additional revenue which partially or entirely offsets fixed costs. (The size of the fixed costs is irrelevant as it is a sunk cost. The same consideration is used whether fixed costs are one dollar or one million dollars.) On the other hand if VC > R then the firm is not even covering its production costs and it should immediately shut down. The rule is conventionally stated in terms of price (average revenue) and average variable costs. The rules are equivalent -- if one divides both sides of inequality TR > VC (total revenue exceeds variable costs) by the output quantity Q one obtains P > AVC (price exceeds average variable cost)). If the firm decides to operate it will produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs because these conditions insure profit maximization (or equivalently, when profit is negative, loss minimization).
Another way to state the rule is that a firm should compare the profits from operating to those realized if it shut down, and select the option that produces the greater profit (positive or negative). A firm that is shut down is generating zero revenue and incurring no variable costs. However the firm still incurs fixed cost. So the firm 's profit equals the negative of fixed costs or (- FC). An operating firm is generating revenue, incurring variable costs and paying fixed costs. The operating firm 's profit is R - VC - FC. The firm should continue to operate if R - VC - FC ≥ - FC which simplified is R ≥ VC. The difference between revenue, R, and variable costs, VC, is the contribution toward offsetting fixed costs, and any positive contribution is better than none. Thus, if R ≥ VC then the firm should operate. If R < VC the firm should shut down.
An implicit assumption of the above rules is that all fixed costs are sunk costs. When some costs are sunk and some are not sunk, total fixed costs (TFC) equal sunk fixed costs (SFC) plus non-sunk fixed costs (NSFC) or TFC = SFC + NSFC. When some fixed costs are non-sunk, the shutdown rule must be modified. As Besanko notes, to illustrate the new rule it is necessary to define a new cost curve, the average non-sunk cost curve, or ANSC. The ANSC equals the average variable costs plus the average non-sunk fixed cost or ANSC = AVC + ANFC. The new rule then becomes: if the price is greater than the minimum average costs, produce; if the price is between minimum average costs and minimum ANSC produce, and if the price is less than minimum ANSC for all levels of production, shut down. If all fixed costs are non-sunk, then (a competitive) firm would shut down if the price were below average total costs.
A decision to shut down means that the firm is temporarily suspending production. It does not mean that the firm is going out of business (exiting the industry). If market conditions improve, due to prices increasing or production costs falling, the firm can resume production. Shutting down is a short - run decision. A firm that has shut down is not producing, but it still retains its capital assets; however, the firm can not leave the industry or avoid its fixed costs in the short run.
However, a firm will not choose to incur losses indefinitely. In the long run, the firm will have to decide whether to continue in business or to leave the industry and pursue profits elsewhere. Exit is a long - term decision. A firm that has exited an industry has avoided all commitments and freed all capital for use in more profitable enterprises. A firm that exits an industry earns no revenue but it incurs no costs, fixed or variable.
The long - run decision is based on the relationship of the price P and long - run average costs LRAC. If P ≥ LRAC then the firm will not exit the industry. If P < LRAC, then the firm will exit the industry. These comparisons will be made after the firm has made the necessary and feasible long - term adjustments.
In the long run a firm operates where marginal revenue equals long - run marginal costs, but only if it decides to remain in the industry. Thus the firm 's long - run supply curve is the long run marginal cost curve above the minimum point of the long run average cost curve.
A monopolist should shut down when price (average revenue) is less than average variable cost for every output level; in other words, it should shut down if the demand curve is entirely below the average variable cost curve. Under these circumstances, even at the profit - maximizing level of output (where MR = MC, marginal revenue equals marginal cost) average revenue would be lower than average variable costs and the monopolist would be better off shutting down in the short run.
The short run shutdown point for a competitive firm is the output level at the minimum of the average variable cost curve. Assume that a firm 's total cost function is TC = Q - 5Q + 60Q + 125. Then its variable cost function is Q - 5Q + 60Q, and its average variable cost function is (Q - 5Q + 60Q) / Q = Q - 5Q + 60. The slope of the average variable cost curve is the derivative of the latter, namely 2Q - 5. Equating this to zero to find the minimum gives Q = 2.5, at which level of output average variable cost is 53.75. Thus if the market price of the product drops below 53.75, the firm will choose to shut down production.
The long run shutdown point for a competitive firm is the output level at the minimum of the average total cost curve. Assume that a firm 's total cost function is the same as above example. To find the shut down point in the long run, first take the derivative of ATC and then set it to zero and solve for Q. After getting Q plug it into the MC to get the price.
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what are the exceptions to the rules of privity of contract | Privity of contract - wikipedia
The doctrine of privity of contract is a common law principle which provides that a contract can not confer rights nor impose its obligations upon any person who is not a party to the contract.
The premise is that only parties to contracts should be able to sue to enforce their rights or claim damages as such. However, the doctrine has proven problematic due to its implications upon contracts made for the benefit of third parties who are unable to enforce the obligations of the contracting parties. In the UK, the doctrine has been substantially weakened by the Contracts (Rights of third Parties) Act 1999.
Privity of contract occurs only between the parties to the contract, most commonly contract of sale of goods or services. Horizontal privity arises when the benefits from a contract are to be given to a third party. Vertical privity involves a contract between two parties, with an independent contract between one of the parties and another individual or company.
If a third party gets a benefit under a contract, it does not have the right to go against the parties to the contract beyond its entitlement to a benefit. An example of this occurs when a manufacturer sells a product to a distributor and the distributor sells the product to a retailer. The retailer then sells the product to a consumer. There is no privity of contract between the manufacturer and the consumer.
This, however, does not mean that the parties do not have another form of action: for instance, in Donoghue v. Stevenson -- a friend of Ms. Donoghue bought her a bottle of ginger beer, which contained the partially decomposed remains of a snail. Since the contract was between her friend and the shop owner, Mrs. Donoghue could not sue under the contract, but it was established that the manufacturer was in breach of a duty of care owed to her. Accordingly, she was awarded damages in the tort of negligence for having suffered gastroenteritis and "nervous shock ''.
Prior to 1861 there existed decisions in English Law allowing provisions of a contract to be enforced by persons not party to it, usually relatives of a promisee, and decisions disallowing third party rights. The doctrine of privity emerged alongside the doctrine of consideration, the rules of which state that consideration must move from the promisee. That is to say that if nothing is given for the promise of something to be given in return, that promise is not legally binding unless promised as a deed. 1833 saw the case of Price v. Easton, where a contract was made for work to be done in exchange for payment to a third party. When the third party attempted to sue for the payment, he was held to be not privity to the contract, and so his claim failed. This was fully linked to the doctrine of consideration, and established as such, with the more famous case of Tweddle v. Atkinson. In this case the plaintiff was unable to sue the executor of his father - in - law, who had promised to the plaintiff 's father to make payment to the plaintiff, because he had not provided any consideration to the contract.
The doctrine was developed further in Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd. through the judgment of Lord Haldane.
Privity of Contract played a key role in the development of negligence as well. In the first case of Winterbottom v. Wright (1842), in which Winterbottom, a postal service wagon driver, was injured due to a faulty wheel, attempted to sue the manufacturer Wright for his injuries. The courts however decided that there was no privity of contract between manufacturer and consumer.
This issue appeared repeatedly until MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. (1916), a case analogous to Winterbottom v Wright involving a car 's defective wheel. Judge Cardozo, writing for the New York Court of Appeals, decided that no privity is required when the manufacturer knows the product is probably dangerous if defective, third parties (e.g. consumers) will be harmed because of said defect, and there was no further testing after initial sale. Foreseeable injuries occurred from foreseeable uses. Cardozo 's innovation was to decide that the basis for the claim was that it was a tort not a breach of contract. In this way he finessed the problems caused by the doctrine of privity in a modern industrial society. Although his opinion was only law in New York State, the solution he advanced was widely accepted elsewhere and formed the basis of the doctrine of product liability.
There are exceptions to the general rule, allowing rights to third parties and some impositions of obligations. These are:
Attempts have been made to evade the doctrine by implying trusts (with varying success), constructing the Law of Property Act 1925 s. 56 (1) to read the words "other property '' as including contractual rights, and applying the concept of restrictive covenants to property other than real property (without success).
In the United Kingdom, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 provided some reform for this area of law which has been criticised by judges such as Lord Denning and academics as unfair in places. The act states:
This means that a person who is named in the contract as a person authorised to enforce the contract or a person receiving a benefit from the contract may enforce the contract unless it appears that the parties intended that he may not.
The Act enables the aim of the parties to be fully adhered to. In Beswick v Beswick, the agreement was that Peter Beswick assign his business to his nephew in consideration of the nephew employing him for the rest of his life and then paying a weekly annuity to Mrs. Beswick. Since the latter term was for the benefit of someone not party to the contract, the nephew did not believe it was enforceable and so did not perform it, making only one payment of the agreed weekly amount. Yet the only reason why Mr. Beswick contracted with his nephew was for the benefit of Mrs. Beswick. Under the Act, Mrs. Beswick would be able to enforce the performance of the contract in her own right. Therefore, the Act realises the intentions of the parties.
The law has been welcomed by many as a relief from the strictness of the doctrine, however it may still prove ineffective in professionally drafted documents, as the provisions of this statute may be expressly excluded by the draftsmen.
In Australia, it has been held that third - party beneficiaries may uphold a promise made for its benefit in a contract of insurance to which it is not a party (Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v. McNiece Bros Pty Ltd (1988) 165 CLR 107). It is important to note that the decision in Trident had no clear ratio, and did not create a general exemption to the doctrine of privity in Australia.
Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia have all enacted statutory provisions to enable third party beneficiaries to enforce contracts, and limited the ability of contracting parties to vary the contract after the third party has relied on it. In addition, section 48 of the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) allows third - party beneficiaries to enforce contracts of insurance.
Although damages are the usual remedy for the breach of a contract for the benefit of a third party, if damages are inadequate, specific performance may be granted (Beswick v. Beswick (1968) AC 59).
The issue of third - party beneficiaries has appeared in cases where a stevedore has claimed it is covered under the exclusion clauses in a bill of lading. In order for this to succeed, three factors must be made out:
The last issue was explored in New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v. AM Satterthwaite & Co Ltd (1975) AC 154, where it was held that the stevedores had provided consideration for the benefit of the exclusion clause by the discharge of goods from the ship.
New Zealand has enacted the Contracts Privity Act 1982, which enables third parties to sue if they are sufficiently identified as beneficiaries by the contract, and in the contract it is expressed or implied they should be able to enforce this benefit.
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when did new york abolish common law marriage | Common - law marriage in the United states - wikipedia
Common - law marriage, also known as sui juris marriage, informal marriage, marriage by habit and repute, or marriage in fact is a legal framework in a limited number of jurisdictions where a couple is legally considered married, without that couple having formally registered their relation as a civil or religious marriage. The original concept of a "common - law marriage '' is a marriage that is considered valid by both partners, but has not been formally recorded with a state or religious registry, or celebrated in a formal religious service. In effect, the act of the couple representing themselves to others as being married, and organizing their relation as if they were married, acts as the evidence that they are married.
The term common - law marriage has wide informal use, often to denote relations which are not legally recognized as common - law marriages. The term common - law marriage is often used colloquially or by the media to refer to cohabiting couples, regardless of any legal rights that these couples may or may not have, which can create public confusion both in regard to the term and in regard to the legal rights of unmarried partners.
The requirements for a common - law marriage to be validly contracted differ from state to state.
All states, however, recognize common - law marriages that were validly contracted in other states under their laws of comity and choice of law / conflict of laws. (The Full Faith and Credit Clause of the United States Constitution does not apply to common law marriages because they are not public acts (i.e. statutes, ordinances, general laws, etc.), not public records, and not judicial proceedings.)
Common - law marriage also exists in the Native American tribes. Among Native American tribes, for example, the Navajo Nation permits common - law marriage and allows its members to marry through tribal ceremonial processes and traditional processes. Otherwise, common - law marriages can no longer be contracted in any of the other states.
A common - law marriage is recognized for federal tax purposes if it is recognized by the state or jurisdiction where the taxpayers currently live, or in the state where the common - law marriage began. If the marriage is recognized under the law and customs of the state or jurisdiction in which the marriage takes place (even in a foreign country), the marriage is valid for tax purposes (Rev. Rul. 58 - 66). Practitioners should be alert to the specific state or jurisdiction requirements in order for their clients who are contemplating filing joint returns satisfy the requirements of the state or jurisdiction to be considered common - law married.
In February 2015, the United States Department of Labor issued its final rule amending the definition of "spouse '' under the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 "FMLA '' in response to the United States v. Windsor decision recognizing same - sex marriage. The new DOL rule became effective March 27, 2015. The revised definition of "spouse '' extends FMLA leave rights and job protections to eligible employees in a same - sex marriage or a common - law marriage entered into in a state or jurisdiction where those statuses are legally recognized, regardless of the state in which the employee currently works or resides. Accordingly, even if an employer has employees working where same - sex or common - law marriage is not recognized, those employees ' spouses would trigger FMLA coverage if an employee was married in one of the many states that recognize same - sex marriage or common - law marriage.
Common - law marriage in the United States can still be contracted in the District of Columbia as well as in the following nine states: Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, and Utah.
Common - law marriages can no longer be contracted in the following twenty - seven states, as of the dates given: Alabama (2016)., Alaska (1917), Arizona (1913), California (1895), Florida (1968), Georgia (1997), Hawaii (1920), Idaho (1996), Illinois (1905), Indiana (1958), Kentucky (1852), Maine (1652, when it became part of Massachusetts; then a state, 1820), Massachusetts (1646), Michigan (1957), Minnesota (1941), Mississippi (1956), Missouri (1921), Nebraska (1923), Nevada (1943), New Jersey (1939), New Mexico (1860), New York (1933, also 1902 -- 1908), North Dakota (1890), Ohio (1991), Pennsylvania (2005), South Dakota (1959) and Wisconsin (1917).
Common - law marriages have never been permitted to be contracted in the following thirteen states: Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
One state recognizes common - law marriage only through death for probate purposes: New Hampshire.
All states -- including those that have abolished the contract of common - law marriage within their boundaries -- recognize common - law marriages lawfully contracted in jurisdictions that permit it. Some states that do not recognize common - law marriage also afford legal rights to parties to a putative marriage (i.e. in circumstances when someone who was not actually married, e.g. due to a failure to obtain or complete a valid marriage license from the proper jurisdiction, believed in good faith that he or she was married) that arise before a marriage 's invalidity is discovered. This is because all states provide that validity of foreign marriage is determined per lex loci celebrationis -- that is, "by law of the place of celebration. '' In addition, the full faith and credit clause of the U.S. Constitution, discussed below, requires all U.S. states to recognize the validity of official acts of other U.S. states. Thus, a marriage validly contracted in Ohio, including common - law marriages entered into before that state abolished new common - law marriages in 1991, is valid in Indiana, even though the common - law marriage could not have been legally contracted in Indiana, because Ohio law is the basis of its validity. However, by the same principle, a marriage that was not lawfully contracted in Ohio would not be valid in Indiana even if it could have been lawfully contracted there. Additionally, some courts have held that all marriages performed within the U.S. must be valid in all states under the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the U.S. Constitution. However, none of the cases to date has actually used the Clause to validate a sister - state marriage, and there is currently no known appellate case on the issue, working its way through U.S. courts, that is likely to reach the U.S. Supreme Court -- whose decision would apply nationally, not just locally or within a particular state or a federal circuit.
Note there is no such thing as "common - law divorce '' in the United States -- that is, a married couple can not terminate a common - law marriage as easily as they got into one. Only the contract of the marriage is irregular; everything else about the marriage is the same as a regularly licensed and solemnized marriage. Divorce or dissolution of marriage requires filing a petition for divorce or dissolution in the appropriate court in their state.
Rulings on the validity of a particular common - law marriage frequently refrain from identifying a specific date of marriage when this is not necessary, because often, there is no one event or marriage ceremony that establishes this date. Even when a relationship begins in a state that does not recognize common - law marriage, if the couple relocates to a state that recognizes common - law marriage, a common - law marriage between the parties is often recognized if the couple 's relationship continues in the new state. It is not uncommon for someone to claim to be a spouse based upon time the couple spent together in a common - law marriage state even after the couple leaves that state. The case law does not definitively establish whether a couple who are briefly present in a common - law marriage state, and who otherwise are eligible to be considered common - law married, but who do not establish domicile in that state, will be recognized as common - law married in a state that does not itself have common - law marriage.
The requirements for a common - law marriage to be validly contracted differ in the eleven U.S. jurisdictions which still permit them.
The elements of a common - law marriage are, with respect to both spouses: (1) holding themselves out as husband and wife; (2) consenting to the marriage; (3) cohabitation; and (4) having the reputation in the community as being married. Different sources disagree regarding the requirement of cohabitation and some indicate that consummation (i.e. post-marital sexual intercourse) is also an element of common - law marriage. Colorado, by statute, no longer recognizes common - law marriages entered by minors in Colorado, and also does not recognize foreign common - law marriages entered into by minors, even if that marriage would have been valid where entered into under local law. See Section 14 - 2 - 109.5, Colorado Revised Statutes. The constitutionality of this limitation as applied to foreign marriages has not been tested in litigation.
Colorado, Montana, and Texas are the only U.S. states to recognize both putative marriage and common - law marriage.
According to the District of Columbia Department of Human Services, a common - law marriage is "A marriage that is legally recognized even though there has been no ceremony and there is no certification of marriage. A common - law marriage exists if the two persons are legally free to marry, if it is the intent of the two persons to establish a marriage, and if the two are known to the community as husband and wife. ''
Common - law marriages have been recognized in the District of Columbia since 1931. Holding common - law marriages legal, District Court of Appeals Justice D. Laurence Groner said,
"We think it can not now be controverted that an agreement between a man and woman to be husband and wife, consummated by cohabitation as husband and wife, constitutes a valid marriage unless there be in existence in the State in which the agreement is made, a statute declaring the marriage to be invalid unless solemnized in a prescribed manner. We think it equally true that the rule now generally recognized is that statutes requiring a marriage to be preceded by a license or to be solemnized by a religious ceremony without words of nullity as to marriages contracted otherwise are directory merely and failure to procure the license or to go through a religious ceremony does not invalidate the marriage... There is nothing in the statute which declares that a marriage shall not be valid unless solemnized in the prescribed manner, nor does it declare any particular thing requisite to the validity of the marriage. The act confines itself wholly with providing the mode of solemnizing the marriage and to the persons authorized to perform the ceremony. Indeed, the statue itself declares the purpose underlying the requirements to be secure registration and evidence of the marriage rather than to deny validity to marriages not performed according to its terms. ''
The three elements of a common - law marriage are: (1) the present intent and agreement to be married; (2) continuous cohabitation; and (3) public declaration that the parties are husband and wife. The public declaration or holding out to the public is considered to be the acid test of a common - law marriage.
Adm. Rule 701 -- 73.25 (425) of the Iowa Administrative Code, titled Common Law Marriage, states:
A common law marriage is a social relationship that meets all the necessary requisites of a marriage except that it was not solemnized, performed or witnessed by an official authorized by law to perform marriages. The necessary elements of a common law marriage are: (a) a present intent of both parties freely given to become married, (b) a public declaration by the parties or a holding out to the public that they are husband and wife, (c) continuous cohabitation together as husband and wife (this means consummation of the marriage), and (d) both parties must be capable of entering into the marriage relationship. No special time limit is necessary to establish a common law marriage.
Edit: 701 -- 73.26 Rescinded, effective October 2, 1985.
This rule is intended to implement Iowa Code section 425.17.
Under Kansas Statute 23 - 2502, both parties to a common - law marriage must be 18 years old. The three requirements that must coexist to establish a common - law marriage in Kansas are: (1) capacity to marry; (2) a present marriage agreement; and (3) a holding out of each other as husband and wife to the public.
A common - law marriage is established when a couple: "(1) is competent to enter into a marriage, (2) mutually consents and agrees to a common - law marriage, and (3) cohabits and is reputed in the community to be husband and wife. ''
New Hampshire recognizes common - law marriage for purposes of probate only. In New Hampshire "(P) ersons cohabiting and acknowledging each other as husband and wife, and generally reputed to be such, for the period of 3 years, and until the decease of one of them, shall thereafter be deemed to have been legally married. '' Thus, the state posthumously recognizes common - law marriages to ensure that a surviving spouse inherits without any difficulty.
The situation in Oklahoma has been unclear since the mid-1990s, with legal scholars reporting each of 1994, 1998, 2005, and 2010 as the year common - law marriage was abolished in the state. However, as of September 12, 2016, the Oklahoma Tax Commission continues to represent common - law marriage as legal there, and the Department of Corrections continues to reference common - law marriage, though that could refer to older marriages. No reference to the ban appears in the relevant statutes; the 2010 bill that attempted to abolish common - law marriage passed the state Senate, but died in a House committee. Multiple legal websites continue to represent common - law marriage as legal in Oklahoma.
Oklahoma common - law status is much controverted, but as of February 19, 2014, several Oklahoma executive agencies continue to represent it as legal, and a reputed ban in 2010 can not be found in its statutes.
The criteria for a common - law marriage are: (1) the parties seriously intended to enter into the husband - wife relationship; (2) the parties ' conduct is of such a character as to lead to a belief in the community that they were married.
The criteria for a common - law marriage are: (1) when two parties have a present intent (usually, but not necessarily, evidenced by a public and unequivocal declaration) to enter into a marriage contract; and (2) "a mutual agreement between the parties to assume toward each other the relation of husband and wife. '' Common law marriages can dissolve in legal divorce and alimony.
The Texas Family Code, Sections 2.401 through 2.405, define how a common - law marriage (which is known as both "marriage without formalities '' and "informal marriage '' in the text) can be established in one of two ways. Both parties must be at least age 18 to enter into a common - law marriage.
First, a couple can file a legal "Declaration of Informal Marriage '', which is a legally binding document. The form must be completed by both marriage partners and sworn or affirmed in presence of the County Clerk. The Declaration is formally recorded as part of the Official County Records by Volume and Page number, and is then forwarded by the County Clerk to the Texas Bureau of Vital Statistics, where it is again legally recorded as formal evidence of marriage. This is the same procedure that is used when a marriage license is issued and filed; the term "Informal '' refers only to the fact that no formal wedding ceremony (whether civil or religious) was conducted.
Second, a couple can meet a three - prong test, showing evidence of all of the following:
Regarding the second prong, in the actual text of the Texas Family Code, there is no specification on the length of time that a couple must cohabitate to meet this requirement. As such, an informal marriage can occur under Texas law if the couple lives together for as little as one day, if the other requirements (an agreement to be married and holding out as married to the public) can be shown.
Likewise, a couple can cohabit for 50 years, but if they never have an agreement to be married, or hold themselves out to the public as married, their 50 - year cohabitation will not make them informally married under Texas law.
Dissolution of this type marriage requires formal Annulment or Divorce Proceedings, the same as with the other more recognized forms of ' ceremonial ' marriages. However, if a couple does not commence a proceeding to prove their relationship was a marriage within two years of the end of their cohabitation and relationship, there is a legal presumption that they were never informally married, but this presumption is rebuttable.
Utah 's status with common - law marriage is mixed. Government websites claim that common - law marriage does not exist in Utah. However, other legal websites state that non-matrimonial relationships may be recognized as marriage within one year after the relationship ends. This is very similar to common - law marriage.
Utah recognizes common - law marriages only if they have been validated by a court or administrative order. For a common - law marriage to be legal and valid, "a court or administrative order must establish that '' the parties: (1) "are of legal age and capable of giving consent ''; (2) "are legally capable of entering a solemnized marriage under the provisions of Title 30, Chap. 1 of the Utah Code; (3) "have cohabited ''; (4) "mutually assume marital rights, duties, and obligations ''; and (5) "hold themselves out as and have acquired a uniform and general reputation as husband and wife '' In Utah, the fact that two parties are legally incapable of entering into a common - law marriage, because they are already married, does not preclude criminal liability for bigamy or polygamy.
Also, non-matrimonial relationships may be recognized as marriage within one year after the relationship ends, via validation by the above mentioned court or administrative order.
Since January 1, 2017, Alabama has abolished common - law marriage. Common law marriages contracted before this date are still valid. A valid common - law marriage exists when there is capacity to enter into a marriage, the parties must be at least 16 with legal parental consent and present agreement or consent to be married, public recognition of the existence of the marriage, and consummation.
California Family Code Section 308 provides that a marriage validly contracted in another jurisdiction is valid in California. Thus, a common - law marriage validly contracted in another jurisdiction is valid in California notwithstanding it could not be legally contracted within California; and a common - law marriage that was not validly contracted in another U.S. jurisdiction is not valid in California. All other states have similar statutory provisions. Exceptions to this rule are marriages deemed by the jurisdiction to be "odious to public policy ''. In general, states which have abolished common - law marriage continue to recognize such marriages contracted in the past (i.e. before the date when they were abolished).
Nevada does n't recognize common - law marriage. However, in Williams v. Williams, 120 Nev. 559, 97 P. 3d 1124, 2004 Nev. LEXIS 84, 120 Nev. Adv. Rep. 64 (Nev. 2004), adopted the majority opinion of the putative spouse doctrine. This doctrine, accepted by a majority of states, is when a marriage is found to be void because of a prior legal impediment. In the Williams case, the wife and husband filed for a marriage, license, held a ceremony, and both felt they were married. However, Mr. Williams ' divorce to a previous wife was found to have been dismissed by the court without Mr. Williams ' knowledge. With his previous divorce not valid, under Nevada law his marriage to the new Mrs. Williams was void. He could not get married if he was still married. The Nevada courts ruled Mrs. Williams was a putative spouse and for the purposes of the new divorce against Mr. Williams, the courts would allow Mrs. Williams to plead for community property rights as much as any other spouse.
Pennsylvania 's domestic relations marriage statute now reads: "No common - law marriage contracted after January 1, 2005, shall be valid. Nothing in this part shall be deemed or taken to render any common - law marriage otherwise lawful and contracted on or before January 1, 2005, invalid. '' The situation in Pennsylvania became unclear in 2003 when an intermediate appellate court purported to abolish common - law marriage even though the state Supreme Court had recognized (albeit somewhat reluctantly) the validity of common - law marriages only five years before. The Pennsylvania legislature resolved most of the uncertainty by abolishing common - law marriages entered into after January 1, 2005. However, it is still not certain whether Pennsylvania courts will recognize common - law marriages entered into after the date of the Stamos decision and before the effective date of the statute (i.e., after September 17, 2003, and on or before January 1, 2005), because the other intermediate appellate court has suggested that it might not follow the Stamos decision.
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where is just the tattoo of us filmed | Just tattoo of Us - wikipedia
Just Tattoo Of Us is an MTV British entertainment reality tattoo programme which follows couples, friends or family members as they go to the Just Tattoo Of Us parlor to design each other 's tattoo. The series was announced in November 2016 by MTV. The first series began airing on 3 April 2017 at 10pm on MTV and finished on 29 May 2017. The second series began on 2 October 2017. The third series began on 21 May 2018.
The show follows Charlotte Crosby and Stephen Bear as they open the doors to the ' Just Tattoo of Us ' tattoo parlour in London. In each episode, pairs of friends, family members or couples enter the parlour and explain to Bear and Crosby their relationship and the reasoning behind entering the show. They then individually visit the tattoo artist who has created a design for the other person based on a brief previously sent in. However, in this parlour, everyone who arrives will be getting a tattoo but will not have any say in what it is, as it will be designed by their friend, partner or family member who they came with, and the same will be done the other way round. After the designs are finished, everyone comes together for the reveal where the tattoos are finally seen. The participants then give their feedback on their tattoo, and Crosby and Bear also share their opinions.
This is a list of current and former presenters and tattooist on MTV 's Just Tattoo Of Us.
In November 2016, MTV and Charlotte Crosby announced, via social media, a new reality tattoo series titled Just Tattoo of Us. The series will be presented by Stephen Bear and Crosby. The series was filmed in early 2017 for a 3 April broadcast. The first series will be made up of 9x60 minutes episodes. It was announced on This Morning that Crosby and Bear had decided to take part in the series as well by designing a tattoo for each other and will air on the final episode of the series.
It was announced on 24 April 2017 that MTV had ordered a second series of Just Tattoo of Us. The second series is due to began airing in Summer 2017, it was also confirmed that Charlotte and Stephen would be returning as hosts. The second series began filming on 20 May 2017.
It was confirmed that Just Tattoo of Us would return for a third series in 2018. All the tattooist will return for their third series. It was announced that Stephen Bear had decided to quit the show at the end of filming for series two and would be replaced by Scotty T in series three. An air date for the third series is set for May 2018.
3 April 2017 (2017 - 04 - 03)
29 May 2017 (2017 - 05 - 29)
2 October 2017 (2017 - 10 - 02)
4 December 2017 (2017 - 12 - 04)
21 May 2018 (2018 - 05 - 21)
23 July 2018 (2018 - 07 - 23)
It was announced in November 2016 that MTV had announced that Geordie Shore star Charlotte Crosby and Ex on the Beach star Stephen Bear would present a new reality tattoo show to air in 2017, the first series will begin airing on MTV on 3 April and concluded in 29 May 2017.
In the series final, the tables have been turned onto Charlotte and Stephen as they are about to design a tattoo for each other. However things do n't go to plan when Bear finds the pain of having a tattoo too much to cope with, will he ditch the tattoo or will he go through with it. The big question is will they stitch each other up or will they end up hating their tattoo.
In this special episode of Just Tattoo of Us, Charlotte and Bear look back at some of the highlights from the series with behind the scenes clips and interviews with the tattooist and clients from the first series. There will also be a live studio audience. Two clients from a previous episode return to give each other another tattoo, the tattoos were revealed live in the studio for the first time to the clients and audience and the viewers.
It was announced on 24 April 2017 that MTV had ordered a series to air later in the year. It was also confirmed that Charlotte and Stephen would both return as host for the second series, filming began on 20 May 2017. It was confirmed that all the tattooists would be returning. The second series will begin on 2 October 2017. The second series will see a new Tattooist Jen join the show. Series two was the last series to have Stephen Bear as presenter due to him leaving the show at the end of filming for the second series.
It was announced on 14 August 2017 that Just Tattoo of Us was renewed for a third series. The series will begin to air on 21 August 2018. Charlotte Crosby who will be returning for her third series. The third series will see Scotty T join the show as Charlotte 's co-presenter due to Bear quitting the series in Series Two. The third series will also see a 2 new Tattooists Hue & Jason join the show, replacing Atom & John.
The episodes in this series were not broadcast in chronological order as seen in the table below.
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the goals of protestant princes in germany before 1555 included the | Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation - wikipedia
The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed as much of it as it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance.
In turn, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and still life.
The Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North - South split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic. ''
The Reformation produced two main branches of Protestantism; one was the Evangelical churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the reformed churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew four main sects, Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist, and Anglican, which caused even more fragmentation within the Christian tradition.
The Protestant Reformation induced a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. All forms of Protestantism showed a degree of hostility to religious images, as idolatry, especially sculpture and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more private. Protestant leaders, especially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the great majority of religious images as idolatrous, even plain crosses.
Martin Luther in Germany, initially more hostile, finally allowed, indeed encouraged, the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches so long as viewers were reminded that images are symbolic of the divine, and are not holy in themselves (in fact the Catholic position also). The use of images was one of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Last Supper by the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, especially by Luther 's friend Lucas Cranach, to replace Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional depiction of Jesus. Stories even grew up of "indestructible '' images of Luther, that had survived fires, by divine intervention, it was suggested; on the other hand reformers pointed out how often crosses and crucifixes were struck by lightning.
The destruction was often extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable physical manifestation, often imposed from above, that could not be ignored. It was just for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic coup, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility between Catholics and reformers in communities -- for it was generally at the level of the city, town or village that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland. But reformers often felt impelled by strong personal convictions, as shown by the case of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to advise. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a promise to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church, removed the statue and burnt it. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a small fine without complaint, but flatly refused to pay the additional sum the court ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli 's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not replace the statue, but the eventual outcome is unknown. By the end of his life, after iconoclastic shows of force became a feature of the early phases of the French Wars of Religion, even Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.
Subjects prominent in Catholic art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a result, in much of northern Europe, the church virtually ceased to commission figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to non-religious funerary art, such as the heraldry and effigies beloved of the Renaissance rich. Where there was religious art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, especially as book illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Daniel Hisgen, a German Rococo painter of the 18th - century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were also often painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.
After a few decades Lutheran commissions for new altarpieces effectively ceased, and Lutherans often had to struggle to defend their existing art from a new wave of Calvinist - on - Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "Second Reformation '' of about 1560 - 1619. The beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions. Similar patterns to the German actions, but with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national government, were seen in England in the English Civil War and English Commonwealth in the next century, when more damage was done to art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.
A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the body and blood of Christ. Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to recall the symbolic meaning behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which often chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.
The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass - produced and widely available to the public at low cost. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.
There was also a violent propaganda war fought partly with popular prints by both sides; these were often highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the Last Supper.
After the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in book illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, especially Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Later Protestant taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this period.
Peter Bruegel (1525 -- 1569) of Flanders is the great genre painter of his time, who worked for both Catholic and Protestant patrons. In most of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, most space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel 's Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemish - peasant wedding dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another great painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489 -- 1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such as The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.
Bruegel was also an accomplished landscape painter. Frequently Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such as Summer from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the country, with a few workers taking a lunch break under a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, apparently void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such as Jacob van Ruisdael.
With the great development of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing house owned by Hieronymus Cock. The Four Winds provided the public with almost a thousand etchings and engravings over two decades. Between 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with almost 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.
The courtly style of Northern Mannerism in the second half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the desire of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and France to find a style of art that could appeal to members of the courtly elite on both sides of the religious divide. Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging classical mythology in art, since though they might disapprove, even the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.
During the Reformation a great divergence arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and its iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Council of Trent to institute some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject - matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.
Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated style, striving for effect, that concerned many churchman as lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have great impact on the development of Catholic art. Previous Catholic Church councils had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, unlike Orthodox ones which have often ruled on specific types of images.
Statements are often made along the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint 's life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety '', but in fact the actual decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with art came only in the final session in 1563, as a last minute and little - discussed addition, based on a French draft. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the image, and further instructed that:
... every superstition shall be removed... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image have been approved of by the bishop...
The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged '' Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, often going into minute detail on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in effect prohibited, as was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious art, and almost all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus. According to the great medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art ''.
While Protestants largely removed public art from religion and Protestant societies moved towards more "secular '' forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His creation and by depicting people who were created in His image '', Counter-Reformation Catholic church continued to encourage religious art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.
Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from about 1550, too directly with the decrees of Trent, as it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman culture ''.
Scipione Pulzone 's (1550 -- 1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a clear demonstration of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human.
Ten years after the Council of Trent 's decree Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Inquisition to explain why his Last Supper, a huge canvas for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities '' as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast. Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting within a three - month period - in fact he just changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi, still an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said. No doubt any Protestant authorities would have been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits '' (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed within the painting) was also accelerated; these become rare after the Council.
Further waves of "Counter-Reformation art '' occurred when areas formerly Protestant were again brought under Catholic rule. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a boom time for artists. The best known example is the new Spanish Netherlands (essentially modern Belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in the Netherlands but became (initially) exclusively Catholic after the Spanish drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was one of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches. Several cities in France in the French wars of religion and in Germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw similar bursts of restocking.
The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should only show New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in particular the Jesuits continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints, but nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase. Altarpieces became larger and more easy to make out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern late medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.
Some subjects were given increased prominence to reflect Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Denial of Peter, was not often seen before the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession against Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (1542 -- 1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a half - length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped as at right, and sometimes "the cock '' in the background; it was often coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine 's book.
As the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome once again began to assert its universality to other nations around the world. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Society of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and eastern Asia and used the arts as an effective means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church 's dominance over the Christian faith. The Jesuits ' impact was so profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches are found all over the world.
Despite the differences in approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed about as quickly across religious divisions as within the two "blocs ''. Artistically Rome remained in closer touch with the Netherlands than with Spain.
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who plays thoros of myr in game of thrones | Paul Kaye - wikipedia
Paul Kaye (born 15 December 1969) is an English comedian and actor. He achieved notoriety in 1995 portraying the character of Dennis Pennis, a shock interviewer on The Sunday Show. He was later known as rude New Jersey lawyer Mike Strutter with his own show Strutter on MTV. Kaye also played Thoros of Myr in HBO 's Game of Thrones as well as the voice of Vincent the fox on the BBC comedy Mongrels...
Kaye was born in Clapham, London. He was brought up in Wembley where his parents ran a nearby schoolwear shop. Kaye was a promising schoolboy athlete who achieved an impressive time in the 100 metres. He later became a fan of punk rock, particularly Sid Vicious. At 16 he entered Harrow School of Art on a two - year foundation course, and achieved a distinction. Kaye received a first - class degree in Theatre Design at Trent Polytechnic. He is of Jewish descent.
On graduation, Kaye designed theatre posters for the King 's Head, the Bush Theatre and the Gate Theatre, Notting Hill. He was a scene painter at the Old Vic Theatre in Waterloo and illustrated regularly for the NME, i-D, Literary Review, Time Out and International Musician magazines between 1987 and 1989. He had two exhibitions of illustration and poster work between 1989 and 1990, firstly at the Soho House Theatre, W1 and then at the Drill Hall, WC1.
Kaye formed and sang in many bands, notably the dark psychedelic outfit We Are Pleb, who played extensively on the Camden scene of 1988 -- 89 (which spawned Blur and Suede) and had a penchant for setting the stage on fire. Kaye was signed to Go Discs in 1992 with a group called TV Eye (formed with ex-members of the band Eat), which released two singles, "Killer Fly '' and "Eradicator ''.
In 1993, Kaye filmed a prototype Dennis Pennis, interviewing his own band on a late - night indie music show on Granada TV called Transmission. After the interview, Kaye then went out with the crew, got very drunk and offended as many people as possible up and down Oxford Street. This tape somehow arrived on the desk of producers at Planet 24 six months later, and they offered Kaye the job of knocking on people 's doors at 6.00 am on The Big Breakfast. Kaye turned them down, preferring to stay on the dole and stick with We Are Pleb; Mark Lamarr eventually took the job.
Kaye was the in - house graphic designer for Tottenham Hotspur, he had an office in White Hart Lane and designed merchandise for Spurs, Derby County, Southampton and Aston Villa for Danish sportswear brand Hummel (doing caricatures of Paul Gascoigne for school lunchboxes etc.). As an Arsenal fan, Kaye has said there are subliminal cannons contained within his work for Spurs, most notably a pen and ink drawing of Tottenham 's new stand on a catalogue cover which feature a minute cannon in the crowd: 70,000 were printed. Kaye became in - house theatre designer of the Bet Zvi Drama Academy in Tel Aviv for 12 months in 1994, designing all the in - house productions in their studio theatre.
His TV debut was on The Word being secretly filmed in Oliver Reed 's dressing room. Kaye recalls "Reed had drunk two bottles of vodka, taken all his clothes off and I honestly thought he was going to kill me on live television. I swore in bed that I 'd never do a celebrity interview again. Typically, six months later I 'd come up with Dennis Pennis. ''
In 1994, Kaye convinced his old friend Anthony Hines (a car mechanic and some time roadie for TV Eye) to help him write Dennis Pennis when he was offered the job on The Sunday Show. (Hines was later poached by Sacha Baron Cohen to write for Ali G on The Eleven O'Clock Show and went on to receive an Oscar nomination for co-writing Borat in 2006).
Celebrity interviewer Dennis Pennis -- created by Kaye and Hines -- was one of Kaye 's best - known characters. With dyed red hair, gaudy jackets adorned with punk - style badges, and thick glasses, Pennis stood out from the crowd and asked celebrities atypical questions, ranging from playful to cruel.
After brief stints presenting two episodes of Transmission (ITV 's indie music magazine programme circa 1990) as Pennis, the character next appeared in 1995 on BBC2 's The Sunday Show. The basic premise was that Kaye and a camera crew would visit film premieres, press functions and other assorted celebrity gatherings to attempt to get an "interview '' with stars, in between short skits and sketches featuring the character.
Originally, the celebrities would be mainly British stars harassed at assorted London - based events, such as actor Hugh Grant, TV host Ulrika Jonsson and sports pundit Des Lynam. A 1995 video release of these early clips, Anyone For Pennis, assured success for the controversial comedian, who sought to broaden Pennis 's scope.
When the Pennis character took off, Kaye was afforded a budget large enough to travel to Cannes, Hollywood and Venice to record footage for his video VIP -- Very Important Pennis, released in 1996.
His victims from this point on were much more renowned, the most famous of whom were Arnold Schwarzenegger, Demi Moore, Kevin Costner, Morgan Freeman and Bruce Willis, amid a raft of other Hollywood A-list stars. It was apparent that these victims were unsettled and unhappy with Pennis 's unique line of questioning. Some stars, such as Costner, insulted him back, while others, such as Moore, simply declined to comment and left. Pennis was visibly amused at the look of disgust on some of the stars ' faces. There was some controversy when Pennis asked of Steve Martin: "How come you 're not funny any more? '' Martin subsequently cancelled all scheduled press interviews. Kaye later said that he regretted this interview for a while, but that "anyone who thinks they can improve on Bilko and Inspector Clouseau needs a slap do n't they? ''
The final video release, Dennis Pennis RIP: Too Rude to Live, released in 1997, saw the character killed off. As Kaye explained, "Dennis Pennis had become too expensive. Taking a film crew out every night with no guarantee of getting even a minute 's worth of footage of me harassing celebs was just stupid. And then the programme would take months to compile, and it was just boring, man... hanging out in the rain, twiddling your thumbs, playing with your hip flask... he had to go... at the risk of sounding a bit wanky, Pennis was more of an art project in my mind, living out my fantasy of being a naughty boy. Once I 'd packed it in, I had no intention of ever doing anything like it again. ''
In 1998 Kaye appeared in the video to the Fat Les song "Vindaloo '' as a Richard Ashcroft look - alike. That year he also appeared as the character DI Lindsay De Paul in the TV comedy movie You Are Here.
Kaye also appeared as the singer of a fictional punk band called Spunk in a 1999 mock - documentary of the same name, which appeared as the ' wrath ' part of a Channel 4 series on the seven deadly sins.
In 2000 Kaye starred in the comedy series Perfect World, a sitcom about a down - on - his - luck marketing manager. He also briefly presented a BBC2 quiz show, Liar, in which six contestants would all have a supposed claim to fame and the studio audience voted on which one they believed was telling the truth. In the same year Kaye took a dramatic role alongside Michelle Collins in Two Thousand Acres of Sky.
In 2004, Kaye played the leading role in the film Blackball. His role as deaf DJ Frankie Wilde in the 2005 mockumentary It 's All Gone Pete Tong won him the Film Discovery Jury Award at the 2005 US Comedy Arts Festival. He played in two episodes of the BBC drama series Waking the Dead, playing Dr. David Carney in "Shadowplay ''. Television appearances in 2006 and 2007 include episodes of Hustle, EastEnders and Kingdom. Kaye is now the chief interviewer on rockworld.tv, in which he interviews up - and - coming punk / indie bands.
Kaye appeared in Hotel Babylon (11 March 2008, BBC One), Pulling (Series 2, March 2008, BBC Three) and as Uncle Gorwel in A Child 's Christmases in Wales by Dylan Thomas (17 December 2009, BBC Four and 24 December 2009, BBC One Wales).
From November 2010 to January 2011, Kaye played Matilda 's father, Mr Wormwood, in the Royal Shakespeare Company 's musical Matilda, based on the classic Roald Dahl novel Matilda. Kaye reprised the role when the musical transferred to the Cambridge Theatre in London 's West End in October 2011. In April 2012, Kaye was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical.
From August 2012, he appeared as a character called Maurice in UK TV adverts for betting website BetVictor.
In 2013, Kaye appeared as Thoros of Myr in the third season of the HBO series Game of Thrones, and as Danno in the BBC Radio 4 series Love in Recovery. In 2016, he reprised his role as Thoros of Myr in the sixth season of Game of Thrones, and returned for the seventh season.
In 2014, Kaye played Brother Lucian in the movie Dracula Untold. In 2015 he played a criminal in the BBC drama The Interceptor.
In 2015 he featured as the drunken, haunted Naval Officer Harry Brewer in the National Theatre 's revival of Our Country 's Good. He also appeared in Doctor Who as an alien funeral director.
Kaye 's other television credits include The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge, an episode of Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton 's anthology series Inside No. 9, Netflix 's first original TV series Lilyhammer, the BAFTA winning Murder in Successville, BBC miniseries Three Girls, Sky comedy Zapped, Drunk History, The Windsors, Urban Myths, Terry Pratchett: Back in Black and the upcoming adaptation of Neil Gaiman 's Good Omens.
In 2017 Kaye appeared onstage again as Chilean bomb maker Jose Miguel in B, a new play by Guillermo Calderón at the Royal Court Theatre.
Kaye took a year out of college in 1984 and worked on a kibbutz in Israel, where he met his future wife Orly; they married in 1989, and have two children.
Kaye wrote an article for The Guardian calling for peace in Israel after his mother - in - law was killed by a rocket attack there in 2008.
Kaye has been nominated for, and won, a number of film awards:
"Best supporting Actor in a Musical - Whats on Stage Awards 2012 (Matilda the Musical) "Best Supporting Actor in a Musical '' - Olivier Awards 2012 (Matilda the Musical
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what is the origin of the strong nuclear force | Nuclear force - wikipedia
The nuclear force (or nucleon -- nucleon interaction or residual strong force) is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms. Neutrons and protons, both nucleons, are affected by the nuclear force almost identically. Since protons have charge + 1 e, they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart, but at short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the electromagnetic force. The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei.
The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 1.0 × 10 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows. By comparison, the size of an atom, measured in angstroms (Å, or 1.0 × 10 m), is five orders of magnitude larger. The nuclear force is not simple, however, since it depends on the nucleon spins, has a tensor component, and may depend on the relative momentum of the nucleons. The strong nuclear force is one of the fundamental forces of nature.
The nuclear force plays an essential role in storing energy that is used in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. Work (energy) is required to bring charged protons together against their electric repulsion. This energy is stored when the protons and neutrons are bound together by the nuclear force to form a nucleus. The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons. The difference in masses is known as the mass defect, which can be expressed as an energy equivalent. Energy is released when a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two or more lighter nuclei. This energy is the electromagnetic potential energy that is released when the nuclear force no longer holds the charged nuclear fragments together.
A quantitative description of the nuclear force relies on equations that are partly empirical. These equations model the internucleon potential energies, or potentials. (Generally, forces within a system of particles can be more simply modeled by describing the system 's potential energy; the negative gradient of a potential is equal to the vector force.) The constants for the equations are phenomenological, that is, determined by fitting the equations to experimental data. The internucleon potentials attempt to describe the properties of nucleon -- nucleon interaction. Once determined, any given potential can be used in, e.g., the Schrödinger equation to determine the quantum mechanical properties of the nucleon system.
The discovery of the neutron in 1932 revealed that atomic nuclei were made of protons and neutrons, held together by an attractive force. By 1935 the nuclear force was conceived to be transmitted by particles called mesons. This theoretical development included a description of the Yukawa potential, an early example of a nuclear potential. Mesons, predicted by theory, were discovered experimentally in 1947. By the 1970s, the quark model had been developed, by which the mesons and nucleons were viewed as composed of quarks and gluons. By this new model, the nuclear force, resulting from the exchange of mesons between neighboring nucleons, is a residual effect of the strong force.
While the nuclear force is usually associated with nucleons, more generally this force is felt between hadrons, or particles composed of quarks. At small separations between nucleons (less than ~ 0.7 fm between their centers, depending upon spin alignment) the force becomes repulsive, which keeps the nucleons at a certain average separation, even if they are of different types. This repulsion arises from the Pauli exclusion force for identical nucleons (such as two neutrons or two protons). A Pauli exclusion force also occurs between quarks of the same type within nucleons, when the nucleons are different (a proton and a neutron, for example).
At distances larger than 0.7 fm the force becomes attractive between spin - aligned nucleons, becoming maximal at a center -- center distance of about 0.9 fm. Beyond this distance the force drops exponentially, until beyond about 2.0 fm separation, the force is negligible. Nucleons have a radius of about 0.8 fm.
At short distances (less than 1.7 fm or so), the attractive nuclear force is stronger than the repulsive Coulomb force between protons; it thus overcomes the repulsion of protons within the nucleus. However, the Coulomb force between protons has a much greater range as it varies as the inverse square of the charge separation, and Coulomb repulsion thus becomes the only significant force between protons when their separation exceeds about 2 to 2.5 fm.
The nuclear force has a spin - dependent component. The force is stronger for particles with their spins aligned than for those with their spins anti-aligned. If two particles are the same, such as two neutrons or two protons, the force is not enough to bind the particles, since the spin vectors of two particles of the same type must point in opposite directions when the particles are near each other and are (save for spin) in the same quantum state. This requirement for fermions stems from the Pauli exclusion principle. For fermion particles of different types, such as a proton and neutron, particles may be close to each other and have aligned spins without violating the Pauli exclusion principle, and the nuclear force may bind them (in this case, into a deuteron), since the nuclear force is much stronger for spin - aligned particles. But if the particles ' spins are anti-aligned the nuclear force is too weak to bind them, even if they are of different types.
The nuclear force also has a tensor component which depends on the interaction between the nucleon spins and the angular momentum of the nucleons, leading to deformation from a simple spherical shape.
To disassemble a nucleus into unbound protons and neutrons requires work against the nuclear force. Conversely, energy is released when a nucleus is created from free nucleons or other nuclei: the nuclear binding energy. Because of mass -- energy equivalence (i.e. Einstein 's famous formula E = mc), releasing this energy causes the mass of the nucleus to be lower than the total mass of the individual nucleons, leading to the so - called "mass defect ''.
The nuclear force is nearly independent of whether the nucleons are neutrons or protons. This property is called charge independence. The force depends on whether the spins of the nucleons are parallel or antiparallel, as it has a non-central or tensor component. This part of the force does not conserve orbital angular momentum, which under the action of central forces is conserved.
The symmetry resulting in the strong force, proposed by Werner Heisenberg, is that protons and neutrons are identical in every respect, other than their charge. This is not completely true, because neutrons are a tiny bit heavier, but it is an approximate symmetry. Protons and neutrons are therefore viewed as the same particle, but with different isospin quantum number. The strong force is invariant under SU (2) transformations, just as are particles with intrinsic spin. Isospin and intrinsic spin are related under this SU (2) symmetry group. There are only strong attractions when the total isospin is 0, which is confirmed by experiment.
Our understanding of the nuclear force is obtained by scattering experiments and the binding energy of light nuclei.
The nuclear force occurs by the exchange of virtual light mesons, such as the virtual pions, as well as two types of virtual mesons with spin (vector mesons), the rho mesons and the omega mesons. The vector mesons account for the spin - dependence of the nuclear force in this "virtual meson '' picture.
The nuclear force is distinct from what historically was known as the weak nuclear force. The weak interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions, and plays a role in such processes as beta decay. The weak force plays no role in the interaction of nucleons, though it is responsible for the decay of neutrons to protons and vice versa.
The nuclear force has been at the heart of nuclear physics ever since the field was born in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick. The traditional goal of nuclear physics is to understand the properties of atomic nuclei in terms of the ' bare ' interaction between pairs of nucleons, or nucleon -- nucleon forces (NN forces).
Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton -- neutron models for the nucleus. Heisenberg approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics, an approach that was not at all obvious at the time. Heisenberg 's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system. '' Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons. He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i.e., nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers.
One of the earliest models for the nucleus was the liquid drop model developed in the 1930s. One property of nuclei is that the average binding energy per nucleon is approximately the same for all stable nuclei, which is similar to a liquid drop. The liquid drop model treated the nucleus as a drop of incompressible nuclear fluid, with nucleons behaving like molecules in a liquid. The model was first proposed by George Gamow and then developed by Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. This crude model did not explain all the properties of the nucleus, but it did explain the spherical shape of most nuclei. The model also gave good predictions for the nuclear binding energy of nuclei.
In 1934, Hideki Yukawa made the earliest attempt to explain the nature of the nuclear force. According to his theory, massive bosons (mesons) mediate the interaction between two nucleons. Although, in light of quantum chromodynamics (QCD), meson theory is no longer perceived as fundamental, the meson - exchange concept (where hadrons are treated as elementary particles) continues to represent the best working model for a quantitative NN potential. The Yukawa potential (also called a screened Coulomb potential) is a potential of the form
where g is a magnitude scaling constant, i.e., the amplitude of potential, μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) is the Yukawa particle mass, r is the radial distance to the particle. The potential is monotone increasing, implying that the force is always attractive. The constants are determined empirically. The Yukawa potential depends only on the distance between particles, r, hence it models a central force.
Throughout the 1930s a group at Columbia University led by I.I. Rabi developed magnetic resonance techniques to determine the magnetic moments of nuclei. These measurements led to the discovery in 1939 that the deuteron also possessed an electric quadrupole moment. This electrical property of the deuteron had been interfering with the measurements by the Rabi group. The deuteron, composed of a proton and a neutron, is one of the simplest nuclear systems. The discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric, which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons. In particular, the result showed that the nuclear force was not a central force, but had a tensor character. Hans Bethe identified the discovery of the deuteron 's quadrupole moment as one of the important events during the formative years of nuclear physics.
Historically, the task of describing the nuclear force phenomenologically was formidable. The first semi-empirical quantitative models came in the mid-1950s, such as the Woods -- Saxon potential (1954). There was substantial progress in experiment and theory related to the nuclear force in the 1960s and 1970s. One influential model was the Reid potential (1968).
In recent years, experimenters have concentrated on the subtleties of the nuclear force, such as its charge dependence, the precise value of the πNN coupling constant, improved phase shift analysis, high - precision NN data, high - precision NN potentials, NN scattering at intermediate and high energies, and attempts to derive the nuclear force from QCD.
The nuclear force is a residual effect of the more fundamental strong force, or strong interaction. The strong interaction is the attractive force that binds the elementary particles called quarks together to form the nucleons (protons and neutrons) themselves. This more powerful force is mediated by particles called gluons. Gluons hold quarks together with a force like that of electric charge, but of far greater strength. Quarks, gluons and their dynamics are mostly confined within nucleons, but residual influences extend slightly beyond nucleon boundaries to give rise to the nuclear force.
The nuclear forces arising between nucleons are analogous to the forces in chemistry between neutral atoms or molecules called London forces. Such forces between atoms are much weaker than the attractive electrical forces that hold the atoms themselves together (i.e., that bind electrons to the nucleus), and their range between atoms is shorter, because they arise from small separation of charges inside the neutral atom. Similarly, even though nucleons are made of quarks in combinations which cancel most gluon forces (they are "color neutral ''), some combinations of quarks and gluons nevertheless leak away from nucleons, in the form of short - range nuclear force fields that extend from one nucleon to another nearby nucleon. These nuclear forces are very weak compared to direct gluon forces ("color forces '' or strong forces) inside nucleons, and the nuclear forces extend only over a few nuclear diameters, falling exponentially with distance. Nevertheless, they are strong enough to bind neutrons and protons over short distances, and overcome the electrical repulsion between protons in the nucleus.
Sometimes, the nuclear force is called the residual strong force, in contrast to the strong interactions which arise from QCD. This phrasing arose during the 1970s when QCD was being established. Before that time, the strong nuclear force referred to the inter-nucleon potential. After the verification of the quark model, strong interaction has come to mean QCD.
Two - nucleon systems such as the deuteron, the nucleus of a deuterium atom, as well as proton -- proton or neutron -- proton scattering are ideal for studying the NN force. Such systems can be described by attributing a potential (such as the Yukawa potential) to the nucleons and using the potentials in a Schrödinger equation. The form of the potential is derived phenomenologically (by measurement), although for the long - range interaction, meson - exchange theories help to construct the potential. The parameters of the potential are determined by fitting to experimental data such as the deuteron binding energy or NN elastic scattering cross sections (or, equivalently in this context, so - called NN phase shifts).
The most widely used NN potentials are the Paris potential, the Argonne AV18 potential, the CD - Bonn potential and the Nijmegen potentials.
A more recent approach is to develop effective field theories for a consistent description of nucleon -- nucleon and three - nucleon forces. Quantum hadrodynamics is an effective field theory of the nuclear force, comparable to QCD for color interactions and QED for electromagnetic interactions. Additionally, chiral symmetry breaking can be analyzed in terms of an effective field theory (called chiral perturbation theory) which allows perturbative calculations of the interactions between nucleons with pions as exchange particles.
The ultimate goal of nuclear physics would be to describe all nuclear interactions from the basic interactions between nucleons. This is called the microscopic or ab initio approach of nuclear physics. There are two major obstacles to overcome before this dream can become reality:
This is an active area of research with ongoing advances in computational techniques leading to better first - principles calculations of the nuclear shell structure. Two - and three - nucleon potentials have been implemented for nuclides up to A = 12.
A successful way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential for the whole nucleus instead of considering all its nucleon components. This is called the macroscopic approach. For example, scattering of neutrons from nuclei can be described by considering a plane wave in the potential of the nucleus, which comprises a real part and an imaginary part. This model is often called the optical model since it resembles the case of light scattered by an opaque glass sphere.
Nuclear potentials can be local or global: local potentials are limited to a narrow energy range and / or a narrow nuclear mass range, while global potentials, which have more parameters and are usually less accurate, are functions of the energy and the nuclear mass and can therefore be used in a wider range of applications.
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why is age of consent so old connecticut | Ages of consent in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, age of consent laws regarding sexual activity are made at the state level. There are several federal statutes related to protecting minors from sexual predators, but laws regarding specific age requirements for sexual consent are left to individual states, territories, and the District of Columbia. Depending on the jurisdiction, legal age of consent ranges from 16 to 18 years old. In some places, civil and criminal laws within the same state conflict with each other.
While the general age of consent is now set between 16 and 18 in all U.S. states, the age of consent has widely varied across the country in the past. In 1880, the age of consent was set at 10 or 12 in most states, with the exception of Delaware where it was 7. The ages of consent were raised across the U.S. during the late 19th century and the early 20th century. By 1920 ages of consent generally rose to 16 - 18 and small adjustments to these laws occurred after 1920. As of 2015 the final state to raise its age of general consent was Hawaii, which changed it from 14 to 16 in 2001.
Age - of - consent laws were historically only applied when a female was younger than her male partner. By 2015 ages of consent were made gender - symmetric. Until the late 20th century many states had provisions requiring that the teenage girl must be of previous "chaste character '' in order for the sexual conduct to be considered criminal. In 1998 Mississippi became the last state to remove this provision from its code.
The laws were designed to prosecute persons far older than the victims rather than teenagers close in age; therefore prosecutors rarely pursued teenagers in relationships with other teenagers even though the wordings of the laws made some close - in - age teenage relationships illegal. After the 1995 Landry and Forrest study concluded that men aged 20 and older produced half of the teenage pregnancies of girls between 15 and 17, states began to more stringently enforce age - of - consent laws to combat teenage pregnancy in addition to prevent adults from taking advantage of minors. A backlash among the public occurred when some teenagers engaging in close - in - age relationships received punishments perceived by the public to be disproportionate, and thus age - gap provisions were installed to reduce or eliminate penalties if the two parties are close in age. Brittany Logino Smith and Glen A. Kercher of the Criminal Justice Center of Sam Houston State University wrote that these laws are often referred to as "Romeo and Juliet laws '', though they defined Romeo and Juliet as only referring to an affirmative defense against prosecution. Previously some of these statutes only applied to heterosexual sex, leaving homosexual sex in the same age range open to prosecution.
On June 26, 2003, both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy became legal (between non-commercial, consenting adults in a private bedroom) in all U.S. states, territories, and Washington, D.C. under the U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas. In State v. Limon (2005), the Kansas Supreme Court used Lawrence as a precedent to overturn the state 's "Romeo and Juliet '' law, which prescribed lesser penalties for heterosexual than homosexual acts of similar age of consent - related offenses.
From 2005 onwards states have started to enact Jessica 's Law statutes, which provide for lengthy penalties (often a mandatory minimum sentence of 25 years in prison and lifetime electronic monitoring) for the most aggravated forms of child sexual abuse (usually of a child under age 12). In 2008, in Kennedy v. Louisiana, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the death penalty for rape of a child was unconstitutional.
(Chapter 117, 18 U.S.C. 2422 (b)) forbids the use of the United States Postal Service or other interstate or foreign means of communication, such as telephone calls or use of the internet, to persuade or entice a minor (defined as under 18 throughout the chapter) to be involved in a criminal sexual act. The act has to be illegal under state or federal law to be charged with a crime under 2422 (b), and can even be applied to situations where both parties reside within the same state but use an instant messenger program whose servers are located in another state.
(Chapter 117, 18 U.S.C. 2423 (a)) forbids transporting a minor (defined as under 18) in interstate or foreign commerce with the intent of engaging in criminal sexual acts in which a person can be charged. This subsection is ambiguous on its face and seems to apply only when the minor is transported across state or international lines to a place where the conduct is already illegal to begin with. The United States Department of Justice seems to agree with this interpretation.
(Chapter 117, 18 U.S.C. 2423 (b)) forbids traveling in interstate or foreign commerce to engage in "illicit sexual conduct '' with a minor; this is considered one form of sexual tourism. 2423 (f) refers to Chapter 109A as its bright line for defining "illicit sexual conduct '' as far as non-commercial sexual activity is concerned. For the purposes of age of consent, the only provision applicable is (Chapter 109A, 18 U.S.C. 2243 (a)). 2243 (a) refers to situations where such younger person is under the age of 16 years, has attained 12 years of age, and the older person is more than 4 years older than the 12 - to - 15 - year - old (persons under 12 are handled under 18 U.S.C. 2241 (c) under aggravated sexual abuse). So, the age is 12 years if one is within 4 years of the 12 - to - 15 - year - old 's age, 16 under all other circumstances. This most likely reflects Congressional intent not to unduly interfere with a state 's age - of - consent law, which would have been the case if the age was set to 18 under all circumstances. This law is also extraterritorial in nature to U.S. Citizens and Residents who travel outside of the United States.
Although legislation tends to reflect general societal attitudes regarding male versus female ages of consent, Richard Posner notes in his Guide to America 's Sex Laws:
The Assimilative Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 13) incorporates local state criminal law when on federal reservations such as Bureau of Land Management property, military posts and shipyards, national parks, national forests, inter alia. Consequently, if an act is not punishable under any federal law (such as 18 U.S.C. 2243 (a) mentioned above) then the local state 's age - of - consent laws would apply to the crime.
The Protect Act § 503 of 1992 (codified at 18 U.S.C. § 2251 to 18 U.S.C. § 2260) makes it a federal crime to possess or create sexually explicit images of any person under 18 years of age; this creates a federal age of consent of 18 for pornography. Thus, while some conduct covered by the statute is highly culpable, these penalties apply even when consensual sex between someone under the age of eighteen and someone over the age of eighteen is entirely legal under state law, the non-commercial possession of an explicit picture or video clip of the person under the age of eighteen (such as a cell phone photograph of a naked sexual partner, under the age of eighteen, of the person taking the photo) may still constitute a serious federal child pornography felony. The sentence for a first time offender convicted of producing child pornography under 18 U.S.C. § 2251 (such as taking a suggestive cell phone picture of an otherwise legal sexual partner under the age of eighteen without an intent to share or sell the picture), face fines and a statutory minimum of 15 years to 30 years maximum in prison. While mandatory minimum offenses do not apply to mere possession of child pornography, it is almost always the case that a person in possession of child pornography is also necessarily guilty of either receipt of child pornography, which carries a five - year mandatory minimum sentence, or production of child pornography, which carries a fifteen - year mandatory minimum sentence.
However, in Esquivel - Quintana v. Sessions, the Supreme Court hold that in the context of statutory rape offenses that criminalize sexual intercourse based solely on the ages of the participants, the generic federal definition of "sexual abuse of a minor '' requires the age of the victim to be less than 16.
Article 120 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (10 U.S.C. § 920), to which essentially only members of the United States Armed Services and enemy prisoners of war are subject, defines the age of consent as sixteen years in subsection but allows an exemption for people who are married to minors 12 -- 15 years old. There is also a mistake in age defense if the minor is over 12, but not if the minor is under 12. Within the United States, United States servicemembers are further subject to the local state law both when off - post. The local state law is incorporated, for the most part, into federal law when on - post per the Assimilative Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 13). Depending upon the relevant status of forces agreement, United States servicemembers are also subject to the local criminal laws of the host nation for acts committed off - post.
The age of consent in the District of Columbia is 16 with a close - in - age exemption for those within four years of age. However, sexual relations between people 18 or older and people under 18 are illegal if they are in a "significant relationship ''. According to the Code of the District of Columbia, a relationship is considered "significant '' if one of the partners is:
Each U.S. state has its own general age of consent. Currently state laws set the age of consent at 16, 17, or 18. The most common age is 16, a common age of consent in most other Western countries. Less than 50 % of the U.S. population resides in states which set the age of consent at 16; these states are usually smaller than states which set the ages of consent at 17 and 18 and therefore have lower populations. Over 60 % of the U.S. population resides in states which have ages of consent as 16 and / or 17.
These state laws are discussed in detail below. Most of these state laws refer to statutory rape using other names instead of "statutory rape '' in particular. Such laws may refer to: "carnal knowledge of a minor, '' "child molestation, '' "corruption of a minor, '' "sexual misconduct, '' and / or "unlawful carnal knowledge. '' The laws of Georgia, Missouri, North Carolina, Mississippi, and Tennessee specifically refer to "statutory rape '', with each state defining it differently. Nevada criminalizes "statutory sexual seduction '' while Pennsylvania criminalizes "statutory sexual assault ''.
In most states there is not a single age in which a person may consent, but rather consent varies depending upon the minimum age of the younger party, the minimum age of the older party, and / or the differences in age. Some states have a single age of consent. 30 U.S. states have age gap laws which make sexual activity legal if the ages of both participants are close to one another, and these laws are often referred to as "Romeo and Juliet laws ''. Other states have measures which reduce penalties if the two parties are close in age, and others provide an affirmative defense if the two parties are close in age. Even though state laws regarding the general age of consent and age gap laws differ, it is common for people in the United States to assume that sexual activity with someone under 18 is statutory rape.
In 2011 Smith and Kercher wrote "Because of the large number of potential statutory rape cases, it is said that many jurisdictions will "pick and choose '' which cases they want to investigate and prosecute. '' In some states it is common to only prosecute the male in events where both parties in a heterosexual relationship are below the age of consent. Smith and Kercher wrote that there had been "large inconsistencies '' among the decisions of prosecution and sentencing of these cases, and there had been accusations that minority males who have sex with minority women resulting in pregnancy and / or who have sex with white women have faced the brunt of enforcement.
The age of consent in Alabama is 16.
Shown by articles of the Code of Alabama:
13A - 6 - 70: (c) A person is deemed incapable of consent if he is: (1) Less than 16 years old...
13A - 6 - 67: (a) A person commits the crime of sexual abuse in the second degree if:... (2) He, being 19 years old or older, subjects another person to sexual contact who is less than 16 years old, but more than 12 years old.
13A - 6 - 62 (a) A person commits the crime of rape in the second degree if:... (1) Being 16 years old or older, he or she engages in sexual intercourse with a member of the opposite sex less than 16 and more than 12 years old; provided, however, the actor is at least two years older than the member of the opposite sex.
13A - 6 - 64: (a) A person commits the crime of sodomy in the second degree if:... (1) He, being 16 years old or older, engages in deviate sexual intercourse with another person less than 16 and more than 12 years old.
The State Legislature passed Act 2010 - 497 making it a crime for any school employee to have any sexual relations with a student under the age of 19. A school employee includes a teacher, school administrator, student teacher, safety or resource officer, coach, and other school employee. Age of the student and consent is not a defense. So thus, the age of consent of 16 can not be used.
13A - 6 - 81: A person commits the crime of a school employee engaging in a sex act or deviant sexual intercourse with a student under the age of 19 years if: (a) He or she is a school employee and engages in a sex act or deviant sexual intercourse with a student, regardless of whether the student is male or female. Consent is not a defense to a charge under this section.
(b) As used in this section, sex act means sexual intercourse with any penetration, however slight; emission is not required.
(c) As used in this section, deviant sexual intercourse means any act of sexual gratification between persons not married to each other involving the sex organs of one person and the mouth or anus of another.
(d) The crime of a school employee engaging in a sex act or deviant sexual intercourse with a student is a Class B felony.
13A - 6 - 82: A person commits the crime of a school employee having sexual contact with a student under the age of 19 years if: (a) He or she is a school employee and engaging in sexual contact with a student, regardless of whether the student is male or female. Consent is not a defense to a charge under this section.
(b) As used in this section, sexual contact means any touching of the sexual or other intimate parts of a student, done for the purpose of gratifying the sexual desire of either party. The term includes soliciting or harassing a student to perform a sex act.
(c) The crime of a school employee having sexual contact with a student is a Class A misdemeanor.
Any individual convicted of these offenses, regardless if they received prison time or not, will have to register as a Sex Offender for the remainder of their life.
There was also a law which prohibited K - 12 teachers from having sex with students under age 19, and violators could face prison time and / or get on the sex offender registry. In 2017, Alabama Circuit Judge Glenn Thompson, of Morgan County in the north of the state, ruled that this law was unconstitutional.
The age of consent is 16, provided the older partner is not in a position of authority.
Alaska Statutes -- Title 11. Criminal Law -- Chapter 41. Offenses Against the Person -- Sexual Abuse of a Minor Section 436 in the First Degree (Unclassified Felony); Section 436 in the Second Degree (Class B Felony); Section 438 in the Third Degree (Class C Felony); Section 440: in the Fourth Degree (Class A misdemeanor)
AS 11.41. 436. Sexual Abuse of a Minor in the Second Degree.
(a) An offender commits the crime of sexual abuse of a minor in the second degree if (1) being 16 years of age or older, the offender engages in sexual penetration with a person who is 13, 14, or 15 years of age and at least three years younger than the offender, or aids, induces, causes or encourages a person who is 13, 14, or 15 years of age and at least three years younger than the offender to engage in sexual penetration with another person...
Sexual Abuse of a Minor in the...:
Indecent Exposure:
The age of consent in Arizona is 18. However, there exist in the legislation defenses to prosecution if the defendant is close - in - age to the "victim '' or a spouse of the "victim ''. Note: these are not close - in - age exceptions but defenses in court. Arizona Revised Statute 13 - 1405 (A)
13 - 1407 (Defenses)
The age of consent is 16, with some close - in - age exemptions.
Details: The age is minimum 16 for a minor (< 18) with a major 20 years old or older. Under 18, the younger must not be less than 14, or if so, there is a defense if the minor is not more 4 years younger if 12 or above, not more 3 years younger if under 12. Sexual intercourse of a major and a minor under 14 is a rape.
Arkansas Code -- Title 5. Criminal Offenses -- Chapter 14. Sexual Offenses. Sections 5 - 14 -
103, 124, 125, 126, 127
5 - 14 - 127. A person commits sexual assault in the fourth degree if the person: (a)
(b)
The age of consent in California is 18.
In California, there is a crime of "Unlawful sexual intercourse '', which is an act of sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 who is not the spouse of the person. (CA Penal Code § 261.5 (a)) There are no exceptions; all sexual activity with a person under the age of 18 (and not their spouse) is a criminal offense. So if a 15 - year - old has consensual sex with a 17 - year old, both have committed a crime, although it is only a misdemeanor.
The punishment is varied, depending on the ages of the perpetrator and the victim, and there are more severe penalties if there is a wider gap between the age of the perpetrator and the age of the victim:
There are also civil sanctions possible for a violation stated above. (CA Penal Code § 261.5 (e))
There are separate crimes for committing sodomy with minors. (CA Penal code § 286)
There are separate crimes for committing any lewd or lascivious act with a person under the age of 14. (CA Penal Code § 288)
The age of consent, at the time applying only when the girl is the younger party, was 10 when California introduced its penal code in 1850. In 1889 the age of consent was raised to 14. In 1897 the age of consent became 16. The age of consent in California has been 18 since 1913. Some media sources reported that the age of consent in California in the 1970s was 14 or 16 but in fact it was and has been 18.
In the 1990s Governor of California Pete Wilson stated that there was a trend of men in their mid-to - late 20s having sex with and impregnating teenage girls around 14 years of age and that the statutory rape laws needed to be enforced to prevent this.
In 2012 Kristin Olsen, a Republican member of the State Assembly of California, sponsored a bill that criminalizes sexual relations between K - 12 teachers and students, including students over 18, as well as sexual text messages and other communications aimed at seducing a student. The bill was proposed after a 41 - year - old teacher and 18 - year - old high school student publicly announced that they were in a relationship. The bill was killed in committee by Democratic lawmakers concerned about the constitutionality of the proposed legislation.
By 2014 there had been civil court rulings in California stating that minors under 18 may consent to sexual activity, even though the age of consent is 18 under state criminal law.
The age of consent in Colorado is 17; however, there exists in the legislation close - in - age exceptions, which allow those aged 15 and 16 to engage in acts with those less than ten years older and those less than 15 to engage in acts with those less than four years older. A 17 - year - old may not, however, consent to sex with a person who is in a position of trust with respect to the person under the age of eighteen. C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 405.3.
C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 402 (1) Any actor who knowingly inflicts sexual intrusion or sexual penetration on a victim commits sexual assault if:... (d) At the time of the commission of the act, the victim is less than fifteen years of age and the actor is at least four years older than the victim and is not the spouse of the victim; or (e) At the time of the commission of the act, the victim is at least fifteen years of age but less than seventeen years of age and the actor is at least ten years older than the victim and is not the spouse of the victim;
Notwithstanding the age of consent, however, for purposes of child prostitution offenses in Colorado, a "child '' means a person under the age of eighteen years. C.R.S. 18 - 7 - 401 (2). Reasonable mistake of age, or similarity in age, is not a defense to these offenses. C.R.S. 18 - 7 - 407. All child prostitution offenses are class three felonies (class one felonies are capital offenses, class two felonies include second degree murder). So, while it is not a crime for a 17 - year - old to have non-commercial sex with a 60 - year - old in Colorado, it is a serious crime punishable by four to twelve years in prison for an 18 year old to engage in any sexual act, or to present at a "place of prostitution '' with an intent do so, for money or any other thing of value with a seventeen - year - old with the reasonable belief that the minor was under eighteen years old. C.R.S. 18 - 7 - 406. The same conduct, entered into with an eighteen - year - old and without a belief that the prostitute was under eighteen years of age, would be a misdemeanor. C.R.S. 18 - 7 - 205. Persons under the age of eighteen are also children for the crime of inducing or coercing someone to have sex or to have sexual conduct with another for the voyeur 's gratification, or to expose themselves to another for the voyeur 's sexual gratification, C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 404 (1.5), and the crime of trafficking in children, C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 502.
There is a marriage exception to both Colorado 's statutory rape law, C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 402, the crime of sexual assault upon a child by a person in a position of trust, C.R.S. 18 - 3 - 405.3, and Colorado 's child prostitution laws. However, while Colorado law does recognize common law marriages entered into when both spouses are eighteen years of age or older, it does not recognize common law marriages entered into in Colorado or elsewhere after September 1, 2006, when one spouse is under eighteen years of age. C.R.S. 14 - 2 - 109.5.
The general age of consent in Connecticut is 16. This applies in most relationships.
However, if any of the following apply, then the age of consent becomes 18:
Connecticut recognizes that minors who are at least 13 can consent to sexual activity if (and only if) there is less than a 3 - year age difference. For example:
However consensual, sexual intercourse within the 3 - year age difference by a minor 13 through 17 years old may, upon a complaint, lead the Connecticut Superior Court to a "family with service needs '' finding. See C.G.S. § 46b - 120 (7) (E). Such a finding would allow the Court to issue orders as it finds necessary in dealing with the matter.
Consensual sexual intercourse over the 3 - year age difference (where the minor is 13 to 15 years old) would subject the older party to a charge of Sexual Assault, 2nd Degree, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a - 71 (a) (1). Any juvenile offender 14 years old or older has the case automatically transferred to the regular criminal docket of the Superior Court by operation of law, and thus stands before the court to be tried as an adult. See C.G.S. § 46b - 127 (a). A guilty verdict would result in conviction of a Class B felony sex offense, with a mandatory minimum of 9 months and maximum 20 years imprisonment. It would not matter if the older person did not know of the age difference, or if the younger person lied about age. However, if the offender is 17 years old or younger, has a clean record, and such sexual activity was consensual, Youthful Offender status (a pre-trial diversionary program that seals the court record and results in a dismissal of charges) may be granted. See C.G.S. § 54 - 76b to o.
Previously the Connecticut age gap was two years, not three. By 2007 there had been a proposal to increase the gap to four years to reduce the number of close - in - age statutory rape cases being prosecuted, but three years was selected as a compromise.
Connecticut also recognizes that minors under 13 are released from criminal liability as to consensual sexual activity if (and only if) there is less than a 2 - year age difference. For example:
Consensual (between minors) sexual intercourse over the 2 - year age difference (where the minor is under 13 years old) would subject the older minor to a charge of Sexual Assault, 1st Degree, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a - 70 (a) (2). A guilty verdict would result in conviction of a Class A felony sex offense, with a mandatory minimum of 5 -- 10 years and maximum 25 years imprisonment. Any juvenile offender 14 years old or older has the case automatically transferred to the regular criminal docket of the Superior Court by operation of law, and thus stands before the court to be tried as an adult. However, the offender would have the same chance to apply for Youthful Offender status (see Sexual Assault, 2nd Degree above) provided the criteria are met.
A juvenile offender 13 years old and younger would be charged as a "serious juvenile offender '' under C.G.S. § 46b - 120 (12) (A). Because the charge is a sex offense, the juvenile prosecutor can request that the proceeding designated a "serious sexual offender prosecution ''. See C.G.S. § 46b - 133d (b) - (f). Unless the juvenile waives the right to a trial by jury, the case proceeds to the regular criminal docket of the Superior Court, where the juvenile must face trial as an adult. If the juvenile agrees to the waiver, the case will proceed through the juvenile system with a bench trial.
Links to Statutes Cited (in numerical order)
The age of consent in Delaware is 18, but it is legal for teenagers aged 16 and 17 to engage in sexual intercourse as long as the older partner is younger than 30.
Title 11 § 761. Definitions generally applicable to sexual offences. (j) A child who has not yet reached his or her sixteenth birthday is deemed unable to consent to a sexual act with a person more than 4 years older than said child. Children who have not yet reached their twelfth birthday are deemed unable to consent to a sexual act under any circumstances. Crimes and Criminal Procedure, Delaware Criminal Code
§ 770. Rape in the fourth degree; class C felony. (a) A person is guilty of rape in the fourth degree when the person:... 2) Intentionally engages in sexual intercourse with another person, and the victim has not yet reached that victim 's eighteenth birthday, and the person is 30 years of age or older, except that such intercourse shall not be unlawful if the victim and person are married at the time of such intercourse.
The age of consent in Florida is 18, but close - in - age exemptions exist. By law, the exception permits a person 23 years of age or younger to engage in legal sexual activity with a minor aged 16 or 17.
794.05 Unlawful sexual activity with certain minors. -- (1) A person 24 years of age or older who engages in sexual activity with a person 16 or 17 years of age commits a felony of the second degree, punishable as provided in s. 775.082, s. 775.083, or s. 775.084. As used in this section, "sexual activity '' means oral, anal, or vaginal penetration by, or union with, the sexual organ of another; however, sexual activity does not include an act done for a bona fide medical purpose Florida code, Title XLVI, Chapter 794
A new law passed in 2007 stated that persons convicted of statutory rape may be removed from the sex offender list if they were no more than four years older than their victims, had only the statutory rape offense on their records, and had victims aged 14 -- 17.
The age of consent in Georgia is 16 and there is no close - in - age exception, though the offenses are a misdemeanor rather than a felony in cases where the perpetrator is less than 19 years of age and is no more than 4 years older than the victim.
The crime of "statutory rape '' makes it illegal for a perpetrator of any age to have sexual intercourse with someone under the age of 16 that they are not married to. This law specifies that a defendant can not be convicted on the testimony of the victim alone; some other evidence must be present. This offense carries a minimum sentence of 1 year in prison, and a maximum of 20 years. If the offender is 21 years of age or older, the minimum is raised to 10 years in prison, and the offender is subject to sex offender sentencing guidelines. However, if the victim is 14 or 15 years old and the actor is age 18 or younger and within 4 years of the victim 's age, the crime is reduced to a misdemeanor with a maximum sentence of 1 year in prison.
The crime "child molestation '' makes it illegal for anyone to engage in "any immoral or indecent act to or in the presence of or with any child under the age of 16 years with the intent to arouse or satisfy the sexual desires of either the child or the person, '' as well as electronically transmit any depiction of such an act. It carries a minimum sentence of 5 years and a max of 20 years in prison for a first - time offender, as well as mandatory counseling and sex offender sentencing guidelines. For repeat offenders, the minimum 10 years and the maximum is life imprisonment. This crime has the same close - in - age exception as statutory rape stated above if the victim is 14 or 15 years old and the actor is 18 or younger and within 4 years of age.
A third applicable crime is "aggravated child molestation '', which is any act of the previously mentioned child molestation that causes injuries to the victim, or involves an act of "sodomy '' (defined under state law as any act of oral sex or anal sex). This crime carries a sentence of 25 years to life, and lifetime probation thereafter. However, if the victim is 13, 14 or 15 years old, the actor is 18 or younger and within 4 years of age, and the act committed was "sodomy '' and did not cause injury, the crime is reduced to a misdemeanor. This exception was added after a landmark case, Wilson v. State of Georgia occurred in 2006 and caused lawmakers to think the statute should have a close - in - age exception. At the time because of the words of the law, a 17 - year - old boy was sentenced to 10 years in prison for having consensual oral sex with a 15 - year - old girl.
In June 2005, a bill was proposed before the General Assembly of Georgia (USA) to raise the age of consent from 16 to 18.
The age of consent in Hawaii is 16. There is however a close - in - age exemption, which allows those aged 14 and 15 to consent to sex with those less than five years older.
Previously the age of consent was 14, the lowest in the United States. Avery Chumbley, a member of the Hawaiian Senate, had made efforts to raise the age of consent. The age of consent was changed to 16 by Act 1, House Bill 236, passed by the Legislature of Hawaii in 2001.
The age of consent in Idaho is 18.
The age of consent in Illinois is 17, and rises to 18 with someone who has a position of authority or trust over the victim. There is no close - in - age exception, crossing the age boundary is Criminal Sexual Assault.
Any sexual contact between minors the age of 9 and 16 is Criminal sexual abuse. When the victim is younger than 9 and the perpetrator 13 to 16, the crime becomes Aggravated Criminal Sexual Assault; when the victim is younger than 13 and the perpetrator 17 or older, it becomes Predatory criminal sexual assault of a child. Sex with a victim with severe intellectual disability at any age, or with a family or household member under 18, is Aggravated criminal sexual abuse, though penetration upgrades it to Aggravated Criminal Sexual Assault.
Although Illinois ' minimum marriage age (with parental consent or court order) is 16, there is no statutory exception to the age of sexual consent.
Bill 1139 was introduced in 2011 to decriminalize sexual relationships between persons 13 -- 16 years old and those fewer than five years older, but the bill failed to pass.
In 2011 a bill was proposed that would allow persons who violated the age of consent laws and were close in age with their victims to petition a judge to be removed from the sex offender registry. This bill, HB1139, was, written by Republican Party state representative Robert Pritchard. An editorial in the Chicago Sun - Times argued in favor of the bill. Emily McAsey, a Democratic state representative from Lockport, stated opposition to the idea, citing that she was "troubled '' by the idea of a romantic relationship between a 14 - year - old and an 18 - year old. Republican state representative Dennis Reboletti of Elmhurst stated that he did not believe judges should be able to reverse decisions made by prosecutors. The bill passed the Illinois House Judiciary II Committee 4 - 3 in February 2011 and moved to the Illinois Senate.
By 2012 Democratic state senator William Haine of Alton sponsored Senate Bill 3359 which included a provision that a person who had sex with a minor between 13 and 17 while he / she was fewer than five years older may petition to be removed from the sex offender registry after serving 10 years. Haine stated that he did not want "Romeo and Juliet '' offenders to be on the sex offender registry.
The age of consent in Indiana is 16. A close - in - age exception allows minors 14 -- 15 years of age to legally consent to sex with a partner who is less than 18 years old.
IC 35 - 42 - 4 - 9 states: "Sexual misconduct with a minor Sec. 9. (a) A person at least eighteen (18) years of age who, with a child at least fourteen (14) years of age but less than sixteen (16) years of age, performs or submits to sexual intercourse or deviate sexual conduct commits sexual misconduct with a minor, a Class C felony. '' Under certain aggravating circumstances, the offense increases to a Class B felony or to a Class A felony. The law allows the actor a defense to prosecution if the victim is currently or was previously married (the absolute minimum marriageable age in Indiana is 15), although this defense does not apply in the case of violence, threats or drugs. The law also allows a defense if the actor is within 4 years of age of the younger person and the two were in an ongoing dating / romantic relationship. This is not a close - in - age exception though, but merely a defense in court. The law also allows a mistake of age defense if the actor reasonably believed the victim was 16 or older.
The age limit rises to 18, according to IC35 - 42 - 4 - 7, if the actor is an adult who is the guardian, adoptive parent, adoptive grandparent, custodian, or stepparent of the minor; or a child care worker for the minor; or a military recruiter who is attempting to enlist over the minor.
Any person who engages in sexual intercourse with a child under 14 years of age commits a Class B felony, under IC 35 - 42 - 4 - 3 Child molesting. Under certain aggravating circumstances, the crime becomes a Class A felony.
The age of consent in Iowa is 16, with a close - in - age exemption for those aged 14 and 15, who may engage in sexual acts with partners less than 4 years older.
Section 709.4 states: A person commits sexual abuse in the third degree when the person performs a sex act under any of the following circumstances... 2 (c) The other person is fourteen or fifteen years of age and any of the following are true... (4) The person is four or more years older than the other person.
Section 709.15 forbids, amongst other things, sexual contact between a school employee and a "... person who is currently enrolled in or attending a public or nonpublic elementary or secondary school, or who was a student enrolled in or who attended a public or nonpublic elementary or secondary school within thirty days of any violation... '' There exist similar laws for those who provide or purport to provide mental health services (§ 709.15), officers in charge of offenders and juveniles (§ 709.16).
The age of consent in Kansas is 16. K.S.A. 21 - 5503, 21 - 5504, 21 - 5506 and 21 - 5507 prohibit sexual activity with minors aged 14 and 15. K.S.A. 21 - 5507 allows for a lesser penalty if the minor is 14 or 15 and the offender is under 19 years old. 21 - 5506 covers indecent liberties with a child and aggravated indecent liberties with a child. Aggravated indecent liberties with a child is sexual intercourse with a child who is 14 or more years of age but less than 16 years of age.
As per State v. Limon (2005) the previous Kansas age of consent law, which did not apply to homosexuals, was struck down by the Kansas Supreme Court due to 2003 's Lawrence v. Texas decision.
The age of consent in Kentucky is 16. Kentucky Revised Statutes Section 510.020 deems a person unable to consent if he or she is less than 16 years old.
In addition to the basic law regarding consent, the KRS has additional consent laws covering a variety of other situations:
However, KRS 510.120 (2) provides a defense to prosecutions under 510.120 (1) (b) (where the actor is between ages 18 and 21) for sexual abuse in the second degree if the "victim '' is at least 14 and the actor is less than 5 years older. Similarly, it is a defense to the Class B misdemeanor of "sexual abuse in the third degree '' (KRS 510.130), defined as subjecting another person to non-consensual sex, if the lack of consent was due solely to incapacity by age, the "victim '' is 14 or 15 years old, and the actor is under 18.
The age of consent in Louisiana is 17.
§ 80. Felony carnal knowledge of a juvenile
A. Felony carnal knowledge of a juvenile is committed when: (1) A person who is seventeen years of age or older has sexual intercourse, with consent, with a person who is thirteen years of age or older but less than seventeen years of age, when the victim is not the spouse of the offender and when the difference between the age of the victim and the age of the offender is four years or greater; or...
The age of consent in Maine is 16. Teenagers aged 14 and 15 may engage in sexual intercourse with partners who are less than 5 years older.
§ 254. Sexual abuse of minors 1. A person is guilty of sexual abuse of a minor if: A. The person engages in a sexual act with another person, not the actor 's spouse, who is either 14 or 15 years of age and the actor is at least 5 years older than the other person.
The age of consent in Maryland is 16.
The age of consent in Massachusetts is 16.
Section 23 of Chapter 265 of the General Laws of Massachusetts states:
Section 35A of Chapter 272 states:
However, Chapter 272, Section 4 sets another age of consent at 18 when the "victim '' is "of chaste life '' and the perpetrator induces them.
The age of consent in Michigan is 16 and there is no close - in - age exception, unless one is an authority figure in which case the age of consent is 18.
750.520 d Criminal sexual conduct in the third degree; felony. Sec. 520d. (1) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the third degree if the person engages in sexual penetration with another person and if any of the following circumstances exist: (a) That other person is at least 13 years of age and under 16 years of age...
In March 2012 the Michigan Senate passed a bill which was to prohibit sexual relations between students of any age and teachers. It passed 36 - 2.
The age of consent in Minnesota is 16.
If the actor is in a position of authority, the age of consent is 18. If the younger party is under the age of 13, the older party must be no more than 36 months older. If the younger party is 13, 14 or 15, the other person must be no more than 48 months older. The specifics of these laws are covered under Sections 609.34 x of the Minnesota Criminal Code. Specifically sections 609.341 Definitions, 609.342 Criminal Sexual Conduct in the First Degree, 609.343 Criminal Sexual Conduct in the Second Degree, 609.344 Criminal Sexual Conduct in the Third Degree, 609.345 Criminal Sexual Conduct in the Fourth Degree, 609.3451 Criminal Sexual Conduct in the Fifth Degree, and 609.349 Voluntary Relationships.
The age of consent in Mississippi is 16.
§ 97 - 3 - 65. Statutory rape; enhanced penalty for forcible sexual intercourse or statutory rape by administering certain substances.
(1) The crime of statutory rape is committed when:
(a) Any person seventeen (17) years of age or older has sexual intercourse with a child who:
(i) Is at least fourteen (14) but under sixteen (16) years of age;
(ii) Is thirty - six (36) or more months younger than the person; and
(iii) Is not the person 's spouse
§ 97 - 3 - 95. Sexual battery.
(1) A person is guilty of sexual battery if he or she engages in sexual penetration with:... (c) A child at least fourteen (14) but under sixteen (16) years of age, if the person is thirty - six (36) or more months older than the child...
The age of consent in Missouri is 17.
Mistake as to the age of the victim may be a defense in some circumstances as defined in RSMo 566.020.
Statutory rape and sodomy, RSMo § § 566.032 and 566.062 involve a victim less than 14 years of age. Statutory rape and sodomy in the second degree, RSMo § § 566.034 and 566.064 involve a victim less than 17 years of age and an accused who is 21 years of age or older. The crime of Child molestation in the second degree, RSMo § 566.068, occurs when a victim less than 17 years of age is subject to "sexual contact ''.
The distinction among those crimes has led some to the false conclusion that Missouri has a close - in - age exception. Missouri has no such exception beyond the degree of crime committed.
While the statutory titles are cast in terms of Rape and Sodomy, the statutes prohibit conduct that is described as "sexual intercourse '' and "deviant sexual intercourse ''. Those terms are defined in RSMo § 566.010.
Statutory rape, second degree, penalty. − 566.034. 1. A person commits the crime of statutory rape in the second degree if being twenty - one years of age or older, he has sexual intercourse with another person who is less than seventeen years of age.
Statutory sodomy, second degree, penalty. 566.064. 1. A person commits the crime of statutory sodomy in the second degree if being twenty - one years of age or older, he has deviate sexual intercourse with another person who is less than seventeen years of age.
Child molestation, second degree, penalties. 566.068. 1. A person commits the crime of child molestation in the second degree if he or she subjects another person who is less than seventeen years of age to sexual contact.
The age of consent in Montana is 16.
The age of consent in Nebraska is 16.
In addition Nebraska has a law prohibiting "lewdly inducing '' a person under 17 to "carnally know '' any other person.
28 - 319. Sexual assault; first degree; penalty.
(1) Any person who subjects another person to sexual penetration
(2) Sexual assault in the first degree is a Class II felony. The sentencing judge shall consider whether the actor caused serious personal injury to the victim in reaching a decision on the sentence.
(3) Any person who is found guilty of sexual assault in the first degree for a second time when the first conviction was pursuant to this section or any other state or federal law with essentially the same elements as this section shall be sentenced to a mandatory minimum term of twenty - five years in prison.
28 - 319.01. Sexual assault of a child; first degree; penalty.
(1) A person commits sexual assault of a child in the first degree:
(2) Sexual assault of a child in the first degree is a Class IB felony with a mandatory minimum sentence of fifteen years in prison for the first offense.
(3) Any person who is found guilty of sexual assault of a child in the first degree under this section and who has previously been convicted
(4) In any prosecution under this section, the age of the actor shall be an essential element of the offense that must be proved beyond a reasonable doubt.
The age of consent in Nevada is 16.
NRS 200.364 Definitions. As used in NRS 200.364 to 200.3774, inclusive, unless the context otherwise requires:... 3. "Statutory sexual seduction '' means: (a) Ordinary sexual intercourse, anal intercourse, cunnilingus or fellatio committed by a person 18 years of age or older with a person under the age of 16 years; or (b) Any other sexual penetration committed by a person 18 years of age or older with a person under the age of 16 years with the intent of arousing, appealing to, or gratifying the lust or passions or sexual desires of either of the persons.
The age of consent in New Hampshire is 16. But a close - in - age exception exists where a person may "engage in sexual penetration '' with a person older than 13 but younger than 16 but only if their age difference is three years or less. However, if the partner is acting "in loco parentis '', e.g. as a teacher or a guardian, the minimum age is 18. NH Criminal code Section 632 - A:3 and Section 632 - A: 2
The age of consent in New Jersey is 16.
There is an exception. If the victim is less than 18 and the partner is a parent, guardian, sibling or any other person closer than a fourth cousin or has any type of authority over the victim (for example, a teacher) then the assailant may be charged with a crime. For instance, it 's criminal for a manager of any age to have sex with a 17 - year - old subordinate, even if the sex is consensual.
State law specifies (by not saying anything) that minors between 13 and 15 years old may, in general, engage in a consensual sexual relationship with someone up to four years older. Therefore, for example, it is legal for a 14 - year - old male or female to engage in consensual sex with a person up to 18 years of age.
Specifically, NJ state law details three circumstances of sexual assault under which the age of consent is pertinent.
For aggravated sexual assault (a crime of the first degree), a person must have committed sexual penetration (that is, intercouse, oral or anal sex or something inserted) while either (1) the victim was under 13 or (2) the assailant exercised some legal or occupational authority over the victim who was between 13 and 15. (All other conditions for aggravated sexual assault do not impact the NJ age of consent.)
Simple sexual assault (a crime of the second degree) is defined in two ways.
First, a person must have committed sexual contact (that is, intentional touching of intimate parts for sexual gratification) while the victim was under 13 and the assailant was over four years older. Or, second, a person must have committed sexual penetration (defined above under aggravated sexual assault) while not using force and either (1) the victim was 16 or 17 and one of the following conditions was true:
or (2) the victim was between 13 and 15 and the assailant was over four years older. (All other conditions for simple sexual assault do not impact the NJ age of consent.)
For more information, see the actual NJ statutes at N.J.S.A. 2C: 14 - 2.
In a period before 1979 the age of consent was raised to 16. In May 1979 the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill sponsored by Christopher Jackman, the assembly speaker, changed the age of consent to 13. This bill was scheduled to go into effect on September 1, 1979. By June 1979 there were reports Governor of New Jersey Brendan T. Byrne had refused to sign the bill into law. The coordinator for New Jersey Majority Women, Elizabeth Sadowski, asked for a postponement of this bill.
The age of consent in New Mexico is 17 with age - gap, marital, and school employee provisions.
New Mexico Code > Chapter 30 > Article 9 > Section 30 - 9 - 11: Criminal sexual penetration.
"F. Criminal sexual penetration in the fourth degree consists of all criminal sexual penetration:
(1) not defined in Subsections C through E of this section perpetrated on a child thirteen to sixteen years of age when the perpetrator is at least eighteen years of age and is at least four years older than the child and not the spouse of that child; or:
(2) perpetrated on a child thirteen to eighteen years of age when the perpetrator, who is a licensed school employee, an unlicensed school employee, a school contract employee, a school health service provider or a school volunteer, and who is at least eighteen years of age and is at least four years older than the child and not the spouse of that child, learns while performing services in or for a school that the child is a student in a school.
Whoever commits criminal sexual penetration in the fourth degree is guilty of a fourth degree felony. ''
The age of consent in New York is 17.
The offense will be more serious depending on relative ages, thus:
"Sex, '' as used above, refers to the four conspicuous types of sexual acts, including "sexual intercourse '', "oral sexual conduct '' (both types), and "anal sexual conduct. '' The latter three acts were known by statute as "deviant sexual intercourse '' prior to 2003.
Non-intercourse sexual activity is also regulated based on age. Non-intercourse sexual activity, called "sexual contact '' is defined as "any touching of the sexual or other intimate parts of a person not married to the actor for the purpose of gratifying sexual desire of either party. It includes the touching of the actor by the victim, as well as the touching of the victim by the actor, whether directly or through clothing. '' (NY Penal Law § 130.00 (3).) If the person is underage such "sexual contact '' can constitute the crime of "sexual abuse. ''
It is not a defense that the perpetrator believed the victim was older than is later proven. (NY Penal Law § 15.20 (3)).
Legally recognized marriage is a defense. (NY Penal Law § 130.10 (4).)
The only minimum age for a perpetrator of first degree rape / criminal sexual act with a victim under 11 (NY Penal Law § § 130.35 (3) & 130.50 (3)), sexual abuse in the first and second degrees (NY Penal Law § § 130.65 (3) & 130.60 (2)), and misdemeanor sexual misconduct (NY Penal Law § 130.20) is provided by the defense of infancy found at NY Penal Law § 30.00 (1). That age is 16 years old. Someone under that age may be adjudicated a juvenile delinquent, but may not commit these crimes. On the other hand, someone who is 16 years old commits a crime by voluntarily having sex with anyone who can not themselves legally consent to sex, including another 16 - year - old, even if this "victim '' is actually older. (People v. Bowman, 88 Misc. 2d 50; 387 N.Y.S. 2d 982 (City Crim. Ct. 1976); Matter of Jessie C., 164 A.D. 2d 731; 565 N.Y.S. 2d 941 (4 Dept., 1991).) In effect, mutual crimes are committed when two unmarried 16 - year - old individuals voluntarily have sex with each other in New York State, each being the "victim '' of the other.
It appears that the crime of "Predatory sexual assault against a child, '' a class A-II felony, effectively subsumes all instances of "statutory '' first degree rape / criminal sexual act where the victim is under 13 (NY Penal Law § § 130.35 (4), 130.50 (4)) and the perpetrator over 18. (NY Penal Law § 130.96.) Thus, any person who commits one of these lesser offenses would necessarily commit the greater offense of "Predatory sexual assault against a child. '' (See, People v. Lawrence, 81 A.D. 3d 1326; 916 N.Y.S. 2d 393 (4 Dept. 2011).)
There are other special offenses, namely "Course of sexual conduct against a child in the first degree '' and "Course of sexual conduct against a child in the second degree '' that punish sex with an underage person combined with an additional illegal sexual act during wide time period. These do not subject a person to more punishment than the crimes listed above but provide only a gimmick for prosecutors to avoid the requirement that an individual sex act be specified in a rape indictment. (See, People v. Beauchamp, 74 N.Y. 2d 639; 539 N.E. 2d 1105 (1989).)
(Note that "violent felonies '' are specified by NY Penal Law § 70.02. Actual "violence '' is irrelevant.)
New York Penal Law Article 130
The age of consent in North Carolina is 16. However, certain exceptions to this general rule exist.
No employee of a K - 12 school can have any sexual activity with any student at that school except when married to the person (§ 14 ‐ 27.7); this is a felony unless the actor is less than 4 years older than the student and is not a teacher, administrator, student teacher, safety officer, or coach. This prohibition covers adults and students who were at the school at the same time, and continues in force as long as the younger person is a student at any K - 12 school, regardless of age.
Any sexual intercourse with a person under 16 years of age is prohibited unless the defendant is less than 4 years older than the victim except when married to the person (§ 14 ‐ 27.2, 14 ‐ 27.4 & 14 ‐ 27.7 A).
§ 14 ‐ 27.7 A. Statutory rape or sexual offense of person who is 13, 14, or 15 years old.
(a) A defendant is guilty of a Class B1 felony if the defendant engages in vaginal intercourse or a sexual act with another person who is 13, 14, or 15 years old and the defendant is at least six years older than the person, except when the defendant is lawfully married to the person.
(b) A defendant is guilty of a Class C felony if the defendant engages in vaginal intercourse or a sexual act with another person who is 13, 14, or 15 years old and the defendant is more than four but less than six years older than the person, except when the defendant is lawfully married to the person.
North Carolina General Statutes Chapter 14
The age of consent in North Dakota is 18.
12.1 - 20 - 03. Gross sexual imposition -- Penalty.
1. A person who engages in a sexual act with another, or who causes another to engage in a sexual act, is guilty of an offense if... the victim is less than fifteen years old
Section 12.1 - 20 - 05 of the code refers to sexual acts between adults and teenagers aged 15, 16 and 17:
12.1 - 20 - 05. Corruption or solicitation of minors.
The age of consent in Ohio is 16 as specified by Section 2907.04 of the Ohio Revised Code. However, there exists a close - in - age exception where a minor 13 or older can consent to sex as long as their partner is less than 18 years old.
It is illegal for a person of any age to have sex with a child beneath 13 years of age who they are not married to.
(b) the other person is less than thirteen years of age, whether or not the offender knows the age of the other person (§ 2907.02).
However, the preceding statute, Section 2907.03, specifies that sexual conduct between anyone under 18 and a teacher, administrator, or coach of the school they attend, a cleric, or other person in authority, is punishable as a felony of the third degree.
(§ 2907.03)
Ohio law also contains a rule against importuning, which means a perpetrator of any age sexually soliciting a minor over the internet if the minor is under the age of 13, or in the case of a perpetrator 18 years of age or older, sexually soliciting any minor who is under the age of 16. (§ 2907.07)
Laws against "contributing to the unruliness or delinquency of a child '' (§ 2919.24) and "interference with custody '' (§ 2919.23) may be used against those who have sex with those who are 16 and 17 if a parent or guardian complains. These two crimes are not considered to be sexual offenses. In 1989 Donald Edgar Lukens was prosecuted under the misdemeanor charge "contributing to the delinquency and unruliness of a child '' for having sex with a 16 - year - old girl. At the time he was 58 years old, and he received a 30 - day jail sentence.
The age of consent in Oklahoma is 16. A close - in - age exemption applies if the minor was over the age of 14 and the actor was age 18 or younger.
An employee of a school system who has sexual conduct with a student of that school system aged between 16 and 18 may face criminal charges in Oklahoma.
The age of consent in Oregon is 18. Sexual offenses are defined under the Oregon Revised Statutes Chapter 163. With regards to age only, the following offenses are defined.
18: Consent for all laws. (ORS 163.345 -- ORS 163 - 425) Under 18: Defined as Sexual Abuse 3 (Class A Misdemeanor) Under 16: Defined as Rape 3 / Sodomy 3 (Class C Felony) Under 14: Defined as Rape 2 / Sodomy 2 (Class B Felony) Under 12: Defined as Rape 1 / Sodomy 1 (Class A Felony)
Additionally, Oregon has a three - year rule defined under ORS 163.345. However, this does not apply to Rape 1, or Sodomy 1, effectively limiting the age to 12. However, a person can still be charged with Sexual Misconduct (Class C Misdemeanor) under ORS 163.445, if the victim was an unmarried person under 18 years of age.
The age of consent in Pennsylvania is 16 years of age for sexual consent. The age of consent was previously 18 but it was lowered to 16 in 1995.
There is also a corruption of minors statute against adults corrupting the morals of minors under 18 years of age. However, the corruption of minors statute only applies to perpetrators 18 years of age and older, so it is always legal for minors 16 - 17 to have sex with each other but not always with a partner 18 or older. Pennsylvania prosecutors use this law against adults who have consensual intercourse with 16 - and 17 - year - olds, and it would count as a misdemeanor offense. In 2005 JoAnne Epps, a former prosecutor and Temple University Beasley School of Law dean of academic affairs, stated that the corruption of minors charge is considered to be a separate crime from that of statutory rape; she stated that the consideration of whether a minor is consenting to sexual activity is a separate issue from whether someone is corrupting the minor 's morals.
Teenagers aged 13, 14 and 15 may or may not be able to legally engage in sexual activity with partners who are less than 4 years older. Such partners could not be prosecuted under statutory rape laws, but may be liable for other offenses, even when the sexual activity is consensual.
In December 2011 the Pennsylvania Legislature passed an amendment stating that an employee of a school who engages in sexual relations with any student or athletic player under the age of 18 may receive a third - degree felony charge. In 2014 Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Corbett signed into law an amendment making this law apply to athletic coaches who work outside of an educational setting. Historically Pennsylvania prosecutors were only allowed to issue misdemeanor charges such as corruption of minors against teachers and coaches who had sex with 16 and 17 - year - old students. In addition to the corruption of minors charge, Pennsylvania prosecutors have also brought child endangerment charges against schoolteachers who had sex with 16 and 17 - year - old students.
Under Pennsylvania law, a defendant is strictly liable for the offense of rape, a felony of the first degree, when the complainant is 12 or younger. Pennsylvania has enacted several other strict liability sexual offenses when the complainant is under 16, but 13 years old or older.
§ 3122.1. Statutory sexual assault.
Except as provided in section 3121 (relating to rape), a person commits a felony of the second degree when that person engages in sexual intercourse with a complainant under the age of 16 years and that person is four or more years older than the complainant and the complainant and the person are not married to each other.
§ 3125 Aggravated indecent assault
(7) the complainant is less than 13 years of age; or (8) the complainant is less than 16 years of age and the person is four or more years older than the complainant and the complainant and the person are not married to each other. (b) Aggravated indecent assault of a child. -- A person commits aggravated indecent assault of a child when the person violates subsection (a) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) or (6) and the complainant is less than 13 years of age.
§ 3123 Involuntary deviate sexual intercourse
(7) who is less than 16 years of age and the person is four or more years older than the complainant and the complainant and person are not married to each other.
When the alleged victim is 16 or older and less than 18 years of age, and the alleged offender is over the age of 18, the Commonwealth may charge the offense of corruption of minors or unlawful contact with a minor, even if the activity was consensual:
§ 6301 Corruption of minors.
(a) Offense defined. -- (1) Whoever, being of the age of 18 years and upwards, by any act corrupts or tends to corrupt the morals of any minor less than 18 years of age, or who aids, abets, entices or encourages any such minor in the commission of any crime, or who knowingly assists or encourages such minor in violating his or her parole or any order of court, commits a misdemeanor of the first degree.
The crime of corruption of minors is usually a crime that accompanies another "more serious '' crime such as statutory rape or involuntary deviate sexual intercourse or accompanies some drug or alcohol use, possession or sale. Tending to corrupt like contributing to delinquency is a broad term involving conduct toward a child in an unlimited variety of ways which tends to produce or to encourage or to continue conduct of the child which would amount to delinquent conduct. ''
The question of whether consensual intercourse with a minor 16 years or older tends to corrupt the morals of that minor is a jury question to be decided by the "common sense of the community. ''
§ 6318. Unlawful contact with minor.
(a) Offense defined. -- A person commits an offense if he is intentionally in contact with a minor, or a law enforcement officer acting in the performance of his duties who has assumed the identity of a minor, for the purpose of engaging in an activity prohibited under any of the following, and either the person initiating the contact or the person being contacted is within this Commonwealth: (1) Any of the offenses enumerated in Chapter 31 (relating to sexual offenses). (2) Open lewdness as defined in section 5901 (relating to open lewdness). (3) Prostitution as defined in section 5902 (relating to prostitution and related offenses). (4) Obscene and other sexual materials and performances as defined in section 5903 (relating to obscene and other sexual materials and performances). (5) Sexual abuse of children as defined in section 6312 (relating to sexual abuse of children). (6) Sexual exploitation of children as defined in section 6320 (relating to sexual exploitation of children).
The age of consent in Rhode Island is 16. Sexual intercourse with a minor aged 14 -- 15 by an actor 18 or older is third degree sexual assault, sexual intercourse with a minor under the age of 14 by an actor of any age is child molestation. However, there is a close - in - age exception that allows people aged 16 -- 17 to have sex with a minor aged 14 or 15, but not younger.
§ 11 - 37 - 6 Third degree sexual assault. -- A person is guilty of third degree sexual assault if he or she is over the age of eighteen (18) years and engaged in sexual penetration with another person over the age of fourteen (14) years and under the age of consent, sixteen (16) years of age. § 11 - 37 - 8.1 First degree child molestation sexual assault. -- A person is guilty of first degree child molestation sexual assault if he or she engages in sexual penetration with a person fourteen (14) years of age or under.
The age of consent in South Carolina is 16.
SECTION 16 - 3 - 651. Criminal sexual conduct: definitions... (h) "Sexual battery '' means sexual intercourse, cunnilingus, fellatio, anal intercourse, or any intrusion, however slight, of any part of a person 's body or of any object into the genital or anal openings of another person 's body, except when such intrusion is accomplished for medically recognized treatment or diagnostic purposes.
SECTION 16 - 3 - 655. Criminal sexual conduct with a minor; aggravating and mitigating circumstances; penalties; repeat offenders. (B) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct with a minor in the second degree if:... (2) the actor engages in sexual battery with a victim who is at least fourteen years of age but who is less than sixteen years of age and the actor is in a position of familial, custodial, or official authority to coerce the victim to submit or is older than the victim. However, a person may not be convicted of a violation of the provisions of this item if he is eighteen years of age or less when he engages in illicit but consensual sexual conduct with another person who is at least fourteen years of age. In addition, mistake of age may be used as a defense.
SECTION 16 - 15 - 140. Committing or attempting lewd act upon child under sixteen. It is unlawful for a person over the age of fourteen years to willfully and lewdly commit or attempt a lewd or lascivious act upon or with the body, or its parts, of a child under the age of sixteen years, with the intent of arousing, appealing to, or gratifying the lust or passions or sexual desires of the person or of the child.
The age of consent in South Dakota is 16 and there is no close - in - age exemption, although if the perpetrator is within three years of age of the victim or is under 18 the penalties are reduced.
22 - 22 - 1. Rape defined -- Degrees -- Felony. Rape is an act of sexual penetration accomplished with any person under any of the following circumstances:... (5) If the victim is thirteen years of age, but less than sixteen years of age, and the perpetrator is at least three years older than the victim.
22 - 22 - 7. Sexual contact with child under sixteen -- Felony or misdemeanor. Any person, sixteen years of age or older, who knowingly engages in sexual contact with another person, other than that person 's spouse if the other person is under the age of sixteen years is guilty of a Class 3 felony. If the actor is less than three years older than the other person, the actor is guilty of a Class 1 misdemeanor. If an adult has a previous conviction for a felony violation of this section, any subsequent felony conviction for a violation under this section, is a Class 2 felony. Notwithstanding § 23A - 42 - 2, a charge brought pursuant to this section may be commenced at any time before the victim becomes age twenty - five or within seven years of the commission of the crime, whichever is longer.
22 - 22 - 7.3. Sexual contact with child under sixteen years of age -- Violation as misdemeanor. Any person, younger than sixteen years of age, who knowingly engages in sexual contact with another person, other than his or her spouse, if such other person is younger than sixteen years of age, is guilty of a Class 1 misdemeanor.
The age of consent in Tennessee is 18. A close - in - age exemption allows minors aged 13 -- 17 to engage in sexual acts with partners less than 4 years older. Penalties differ depending on the age of the minor, as well as the age difference between the minor and the offender. (see Article 39 - 13 - 506. Statutory rape).
There are two laws concerning age of consent in Texas: one sets the age of consent for sexual activity at 17 and the other sets the age of consent for inducement of sexual conduct and for sexual activity involving "visual representation or employment '' at 18. There is also a three - year "Romeo and Juliet '' provision that allows for sexual contact if there is a three year or less gap between the parties.
Texas age of consent is 17 years. The age of consent is gender neutral and applies the same to both heterosexual and homosexual conduct and regardless of age difference. Like many other states, Texas does not enforce harsh penalties for individuals who have sex with someone under 17 as long as that person is not more than 3 years older than the minor. If the victim is under the age of 17 (subject to a three - year close - in - age exception), then underage sexual conduct can also be prosecuted (without requiring proof of inducement) under section 21.11 of title 5. Sex with a child under the age of 14 is considered aggravated sexual assault Section 22.021 (a. 2. B).
The age of consent in Texas involving visual representation such as a part in a play or movie or employment involving sex is 18 under section 43.25 (b), A person commits an offense if, the person he / she employs, or includes in content of the material, he / she produces, directs, or promotes a performance that includes sexual conduct is younger than 18 years of age. A parent or legal guardian or custodian of a child younger than 18 years of age commits an offense if he / she consents to the participation by the child in a sexual performance. This crime requires proof of inducement. However, inducement does not require threat, promise of payment or any specific incentive, or even verbal persuasion to be proven. under Texas Penal Code § 33.021. Online Solicitation of a Minor is a criminal offense in the state of Texas that makes it illegal for someone 17 years and older to intentionally or knowingly communicate certain sexual content or try to induce or solicit a minor under 17 years of age, or any communication, language, or material, including a photographic or video image, that relates to or describes sexual conduct, as defined by Section 43.25.
Some confusion arises regarding the applicability of section 43.25 to mere "sexual conduct '', due to the section title "sexual performance by a child '' and other provisions that seem to suggest that the intention of this section is to criminalize commercial sexual performances by a minor. However, in John Perry DORNBUSCH, Appellant, v. The STATE of Texas and in Summers v. State, 11 - 92 - 057 - CR, 845 S.W. 2d 440 (1992) both cases brought up different views on the applicability, in Summers v. State the judge dismisses the appellant 's argument that the legislative intent of the statute was to apply only to sexual performance as defined by section 43.25 (a) (1).
Section 21.12 further prohibits all sexual contact between an employee of a school (including educators)), and a student enrolled at the primary or secondary school and / or school district where said employee works (unless the student is the employee 's spouse). No age is specified by the statute (thus, even if the student has reached the age of consent, it is still a violation), and violations are a second degree felony. Persons convicted under 21.12 do not have to register as sex offenders. The law exists to prevent scenarios where a teacher or employee coerces a student into a sexual relationship in exchange for higher grades or other favors.
In 2003 Helen Giddings, a Democratic member of the Texas House of Representatives, first authored the anti student - teacher sex bill but only intended for it to into effect if the student is 17 or younger. Warren Chisum of Pampa removed the maximum age from the bill. The bill was passed in 2003. Shortly after the law passed, a teacher engaged in sexual intercourse with her 18 - year - old student, and a Texas court refused to indict her. In 2011 an amendment made it so that a teacher is forbidden from having sexual relations with any student in his / her school district, not just his / her school. Afterwards criminal prosecutions of teachers in relationships with students going to other schools in the same school district, including teachers of other educational levels, began occurring. In response to this law, Houston lawyer Dick DeGuerin stated "Unless there 's real strong evidence of a teacher trading sex for grades or using improper influence, then it 's a statute that is really open to abuse. ''
The age of consent in Utah is 18. However, it is legal for minors aged 16 and 17 to engage in sexual activity with partners less than 7 years older, and between 7 and 10 years older if the partner reasonably did n't know the minor 's age.
76 - 5 - 401.2. Unlawful sexual conduct with a 16 - or 17 - year - old.
(1) As used in this section, "minor '' means a person who is 16 years of age or older, but younger than 18 years of age, at the time the sexual conduct described in Subsection (2) occurred.
(2)
76 - 5 - 401. Unlawful sexual activity with a minor -- Elements -- Penalties -- Evidence of age raised by defendant.
(1) For purposes of this section "minor '' is a person who is 14 years of age or older, but younger than 16 years of age, at the time the sexual activity described in this section occurred.
(2) A person commits unlawful sexual activity with a minor if, under circumstances not amounting to rape, in violation of Section 76 - 5 - 402, object rape, in violation of Section 76 - 5 - 402.2, forcible sodomy, in violation of Section 76 - 5 - 403, or aggravated sexual assault, in violation of Section 76 - 5 - 405, the actor:
(3) A violation of Subsection (2) is a third degree felony unless the defendant establishes by a preponderance of the evidence the mitigating factor that the defendant is less than four years older than the minor at the time the sexual activity occurred, in which case it is a class B misdemeanor.
The age of consent in Vermont is 16.
Title 13 V.S.A. § 3252.
Sexual assault:
§ 3252 (c) No person shall engage in a sexual act with a child who is under the age of 16, except:
However it rises to 18 if the person is related to the minor or in a position of authority over him.
(d) No person shall engage in a sexual act with a child who is under the age of 18 and is entrusted to the actor 's care by authority of law or is the actor 's child, grandchild, foster child, adopted child, or stepchild.
The age of consent in Virginia is 18, with a close - in - age exception that allows teenagers aged 15 to 17 to engage in sexual acts but only with a partner younger than 18.
The state code defines felony statutory rape as crimes against those under 15, while adults who have sex minors over 15 can be prosecuted for a misdemeanor offense, "contributing to the delinquency of a minor. ''
Section § 18.2 - 63 of the Code refers to minors younger than 15, while § 18.2 - 371 is about 15 -, 16 - and 17 - year - olds.
Section 18.2 - 63 states in part:
Consensual sex where one partner is 15, 16 or 17 and the other is over 18 is a class 1 misdemeanor.
§ 18.2 - 371. Causing or encouraging acts rendering children delinquent, abused, etc.; penalty; abandoned infant. Any person 18 years of age or older, including the parent of any child, who (i) willfully contributes to, encourages, or causes any act, omission, or condition which renders a child delinquent, in need of services, in need of supervision, or abused or neglected as defined in § 16.1 - 228, or (ii) engages in consensual sexual intercourse with a child 15 or older not his spouse, child, or grandchild, shall be guilty of a Class 1 misdemeanor.
As of 2013 the state was attempting to prosecute a 47 - year - old man who had oral sex with a 17 - year - old girl with a "crimes against nature '' law, an anti-sodomy which forbids people from engaging in anal and oral sex and makes these acts a felony offense. The 47 year - old had been convicted under a misdemeanor offense and his lawyers did not challenge that conviction. In addition, the man had to serve one year in prison and register as a sex offender due to the sodomy charge. In March 2013 the U.S. Court of Appeals overturned the sodomy conviction, saying it was unconstitutional according to the 2003 Lawrence v. Texas decision. Attorney General of Virginia Ken Cuccinelli asked the U.S. Supreme Court to do a rehearing, arguing that the state 's sodomy laws may still constitutionally apply to 16 and 17 year olds. Dalia Lithwick of Slate stated that this scenario would cause problems for homosexual teenagers. In October of that year the Supreme Court denied the petition.
The age of consent in Washington is 16.
It is also illegal to engage in sexual acts with someone younger than 18 under three different sets of circumstances, enumerated in RCW 9A. 44.096. Foster parents with their foster children; school teachers and school administration employees over their students (including, as interpreted by the Washington State Supreme Court, students up to age 21); The third set of circumstances require all of the following situations occur in tandem: The older person is 60 months or more older than the 16 - or 17 - year - old, the person is in a significant relationship as defined by RCW 9A. 44.010, and such older person abuses the relationship to have sexual contact.
There are also three exceptions for people close in age.
Several have reported that the immoral communication with a minor statute exists and places the age of consent at 18 due to the inability to "communicate '' to 16 - and 17 - year - olds about sexual activity. These reports are incorrect. The Washington Court of Appeals, Division 1 decided in the case of State v. Danforth, 56 Wn. App. 133, 782 P. 2d 1091 (1989) that such communication has to be for the purposes of committing an illegal act under RCW Chapter 9.68 A. Danforth 's conviction was overturned by that ruling. However, the Washington Supreme Court in the case of State v. McNallie, 120 Wn. 2d 925, 846 P. 2d 1358 (1993) overturned the scope of the Danforth ruling (though not the result; Danforth would have still had his conviction overturned under the McNallie standard), applying the communication statute to encompass all sexual misconduct with a minor, not just those under RCW Chapter 9.68 A, which deal mostly with illegal child pornography and prostitution. In State v. Luther, the Court of Appeals concluded, that "the Legislature never intended that RCW 9.68 A. 090 proscribe communications about sexual conduct that would be legal if performed, and that conclusion makes it unnecessary to consider constitutional argument based on procedural due process. ''. Due to these cases, it is clear that communications with 16 - and 17 - year - olds just for general sexual activity is legal, as long as such conduct discussed is not about illegal conduct or would be illegal in real life (such as the teacher / student circumstance, the foster parent / foster child circumstance, the significant relationship abuse circumstance, or asking for illegal pictures or attempting to bring such younger persons into prostitution).
A state statute makes it illegal for a teacher and a "minor '' student defined as "at least sixteen years old. '' The Washington State Supreme Court ruled that this policy affects all high school students up to 21 years of age, which under state law is the age cap for enrollment in high school.
The age of consent in West Virginia is 16.
§ 61 - 8B - 5. Sexual assault in the third degree.
(a) A person is guilty of sexual assault in the third degree when:
(2) The person, being sixteen years old or more, engages in sexual intercourse or sexual intrusion with another person who is less than sixteen years old and who is at least four years younger than the defendant and is not married to the defendant.
The age of consent in Wisconsin is 18 and there is no close - in - age exception. There is, however, a marital exception which allows a person to have sex with a minor 16 or older if they are married to the minor. If the minor is below 16 both sexual intercourse and any sexual contact are a felony; sexual intercourse with a minor 16 - 17 by a perpetrator who is not married to the minor is a class a misdemeanor. However, Wisconsin has a child enticement law that prohibits people of any age from taking people under 18 to a private area such as a room and exposing a sex organ to them or having the minor expose their sex organ to them. This is a class B or C felony. 948.09 Sexual intercourse with a child age 16 or older. Whoever has sexual intercourse with a child who is not the defendant 's spouse and who has attained the age of 16 years is guilty of a Class A misdemeanor.
948.02 Sexual assault of a child. (...) (2) Second degree sexual assault. Whoever has sexual contact or sexual intercourse with a person who has not attained the age of 16 years is guilty of a Class C felony.
If the minor is below 16 marriage to the minor by the accused is not a defense.
948.02 (4) Marriage not a bar to prosecution. A defendant shall not be presumed to be incapable of violating this section because of marriage to the complainant.
Sexual intercourse with a child younger than 13 carries the highest penalties, it is a Class B felony. 948.02 (e) Whoever has sexual contact with a child who has not attained the age of 13 years is guilty of a class b felony.
Wisconsin law contains an unusual provision making it a class f felony for a person responsible for a child under the age of 16 years such as a parent to not prevent their child from having sexual contact with another person if it was realistically possible for them to do so and they were aware that the other person intended to have sex with their child. (3) Failure to act. A person responsible for the welfare of a child who has not attained the age of 16 years is guilty of a Class F felony if that person has knowledge that another person intends to have, is having or has had sexual intercourse or sexual contact with the child, is physically and emotionally capable of taking action which will prevent the intercourse or contact from taking place or being repeated, fails to take that action and the failure to act exposes the child to an unreasonable risk that intercourse or contact may occur between the child and the other person or facilitates the intercourse or contact that does occur between the child and the other person.
Child Enticement. Section 948.07, Wisconsin Statutes, prohibits causing or enticing a child into any vehicle, building, room, or secluded place with the intent to: commit an act of first or second - degree sexual assault; cause the child to engage in prostitution; expose a sex organ to the child or cause the child to expose a sex organ; or take pictures or make audio recordings of the child engaging in sexually explicit conduct (Class BC felony).
The age of consent in Wyoming is 17.
6 ‐ 2 ‐ 304. Sexual assault in the third degree. (a) An actor commits sexual assault in the third degree if, under circumstances not constituting sexual assault in the first or second degree: (i) The actor is at least four (4) years older than the victim and inflicts sexual intrusion on a victim under the age of sixteen (16) years...
The age of consent in Wyoming was thought by some to be 16, as stated above by Section 6 ‐ 2 ‐ 304. However, in the cases of Pierson v. State and Moore v. State, the Wyoming Supreme Court held that sexual activity with minors aged 16 or 17 could be charged under Section 14 - 3 - 105 of Wyoming Statutes. That statute was repealed in 2007 and re-codified as Section 6 - 2 - 316, which provides, in pertinent part as follows:
6 - 2 - 316. Sexual abuse of a minor in the third degree. (a) Except under circumstance constituting sexual abuse of a minor in the first or second degree as defined by W.S. 6 - 2 - 314 and 6 - 2 - 315, an actor commits the crime of sexual abuse of a minor in the third degree if:... (iv) Being seventeen (17) years of age or older, the actor knowingly takes immodest, immoral or indecent liberties with a victim who is less than seventeen (17) years of age and the victim is at least four (4) years younger than the actor.
It is an offense in American Samoa to engage in sexual acts with a person under the age of 16.
The age of consent in Guam is 16.
§ 25.25. Third Degree Criminal Sexual Conduct.
(a) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the third degree if the person engages in sexual penetration with another person and if any of the following circumstances exists:
(1) that other person is at least fourteen (14) years of age and under sixteen (16) years of age
(...)
The age of consent in the Northern Mariana Islands is 16, according to Sections 1306 -- 1309 of the Commonwealth Code. There a close - in - age exemption permitting minors aged 13 -- 15 to engage in sexual activity with those less than three years older. Under the same provisions, it is also illegal for any person aged 16 or older to aid, encourage, induce or causes minors under 13 to engage in any sexual activity with anyone else, or minors aged 13 -- 15 to engage in sexual activity with persons older than them by three years or more.
The age of consent rises to 18 when the older partner -- being age 18 or older -- is the parent, stepparent, adopted parent, or legal guardian of the younger person, or when the older partner has or occupies a position of authority over the younger person. This does not apply for minors aged 16 or 17 as long as the older partner is less than three years older and is not the younger person 's parent, stepparent, adopted parent or legal guardian. According to section 1317, a position of authority "means an employer, youth leader, scout leader, coach, teacher, counselor, school administrator, religious leader, doctor, nurse, psychologist, guardian ad litem, babysitter, or a substantially similar position, and a police officer or probation officer other than when the officer is exercising custodial control '' over a person under 18.
According to Section 1310, affirmative defenses for the crimes outlined in Sections 1306 -- 1309 exists for consensual activity between legal spouses and for cases where the defendant reasonably believed that a minor age 13 or older was of legal age.
Sections 1303 and 1304 of the Commonwealth Code also criminalize sexual activity with persons aged 18 or 19, if they are "committed to the custody of the Department of Public Health and Environmental Services under the Commonwealth 's civil or criminal laws, and the offender is the legal guardian of the person ''.
The age of consent in Puerto Rico is 16.
Article 142. - Sexual Assault. - Any person who performs sexual penetration, whether vaginal, anal, oral - genital, digital or instrumental under any of the following circumstances shall incur a second degree felony:
(a) When the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years at the time of the commission of the crime
(...)
Article 144. - Lewd Acts. - Any person who without the intention to consummate the crime of sexual assault described in Article 142 submits another person to an act that tends to awaken, excite or satisfy the sexual passion or desire of the accused, under any of the following circumstances hereinbelow, shall incur a third degree felony.
(a) When the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years at the time of the commission of the crime
(...)
Paraphrasing Virgin Islands Code: V.I.C. § 1700 -- 1709 Virgin Islands Code and appeals records Francis vs. VI NOTE: "mistake of fact as to the victim 's age is not a defense ''. The age of consent is 18. There is however a close - in - age exemption that allows minors 16 and 17 years old to consent with someone no more than five years older than themselves and minors 13 to 15 years old to consent with one another, but not with anyone 16 or over.
Article § 1700. Aggravated rape in the first degree bans sexual intercourse or sodomy with a child under 13. Sexual acts with minors are aggravated by the use of force, intimidation, or the perpetrator 's position of authority, and by the fact that the minor, being under 16 and not the perpetrator 's spouse, is residing in the same household as the perpetrator. (see Article § 1700, Article § 1702, Article § 1708).
Other relevant articles of the criminal code are:
(a) Any person over 18 years of age who perpetrates under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is at least 16 years but less than 18 years of age, and the perpetrator is 5 years or older than the victim, is guilty of rape in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 10 years.
Any person under 18 years of age but over 16 years of age who perpetrates an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is under 16 years of age but over 13 years of age, under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, is guilty of rape in the third degree and shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the Family Division of the Superior Court
"Sexual contact '', that is, non-penetrative sex, defined as "the intentional touching of a person 's intimate parts, whether directly or through clothing, to arouse or to gratify the sexual desires of any person '' is not permitted with children under 16, but a close - in - age exemption allows those aged at least 13 to engage in such acts with partners under 18.
A person who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse -- (...) (2) when the other person is under thirteen years of age;
A person over eighteen years of age who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is over thirteen but under sixteen years of age is guilty of unlawful sexual contact in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 1 year
Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island, are under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior, as part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
Midway Atoll is under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior (administered as a National Wildlife Refuge). As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
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who was the founder of hinduism and when was it founded | Hinduism - Wikipedia
Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practised in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition '', or the "eternal way '', beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis '' started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard '') and Smṛti ("remembered ''). These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas. Sources of authority and eternal truths in its texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (ethics / duties), Artha (prosperity / work), Kama (desires / passions) and Moksha (liberation / freedom / salvation); karma (action, intent and consequences), Saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha). Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family - oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monastic practices) to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self - restraint, and compassion, among others. The four largest denominations of Hinduism are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
Hinduism is the world 's third largest religion; its followers, known as Hindus, constitute about 1.15 billion, or 15 -- 16 % of the global population. Hindus form the majority of the population in India, Nepal and Mauritius. Significant Hindu communities are also found in the Caribbean, Africa, North America, and other countries.
The word Hindū is derived from Indo - Aryan / Sanskrit root Sindhu. The Proto - Iranian sound change * s > h occurred between 850 -- 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola.
It is believed that Hindu was used as the name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India). According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu) '', more specifically in the 6th - century BCE inscription of Darius I (550 -- 486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Among the earliest known records of ' Hindu ' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th - century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th - century Persian text Futuhu 's - salatin by ' Abd al - Malik Isami.
Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta -- equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic term al - Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus ''.
The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th - to 18th - century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata. These texts used it to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th - century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th - century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma ''. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th - century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet (s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it ''. Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life ''. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion.
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism '', has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as same). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one 's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).
McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are, Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas traceable to 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality '', which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste ''; and Bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism '', "folk religions and tribal religions '', and "founded religions. The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma - marga '', jnana - marga, bhakti - marga, and "heroism '', which is rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of political Hinduism. This is also called virya - marga. According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions '' such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are salvation - focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes among "founded religions '' Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various "Guru - isms '' and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.
Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that has been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox '' form of Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law '' or the "eternal way ''. The Sanskrit word dharma has a much broader meaning than religion and is not its equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfillment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha) are part of dharma which encapsulates the "right way of living '' and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.
According to the editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sanātana Dharma historically referred to the "eternal '' duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self - restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu 's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one 's "own duty '', in accordance with one 's class or caste (varna) and stage in life (puruṣārtha). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal '' truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian ''.
According to other scholars such as Kim Knott and Brian Hatcher, Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths '' and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as thosee eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely revealed (Shruti) in the Vedas -- the most ancient of the world 's scriptures. To many Hindus, the Western term "religion '' to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder '' is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher. Hinduism, to them, is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era.
Some have referred to Hinduism as the Vaidika dharma. The word ' Vaidika ' in Sanskrit means ' derived from or conformable to the Veda ' or ' relating to the Veda '. Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do n't, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self - designation of Hinduism. According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant thereof '' by the 4th - century CE.
According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st - millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta - Shaiva '' from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered the Agamas such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, (...) and that as such they (Vedas) are man 's sole means of valid knowledge (...) ''.
The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas '', but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas '' really implies, states Julius Lipner. The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life '', states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious '' or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning '' for that term. To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their (Hindus) whole life 's orientation can not be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it ''.
Many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself (or herself) a Hindu. '' Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile "purifying '' Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems. This approach had a great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism '' are Raja Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.
Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda (1863 -- 1902), who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self - understanding and in formulating the West 's view of Hinduism ''. Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity '', and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda 's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English - speaking middle - class Hindus today ''. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience ''.
This "Global Hinduism '' has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism '', both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity ''. It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation '', or the Pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin ''.
Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. which emerged after the Vedic period, between 500 - 200 BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic '' c.q. "Preclassical '' period.
Hinduism 's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges '' rather than as a well - defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro - Luzzi has developed a ' Prototype Theory approach ' to the definition of Hinduism.
Hinduism has been described as a tradition having a "complex, organic, multileveled and sometimes internally inconsistent nature ''. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed '', but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more ".
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions ''.
Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with Louis Renou stating that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat ''.
Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishaism may be regarded as "self - contained religious constellations '', there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives '' of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon ''.
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE on. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance '', and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism '' taking shape, at c. 300 -- 600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self - identity took place "through a process of mutual self - definition with a contrasting Muslim Other ''. According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other '' is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance '' among the various traditions and schools,
According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism. '' This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st - millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises and the soteriologies were same. "This sense of greater unity '', states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism ''.
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the ' six systems ' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. '' The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions '' has also been noted by Burley. Hacker called this "inclusivism '' and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit ''. Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self - definition with a contrasting Muslim other '', which started well before 1800. Michaels notes:
As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism (...) (S) aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609 -- 1649) and Ramdas (1608 -- 1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.
This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.
The notion and reports on "Hinduism '' as a "single world religious tradition '' was popularised by 19th - century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations which the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Some scholars state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of ' Hindu doctrine ' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as paradigmatic example of Hinduism 's mystical nature ". Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics / duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action, intent and consequences), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).
Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. These are known as the Puruṣārthas:
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism. The concept Dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living ''. Hindu Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one 's nature and true calling, thus playing one 's role in cosmic concert. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:
Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma ''; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth! '' For both are one.
In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this - worldly and other - worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110. 11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.
Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well - being. The Artha concept includes all "means of life '', activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. In Hinduism, Kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.
Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one sense, Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth - rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle, in after life, particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha. In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha is a goal achievable in current life, as a state of bliss through self - realization, of comprehending the nature of one 's soul, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self ''.
Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect ''. The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. These actions may be those in a person 's current life, or, in some schools of Hinduism, possibly actions in their past lives; furthermore, the consequences may result in current life, or a person 's future lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara. Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one 's union with God; as the realization of one 's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara, thereby ending the cycle of rebirth, sorrow and suffering. Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.
The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self '' and identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools, in moksha state, identify individual "soul, self '' as distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven). To theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. According to Deutsche, moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter, the perfect state of being, of self - realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self ''. Moksha in these schools of Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than liberation from life - rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); Vedantic school separates this into two: jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.
The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation '' about what created the universe, the concept of god (s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth '' of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul -- the spirit or true "self '' of every person, is called the ātman. The soul is believed to be eternal. According to the monistic / pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one 's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life. Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one 's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence. This seeing divinity in everything, state Buttimer and Wallin, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from Animism. The animistic premise sees multiplicity, power differences and competition between man and man, man and animal, as well as man and nature. The Vedic view does not see this competition, rather sees a unifying divinity that connects everyone and everything.
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), which may be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions. The multitude of Devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.
The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities. Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty - two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess - based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.
Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist / atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist / atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption ''. Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god '' and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious ''. Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.
According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through (...) an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason. '' Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, ' by what ' power something is the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher 's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva 's Gita Govinda presents criticism via the character of Radha.
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism ''.
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful '' Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu - oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedantic Hinduism.
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include Bhakti - style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Yoga. Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.
Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God - with - attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God - without - attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self - knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self 's oneness with God.
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.
Shruti (lit. that which is heard) primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis). There are four Vedas -- Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types -- the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic - sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.
The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered '') are the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard '') category, being Upanishadic in content. The Puranas, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.
Since the 19th - century Indian modernists have re-asserted the ' Aryan origins ' of Hinduism, "purifying '' Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages. In Tantric tradition, the Agamas refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.
Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual 's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.
Vedic rituals of fire - oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life - stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby 's birth and a baby 's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.
The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman 's hair, baby shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (baby 's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby 's first feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby 's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear piercing), Vidyarambha (baby 's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.
Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. Bhakti marga is considered in Hinduism as one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternate means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana marga (path of knowledge), Karma marga (path of works), Rāja marga (path of contemplation and meditation).
Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers within one 's home shrine, or in a temple or near a river bank, sometimes in the presence of an idol or image of a deity. Hindu temples and domestic altars, states Lynn Foulston, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on a special occasion, most offer a brief prayer on an everyday basis at the domestic altar. This bhakti is expressed in a domestic shrine which typically is a dedicated part of the home and includes the images of deities or the gurus the Hindu chooses. Among Vaishnavism sub-traditions such as Swaminarayan, the home shrines can be elaborate with either a room dedicated to it or a dedicated part of the kitchen. The devotee uses this space for daily prayers or meditation, either before breakfast or after day 's work.
Bhakti is sometimes private inside household shrines and sometimes practiced as a community. It may include Puja, Aarti, musical Kirtan or singing Bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotionalism include Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva) and Shaktism (Shakti). A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman in Hinduism.
Bhakti marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one 's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god. While Bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice Bhakti, or believe in god - with - attributes (saguna Brahman). Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god - without - attributes, and god within oneself.
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher '') are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu.
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the Sister - Brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.
Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today. Pilgrimage sites are called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha - yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Hardwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, soul. Tīrtha - yatra is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.
Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most Puranas include large sections on Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit. In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameshwaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Peetha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (sangam) or join the sea. Kumbhamela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Hardwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nasik on the bank of the Godavari river. This is one of world 's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.
Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons. It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby 's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness. It may, states Eck, also be the result of prayers answered. An alternate reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death. This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.
Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges. Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varnas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers.
The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an individual 's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa). The Manusmṛiti categorises the different castes.
Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so - called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom. And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.
A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or "beyond all varnas '' in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind and consciousness for health, tranquility and spiritual insight. This is done through a system of postures and exercises to practise control of the body and mind. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) discussed in Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others.
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Brahman and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness, and Tilaka (literally, seed) on forehead -- considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one 's participation in a ritual or rite of passage. Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.
Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self - restraint) in Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras.
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20 % and 42 %, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.
Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal practise animal sacrifice. The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.
A Hindu temple is a house of god (s). It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru -- reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe, the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.
Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma - pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple. In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation).
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual 's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one 's children, and leading a family - centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.
The Ashramas system has been one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism. Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.
Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a Sanyāsī, Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahimsa - driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) -- believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.
James Mill (1773 -- 1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods ''. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:
Hinduism is a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. Among the roots of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India, itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo - Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations '', but also the Sramana or renouncer traditions of northeast India, and mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Dravidian traditions, and the local traditions and tribal religions.
This "Hindu synthesis '' emerged after the Vedic period, between 500 - 200 BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic '' c.q. "Preclassical '' period, and incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the Smriti literature. From northern India this "Hindu synthesis '', and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.
The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic as observed in the sites such as the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times. Some of the religious practices can be considered to have originated in 4000 BCE. Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.
According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization "provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition ''. The religion of this period included worship of a Great male god, which is compared to a proto - Shiva, and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure Shakti. However these links of deities and practices of the Indus religion to later - day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and scholarly dispute.
The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo - Aryans, lasted from c. 1500 to 500 BCE. The Indo - Aryans were pastoralists who migrated into north - western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.
During the early Vedic period (c. 1500 -- 1100 BCE) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around in north - west India. After 1100 BCE the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle. Rudimentary state - forms appeared, of which the Kuru - Pañcāla union was the most influential. It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state - level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE. This, according to Witzel, decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and shifting ritual exchange within a tribe to social exchange within the larger Kuru realm through complicated Srauta rituals. In this period, states Samuel, emerged the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic texts, which merged into the earliest Upanishads. These texts began to ask the meaning of a ritual, adding increasing levels of philosophical and metaphysical speculation, or "Hindu synthesis ''.
The Indo - Aryans brought with them their language and religion. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto - Indo - European religion, and the Indo - Iranian religion.
The Vedic religion history is unclear and "heavily contested '', states Samuel. In the later Vedic period, it co-existed with local religions, such as the mother goddess worshipping Yaksha cults. The Vedic was itself likely the product of "a composite of the indo - Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations ''. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated '' that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations. Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.
The composition of the Vedic literature began in the 2nd millennium BCE. The oldest of these Vedic texts is the Rigveda, composed between c. 1500 - 1200 BCE, though a wider approximation of c. 1700 -- 1100 BCE has also been given.
The first half of the 1st millennium BCE was a period of great intellectual and social - cultural ferment in ancient India. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements. For example, prior to the birth of the Buddha and the Mahavira, and related Sramana movements, the Brahmanical tradition had questioned the meaning and efficacy of Vedic rituals, then internalized and variously reinterpreted the Vedic fire rituals as ethical concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads with such ideas. Other ancient Principal Upanishads were composed in the centuries that followed, forming the foundation of classical Hinduism and the Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda) literature.
Increasing urbanisation of India between 800 and 400 BCE, and possibly the spread of urban diseases, contributed to the rise of ascetic movements and of new ideas which challenged the orthodox Brahmanism. These ideas led to Sramana movements, of which Mahavira (c. 549 -- 477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563 - 483), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "greater Magadha, '' which was Indo - European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kashtriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Geoffrey Samuel, following Tom Hopkins, also argues that the Gangetic plain, which gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism, incorporated a culture which was different form the Brahmanical orthodoxy practiced in the Kuru - Pancala region.
The ascetic tradition of Vedic period in part created the foundational theories of samsara and of moksha (liberation from samsara), which became characteristic for Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism.
These ascetic concepts were adopted by schools of Hinduism as well as other major Indian religions, but key differences between their premises defined their further development. Hinduism, for example, developed its ideas with the premise that every human being has a soul (atman, self), while Buddhism developed with the premise that there is no soul or self.
The chronology of these religious concepts is unclear, and scholars contest which religion affected the other as well as the chronological sequence of the ancient texts. Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854 -- 1920), Neumann (1865 -- 1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888 -- 1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nihil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points such as the existence of soul or self the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads ''.
From about 500 BCE through about 300 CE, the Vedic - Brahmanic synthesis or "Hindu synthesis '' continued. Classical Hindu and Sramanic (particularly Buddhist) ideas spread within Indian subcontinent, as well outside India such as in Central Asia, and the parts of Southeast Asia (coasts of Indonesia and peninsular Thailand).
The "Hindu synthesis '' or "Brahmanical synthesis '' incorporated Sramanic and Buddhist influences into the "Brahmanical fold '' via the Smriti ("remembered '') literature. According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion ''. The Smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE - 100 CE affirmed the authority of the Vedas. The acceptance of the ideas in the Vedas and Upanishads became a central criterium for defining Hinduism, while the heterodox movements rejected those ideas.
The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to the Smriti, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. These are legendary dialogues interspersed with philosophical treatises. The Bhagavad Gita was composed in this period and consolidated diverse philosophies and soteriological ideas.
During this period, the foundational texts of several schools of Hindu philosophy were formally written down, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva - Mimamsa and Vedanta. The Smriti literature of Hinduism, particularly the Sutras, as well as other Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra and Sushruta Samhita were also written or expanded during this period.
Many influential Yoga Upanishads, states Gavin Flood, were composed before the 3rd century CE. Seven Sannyasa Upanishads of Hinduism were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE and before the 3rd century CE. All these texts describe Hindu renunciation and monastic values, and express strongly Advaita Vedanta tradition ideas. This, state Patrick Olivelle and other scholars, is likely because the monasteries of Advaita tradition of Hinduism had become well established in ancient times. The first version of Natyasastra -- a Hindu text on performance arts that integrates Vedic ideology -- was also completed before the 2nd century CE.
During the Gupta period, the first stone and cave Hindu temples dedicated to Hindu deities were built, some of which have survived into the modern era. Numerous monasteries and universities were also built during the Gupta dynasty era, which supported Vedic and non-Vedic studies, including the famed Nalanda.
The first version of early Puranas, likely composed between 250 and 500 CE, show continuities with the Vedic religion, but also an expanded mythology of Vishnu, Shiva and Devi (goddess). The Puranas were living texts that were revised over time, and Lorenzen suggests these texts may reflect the beginnings of "medieval Hinduism ''.
After the end of the Gupta Empire, power became decentralised in India. The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry. Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra, that competed with each other, as well as with numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism declined, though many of its ideas, and even the Buddha himself, were absorbed into certain Brahmanical traditions.
Srauta rituals declined in India and were replaced with Buddhist and Hindu initiatory rituals for royal courts. Over time, some Buddhist practices were integrated into Hinduism, monumental Hindu temples were built in South Asia and Southeast Asia, while Vajrayana Buddhism literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism.
The first edition of many Puranas were composed in this period. Examples include Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana with legends of Krishna, while Padma Purana and Kurma Purana expressed reverence for Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti with equal enthusiasm; all of them included topics such as Yoga practice and pilgrimage tour guides to Hindu holy sites. Early colonial era orientalists proposed that the Puranas were religious texts of medieval Hinduism. However, modern era scholars, such as Urs App, Ronald Inden and Ludo Rocher state that this is highly misleading because these texts were continuously revised, exist in numerous very different versions and are too inconsistent to be religious texts.
Bhakti ideas centered around loving devotion to Vishnu and Shiva with songs and music, were pioneered in this period by the Alvars and Nayanars of South India. Major Hinduism scholars of this period included Adi Shankara, Maṇḍana - Miśra, Padmapada and Sureśvara of the Advaita schools; Sabara, Vatsyayana and Samkarasvamin of Nyaya - Vaisesika schools; Mathara and Yuktidipika (author unknown) of Samkhya - Yoga; Bhartrhari, Vasugupta and Abhinavagupta of Kashmir Shaivism, and Ramanuja of Vishishtadvaita school of Hinduism (Sri Vaishnavism).
The Islamic rule period witnessed Hindu - Muslim confrontation and violence, but "violence did not normally characterize the relations of Muslim and Hindu. '' Enslavement of non-Muslims, especially Hindus in India, was part of the Muslim raids and conquests, but after the 14th century slavery become less common, and in 1562 "Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives. '' Akbar recognized Hinduism, protected Hindu temples, and abolished discriminatory Jizya (head taxes) against Hindus, but occasionally, Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, before and after Akbar, from the 12th century to the 18th century, destroyed Hindu temples, and persecuted non-Muslims.
Though Islam came to Indian subcontinent in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started impacting Indian religions after the 10th century, and particularly after the 12th century with the establishment and then expansion of Islamic rule. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and a distinct Indo - Islamic culture emerged. Under Akbar an "intriguing blend of Perso - Islamic and Rajput - Hindu traditions became manifest. '' Nevertheless, many orthodox ulamas ("learned Islamic jurists '') opposed the rapprochement of Hinduism and Islam, and the two merely co-existed, although there was more accommodation at the peasantry level of Indian society.
According to Hardy, the Muslim rulers were not concerned with the number of converts, since the stability and continuity of their regime did not depend on the number of Muslims. In general, religious conversion was a gradual process, with some converts attracted to pious Muslim saints, while others converted to Islam to gain tax relief, land grant, marriage partners, social and economic advancement, or freedom from slavery. In border regions such as the Punjab and eastern Bengal, the share of Muslims grew as large as 70 % to 90 % of the population, whereas in the heartland of Muslim rule, the upper Gangetic Plain, the Muslims constituted only 10 to 15 % of the population.
Between the 14th and 18th century, Hinduism was revived in certain provinces of India under two powerful states, viz. Vijayanagar and Maratha. In the 14th and 15th centuries Southern India saw the rise of the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire, which served as a barrier against invasion by the Muslim sultanates of the north, and it fostered the reconstruction of Hindu life and administration. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 -- 6, and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire, helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara 's Vedanta philosophies. The Hindu Maratha Confederacy rose to power in the 18th century and ended up overthrowing Muslim power in India
Hinduism underwent profound changes, aided in part by teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Tantra disappeared in northern India, partly due to Muslim rule, while the Bhakti movement grew, with followers engaging in emotional, passionate and community - oriented devotional worship, participating in saguna or nirguna Brahman ideologies. According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the ' six systems ' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. '' Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonization of India by the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west. Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western orientalist searched for the "essence '' of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas, and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism '' as a unified body of religious praxis and the popular picture of ' mystical India '. This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj, which was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground. This "Hindu modernism '', with proponents like Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.
Influential 20th - century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama and others who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism 's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.
Hindu practices such as Yoga, Ayurvedic health, Tantric sexuality through Neotantra and the Kama Sutra have spread beyond Hindu communities and have been accepted by several non-Hindus:
Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga. Yoga centers in the West -- which generally advocate vegetarianism -- attract young, well - educated Westerners who are drawn by yoga 's benefits for the physical and emotional health; there they are introduced to the Hindu philosophical system taught by most yoga teachers, known as Vedanta.
It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 million Europeans regularly practice some form of Hatha Yoga. In Australia, the number of practitioners is about 300,000. In New Zealand the number is also around 300,000.
In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 79.8 % of the country 's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (960 million adherents). Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion in Ninh Thuận Province.
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:
Demographically, Hinduism is the world 's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.
In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Some state the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.
Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from the Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in southeast Asia. Within India, archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd - century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century.
Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism 's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism '' view must be re-examined.
The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism, and vice versa, has been and remains an actively debated topic in India, and in Indonesia.
Hinduism
Related systems and religions
Subnotes
Introductory
Origins
Texts
Research on Hinduism
Audio on Hinduism
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what are the 10 largest islands in the world | List of islands by area - wikipedia
This list of islands by area includes all islands in the world greater than 2,500 km (970 sq mi) and several other islands over 1,000 km (390 sq mi), sorted in descending order by area. For comparison, continents are also shown.
Although the continental landmasses listed below are not normally called islands (by definition a landmass can not be both an island and a continent), they are, in fact, land entirely surrounded by water. In effect, they are enormous islands and are shown here for that reason. The figures are approximations and are for the continental mainland only.
This section of the list might not be complete, but covers almost all of the islands in the world over 1,000 km (390 sq mi). The area of some Antarctic islands is uncertain.
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the main focus of the enews website is in which category | Category: News websites - wikipedia Help
This category has the following 9 subcategories, out of 9 total.
The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
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who wrote what song in spongebob the musical | SpongeBob SquarePants (Musical) - Wikipedia
SpongeBob SquarePants, The Broadway Musical (originally titled The SpongeBob Musical) is a stage musical, co-conceived and directed by Tina Landau with songs by various artists and a book by Kyle Jarrow. It is based on the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants and made its world premiere in June 2016 at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago. The show premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre on December 4, 2017.
Before the show begins, a pirate sits down on part of the stage as the audience is taking their seats. The pirate is revealed to be SpongeBob 's number one fan, Patchy, who has traveled from Encino, California to catch the premiere of SpongeBob 's musical. Two actors dressed as security guards appear and tell Patchy to leave the stage, as the show is about to begin. Patchy objects, but the guards lead him out of the theater as Patchy claims that he is a victim of pirate discrimination and sings the protest song "Yo Ho, We Wo n't Go ''. One of the security guards apologizes for the interruption, then tells the audience to enjoy the show.
SpongeBob Squarepants awakens and happily welcomes the day with his pet snail, Gary. He greets various friends (including his best friend Patrick, his neighbor Squidward, and his squirrel friend Sandy) as he walks to the Krusty Krab ("Bikini Bottom Day ''). At work, SpongeBob 's boss, Mr. Krabs, tells his whale daughter, Pearl, that she will own the restaurant one day. With Pearl uninterested, SpongeBob hints that he would be happy to be manager. Mr. Krabs laughs at the idea, telling SpongeBob that "he 's just a simple sponge '' and could not handle the position. The day continues uneventfully, until there is suddenly a violent tremor that rocks the entire town.
The mayor of Bikini Bottom announces that all citizens should return to their homes. SpongeBob decides to visit Patrick instead, who is upset over the emergency. To cheer him up, SpongeBob reiterates that they are best friends forever ("BFF ''). Anchorman Perch Perkins soon appears on Patrick 's television, stating that the cause of the tremor earlier is a nearby volcano that 's about to erupt ("No Control ''). With the town in a panic over the impending doom, married villains Plankton and Karen try to convince the citizens to enter a vessel that will take them away from the volcano; once the residents are inside, they will hypnotize them into liking the chum that they serve at their restaurant, the Chum Bucket ("When the Going Gets Tough ''). Everyone supports this idea except Mr. Krabs, who suspects that Plankton is up to another evil plan. Since the town does not have the money to pay for the vessel, they decide to hold a last minute music concert to raise money for the transport. Squidward immediately dreams of getting to perform his one - man show ("Tentacle Spectacle: The Musical ''), but is immediately shut down. Instead, Pearl suggests that they bring in the most famous rock band under the sea, the Electric Skates. Everyone supports this idea, and Squidward is named manager of the event.
SpongeBob, however, is against the idea of leaving town and believes the town should fight to save Bikini Bottom. SpongeBob thinks back on Mr. Krabs ' words from earlier that day, and wonders if he could really save the town ("Just a Simple Sponge ''). He decides that he can think of a way to save the town with the help of Patrick and Sandy. Together, the three could build a device that could stop the volcano. He rushes off to find his friends while the various townspeople are shown to handle the crisis in their own unique ways. Mr. Krabs decides to see the disaster as a money - making opportunity, holding an "apocalypse sale '' on his signature fast food dish, Krabby Patties. Pearl worries about her father 's obsession with money, believing that it overshadows his care for her ("Daddy Knows Best '').
Meanwhile, SpongeBob convinces Patrick and Sandy to team up, climb the volcano, and stop it from erupting with an invention Sandy will build. Sandy has smarts and Patrick has strength, but SpongeBob does not know what he can contribute. Regardless, the three friends are determined to succeed ("Hero Is My Middle Name ''). Before they can start their plan, a group of cultist sardines appear. They found wisdom in Patrick 's simple thoughts at the town meeting and decided to make him their new leader ("Super Star Sea Savior ''). Patrick likes the idea and decides to back out of SpongeBob 's plan so that he can bask in self - glory, angering SpongeBob. The two fight and end their "BFF '' status. After Patrick leaves, Sandy reminds Spongebob that things are bound to be okay. The entire company then reveals their personal thoughts and feelings about the impending disaster ("Tomorrow Is '').
After intermission, Patchy again sneaks onstage, telling the audience that pirates are persecuted by others because of stereotypes. He is joined by a group of pirates, and one baseball player (one of the Pittsburgh Pirates), for a song about how hard it is to be a pirate in today 's world ("Poor Pirates ''). Once again, security intervenes to chase Patchy and the others away, with Patchy vowing to return.
SpongeBob wakes up and greets a new day: the day when the volcano is expected to erupt ("Bikini Bottom Day Reprise 2 ''). Bikini Bottom has fallen into anarchy and chaos: the mayor has employed a dictator - like rule over the people, and Old Man Jenkins has lead an angry mob against Sandy (thinking her scientific achievements are the cause for the volcano 's impending eruption). Sandy is able to hide from the angry mob and show SpongeBob her invention, the Eruptor Interrupter. They plan to successfully climb the volcano, throw it inside, and save the town.
Back in Bikini Bottom, the Electric Skates finally arrive ("Bikini Bottom Boogie ''). Squidward asks if he may perform with them as an opening act. The band will only allow it if Squidward buys every item on an extremely long shopping list. Meanwhile, SpongeBob and Sandy make their way up the mountain with great difficulty. Sandy tries to lift their spirits by reminding them of what they have learned in karate class about never giving up ("Chop to the Top ''). When they stop to rest, SpongeBob can not help but think of how he misses Patrick and wishes that he was there to help them. In Bikini Bottom, Patrick finds life as a guru unexciting and misses SpongeBob as well ("(I Guess) I Miss You ''). Patrick leaves his followers behind, rushing off to catch up with SpongeBob and Sandy.
Squidward succeeds in obtaining all but one of the items on the Electric Skates ' list. After learning that he did n't buy seahorse radish, the band refuses to let him perform and calls him a loser. Upset and hurt, Squidward snaps back at the band, but they end up quitting. Now alone, Squidward insists that he is not a loser, as so many people seem to think. This brings about a fantasy sequence in which Squidward performs a show - stopping song and tap dance number with a back up chorus ("I 'm Not a Loser '').
Back on the mountain, SpongeBob and Sandy find themselves separated when SpongeBob falls through a crack. They reunite, but are threatened to be torn apart once again when SpongeBob starts to fall. Patrick then arrives wearing a jet pack (an invention of Sandy 's), and saves Spongebob from falling. The two renew their Best Friends Forever status, and the three continue to make their way up the mountain. When they finally reach the top, neither Sandy nor Patrick are able to reach the rim where they need to throw the device in. They turn to SpongeBob, who doubts his skills ("Just a Simple Sponge Reprise ''). They remind him that he is the only one who can squeeze through the tight areas, and that his cheerful determination and optimism have gotten them this far. With new determination, SpongeBob takes the Eruptor Interrupter, makes his way to the rim, and throws it in. They head back to Bikini Bottom and wait to see if their plan will work in seven minutes.
In Bikini Bottom, the entire city is in anarchy. Since the band is gone, there will be no concert and no vessel for which to escape. SpongeBob, Sandy, and Patrick try to calm everyone down, telling them that whatever happens, they have each other ("Best Day Ever ''). When the time comes for the volcano to erupt, everyone braces for their deaths. The time passes without an eruption, signaling that the Eruptor Interrupter has worked. With Bikini Bottom safe, everyone decides that they should celebrate by having a new concert. Since there is no longer a band, they decide to perform in their own concert ("Bikini Bottom Day Reprise 3 ''). Patchy joins in after descending from above on a rope, having finally managed to sneak into the show.
After curtain call, the cast performs the "SpongeBob SquarePants Theme Song. ''
Lyrics for the show were being written by January 2014, as the Flaming Lips ' lead singer Wayne Coyne mentioned through Twitter on January 16. Plans for developing the show were first announced at Nickelodeon 's upfront on February 25, 2015. The upfront presentation included a performance of the musical 's opening number, "Bikini Bottom Day. '' On February 26, Nickelodeon 's chief operating officer Sarah Kirshbaum Levy told the Associated Press that the show was "not definite. ''
In August 2015, Nickelodeon announced that the show would premiere in Chicago before a Broadway run in late 2016. Its director, book author, and several of the musicians involved were also announced. The full cast list was released in April 2016. The majority of the cast members play more than one character. Rehearsals for the show 's debut in Chicago began on April 11, 2016 in New York. Throughout early 2016, Nickelodeon executives met with Broadway theater owners to arrange its Broadway premiere. Michael Reidel of the New York Post wrote that Broadway representatives were "impressed '' after seeing a presentation of the show.
In late May 2016, technical rehearsals for the show were conducted. Chris Jones of Chicago Tribune wrote that Nickelodeon was concerned about "an incomplete SpongeBob costume (making) it into a photograph, spoiling a planned big reveal. '' In June, Gordon Cox of Variety reported that the musical 's budget was between $15 and $20 million.
The musical had its world premiere on June 7, 2016, at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago, where the show ran for a slightly extended period before closing on July 10, 2016. The musical premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre, with previews beginning on November 6, 2017, and opening on December 4, 2017. Directed by Landau, the choreography is by Christopher Gattelli; scenic design and costumes are by David Zinn; lighting is by Kevin Adams; projection design is by Peter Nigrini; and sound is by Walter Trarbach.
† Only featured on the Vinyl Record version of the Original Cast Recording.
On June 28, 2016, it was announced that the Chicago cast would record a cast album in early August with Masterworks Broadway producing the album. On September 14, 2017, the full cast recording was made available on the NPR website. The cast recording was released in its physical form in stores as well as on streaming sites on September 22, 2017, two months prior to the show 's Broadway premiere.
All tracks written and composed by various artists listed below (additional music, arrangements and orchestrations by Tom Kitt; additional lyrics by Jonathan Coulton.)
The original ensemble included Hsu, Josey, Smith, Rua, Moon Loh, Gilliland, Schuster, Washington, Holbrook, J'ones, Hamilton, Lauralyn McClelland, Vasthy Mompoint, Oneika Phillips, and Robert Taylor Jr. Swings were Alex Gibson, Juliane Godfrey (also the Dance Captain), Jesse JP Johnson, Brynn Williams, and Matt Wood.
The Chicago production, in its preview period, received positive reviews. Dean Richards of WGN - TV gave it an A+, writing that "the story is multi-layered for kids and adults. It all adds up to one of the most fun, well produced, and best acted shows Chicago has seen in a long time. '' Chris Jones of the Chicago Tribune praised the cast (particularly Slater, Skinner, Cooper, and Lee) and the production values. He wrote positively of the song numbers, writing that the musical 's "biggest gamble -- a score made up of singles by different songwriters and unified by orchestrator Tom Kitt -- works quite beautifully. '' Nonetheless, he warned "the transition to Broadway now needs to involve a dialing back of excess and more attention to truth -- Bikini Bottom truth, sure, but metaphoric human veracity. '' Similarly, Steve Oxman in Variety magazine praises the entertainment, invention and "terrifically talented cast '' but argues for a "slight shift in world view '' to truly engage the broadest audience. In the Chicago Sun - Times ' review, Hedy Weiss expressed praise for the set design 's creativity and the coherency, but felt that it was almost too extravagant; she wrote that the musical "exhausts itself long before it 's over. '' Kendall Ashley of Nerdist described the set as "pretty darn impressive '' and called the decision not to use extensive makeup on the actors "interesting. '' Barbara Vitello of the Daily Herald also commended the actors ' costumes and performances, stating that the "imaginative costumes that add a punch of color to the glittering sea green and aquamarine backdrop are among the delights. ''
The Broadway production was equally praised. Ben Brantley of The New York Times, called it a "ginormous giggle of a show '', and particularly praised Slater 's performance as the titular sponge. Marilyn Stasio of Variety stated the show provided a good amount of "giddy, goofy fun '' for all audiences.
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when do the final four come on and what channel | The Four: Battle for Stardom - wikipedia
The Four: Battle for Stardom, also known as The Four, is an American reality television music competition show created by Armoza Formats and produced by ITV Entertainment and Armoza Formats. The show, based on an Israeli format called The Final Four, premiered on Fox on January 4, 2018. The winner is awarded a recording contract with Republic Records, a division of Universal Music Group, and is named iHeartRadio 's "On the Verge '' artist. The first season winner was Evvie McKinney.
The three judges are Sean Combs, DJ Khaled, and Meghan Trainor. A fourth judge, Charlie Walk, withdrew from the series following sexual assault allegations against him; he had taped five episodes and left prior to the season finale. The series is hosted by Fergie.
On February 8, 2018, Fox renewed the series for a second season to consist of 10 episodes. It is set to premiere on June 7, 2018.
The Four is a singing competition that differs among similar talent competitions, in that there is no auditions stage. The artists, also known as the challengers, are held in the holding room before singing in front of a live studio audience and the judges. This panel of people in the music industry ultimately decides the best challengers that compete against "The Four ''. Their decision must be unanimous. The members consist of vocalists of varying genres, and they must win challenges against new fellow artists to keep their seat and remain as a member of "The Four ''. At the end of six weeks, the last singer standing among "The Four '' wins the competition.
There are two distinct rounds in The Four. In the performances round, new challengers must earn their seat by performing in front of a live studio audience, the panel of judges and "The Four ''. After the performance, the judges then vote and make a "Yes '' or "No '' decision, signifying the challenger 's fate in the competition. If a challenger receives a unanimous four blue rings on stage (four "Yes '' from the panel), they advance to the next round of the competition. A red ring given to the challenger signifies a "No '', ending his or her time in the competition. Artists who advance to the challenge round can compete against a member of "The Four '' for their seat. In a sing - off style battle, the challenger and "The Four '' member sing against each other for their seat. After the challenge, the studio audience then votes to decide which of the two should remain in the competition. The winner locks their seat for the rest of the night and can not be challenged again until the next episode.
Names in bold type indicate the winner of the season.
The first season of The Four premiered on January 4, 2018 and concluded on February 8, 2018. After six episodes, Evvie McKinney was announced as the winner of the season, with Candice Boyd as the runner - up. Along with the former and latter, the final group of "The Four '' included Vincint Cannady and Zhavia.
Season two of The Four is set to premiere on June 7, 2018 and consist of ten episodes. The first members of The Four were announced on May 9, 2018. They include Carvena Jones, James Graham, Sharaya J, and Stephanie Zelaya.
The first season of The Four was Fox 's most watched and highest - rated new unscripted series in nearly four years.
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