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when did the first episode of snl air | Saturday Night Live (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of Saturday Night Live, an American sketch comedy series, originally aired in the United States on NBC from October 11, 1975 to July 31, 1976.
In 1974, NBC Tonight Show host Johnny Carson requested that the weekend broadcasts of "Best of Carson '' (officially known as The Weekend Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson) come to an end (back then, The Tonight Show was a 90 - minute program), so that Carson could take two weeknights off and NBC would thus air those repeats on those nights rather than feed them to affiliates for broadcast on either Saturdays or Sundays. Given Carson 's undisputed status as the king of late - night television, NBC heard his request as an ultimatum, fearing he might use the issue as grounds to defect to either ABC or CBS. To fill the gap, the network drew up some ideas and brought in Dick Ebersol -- a protégé of legendary ABC Sports president Roone Arledge -- to develop a 90 - minute late - night variety show. Ebersol 's first order of business was hiring a young Canadian producer named Lorne Michaels to be the show - runner.
Television production in New York was already in decline in the mid-1970s (The Tonight Show had departed for Los Angeles two years prior), so NBC decided to base the show at their studios in Rockefeller Center to offset the overhead of maintaining those facilities. Michaels was given Studio 8H, a converted radio studio that prior to that point was most famous for having hosted Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra from 1937 to 1951, but was being used largely for network election coverage by the mid-1970s.
When the first show aired on October 11, 1975 with George Carlin as its host, it was called NBC 's Saturday Night because ABC featured a program at the same time titled Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell. After ABC cancelled the Cosell program in 1976, the NBC program changed its name to Saturday Night Live on March 26, 1977 (and subsequently picked up Bill Murray from Cosell 's show in 1977, as well). Every night, Don Pardo introduced the cast, a job he 'd hold for 39 years until his death in 2014.
The original concept was for a comedy - variety show featuring young comedians, live musical performances, short films by Albert Brooks, and segments by Jim Henson featuring atypically adult and abstract characters from the Muppets world. Rather than have one permanent host, Michaels elected to have a different guest host each week. The first episode featured two musical guests (Billy Preston and Janis Ian), and the second episode, hosted by Paul Simon on October 18, was almost entirely a musical variety show with various acts. The Not Ready For Prime Time Players did not appear in this episode at all, other than as the bees with Simon telling them they were cancelled, and Chevy Chase in the opening and in "Weekend Update ''. Over the course of Season 1, sketch comedy would begin to dominate the show and SNL would more closely resemble its current format.
Andy Kaufman made several appearances that were popular with the audience over the season, while The Muppets ' Land of Gorch bits were regarded as a poor fit with the rest of the show. The "Land Of Gorch '' sketches were essentially cancelled after episode 10, although the associated Muppet characters still made sporadic appearances after that. After one final appearance at the start of season two, the Muppet characters were permanently dropped from SNL.
During the season, Michaels appeared on - camera twice, on April 24 and May 22, to make an offer to The Beatles to reunite on the show. In the first appearance, he offered a certified check of $3000. In the second appearance, he increased his offer to $3,200 and free hotel accommodations. John Lennon and Paul McCartney later both admitted that they were watching SNL from Lennon 's apartment on May 8, the episode after Michaels ' first offer, and briefly toyed with actually going down to the studio, but decided to stay in the apartment because they were too tired.
The first cast member hired was Gilda Radner. The rest of the cast included fellow Second City alumni Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi, as well as National Lampoon "Lemmings '' alumnus Chevy Chase (whose trademark became his usual falls and opening spiel that cued the show 's opening), Jane Curtin, Laraine Newman, and Garrett Morris. The original head writer was Michael O'Donoghue, a writer at National Lampoon who had worked alongside several cast members while directing The National Lampoon Radio Hour. The original theme music was written by future Academy Award -- winning composer Howard Shore, who -- along with his band (occasionally billed as the "All Nurse Band '' or "Band of Angels '') -- was the original band leader on the show. Paul Shaffer, who would go on to lead David Letterman 's band on Late Night and then The Late Show, was also band leader in the early years. George Coe was hired because NBC wanted to have an older person in the cast.
Much of the talent pool involved in the inaugural season was recruited from the National Lampoon Radio Hour, a nationally syndicated comedy series that often satirized current events.
This would be the only season for Coe and O'Donoghue as official cast members. While Coe was only billed in the premiere, he was seen in various small roles through the season before leaving the show altogether. O'Donoghue was credited through the Candice Bergen episode and would continue to work for the show as a writer, as well as an occasional featured performer (particularly as "Mr. Mike ''), through season five.
bold denotes Weekend Update anchor
The original writing staff included Anne Beatts, Chevy Chase, Tom Davis, Al Franken, Lorne Michaels, Marilyn Suzanne Miller, Michael O'Donoghue, Herb Sargent, Tom Schiller, Rosie Shuster and Alan Zweibel. The head writers were Lorne Michaels and Michael O'Donoghue.
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vol 1 and 2 guardians of the galaxy | Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Vol. 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the soundtrack album for the Marvel Studios film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Featuring the songs present on Peter Quill 's mixtape in the film, the album was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017. A separate film score album, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (Original Score), composed by Tyler Bates, was also released by Hollywood Records on the same date. Awesome Mix Vol. 2 was the United States ' eighth best - selling album of 2017 with 600,000 copies.
By August 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 writer and director James Gunn had "some ideas listed, but nothing for sure '' in terms of songs to include in Quill 's Awesome Mix Vol. 2 mixtape. In April 2015, Gunn said he felt "a little pressure for the soundtrack because so many people loved (the first film 's soundtrack) and we went platinum and all that other stuff. But I feel like the soundtrack in the second one is better. '' In June 2015, Gunn stated that all of the songs for Awesome Mix Vol. 2 had been chosen and built into the script. One of the most exciting things for Gunn in selecting the songs for the album "was knowing I would be making bands that may have been forgotten suddenly be a topic of conversation. '' Gunn had hoped to include "She 's Gone '' by Hall & Oates in the film, calling it "one of the greatest pop songs ever written '', but could not find a place for it, as with "Teenage Lament ' 74 '' by Alice Cooper. In January 2016, Gunn stated that he had chosen an additional Bowie song to appear in the film (after "Moonage Daydream '' was featured in the first film) but had cut the original scene it was featured in. The inclusion would have made Bowie the only artist to be featured on both mixtapes. With Bowie 's death however, Gunn hoped to find a way to include the chosen song somewhere else in the film as a "fair and appropriate '' way to honor him, as Bowie was one of Gunn 's idols. Gunn called the Awesome Mix Vol. 2 "more diverse '' than the first one, with "some really incredibly famous songs and then some songs that people have never heard. ''
The film 's trailers featured Sweet 's "Fox on the Run '', George Harrison 's "My Sweet Lord '', Fleetwood Mac 's "The Chain '', Jay and the Americans ' "Come a Little Bit Closer '', Bowie 's "Suffragette City '', and Parliament 's "Flash Light '', which Gunn noted were all being considered for inclusion on the Awesome Mix Vol. 2. "Fox on the Run '' and Cheap Trick 's "Surrender '' had been considered for inclusion in the first film on Awesome Mix Vol. 1.
"Mr. Blue Sky '' by Electric Light Orchestra (ELO) is included in the beginning of the film, which Gunn felt was "the perfect song to start the movie because it 's really joyous, but there 's a really dark underpinning to it, '' and felt it would go well with "the most hugely insane shot I 've ever done ''. The sequence originally included the ELO song "Livin ' Thing ''. Acquiring the rights to "Mr. Blue Sky '' proved difficult for Gunn, noting Marvel "had to really fight to get the song, and I personally appealed to Jeff Lynne, '' which was made harder due to Lynne previously approving a song for the first film which ended up being cut. Gunn added that "The Chain '' and "Brandy (You 're a Fine Girl) '' were the two songs that were "the most deeply embedded into the fibers of the film. '' Looking Glass lead guitarist and vocalist Elliot Lurie felt the inclusion of "Brandy (You 're a Fine Girl) '' in the film allowed for a deeper meaning to be explored from the song, noting "maybe, in retrospect, subconsciously (the song) was a metaphor. (The film) is certainly the use that has shined the brightest light on the song since it was originally a hit. ''
Skip Haynes, the only surviving member of Aliotta Haynes Jeremiah, "was so thrilled '' that Lake Shore Drive, a regional hit in the Midwest where Gunn grew up, was included and "rescued from historical oblivion '', that he "recorded a new version incorporating the director 's name into the chorus. '' "Guardians Inferno '' is an original song for the film, co-written by Gunn and score composer Tyler Bates, "meant as a sort of Guardians take on Meco 's disco Star Wars theme ('' Star Wars Theme / Cantina Band "). '' David Hasselhoff was chosen as the vocalist because he is one of Peter Quill 's childhood heroes, and Gunn was a fan of Hasselhoff when he starred on Knight Rider. Edgar Wright, director of Baby Driver, consulted with Gunn before Vol. 2 released, to ensure the two films would not feature the same songs on their soundtracks.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Volume 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017. It was released on cassette on June 23, 2017 and on vinyl LP on August 11, 2017. The vinyl version is a deluxe edition featuring Bates ' original score from the film. Marvel and Doritos partnered for their Rock Out Loud campaign to create "a custom - designed, limited - edition series of Doritos bags featuring a built - in cassette tape deck - inspired player that plays '' Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and can be recharged. The custom bags were available to purchase on April 28, 2017 on Amazon.com. In addition, on May 5, 2017, Doritos hosted Rock Out Loud pop - up recording booths in New York and Los Angeles, where fans got the chance to sing one of the songs from Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and "have the opportunity to win various prizes, including the custom cassette player replica Doritos bags, concert and other event tickets, and free bags of Doritos. ''
On August 6, 2017, Marvel released the music video of "Guardians Inferno '' to promote the home media release of the film. The 1970s - style video was directed by David Yarovesky, and features Hasselhoff alongside James Gunn, Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, Pom Klementieff, Karen Gillan, Michael Rooker and Sean Gunn. Stan Lee and Guillermo Rodriguez also make cameo appearances on the video.
All songs -- with the exception of "Fox on the Run '', which is played in the trailer -- are featured in the film. Also featured in the film was the song "Un Deye Gon Hayd (The Unloved Song) '' by Jimmy Urine. It was written for the film and appears during the scene on Contraxia.
The album debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 chart with 34,000 units in its first week, almost all of which came from traditional album sales. It later peaked at number four, reaching 87,000 units, again nearly all traditional album sales. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Vol. 2 finished 2017 as the country 's eighth highest - selling album with 600,000 copies, and has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Tyler Bates had returned to score the film by August 2015. As with Guardians of the Galaxy, Bates wrote some of the score first so that Gunn could film to the music, as opposed to Bates scoring to the film. Recording for the score began in January 2017 at Abbey Road Studios. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (Original Score) was released by Hollywood Records on April 21, 2017, and on vinyl LP on August 11, 2017, as part of a deluxe edition that also includes Awesome Mix Volume 2.
All music composed by Tyler Bates.
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where was the constitution act of 1982 signed | Constitution Act, 1982 - wikipedia
The Constitution Act, 1982 (Schedule B of the Parliament of the United Kingdom 's Canada Act 1982) is a part of the Constitution of Canada. Section 60 states that the Act may be called the Constitution Act, 1982, and that the Constitution Acts can be collectively called the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982. The act was introduced as part of Canada 's process of patriating the constitution, introducing several amendments to the British North America Act, 1867, and changing the latter 's name in Canada to the Constitution Act, 1867.
This process was necessary because, after the Statute of Westminster, 1931, Canada decided to allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend Canada 's constitution, on request from the Parliament of Canada. In 1981, the Parliament of Canada requested that the Parliament of the United Kingdom remove that authority from the UK. The passing of the UK 's Canada Act 1982 in March 1982 confirmed the Patriation of the Constitution. This UK Act replaced the British North America Act, transferring to Canada the power of amending its own Constitution.
On April 17, 1982, Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau signed Canada 's Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982. The proclamation confirmed that Canada had formally assumed authority over its constitution, the final step to full sovereignty. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms forms the first thirty - five sections (counting Section 16.1 and not counting Section 35) of the Constitution Act, 1982.
As of 2018, the government of Quebec has never formally approved of the enactment of the act, though the Supreme Court concluded that Quebec 's formal consent was never necessary. Nonetheless, it has remained a persistent political issue in Quebec. The Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords were designed to secure approval from Quebec, but both efforts failed to do so.
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a bill of rights. The Charter is intended to protect certain political and civil rights of people in Canada from the policies and actions of all levels of government. It exists to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was introduced by the government of John Diefenbaker in 1960. However, the Bill of Rights was only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. Therefore, it was limited in scope and was easily amendable. This motivated some within government to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Hence, the government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau enacted the Charter in 1982.
One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to greatly expand the range of judicial review, because the Charter is more explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges in enforcing them than was the Canadian Bill of Rights. The courts, when confronted with violations of Charter rights, have struck down unconstitutional statutes or parts of statutes, as they did when Canadian case law was primarily concerned with resolving issues of federalism. However, section 24 of the Charter granted new powers to the courts to enforce more creative remedies and to exclude more evidence in trials. These powers are greater than what was typical under the common law and under a system of government that, influenced by Canada 's mother country the United Kingdom, was based upon Parliamentary supremacy.
Section 59 limits the application of section 23 of the Charter in Quebec. Paragraph 23 (1) (a) of the Charter, which guarantees the minority language education rights of Canadian citizens "whose first language learned and still understood is that of the English or French minority linguistic minority population of the province in which they reside '' will not be in force in Quebec until the Quebec government or legislature chooses to ratify it.
Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 "recognizes and affirms '' the "existing '' aboriginal and treaty rights in Canada. These aboriginal rights protect the activities, practice, or traditions that are integral to the distinct cultures of the aboriginal peoples. The treaty rights protect and enforce agreements between the Crown and aboriginal peoples. Section 35 also provides protection of aboriginal title which protects the use of land for traditional practices.
Subsection 35 (2) provides that aboriginal and treaty rights extend to Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples and subsection 35 (4), which was added in 1983, ensures that they "are guaranteed equally to any male and female persons ''.
Subsection 35 (3), which was also added in 1983, clarifies that "treaty rights '' include "rights that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired ''. As a result, by entering into land claims agreements, the government of Canada and members of an aboriginal people can establish new treaty rights, which are constitutionally recognized and affirmed.
There are other sections of the Constitution Act, 1982 that address aboriginal rights. Section 25 of the Charter provides that the guarantee of rights and freedoms in the Charter should not be understood to "abrogate or derogate from any aboriginal, treaty or other rights or freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal peoples of Canada, including (a) any rights or freedoms that have been recognized by the Royal Proclamation of October 7, 1763; and (b) any rights or freedoms that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired ''.
Section 36 enshrines in the Constitution a value on equal opportunity for the Canadian people, economic development to support that equality, and government services available for public consumption. Subsection 2 goes further in recognizing a "principle '' that the federal government should ensure equalization payments.
Writing in 1982, Professor Peter Hogg expressed skepticism as to whether the courts could interpret and enforce this provision, noting its "political and moral, rather than legal '' character. Other scholars have noted section 36 is too vague.
Since the courts would not be of much use in interpreting the section, the section was nearly amended in 1992 with the Charlottetown Accord to make it enforceable. The Accord never came into effect.
Subsection 52 (3) of the Constitution Act, 1982 requires constitutional amendments to be made in accordance with the rules set out in the Constitution itself. Subsection 52 (3) entrenches constitutional supremacy and prevents Parliament and the provincial legislatures from making most constitutional amendments using simple legislation.
The rules for amending Canada 's constitution are quite dense. They are mostly laid out in Part V of the Constitution Act, 1982.
There are five different amendment procedures, each applicable to different types of amendments. These five formulas are:
Neither aboriginal peoples ' or the territories ' agreement is required to make a constitutional amendment, even if it affects their interests. Section 35.1 commits the governments of Canada and the provinces "to the principle that, before any amendment is made (to subsection 91 (24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, section 25 of the Charter or sections 35 or 35.1 of the Constitution Act, 1982) '' that the Prime Minister will convene a conference of first ministers (i.e. provincial premiers) to discuss the amendment and invite "representatives of the aboriginal peoples of Canada '' to discuss the amendment. Section 35.1 was added to Part II of the Constitution Act, 1982 in 1983. Section 35.1 was invoked in the negotiations that led to the Charlottetown Accord, which would have greatly expanded aboriginal rights and recognized a right to self - government.
Various other sections of Part V lay out such things as compensation for opting out, when and how a province may opt out of a constitutional amendment, and time limits for achieving a constitutional amendment.
Subsection 52 (1) of the Constitution Act, 1982 provides that the Constitution of Canada is the "supreme law of Canada '', and that "any law inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution of Canada is, to the extent of the inconsistency, of no force or effect ''. A law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is theoretically of no force or effect from the moment it is made. In practical terms, however, such a law is not seen to be invalid until a court declares it to be inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution. The executive can not enforce a law that a court has declared to be without force or effect. But only Parliament or a provincial legislature can repeal such a law.
Before the 1982 Act came into effect, the British North America Act, 1867 (now known as the Constitution Act, 1867) had been the supreme law of Canada. The supremacy of the 1867 Act had originally been established by virtue of s. 2 of the Colonial Laws Validity Act, a British Imperial statute declaring the invalidity of any colonial law that violated an Imperial statute extending to a colony. Since the British North America Act was an Imperial statute extending to Canada, any Canadian law violating the BNA Act was inoperative. Although there was no express provision giving the courts the power to decide that a Canadian law violated the BNA Act and was therefore inoperative, this power was implicit in s. 2 of the Colonial Laws Validity Act, which established the priority of statutes to be applied by the courts.
In 1931, the British Parliament enacted the Statute of Westminster, 1931. This Act provided that the Colonial Laws Validity Act no longer applied to the British Dominions, including Canada. However, it provided that Canada could not amend the British North America Act, which remained subject to amendment only by the British Parliament. This provision maintained the supremacy of the British North America Act in Canadian law until the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Section 52 (2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 defines the "Constitution of Canada. '' The Constitution of Canada is said to include:
Section 52 (2), in addition to containing many Imperial Statutes, contains eight Canadian statutes, three of which created the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and five of which were amendments to the Constitution Act, 1867.
The Canadian courts have reserved the right to add and entrench principles and conventions into the Constitution unilaterally. Although a court 's ability to recognize human rights not explicitly stated in a constitution is not particularly unusual, the Canadian situation is unique in that this ability extends to procedural issues not related to human rights.
In particular, in New Brunswick Broadcasting Co v Nova Scotia (Speaker of the House of Assembly), the Supreme Court of Canada said that s. 52 (2) was not an exhaustive listing of all that comprised the Constitution. The Court reserved the right to add unwritten principles to the Constitution, thereby entrenching them and granting them constitutional supremacy (in this case, they added parliamentary privilege to the Constitution). The Court did note, however, that the list of written documents was static and could not be modified except for through the amending formulas.
Section 56 of the Act provides that the parts of the Constitution that were enacted in English and French are equally authoritative, and section 57 adds that the English and French versions of the Constitution Act, 1982 itself are equal. Section 57 is akin section 18 of the Charter, which provides that English and French versions of federal and New Brunswick statutes are equal. The Supreme Court has interpreted section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 and section 23 of the Manitoba Act, 1870 to mean that the English and French versions of federal, Quebec and Manitoba statutes are equal.
Despite sections 56 and 57, significant portions of the Constitution of Canada were only enacted in English and even if there exist unofficial French translations, their English versions alone have force of law. To address this problem, section 55 requires that the federal Minister of Justice prepare "a French version of the... Constitution of Canada as expeditiously as possible ''. The Minister of Justice established a French Constitution Drafting Committee in 1984, which prepared French versions of the Constitution, and presented them to the Minister in 1990.
Section 55 also requires that "when any portion thereof sufficient to warrant action being taken has been so prepared, it shall but put forward for enactment by proclamation issued by the Governor General under the Great Seal of Canada pursuant to the procedure then applicable to an amendment of the same provisions of the Constitution of Canada ''. No action has been taken to put forward the French version for enactment. The reference to a proclamation by the Governor - General implies that some combination of the general, unanimity and special arrangements procedures would be required to enact the French version. Although the intention was presumably that the government of Canada would do so by introducing an amendment resolution in the House of Commons, a Senator or a provincial government could presumably do so since, under section 46, such amendments "may be initiated either by the Senate or the House of Commons or by the legislative assembly of a province ''.
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when does red sparrow come out in theaters | Red Sparrow - wikipedia
Red Sparrow is a 2018 American spy thriller film directed by Francis Lawrence and written by Justin Haythe, based on the 2013 novel of the same name by Jason Matthews. The film stars Jennifer Lawrence, Joel Edgerton, Matthias Schoenaerts, Charlotte Rampling, Mary - Louise Parker, and Jeremy Irons. It tells the story of a Russian intelligence officer who is sent to make contact with a CIA agent in the hope of discovering the identity of a mole.
Matthews, a former member of the CIA, advised the production on the depiction of spying. Based on historic Soviet sexpionage and contemporary Russian use of kompromat, filming took place in Hungary, Slovakia and Austria. Jennifer Lawrence studied with the New York City Ballet to prepare for her performance.
Red Sparrow premiered at Newseum in Washington, D.C. on February 15, 2018, and was released in the United States on March 2, 2018. The film grossed $150 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, who describe it as having "more style than substance, '' and criticized the film 's length and over-reliance on graphic violence and sex, while praising Jennifer Lawrence 's performance.
In modern - day Russia, Dominika Egorova is a famed Russian ballerina who supports her ill mother. Following a career - ending injury, Dominika is approached by her uncle, Ivan, who works in Russian intelligence. She is tasked with seducing Dimitry Ustinov, a Russian gangster, in exchange for her mother 's continued medical care. As Ustinov rapes her, he is killed by Matorin, a Russian operative authorized by Ivan. Ivan offers Dominika a choice to begin working for Russian intelligence, or be executed so there are no witnesses.
Nate Nash is a CIA operative working in Moscow. While meeting with an asset in Gorky Park, they are confronted by the police. Nash creates a diversion to ensure his asset, a mole in Russian ranks code - named Marble, escapes detection. Nash is reassigned back to the U.S. but insists that he is the only individual whom Marble will work with. Since he can not return to Russia, he is assigned to Budapest, where he will regain contact with Marble.
Dominika is sent to train to become a Russian operative, known as a ' Sparrow ', capable of seducing her targets. Dominika excels in her training, despite some friction with her trainers, and she is assigned to Budapest. Russian SVR has been tracking Nash, and hopes to find out the identity of Marble. Dominika 's assignment is to gain the trust of Nash, and reveal his contact.
Upon her arrival in Budapest, Dominika lives with Marta, another Sparrow. Her boss in Budapest is Maxim Volontov. Dominika quickly makes contact with Nash, who correctly determines that she is a Russian intelligence operative. Dominika reveals her true identity to him, as well as her motive to find out Marble 's identity. While Marta is out, Dominika inspects her room, and realizes that she is working to gather information from Stephanie Boucher, chief of staff for a U.S. Senator. Dominika realizes she needs more time, and claims to her uncle that she is helping in Marta 's effort to gather information from Boucher. Upon returning home one day, Dominika finds Marta brutally tortured and murdered. Matorin reveals that he carried out the murder as a warning not to betray Russian secrets.
Dominika offers to work for Nash as a double agent. She carries out Marta 's assignment to meet Boucher, and covertly exchanges the supplied information for CIA - supplied floppy disks. On leaving the meeting place, Boucher sees American agents and is spooked. She unintentionally steps into traffic and is killed. Russian agents observing Boucher realize that the mission had been compromised. Dominika and Volontov are required to immediately return to Moscow. She is tortured and interrogated for days but does not break even as her boss Volontov was apparently executed. She convinces Ivan that she is now credible to the Americans, as she has been tortured by her own people and did not reveal information. Dominika returns to Budapest, and informs Nash that she wishes to defect with her mother to America.
After spending the night with Nash, Dominika awakes to find him being tortured by Matorin, who is attempting to discover the identity of Marble. She initially helps Matorin torture Nash, but turns on him when his guard is down, killing him after a short fight in which she and Nash are severely injured. After falling unconscious due to her injuries, Dominika wakes in a hospital where General Vladimir Korchnoi reveals that he is Marble. He explains that he was initially patriotic, but grew to feel that Russia was corrupt. He fears he will be caught soon, and instead of dying in vain, instructs Dominika to reveal his identity to Ivan. She could then replace him as a mole and further their work by passing information to the CIA. But when Dominika contacts her superiors to reveal the identity of the mole, she frames her uncle Ivan rather than betray Korchnoi. Ivan is killed by the Russian side during a spy swap, and Dominika is congratulated for her work by her Russian superiors.
Back home in Russia, Dominika lives with her mother, and receives a phone call from an unknown person who plays Grieg 's piano concerto that she had listened to during her affair with Nash.
After Jason Matthews ' book Red Sparrow was published in 2013, 20th Century Fox purchased the film rights, and signed Francis Lawrence to direct. Matthews said the idea of "sparrows '' and a "sparrow school '' was based on State School 4 in the Soviet Union, though Russian "sexpionage '' is now done by women contracted outside of spy agencies. The Russian concept of kompromat was also influential. Lawrence worked on adapting Matthews ' book in 2015, and has said that at the time, he had reservations about the timeliness of a Cold War story.
Screenwriter Justin Haythe reduced the number of narrators and shifting perspectives in the novel, concentrating on Dominika. Russian President Vladimir Putin, who appears in the novel, was also cut from the adaptation, due to Lawrence 's belief that it would be a distraction to have an actor play the highly public figure.
Matthews, who said he based his book on his experiences in the CIA, was also hired as technical advisor, to supervise the accuracy of the depiction of espionage. He had the Gorky Park scene rewritten to depict espionage methods more accurately.
Francis Lawrence presented the screenplay to Jennifer Lawrence, who accepted the part. Jennifer stated she admired the character and Francis ' direction, with her sole point of hesitation being the "really sexual '' nature of the character. Francis Lawrence then met with her personally to discuss the nude scenes. In 2014, Jennifer had private nude photos stolen in the iCloud leaks. However, Lawrence drew a distinction between the film and the leak based on her consent to the film, as opposed to the leak. Lawrence explained: "The insecurity and fear of being judged for getting nude, what I went through, should that dictate decisions I make for the rest of my life? ''
Matthews advised Lawrence that double agents from Russia feel "a dread of discovery, a dread of being arrested, a dread of going to prison. '' Lawrence also studied ballet for four months. Kurt Froman of the New York City Ballet coached her, as she had never studied ballet before, and spent four hours with her each day for five days per week.
As a former member of the CIA, Matthews coached actor Joel Edgerton. Edgerton said it was difficult to consider having "an interpersonal dating - style relationship... (and) That fact that you would have to report any of those kinds of interactions with your bosses. '' Matthias Schoenaerts and Jeremy Irons joined the cast by December 2016.
Principal photography started in Budapest and Dunaújváros in Hungary on January 5, 2017. Other filming locations include Festetics Mansion in Dég, Hungary; Bratislava, Slovakia; and Vienna, Austria. On May 3, 2017, Jennifer Lawrence was spotted shooting some scenes at London 's Heathrow Airport.
In post-production, Francis offered Jennifer Lawrence the opportunity to view a cut of the film ahead of the studio and producers, so that she might request the deletion of any nude or sexual scenes. She declined to request any deletions. However, the film was edited for the United Kingdom release to remove a violent sequence and secure a 15 certificate from the British Board of Film Classification.
For the soundtrack, the 1868 Piano Concerto by Edvard Grieg was used. James Newton Howard wrote the score, recorded in October 2017, citing Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's Requiem and Igor Stravinsky 's The Firebird as influences. He commenced work before seeing a cut of the film.
Red Sparrow was originally scheduled to be released by 20th Century Fox on November 10, 2017, but in April 2017 the release date was moved to March 2, 2018, because it was seen as a less competitive one. The studio 's adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express was moved into Red Sparrow 's November slot. The first trailer for the film was released on September 14, 2017. The film premiered on February 15, 2018 at Newseum, and began a U.S. theatrical release on March 2.
Overseas, Red Sparrow screened at FEST in Belgrade on February 28, 2018. It was released in the United Kingdom on March 1, 2018.
Red Sparrow was released on digital streaming platforms on May 15, 2018. It was released on 4K UHD Blu - ray, Blu - ray and DVD on May 22, 2018.
As of May 3, 2018, Red Sparrow has grossed $46.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $103.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $150 million, against a production budget of $69 million.
In the United States and Canada, Red Sparrow was released alongside Death Wish, and was projected to gross $20 -- 24 million from 3,056 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $6 million on its first day (including $1.2 million from Thursday night previews) and $17 million over the weekend, finishing second, behind holdover Black Panther. Deadline Hollywood noted the opening was underwhelming given the film 's $69 million budget, and that Lawrence 's salary of $15 -- 20 million was too much to spend on one star. It fell 51 % in its second weekend to $8.15 million, finishing fourth.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 47 %, based on 237 reviews, and an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Red Sparrow aims for smart, sexy spy thriller territory, but Jennifer Lawrence 's committed performance is n't enough to compensate for thin characters and a convoluted story. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found the film to be "preposterously entertaining '' and credited its success to Lawrence 's performance, writing that "like all great stars, (Lawrence) can slip into a role as if sliding into another skin, unburdened by hesitation or self - doubt. '' IndieWire 's Eric Kohn, who graded the film a B, noted the performances of Lawrence and Rampling, stating that "the considerable talent on display is (the film 's) constant saving grace. '' However, he also found that the film "does n't know when to stop, sagging into bland torture scenes and an underwhelming final showdown. '' Giving the film a B -, The A.V. Club 's Jesse Hassenger noted its methodical nature, with its minimal action and character exploration, and remarked that Francis Lawrence "brings to this material what he brought to The Hunger Games: a sense of style that feels constrained by obligations to hit a certain number of plot points. ''
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap criticized the derivative story and the lack of chemistry between Lawrence and Edgerton, calling the film "neither intelligent enough to be involving nor fun enough to be trashy. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars and said, "Half of the Red Sparrow audience will spend at least part of the running time fighting off memories of Salt and Atomic Blonde and the Black Widow storyline from The Avengers. The other half, meantime, will wonder when spy movies became quite so punishing. '' Simran Hans of The Guardian found the film to be sexist, writing that "it busies itself with the grim surface pleasures of ogling its central character as she is degraded in every way possible. ''
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what key is jeremy by pearl jam in | Jeremy (song) - wikipedia
5: 18 (album version) 4: 46 (single edit)
"Jeremy '' is a song by the American rock band Pearl Jam, with lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music written by bassist Jeff Ament. "Jeremy '' was released in 1992 as the third single from Pearl Jam 's debut album Ten (1991). The song was inspired by a newspaper article Vedder read about Jeremy Wade Delle, a high school student who shot himself in front of his English class on January 8, 1991. It reached the number five spot on both the Mainstream and Modern Rock Billboard charts. It did not originally chart on the regular Billboard Hot 100 singles chart since it was not released as a commercial single in the US at the time, but a re-release in July 1995 brought it up to number 79.
The song gained popularity for its music video, directed by Mark Pellington and released in 1992, which received heavy rotation by MTV and became a hit. The original music video for "Jeremy '' was directed and produced by Chris Cuffaro. Epic Records and MTV later rejected the music video, and released the version directed by Pellington instead. In 1993, the "Jeremy '' video was awarded four MTV Video Music Awards, including Best Video of the Year.
"Jeremy '' features lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music written by bassist Jeff Ament. The song 's music was written before the band went out on tour in support of Alice in Chains in February 1991.
Ament on the song:
I already had two pieces of music that I wrote on acoustic guitar... with the idea that I would play them on a Hamer 12 - string bass I had just ordered. When the bass arrived, one of (the pieces) became "Jeremy ''... I had an idea for the outro when we were recording it the second time... I overdubbed a twelve - string bass, and we added a cello. That was big - time production, for us... Rick (Parashar) ' sa supertalented engineer - musician... Stone (Gossard, Pearl Jam 's rhythm guitarist) was sick one day, and Ed, Rick and I conjured up the art piece that opens and closes the song. That was so fun -- I wanted to make a whole record like that.
In another interview, Ament stated:
We knew it was a good song, but it was tough getting it to feel right -- for the chorus to sit back and the outro to push over the top. The tune went from practically not making it on the record to being one of the best takes. I 'm not sure if it 's the best song on the album but I think it 's the best take. On "Jeremy '' I always heard this other melody in the choruses and the end, and it never sounded good on guitar or bass. So we brought in a cello player which inspired a background vocal, and those things made the song really happen. Most of the time if something does n't work right away, I just say fuck it -- but this was an instance when perseverance paid off.
"Jeremy '' is in the key of A, and intertwines the parallel modes of major and minor frequently. It features prominent usage of Ament 's 12 - string Hamer bass guitar, which is pivotal to the sound of the introduction and end of the recording. The song starts off with the bassline and quiet harmonic notes also on the 12 - string bass, and continues in a sedate vein until after the second chorus, when densely layered guitars and vocals gradually enter. At the end the instruments gradually fade out until all that is audible is a clean guitar and the 12 - string bass, like the intro. Both instruments play a descending minor key melody, fading out with one single note.
"Jeremy '' is based on two different true stories. The song takes its main inspiration from a newspaper article about a 15 - year - old boy named Jeremy Wade Delle from Richardson, Texas who shot himself in front of his teacher and his second period English class of 30 students on the morning of January 8, 1991. In a 2009 interview, Vedder said that he felt "the need to take that small article and make something of it -- to give that action, to give it reaction, to give it more importance. ''
Delle was described by schoolmates as "real quiet '' and known for "acting sad. '' After coming into class late that morning, Delle was told to get an admittance slip from the school office. He left the classroom, and returned with a. 357 Magnum revolver. Delle walked to the front of the classroom, announced "Miss, I got what I really went for '', put the barrel of the firearm in his mouth, and pulled the trigger before his teacher or classmates could react. Lisa Moore, a schoolmate, knew Jeremy from the in - school suspension program: "He and I would pass notes back and forth and he would talk about life and stuff, '' she said. "He signed all of his notes, ' Write back. ' But on Monday he wrote, ' Later days. ' I did n't know what to make of it. But I never thought this would happen. ''
When asked about the song, Vedder explained:
It came from a small paragraph in a paper which means you kill yourself and you make a big old sacrifice and try to get your revenge. That all you 're gon na end up with is a paragraph in a newspaper. Sixty - four degrees and cloudy in a suburban neighborhood. That 's the beginning of the video and that 's the same thing in the end; it does nothing... nothing changes. The world goes on and you 're gone. The best revenge is to live on and prove yourself. Be stronger than those people. And then you can come back.
The second story the song is based on, involved a student that Vedder knew from his junior high school in San Diego, California. He elaborated further in a 1991 interview:
I actually knew somebody in junior high school, in San Diego, California, that did the same thing, just about, did n't take his life but ended up shooting up an oceanography room. I remember being in the halls and hearing it and I had actually had altercations with this kid in the past. I was kind of a rebellious fifth - grader and I think we got in fights and stuff. So it 's a bit about this kid named Jeremy and it 's also a bit about a kid named Brian that I knew and I do n't know... the song, I think it says a lot. I think it goes somewhere... and a lot of people interpret it different ways and it 's just been recently that I 've been talking about the true meaning behind it and I hope no one 's offended and believe me, I think of Jeremy when I sing it.
While the "Jeremy '' single was released commercially to international markets in 1992, the commercial single was not released in the United States until June 27, 1995 and was only available as a more expensive import version beforehand. "Jeremy '' was released as a single in 1992 with the previously unreleased B - sides "Footsteps '' and "Yellow Ledbetter '', both of which can also be found on the compilation album, Lost Dogs (2003), the former as an alternate version, and the latter of which can also be found on the band 's greatest hits compilation, rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991 -- 2003). "Jeremy '' became the most successful song from Ten on the American rock charts. The song peaked at number five on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks and Billboard Modern Rock Tracks charts. The "Jeremy '' single has been certified gold by the RIAA. At the 1993 Grammy Awards, "Jeremy '' received nominations for Best Rock Song and Best Hard Rock Performance.
Outside the United States, the single was released commercially in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Germany, Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Canada, the song reached the top 40 on the Canadian Singles Chart. "Jeremy '' reached the UK Top 20. It peaked at number 93 in Germany, reached the top 40 in New Zealand, and was a top ten success in Ireland.
Chris True of Allmusic said that "Jeremy '' "is where Pearl Jam mania galvanized and propelled the band past the ' Seattle sound ' and into rock royalty. '' He described it as a "classic buildup tune '' and proclaimed it as "arguably Pearl Jam 's most earnest work and one of their most successful singles. '' Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media said, "' Jeremy ' is the most pat Freudian psychodrama on an album full of them. ''
In July 1991, Vedder became acquainted with photographer Chris Cuffaro. Vedder suggested Cuffaro film a music video for the band. On Vedder 's insistence, Epic gave Cuffaro permission to use any song off Ten. He chose "Jeremy '', which was not intended to be released as a single at the time. Epic refused to fund the clip, forcing Cuffaro to finance it himself.
Cuffaro raised the money by taking out a loan and selling all of his furniture and half his guitar collection. He first filmed several scenes of a young actor, Eric Schubert, playing the part of Jeremy. Cuffaro and his crew spent a day filming Schubert playing the part of Jeremy. The scenes with Pearl Jam were filmed in a warehouse on Pico Boulevard in Los Angeles, California on October 4, 1991. A revolving platform was rigged at the center of the set, and the members of the band climbed on it individually to give the illusion of the song being performed as a crew member spun the giant turntable by hand. Vedder appeared with black gaffer 's tape around his biceps as a mourning band for the real Jeremy.
By the time Cuffaro finished his music video, Epic had warmed up to the idea of releasing "Jeremy '' as a single. Music video director Mark Pellington was brought in to handle the project. Pellington said that he "was n't a huge fan of the band, but the lyrics intrigued me -- I spoke to Eddie, and I really got connected to his passion. '' Pellington and Pearl Jam convened in Kings Cross, London, England in June 1992 to film a new version of the "Jeremy '' music video.
Working with veteran editor Bruce Ashley, Pellington 's high - budget video incorporated rapid - fire editing and juxtaposition of sound, still images, graphics and text elements with live action sequences to create a collage effect. The classroom scenes were filmed at Bayonne High School in New Jersey. The video also featured many close - ups of Vedder performing the song, with the other members of Pearl Jam shown only briefly. Some of the stock imagery was similar to the original video, but when it came to the band Pellington focused on Vedder. Vedder thus serves as the video 's narrator. Ament said, "It was mostly Mark and Ed 's vision. In fact, I think it would have been a better video if the rest of the band was n't in it. I know some of us were having a hard time with the movie - type video that Mark made, because our two previous videos were made live. '' Jeremy was played by 12 - year - old Trevor Wilson, in his only acting role. Wilson died in 2016 at age 36 in a drowning accident in Puerto Rico.
The video premiered on August 1, 1992, and quickly found its way into heavy rotation on MTV. Michele Romero of Entertainment Weekly described the music video as "an Afterschool Special from hell. '' She stated that "when Eddie Vedder yowls the lyric ' Jeremy spoke in class today, ' a chill frosts your cranium to the point of queasy enjoyment. '' The success of the "Jeremy '' video helped catapult Pearl Jam to fame. Pellington stated, "I think that video tapped into something that has always been around and will always be around. You 're always going to have peer pressure, you 're always going to have adolescent rage, you 're always going to have dysfunctional families. '' The video won four MTV Video Music Awards in 1993, including Best Video of the Year, Best Group Video, Best Metal / Hard Rock Video, and Best Direction. Trevor Wilson appeared with Pearl Jam onstage when they won ' Best Video Of The Year. ' Vedder introduced him to the crowd: "This is Trevor. He lives. ''
In Pellington 's video, Jeremy is shown being alienated and taunted by classmates at school, running through a forest, and screaming at his parents at a dinner table. Only Jeremy is shown moving in the video; every other character in his life is frozen in a series of stationary tableaus. Shots of words depicting others ' presumed descriptions of Jeremy -- such as "problem '', "peer '', "harmless '', and "bored '' -- frequently appear onscreen. Included are two biblical allusions: "the unclean spirit entered '', from Mark 5: 13, and "Genesis 3: 6 '', referencing the creation of sin. As the song becomes more dense and frenetic, Jeremy 's behavior becomes increasingly agitated. Strobe lighting adds to the anxious atmosphere. Jeremy is shown standing, arms raised in a V (as described in the lyrics at the beginning of the song), in front of a wall of billowing flames. Jeremy is later shown staring at the camera while wrapped in an American flag, surrounded by fire.
The final scene of the video shows Jeremy striding into class, tossing an apple to the teacher, and standing before his classmates. He reaches down and draws back his arm as he takes a gun out of his pocket (The gun only appears onscreen in the unedited version of the video). The edited version cuts to an extreme close - up of Jeremy 's face as he puts the barrel of the gun in his mouth, closes his eyes, and pulls the trigger. After a flash of light the screen turns black. The next shot is a pan across the classroom, showing Jeremy 's blood - spattered classmates, all completely still, recoiling in horror. The video ends on a shot of a dangling blackboard, on which all the harsh terms and phrases seen earlier had been scrawled.
MTV restrictions on violent imagery prevented Pellington from showing Jeremy putting the gun in his mouth and pulling the trigger at the climax of the video. Incidentally, the ambiguous close - up of Jeremy at the end of the edited video, combined with the defensive posture of Jeremy 's classmates and the large amount of blood, led many viewers to believe that the video ended with Jeremy shooting his classmates, not himself. In 1997, Rolling Stone described the song and video as depicting an unpopular student bringing a gun to class and shooting people.
Pellington himself dismisses this interpretation of the video. He said, "Probably the greatest frustration I 've ever had is that the ending (of the "Jeremy '' video) is sometimes misinterpreted as that he shot his classmates. The idea is, that 's his blood on them, and they 're frozen at the moment of looking. '' He had filmed a scene where Jeremy is shown putting the gun in his mouth, but this footage was edited with a zoom effect for the MTV version of the video so the gun was not visible. Pellington also filmed a slightly different take of the classroom Pledge of Allegiance sequence. In the MTV version of the video there is a brief shot of Jeremy 's classmates making a gesture that could be either the American Bellamy salute or the Nazi Hitler salute; in the original cut of the video this scene is longer. The video is shot in such a way that the camera pan shows the alternate salute while traveling in the opposite direction... left to right as opposed to right to left with the normal hand over heart positioning.
After "Jeremy '', Pearl Jam backed away from making music videos. "Ten years from now, '' Ament said, "I do n't want people to remember our songs as videos. '' The band did not release another video until 1998 's "Do the Evolution '', which was entirely animated.
In 1996, a shooting occurred at Frontier Junior High School in Moses Lake, Washington that left three dead and a fourth injured. The prosecutors for the case said shooter, Barry Loukaitis, was influenced by the edited version of the music video.
After the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, MTV and VH1 rarely aired the video, and mention of it was omitted in retro - documentaries such as I Love the ' 90s. It is still available on the internet, on websites such as YouTube. It can also occasionally be seen playing at Hard Rock Cafe locations. The video occasionally airs on MTV Classic. The video was included in MuchMusic 's list of the 12 most controversial videos. The reason was because of the topic of suicide, and recent school shootings. The scene of Jeremy with the gun in his mouth was not shown. It was also included on VH1 's countdown of the "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s '' at number 11, with several clips of the video shown, including part of the ending. The uncensored version of the video was shown as part of the retrospective "Pearl Jam Ten Revisited '' on VH1 Classic in 2009 prior to the album 's re-release, including the shot in which Jeremy puts the gun in his mouth.
"Jeremy '' was first performed live at the band 's May 17, 1991 concert in Seattle, Washington at the Off Ramp Café. Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on MTV Unplugged in 1992. Pearl Jam also performed "Jeremy '' at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1992. The band had intended to perform the Dead Boys song "Sonic Reducer '', but MTV insisted that it play "Jeremy '' since the song 's music video was already in heavy rotation. (It had been released after the deadline for that year 's awards.) At the end of the intense performance, Vedder managed to sneak in a reference to the Dead Boys song by singing the first line of "Sonic Reducer '', "I do n't need no... I do n't need no mom and dad. '' Live performances of "Jeremy '' can be found on the "Animal '' single, the "Dissident '' / Live in Atlanta box set, various official bootlegs, the Live at the Gorge 05 / 06 box set, and the Drop in the Park LP included in the Super Deluxe edition of the Ten reissue. Performances of the song are also included on the DVD Touring Band 2000 and the MTV Unplugged DVD included in the Ten reissue.
The information regarding accolades attributed to "Jeremy '' is adapted in part from Acclaimed Music.
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who does lenny dress up as in grown ups 2 | Grown Ups 2 - wikipedia
Grown Ups 2 is a 2013 American comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan and co-produced by Adam Sandler, who also starred in the film. It is the sequel to the 2010 film Grown Ups. The film co-stars Kevin James, Chris Rock, David Spade, Nick Swardson, and Salma Hayek. The film is produced by Adam Sandler 's production company Happy Madison Productions and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film was released on July 12, 2013. The film grossed roughly $247 million on an $80 million budget. It was nominated for nine Razzies at the 2014 Golden Raspberry Awards.
Three years after the events of the first film, Lenny Feder has relocated his family back to his Connecticut hometown of Stanton where he and his friends grew up.
In the film 's opening in the Feder household, Lenny wakes up to find a wild deer standing next to his bed. Lenny tries to get his wife Roxanne to open the window. She wakes up in anger and startles the deer, causing it to urinate all over the bed and on Lenny. The deer runs down the hall and crashes into the bathroom where it runs into Lenny 's elder son Greg showering, scaring him and making the deer urinate on him. It turns out that Lenny 's daughter, Becky, left the door open overnight for any animals that wanted to come in. Lenny is able to get the deer out of the house by using Becky 's monkey doll, which rips it apart, devastating her. Greg, Keith, and Becky then go to their last day of school. Roxanne brings up the idea of their family having another baby, but Lenny says their family is perfect as is, upsetting Roxanne.
At the Lamonsoff household, Eric Lamonsoff and his wife Sally are at odds with each other over how to raise their children - Sally believes in unwavering support while Eric prefers to be more practical with them, as proven for their son 's bad math skills and daughter 's rambunctious sense in fashion. At the McKenzie household, Kurt surprises his wife Deanne with a thoughtful anniversary present, only to find that she has completely forgotten. Meanwhile, Marcus Higgins is waiting at a train station after receiving a letter from an old girlfriend, who tells him that he has a seventeen - year - old son Braden. Marcus is stunned to see a tattooed, six - foot - tall boy, who turns out to be Braden. Marcus tries to be nice and takes him to school, but Braden shows an immediate dislike toward him, believing that he abandoned him and his mother.
After dropping off their kids, Lenny, Eric, Kurt, and Marcus form as a group and spend the day roaming around town, reminiscing about the amazing summers they used to have when they were little and Lenny 's bully, Tommy Cavanaugh. Lenny argues that he could take Tommy as a little boy and he can still take him. Eventually, the friends go to see Becky 's ballet recital, where Lenny runs into Tommy, whom Lenny is visibly terrified of. Tommy threatens that if Lenny ever lies again about being able to beat him up, he 'll publicly beat Lenny up.
Once the kids are out of school, Lenny, Eric, Kurt, and Marcus decide to visit the old quarry, where they used to swim as little boys. However, they encounter Andy and his gang of college frat men, who force them to jump into the quarry lake naked. Braden, who was partying with the frat men, witnesses this and goes off to vandalize their frat house. When the frat men return, they swear to take revenge.
Lenny arrives home to help Roxanne set up for a 1980s - themed party for their friends. Meanwhile, Marcus begins to bond with Braden. As all of their friends begin to arrive, Roxanne urges Lenny to consider having another baby. Lenny continues to protest the idea and is left dumbfounded when Roxanne reveals that she is pregnant. Lenny, feeling overwhelmed by this discovery, goes off to drink with his friends. The Feder 's party goes well most of the night until Tommy Cavanaugh shows up and disrespects Lenny in front of everyone, so Lenny challenges Tommy to a fight. In a surprising turn, Tommy decides to take a dive so that Lenny can look tough for his own bullied son, and the two develop a mutual respect. Soon after, Andy, along with his friends and their entire fraternity gatecrash the party, looking for retribution for the damage to their frat house. When they go on to insult the local town residents, Dickie Bailey, Lenny 's old nemesis, points out that Lenny accomplished more in his life than the entire frat put together, inciting a fight. The locals hold their own against the frat men and eventually send them fleeing the scene.
After all the commotion dies down, the four friends, plus Bailey, have pancakes at Eric 's mom 's house. After sharing an embarrassing photo of him and Bailey in kindergarten (they had been forever friends before their personal lives drove them apart), Mrs. Lamonsoff reassures Lenny that a new baby is a wonderful thing and eventually he will never be able to imagine life with just three kids (and also mentions that Eric was an accidental baby because she and her husband had sex in the bathroom at a New England Patriots game). Lenny has a change of heart and returns home, telling Roxanne he is sorry and excited about the new baby, and they reconcile.
Filming of Grown Ups 2 began on May 2, 2012, in Massachusetts, United States and ended on July 15, 2012. Columbia Pictures and Happy Madison Productions distributed the film. The film was written by Adam Sandler, Fred Wolf and Tim Herlihy and directed by Dennis Dugan, Sandler 's longtime collaborator. The film was released on July 12, 2013 in the United States. It was released on August 9, 2013 in the United Kingdom. Rob Schneider did not reprise his role from the first film because of scheduling conflicts and his wife was pregnant during production.
The film is the first film sequel that Adam Sandler has starred in. The movie also has a role played by WWE hall of famer Steve Austin. Stand - up comedian Chris Hardwick confirmed a cameo as an ice cream vendor via his Facebook page. Additionally, the film features a cameo appearance by sportscaster Michael Kay and includes Shaquille O'Neal as a cop. On July 10, 2012, it was announced Arnold Schwarzenegger 's son, Patrick, would be appearing as one of the frat brothers. Oliver Cooper was offered a role as one of the fraternity brothers but had to back out due to scheduling conflicts.
The first trailer for the film was released on April 2, 2013. The film was released on July 12, 2013 in United States.
Grown Ups 2 grossed $133.7 million in North America and $113.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $247 million, against a budget of $80 million. It made a net profit of $48 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
In North America, the film earned $16.3 million on its opening day, and opened to number two in its first weekend, with $41,508,572, behind Despicable Me 2. In its second weekend, the film dropped to number four in the United States, grossing an additional $19.9 million. In its third weekend, the film dropped to number five in the United States, grossing $11.6 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number six, grossing $7.9 million.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 7 % of 109 critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 2.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While it 's almost certainly the movie event of the year for filmgoers passionate about deer urine humor, Grown Ups 2 will bore, annoy, and disgust audiences of nearly every other persuasion. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by its predecessor.
John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter said, "Throughout, gags are cartoonishly broad and afforded so little time for setup and delivery we seem to be watching less a story than a catalog of tossed - out material. '' Andrew Barker of Variety said, "Among the slackest, laziest, least movie - like movies released by a major studio in the last decade, "Grown Ups 2 '' is perhaps the closest Hollywood has yet come to making Ow! My Balls! seem like a plausible future project. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film one out of four stars, saying, "The temptation arises to say something nice about "Grown Ups 2 '' just because it does n't cause injury. But no, it 's a bad movie, just old - school bad, the kind that 's merely lousy and not an occasion for migraines or night sweats. '' Linda Barnard of the Toronto Star gave the film zero out of four stars, saying, "Adam Sandler scrapes the bottom of the barrel -- and then he pukes into it -- with Grown Ups 2, a lazily cribbed - together swamp of pointless and unfunny sketches that makes 2010 's Grown Ups look like Citizen Kane. '' Matt Patches of Time Out New York gave the film one out of five stars, saying, "In the first five minutes, a deer walks into the star 's bedroom and urinates on his face. It 's all downhill from there. ''
Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film one out of four stars, saying, "For all its warm and fuzzy notions of family and community, Grown Ups 2... has a desperate reliance on nasty jokes about pee, poo and -- with surprising frequency -- gay panic. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly, who gave the film a B, said, "In certain ways, Grown Ups 2 marks a return to classically Sandlerian infantile anarchy. '' Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times gave the film one and a half stars out of five, saying, "Grown Ups 2 looks like it was a lot of fun to make. And the last laugh is on us. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film two out of five stars, saying, "Like most Adam Sandler movies, it 's exactly like most Adam Sandler movies... This movie stars all Sandler 's buddies and gleefully embraces lowbrow crudity even while promoting loving family values. '' Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film a D --, saying, "Largely free of Sandler 's usual schmaltz and lame romance, it 's pure plotless, grotesque high jinks, bizarre and inept in a way that 's fascinating without ever being all that funny. '' Nick Schager of The Village Voice gave the film a negative review, saying "A few decent one - liners notwithstanding, the movie comes off as willfully uninspired. ''
Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film one star out of four, saying, "Mystifyingly, the movie manages to emerge plot - free. Instead, it offers a succession of humorless gross - out gags, fat jokes, suggestive posturing, bullying, belches and pratfalls. Life is simple -- and gross -- in Sandlerville. '' Sara Stewart of the New York Post gave the film half a star out of four, saying, "The movie lurches from one gross - out scene to another, flipping the bird at continuity and logic. It honestly seems as if Sandler and his team descended on a random suburb, halfheartedly improvising and moving on when they got bored. '' Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying, "Grown Ups 2 is n't merely mindless. At times it seems to actually drain IQ points from its viewers while wasting a talented cast of "Saturday Night Live '' alums, who are all capable of being much smarter and so much funnier. '' Andy Webster of The New York Times gave the film one out of five stars, saying, "This is pap, plain and simple: scattered raunch - lite devoid of emotional resonance. At best, it sells itself on the spectacle of a TV show 's cast reunion -- and even then it disappoints. With the debacles of That 's My Boy and Jack and Jill, Mr. Sandler has increasingly squandered his comic capital. His onetime SNL brethren do themselves few favors -- beyond a paycheck -- by working in his orbit. '' Peter Keough of The Boston Globe gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying, "Apparently the world demanded another family - friendly version of The Hangover, one that combined scatological comedy with smarmy sentimentality. ''
Connie Ogle of the Miami Herald gave the film one out of four stars, saying, "Nobody escapes untainted by the foul stench of Grown Ups 2; it 's bad enough to make you look askance at Salma Hayek, Maria Bello, and Maya Rudolph, all of whom deserve a chance to do something funny other than pose as wives exuding various degrees of sexiness. '' Richard Roeper gave the film one and a half stars, saying, "When Taylor Lautner is the funniest thing in a movie starring Adam Sandler and Chris Rock, we 're in trouble. '' Randy Cordova of The Arizona Republic gave the film one out of five stars, saying, "In its own way, "Grown Ups 2 '' sets the bar really high. After all, it 's hard to imagine another comedy coming along this year that is this abrasive and free of laughs. It 's like everyone involved intentionally tried to create a horrible movie. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap wrote, "Yes, it 's time for another visit to the Adam Sandler Death - of - Cinema Fun Factory, the big - screen version of a terrible sitcom where laugh tracks are replaced by the co-stars chuckling at their own awful material. '' Adam Nayman of The Globe and Mail gave the film two out four stars, saying, "None of the stars are trying very hard, and so the most memorable presences are the cameos: If nothing else, Grown Ups 2 will go down as the only film in history to find room for Steve Buscemi alongside "Stone Cold '' Steve Austin. ''
Grown Ups 2 was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 5, 2013.
Maria Bello said in an interview, "People have talked about it and we 've heard it might happen, but I do n't know if there is a script, I do n't know what there is. But I hope so because, boy, it 's fun to work with those guys. ''
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who is call it what you want about | Call It What You Want (Taylor Swift song) - wikipedia
"Call It What You Want '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift for her sixth studio album Reputation. It was released on November 3, 2017, as a promotional single from the album. She co-wrote and co-produced the track with Jack Antonoff.
After Swift held several listening parties during October 2017, where she played her sixth studio album Reputation for 500 fans from all around the world and after releasing "Gorgeous '' as the first promotional single of the album, on November 2, 2017, Swift announced she would be releasing "Call It What You Want '' as the second promotional single from Reputation, while posting teasers on her official Twitter and Instagram accounts. The track was released at midnight on November 3, 2017.
"Call It What You Want '' has been described as a "stark synth - pop love song ''. Jack Antonoff, the co-producer and co-writer of the track, revealed on Twitter that "Call It What You Want '' was "made with an MPC, live kick, dx7 strings and samples of Taylor 's voice as the intro and throughout. Making her voice into an instrument. '' He also added that he was "honored to have ' Call It What You Want ' out in the world. That song means a great deal to me '', and recommend fans to "listen on headphones at night on a walk ''. "Call It What You Want '' features Swift rapping.
The song received critical acclaim from music critics. Frank Guan of Vulture stated that the song "deals in gossamer and light; its spare, airy production evokes, or attempts to evoke, a sense of radiant, protective romance in the wake of a devastating social debacle; listeners ready to view that loss as the one she suffered last year at the hands of Kim Kardashian and Kanye West will meet no resistance ''. The song was named the 20th best song of 2017 by Rolling Stone.
In the United States, "Call It What You What '' entered at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 and atop the Digital Songs chart with 68,000 digital copies. As a result, she became the first artist to have 15 entries reach the latter 's summit and extended her record with most debuts at number one on it with 14. It is also the fourth Reputation track to top the chart after "Look What You Made Me Do '', "... Ready for It? '', and "Gorgeous ''. In Australia, it opened at number 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart.
A lyric video for the song was uploaded on Swift 's Vevo channel on November 3. The video featured homemade footage and pictures of Swift. It gained 5 million views in its first 24 hours of upload. As of January 2018, the lyric video garnered over 40 million views.
Swift performed an acoustic version of "Call It What You Want '' during a SiriusXM Fishbowl session on November 10, 2017. A day later, Swift performed an acoustic version of the song again during an episode of the 43rd season of Saturday Night Live, alongside "... Ready for It? ''.
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who won the rugby between new zealand and south africa | History of rugby union matches between New Zealand and South Africa - wikipedia
New Zealand (the All Blacks) and the South Africa (the Springboks) have been playing test match rugby union since 1921 when the All Blacks beat the Springboks in Dunedin 13 - 5. There is considerable history behind these matches, much of it off the field. In 1981, there were protests in New Zealand over the Springboks coming to New Zealand due to the then South African government 's policy of apartheid. Up until the start of the professional era, South Africa had won 21 tests to New Zealand 's 18. In the 50 matches since the start of the professional era, New Zealand have won 36 tests to South Africa 's 14.
Since 2004 New Zealand and South Africa have contested the Freedom Cup, it has been included as part of the Rugby Championship since 2006. If the annual series is drawn, the winner is decided through aggregate.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
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who is running in the georgia primary elections | Georgia gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia
Nathan Deal Republican
The 2018 Georgia gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the next Governor of the U.S. state of Georgia. Incumbent Republican Governor Nathan Deal is term - limited and thus can not seek reelection to a third consecutive term. The primary elections were held on May 22, 2018 and a primary runoff will be held on July 24, 2018 between Republican candidates Casey Cagle and Brian Kemp. The Democrats have nominated Stacey Abrams.
Casey Cagle and Brian Kemp will advance to a runoff on July 24 since neither candidate amassed over 50 % of the vote in the May 22 primary.
Hypothetical polling
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when do you start using a wooden bat | Pine tar - wikipedia
Pine tar is a sticky material produced by the high temperature carbonization of pine wood in anoxic conditions (dry distillation or destructive distillation). The wood is rapidly decomposed by applying heat and pressure in a closed container; the primary resulting products are charcoal and pine tar.
Pine tar consists primarily of aromatic hydrocarbons, tar acids and tar bases. Components of tar vary according to the pyrolytic process (e.g. method, duration, temperature) and origin of the wood (e.g. age of pine trees, type of soil and moisture conditions during tree growth). The choice of wood, design of kiln, burning and collection of the tar can vary. Only pine stumps and roots are used in the traditional production of pine tar.
Pine tar has a long history as a wood preservative, as a wood sealant for maritime use, in roofing construction and maintenance, in soaps and in the treatment of carbuncles and skin diseases, such as psoriasis, eczema, and rosacea.
Pine tar has long been used in Scandinavian nations as a preservative for wood which may be exposed to harsh conditions, including outdoor furniture and ship decking and rigging. The high - grade pine tar used in this application is often called Stockholm Tar since, for many years, a single company held a royal monopoly on its export out of Stockholm, Sweden. It is also known as "Archangel Tar ''. Tar and pitch for maritime use was in such demand that it became an important export for the American colonies (later United States), such as North Carolina, which had extensive pine forests. North Carolinians later became known as "Tar Heels. ''
It was used as a preservative on the bottoms of wooden, Nordic style skis until modern synthetic materials replaced wood in the construction of such skis. The pine tar also helped the adhesion of waxes which aided the grip and glide of such skis.
Pine tar is widely used as a veterinary care product. It is a traditional antiseptic and hoof care product for horses and cattle. Pine tar has been used when chickens start pecking the low hen. Applying a smear of pine tar on the wound gives the attacking hens something else to do, as they are distracted by the effort of trying to get the sticky pine tar off their beaks.
Pine tar is now mainly used as a softening solvent in the rubber industry, and for construction material and special paints.
Pine tar can be used for preserving wooden boats (and other wood which will be exposed to the elements) by using a mixture of pine tar, gum turpentine and boiled linseed oil. First, a thin coat is applied using a mixture with a greater proportion of turpentine. This allows it to permeate deeper into the oakum and fibre of the wood and lets the tar seep into any pinholes and larger gaps that might be in the planks. The tar weeps out to the exterior and indicates where the boat needs the most attention. Having the solution in place and the repairs complete, the vessel is ready for the thicker standard mix. Pine tar is also efficacious for properly saturating lead or standard oakum so that the endurance of the sealing capacity is optimal. Such treatments, while effective, must be continually reapplied.
Traditionally, hemp and other natural fibers were the norm for rope production. Such rope would quickly rot when exposed to rain, and was typically tarred to preserve it. The tar would stain the hands of ship 's crews, and British Navy seamen became known as "tars. ''
In baseball, pine tar is applied to the handles of baseball bats. Because of its texture, pine tar improves a batter 's grip on the bat and prevents the bat from slipping out of the batter 's hands during hard swings. It also helps hitters, because they do not have to grip the bat as hard and thus the hitter gets more "pop. ''
Rule 1.10 (c) of the 2002 Official rules of Major League Baseball states that batters may apply pine tar only from the handle of the bat extending up 18 inches. The most famous example of the rule being applied is the Pine Tar Game, the July 24, 1983 game between the Kansas City Royals and New York Yankees in which George Brett hit a home run to put the Royals ahead 5 -- 4. Yankees manager Billy Martin immediately protested that Brett 's bat had more than 18 inches of pine tar. The umpires called Brett out and nullified the home run. However, league president Lee MacPhail overruled the umpires. MacPhail said that the pine tar restriction was n't about competitive advantage, but economics. If too much pine tar was on the bat, pine tar would end up on the ball and render it unusable for play. MacPhail said that the umpires should n't have taken the home run off the board, but simply discarded the bat. The game was resumed from the point of the home run, and the Royals won.
Pine tar is also sometimes used by pitchers in baseball to improve grip on the ball in cold weather, although it is questionable whether it gives a pitcher any competitive advantage. However, the application of any foreign substance to a ball (except Baseball Rubbing Mud, which is applied by the umpires) is expressly prohibited by 8.02 of the Official rules of Major League Baseball. If a player is caught violating this rule, it results in an automatic ten - game suspension in the minor leagues. There is no mandatory suspension for this infraction at the major league level, although suspensions are often used to discipline offending players.
Pine tar has also been used for treating skin conditions, often as soap, though this use as a drug was banned by the FDA along with many other ingredients, due to a lack of proof of effectiveness.
Some pine tar products contain creosote, a probable carcinogen. This depends on whether they were produced in an open or closed kiln. Some soaps are accordingly advertised as "creosote - free. ''
It is used in veterinary medicine as an expectorant and an antiseptic in chronic skin conditions.
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when did elephant rides stop at london zoo | London Zoo - wikipedia
London Zoo is the world 's oldest scientific zoo. It was opened in London on 27 April 1828, and was originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study. In 1831 or 1832 the animals of the Tower of London menagerie were transferred to the zoo 's collection. It was eventually opened to the public in 1847. Today it houses a collection of 698 species of animals, with 20,166 individuals, making it one of the largest collections in the United Kingdom. The zoo is sometimes called Regent 's Zoo.
It is managed under the aegis of the Zoological Society of London (established in 1826), and is situated at the northern edge of Regent 's Park, on the boundary line between the City of Westminster and the borough of Camden (the Regent 's Canal runs through it). The Society also has a more spacious site at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire to which the larger animals such as elephants and rhinos have been moved. As well as being the first scientific zoo, ZSL London Zoo also opened the first Reptile house (1849), first public Aquarium (1853), first insect house (1881) and the first children 's zoo (1938).
ZSL receives no state funding and relies on ' Fellows ' and ' Friends ' memberships, entrance fees and sponsorship to generate income.
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was established by Sir Stamford Raffles and Sir Humphry Davy in 1826, who obtained the land for the zoo and saw the plans before Raffles died of apoplexy (what would now be called a stroke) later that year on 5 July -- his birthday. After his death the third Marquis of Lansdowne took over the project and supervised the building of the first animal houses. The zoo opened in April 1828 to fellows of the Society, providing access to species such as Arabian oryx, greater kudus, orangutan and the now extinct quagga and thylacine. The Society was granted a Royal Charter in 1829 by King George IV, and in 1847 the zoo opened to the public to aid funding.
It was believed that tropical animals could not survive outside in London 's cold weather and so they were all kept indoors until 1902, when Dr Peter Chalmers Mitchell was appointed secretary of the Society. He set about a major reorganisation of the buildings and enclosures of the zoo, bringing many of the animals out into the open, where many thrived. This was an idea inspired by Hamburg Zoo, and led to newer designs to many of the buildings. Mitchell also envisaged a new 600 - acre (240 ha) park to the north of London, and in 1926 Hall Farm, near to Whipsnade village, was bought. In 1931 Whipsnade Wild Animal Park opened, becoming the world 's first open zoological park. The first woman to be a curator at the London Zoo was Evelyn Cheesman, in 1920.
In 1962, ' Caroline ', an Arabian oryx, was lent to Phoenix Zoo, Arizona in the world 's first international co-operative breeding programme. Today the zoo participates in breeding programmes for over 130 species.
At the beginning of the 1990s, the zoo had almost 7,000 animals; the nearest any other collection came to in Britain was Chester Zoo, with just under 3,500 animals. Many of the species in London Zoo could not be seen anywhere else in the country, such as the wombat, Tasmanian devil or long - nosed potoroo.
Although this vast collection was part of the zoo 's appeal, it may also have been one of the main causes of its financial problems. This contributed to the zoo being faced with closure in the 1980s. Due to the public change of attitude to animals kept in captivity and unsuitably cramped space, the zoo also suffered dwindling visitor numbers. However, when it was announced that London Zoo would close in 1991, a swell of public support in visitors and donations allowed the zoo to continue its work, attempt to balance its books, and take on the huge task of restoring its buildings and creating environments more suitable for animal behaviour in the late 20th century.
One benefit of the ' swell of public support ' was the development of volunteer staff. Employed by both Education and Animal care, these volunteers give one day a week to assist the running of London Zoo and can be recognised by their red pullovers.
During World War II bombings, the London Zoo was closed multiple times for over a week at a time starting 11: 00 AM on 3 September 1939, when all Zoological Places were closed by order of the Government. On 27 September 1940, high explosive bombs damaged the Rodent house, the Civet house, the gardener 's office, the propagating sheds, the North Gate and the Zebra house. Later, in January 1941, the Camel House was also hit, and during World War II the aquarium could not open until May 1943 due to extensive bombings. Fortunately, no animals were harmed during the incidents, although a zebra, a female ass, and her foal escaped from the zoo during the bombings.
For safety reasons, all poisonous animals were killed at the London Zoo during World War II. Wounded men were reportedly let into the London Zoo for free during World War II.
Land of the Lions is a new enclosure for ZSL London Zoo 's Asiatic lions, which opened in Spring 2016 by HM Queen Elizabeth II. The enclosure is 2,500 square metres (27,000 square feet) in size, and designed to resemble the Gir Forest National Park in India. The exhibit is also home to a troop of Hanuman langurs also a band of dwarf mongoose and shows how the lions ' natural habitat overlaps with the local urban environments.
Tiger Territory is ZSL London Zoo 's Sumatran tiger enclosure, designed by architect Michael Kozdon and officially opened by HRH Duke of Edinburgh in March 2013. The zoo currently owns four tigers: a male named Jae Jae and a female named Melati and their two cubs born in June 2016 (a male named Achilles and a female named Karis). The enclosure is 2,500 square metres (27,000 square feet) in size, and features authentic Indonesian plant life, as well as a net canopy of 3mm steel cable supported by four metal poles. The exhibit is also home to Malayan tapir, Reeves 's muntjac, Northern white - cheeked gibbon and Bearded Pigs.
Opened by HRH Duke of Edinburgh in March 2007, Gorilla Kingdom is home to a group of six western lowland gorillas, and consists of a moated island with an indoor gym for the gorillas to use. London Zoo currently owns six gorillas: a silver - back male named Kumbuka, three adult females named Zaire, Mjuuku and Effie, an infant female named Alika (the daughter of Mjuuku and Kumbuka), born on December 2014 and infant male born on November 2015 named Grenot. The Gorilla Kingdom area also features smaller enclosures housing Diana monkeys, black and white colobus, sooty mangabeys, Celebes crested macaque and Congo peafowl.
Into Africa is an Africa - themed area that was opened in April 2006. Animals on display in this area include Chapman 's zebras, warthogs, okapi, Rothschild 's giraffes, pygmy hippopotamus and African wild dogs. The giraffe enclosure features a high level viewing platform to give the public face - to - face contact with the giraffes and it is the oldest zoo building in the world still used for its original purpose.
Rainforest Life is a walk - through indoor exhibit that houses several different species of rainforest animals. Among the species in the main forest walk - through are two - toed sloths, golden - headed lion tamarins, red titi monkeys, armadillos, Geoffrey 's marmosets, cotton - top tamarins, Goeldi 's marmosets and Rodrigues flying fox. The building also has a darkened area called "Nightlife '', which houses nocturnal animals such as Galago, Seba 's short - tailed bats, slender lorises, pottos, rakali, Malagasy giant rats and blind cave fish.
The Outback is an Australia - themed exhibit housing groups of emus, Bennett 's wallabies and red kangaroos. The enclosure, which was originally called "The Mappin Terraces '', was originally opened in 1913 and features an artificial rocky cliff made of concrete blocks for animal enrichment. It was originally designed for a multitude of different species including bears, penguins, sheep, goats and wild boar.
There has been an aquarium at the zoo since 1853, the zoo 's first aquarium was also the world 's first public aquarium. The word "aquarium '' was coined by Philip Henry Gosse who had also created and stocked the first public aquarium at London Zoo. The current aquarium was built in 1921 next to the Mappin Terraces, and was officially opened by King George V and his wife Queen Mary in April 1924.
The aquarium is separated into three halls, each home to different types of fish and other aquatic wildlife. The first hall primarily contains freshwater species such as rudd and European eels, as well as some saltwater species involved in various conservation projects and captive - breeding programmes, such as broad sea fans, uarus and seahorses. The second hall displays various species of coral reef fish from around the world, such as clownfish, copperband butterflyfish and regal tangs, as well as real coral. The third hall houses species native to the Amazon River, including red - bellied piranhas, angelfish, arapaimas and ocellate river stingrays. As well as the three halls, the aquarium also features the "Big Fish Tank '', which contains large fish species that are all former pets, and had to be rescued because their owners did not have the proper equipment or understanding to look after them. The species in the Big Fish Tank include tambaqui, catfish and pirapitinga.
Animal Adventure (formerly called the Ambika Paul Children 's Zoo) opened in 2009 and is an area aimed primarily at children, featuring playgrounds and a water fountain. Many of the animals in Animal Adventure are domestic animals, such as sheep, donkeys, llamas, alpacas, goats and ferrets, as well as rare breeds such as silkie chickens, rex rabbits and kunekune pigs. Exotic species on display include yellow mongooses, crested porcupines, aardvarks, prairie dogs, ring - tailed coatis and one of the zoo 's two groups of meerkats (the other group live in an enclosure next to the Rainforest Life building). The meerkat enclosure features a tunnel that children can crawl through until they reach a see - through dome that allows them to see directly into the enclosure.
At approximately 6am on Saturday 23 December 2017, a large fire started at Animal Adventure. The fire subsequently spread to the cafe / shop located in Animal Adventure. The fire was brought under control by 9: 30am, and all animals except a nine - year - old aardvark named Misha who was pronounced dead, and four meerkats, who have been declared unaccounted for and presumed dead, have been accounted for so far. It is estimated that three - quarters of Animal Adventure Cafe / Shop has been severely damaged. The zoo reopened on Christmas Eve.
One of London Zoo 's most well - known buildings, the Reptile House opened in 1927 and was designed by Joan Beauchamp Procter and Sir Edward Guy Dawber. It houses several species of reptile, including Jamaican boa, Philippine crocodiles, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, black mambas, rhinoceros iguanas, king cobras, emerald tree boas and Yemen chameleons. In December 2012, a refurbished amphibian section was opened to the public, displaying amphibians such as African bullfrogs, axolotls, caecillians and various types of poison dart frog.
Giants of the Galápagos was opened in 2009 to coincide with the 200th birthday of Charles Darwin, and is home to five Galápagos giant tortoises: a male named Dirk and four females named Dolly, Dolores, Polly and Priscilla. The exhibit features a large indoor area, with a heated pond and underfloor heating, while the outdoor paddock has been designed to mimic the tortoise 's natural environment and features two heated pools, one of which is a naturalistic clay wallow.
London Zoo 's Komodo dragon enclosure was opened by Sir David Attenborough in July 2004. The zoo used to own two Komodo dragons, a female named Rinka and a male named Raja. A new male dragon called Ganas (One of the Parthenogenic hatchlings from Chester zoo) moved to London in 2015 after the previous dragons died. Their enclosure is designed to resemble the dragon 's natural habitat of a dry river bed, and sounds of Indonesian birds are regularly played into the enclosure.
B.U.G.S (which stands for Biodiversity Underpinning Global Survival and formerly called Web of Life) is held in a building called The Millennium Conservation Centre, and aims to educate the public about biodiversity. The building displays over 140 species, the majority of which are invertebrates. They include leafcutter ants, jewel wasps, golden mantella frogs, brown rats, bird - eating spiders, naked mole rats, leaf insects, moon jellyfish, Polynesian tree snails (Partula), Giant African land snails, cave crickets, fruit beetles and black widow spiders. The Millennium Conservation Centre aims to be environmentally friendly, constructed from materials requiring little energy to produce, and generating its heating from the body heat of both the animals and visitors. In May 2015 an exhibit called In With The Spiders opened in B.U.G.S as Europe 's first and only spider walkthrough exhibit. It houses many different types of spiders including one of the UK 's most endangered animals, the fen raft spider.
Penguin Beach opened in 2011 and houses seventy Humboldt penguins. Until March 2017, a single male rockhopper penguin named Ricky also lived here, before being moved to ZSL Whipsnade Zoo. The pool itself is currently the largest penguin pool in an English zoo.
Opened in March 2015, In with the Lemurs is a walk - through exhibit housing a troop of ten ring - tailed lemurs. It also has a family of aye - ayes living in the indoor section as well as panther chameleons, lesser hedgehog tenrecs and malagasy giant rats. The exhibit is designed to resemble a shrub forest in Madagascar, featuring plant life such as loquat and Chusan palm trees.
Opened by comedians Noel Fielding and Julian Barratt of The Mighty Boosh in 2005, Meet the Monkeys is a walk - through enclosure that houses a troop of 20 black - capped squirrel monkeys. The exhibit has no roof, and there are no boundaries between the monkeys and the visitors. It is the southernmost enclosure in the zoo.
Opened in May 2006, Butterfly Paradise houses several different species of butterfly and moth from around the world, as well as plant species specially selected to provide nectar and breeding areas for the insects. Species on display include the clipper butterfly, blue morpho butterfly, atlas moth, zebra longwing, glasswing butterfly and postman butterfly. The exhibit also features a caterpillar hatchery and a pupa display cabinet, where visitors can witness different types of pupae and the development of new butterflies.
The African Bird Safari opened in 2005 as a redevelopment of the old stork and ostrich house, replacing three enclosures that were out of date by modern zoo - keeping standards. It is a walk - through exhibit housing various species of African birds including Von der Decken 's hornbills, Bernier 's teals, Abdim 's storks, Hamerkop, White - faced whistling duck and blue - bellied rollers.
The Snowdon Aviary was designed by Cedric Price, Frank Newby and Antony Armstrong - Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, and was built in 1964. A variety of birds have been kept in the aviary since it was opened, and it currently houses green peafowl, sacred ibis, little egrets, cattle egrets, northern bald ibis and grey - headed gulls.
The Blackburn Pavilion is a rainforest - themed tropical bird aviary that opened in March 2008, as a refurishment of the zoo 's out - of - date bird house. The building was originally constructed in 1883, as a reptile house. The pavilion houses fifty different species of exotic birds, including Socorro doves, Mindanao bleeding - hearts, scarlet ibis, toco toucans, splendid sunbirds, pied avocets and blue - winged kookaburras. Outside the entrance is one of the pavilion 's prominent features, a large elaborate clock by Tim Hunkin. It gives a bird - themed display every thirty minutes throughout the day.
Other notable animals in London Zoo 's collection include black vultures, greater flamingos, vicunas, Bactrian camels, spectacled owls, red ruffed lemurs, African harrier hawks, Malayan tapirs, burrowing owls, white - cheeked gibbons, military macaws, Oriental small - clawed otters, reindeer, giant anteaters, Rüppell 's vultures, Bornean bearded pigs, Rodrigues fruit bats and great white pelicans.
The zoo plans to create better accessibility, which will involve relocating the main entrance to the east, adjacent to the Broad Walk in Regent 's Park. In November 2016, Foster + Partners were appointed to redevelop and upgrade the Snowdon Aviary to become a Colobus Monkey walk through, the walk through will also house African Great Grey Parrots, Duikers, Dik - Dik and Smaller Monkeys
Throughout its history the zoo has had many well - known residents. These may have been scientifically important individuals or simply beloved by the public.
Old Martin was a large grizzly bear, the first in Britain, moved to the zoo with many other animals from the Royal Menagerie, Tower of London when it was closed in 1832.
The zoo was home to the only living quagga ever to be photographed, before the species became extinct in the wild due to hunting in southern Africa in about 1870. Another now extinct species the zoo held was a number of thylacines, or "Tasmanian tigers ''.
Obaysch was the first hippopotamus to be seen in Europe since the Roman Empire, and the first in England since prehistoric times. The hippo arrived at London Zoo in May 1850 as a gift from the Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt in exchange for some greyhounds and deerhounds. Obaysch led to a doubling of the zoo 's visitors that year.
In 1865, Jumbo, the largest elephant known at the time, was transferred to the zoo from Jardin des Plantes in Paris. His name, possibly from Jambo, Swahili for hello, became an epithet for anything of large size, such as Boeing 's 747 Jumbo jet. He became aggressive in old age, and had to stop giving rides; he was sold to Phineas Barnum 's circus, the Barnum & Bailey Circus, in 1882, where he was later crushed by a locomotive and killed.
Winnipeg the Bear (or Winnie) was an American black bear given to the zoo in 1914 by a Canadian lieutenant, Harry Colebourn. A.A. Milne visited with his son Christopher Robin, and the boy was so enamoured with the bear Milne wrote the famous series of books for him entitled Winnie - the - Pooh. A 2004 film A Bear Named Winnie is based on the story of Winnie the bear, with Michael Fassbender playing Harry Colebourn.
Guy, a western lowland gorilla, arrived at the zoo on Guy Fawkes Night (hence the name) 1947 from Paris Zoo, and lived at the zoo until his death in 1978. Over his 32 - year life he became one of the zoo 's best - loved residents. After years of trying to find a mate, in 1969 five - year - old Lomie arrived from Chessington Zoo. They were kept separated for a year to adjust to each other, until they were finally united. Although they got on well together they never produced any offspring. In 1982 Guy was commemorated by a bronze statue in Barclay Court, sculpted by William Timym.
Dumbo (born 1948) was a female Indian elephant who lived at London Zoo during the 1950s and was well known for her fondness for sweets. She was rescued from hunters as a baby, and was transported from India to England by air, where she spent her adult life giving rides to the children. Dumbo was named after the eponymous Disney character because she was the first elephant to travel by airplane. In 1958 she was transferred to Moscow Zoo in return for four endangered snow leopards. At some point between 1962 and 1971, Dumbo was acquired by circus performer Dolly Jacobs, but by 1978 she had been sold to Paul Kaye and was living in California with three other elephants.
On 27 November 1949 Brumas became the first polar bear to be successfully bred at the zoo, and immediately became a major attraction with the public. This led to the zoo 's annual attendance to rise to over 3 million in 1950 - a figure that has yet to be topped. Although a female, the press reported that she was a ' he ' and this was not corrected at the time, leading the public to believe the bear was a male. Eighteen years later, on 1 December 1967 the second polar bear bred at the zoo, this time a male, was born. He was named Pipaluk (Inuit for little one) but, in 1985, had to leave the zoo when the Mappin Terraces closed.
One of the zoo 's most famous giant pandas, Chi Chi, arrived in 1958. Although originally destined for an American zoo, Washington had ceased all trade with communist China and so Chi Chi was refused entry to the United States. In the interests of conservation, ZSL had stated they would not encourage the collection of wild pandas. However, when it was pointed out that Chi Chi had already been collected, her purchase was approved, and she immediately become the star attraction at London Zoo. As the only giant panda in the west she was the inspiration of Peter Scott 's design for the World Wildlife Fund logo. In July 1972, Chi Chi died and was publicly mourned. The zoo 's last giant panda was Ming Ming. She arrived in 1991 on a breeding loan from China. After unsuccessful breeding attempts with Berlin 's Zoo giant panda Bao Bao it had been decided to return Ming Ming to China, leaving the London Zoo without a giant panda since the end of October 1994. Zoo staff later suggested that Chinese zookeepers knew that she was infertile and lent her in order to hide how much more advanced Western husbandry techniques were compared to theirs.
For four days in late August 2005, the zoo ran an exhibit entitled the Human Zoo, which put eight humans on display in the Mappin Terraces. The idea behind the exhibit was to demonstrate the basic nature of man as an animal and examine the impact we have on the animal kingdom.
Since its earliest days, the zoo has prided itself on appointing leading architects to design its buildings. Today, it holds two Grade I and eight Grade II listed structures.
The initial grounds were laid out in 1828 by Decimus Burton, the zoo 's first official architect from 1826 to 1841, made famous for his work on the London Colosseum and Marble Arch. Burton 's work began with the Clock Tower in 1828 above what was then the llama house, which today is the first aid kiosk. In 1830 the East Tunnel, which linked the north and south parts of the zoo together for the first time, was completed, which also acted as a bomb shelter during World War II. Burton concluded his work in 1837 with the Giraffe House, which, due to its functional design, still remains in use as the zoo 's giraffe enclosure in the Into Africa exhibit.
After Burton, Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell and John James Joass were appointed to design the Mappin Terraces. Completed in 1914, the Mappin Terraces imitates a mountain landscape to provide a naturalistic habitat for bears and other mountain wildlife. In 1933 the Round House, designed by Berthold Lubetkin 's Tecton Architectural Group to house gorillas, was one of the first modernist style buildings to be built in Britain. The following year the Penguin Pool, also designed by Tecton, was opened; both are now grade I listed. The Modernist dual concrete spiral ramps of the Penguin Pool have made it famous, but during a 2004 refurbishment the penguins took a strong liking to the duck pond they had been temporarily relocated to, and they were moved out of the Penguin Pool permanently.
The Snowdon Aviary, built in 1964 by Cedric Price, Lord Snowdon and Frank Newby, made pioneering use of aluminium and tension for support. A year later the Casson Pavilion, designed by Sir Hugh Casson and Neville Conder, was opened as an elephant and rhinoceros house. The Pavilion was commissioned "to display these massive animals in the most dramatic way '' and designed to evoke a herd of elephants gathered around a watering hole.
Many films and television programmes have made use of London Zoo as a film set.
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who makes the decisions about what goods to produce in north korea | Economy of North Korea - wikipedia
The economy of North Korea is a centrally planned system, where the role of market allocation schemes is limited, though increasing. Although there have been some small - scale reforms, as of 2015 North Korea continues its basic adherence to a rigid centrally planned command economy and its reliance on fundamentally non-pecuniary (not readily quantified or valued in money) incentives. There has been economic reform, particularly after Kim Jong - un assumed the leadership in 2012, but reports conflict over particular legislation and enactment.
The collapse of the Eastern Bloc from 1989 to 1991, particularly North Korea 's principal source of support, the Soviet Union, forced the North Korean economy to realign its foreign economic relations, including increased economic exchanges with South Korea. China is North Korea 's largest trading partner.
North Korea had a similar GDP per capita to its neighbor South Korea from the aftermath of the Korean War until the mid-1970s, but had a GDP per capita of less than $2,000 in the late 1990s and early 21st century.
Estimating gross national product in North Korea is a difficult task because of a dearth of economic data and the problem of choosing an appropriate rate of exchange for the North Korean won, the nonconvertible North Korean currency. The South Korean government 's estimate placed North Korea 's GNP in 1991 at US $22.9 billion, or US $1,038 per capita. In contrast, South Korea posted US $237.9 billion of GNP and a per capita income of US $5,569 in 1991. North Korea 's GNP in 1991 showed a 5.2 % decline from 1989, and preliminary indications were that the decline would continue. South Korea 's GNP, by contrast, expanded by 9.3 % and 8.4 %, respectively, in 1990 and 1991.
It is estimated that North Korea 's GNP nearly halved between 1990 and 1999. North Korean annual budget reports suggest state income roughly tripled between 2000 and 2014. By about 2010 external trade had returned to 1990 levels.
The South Korea - based Bank of Korea, considered the most accurate source on North Korean economy, estimated that over 2000 to 2013 average growth was 1.4 % per year. It estimated that the real GDP of North Korea in 2015 was 30,805 billion South Korean won. The same year, it published the following estimates of North Korea 's GDP growth:
According to analyst Andrei Lankov, writing in 2017, a significant number of observers believe that the Bank of Korea is too conservative and the real growth rate is 3 - 4 %. North Korea reported that the government budget has been increasing at between 5 % and 10 % annually from 2007 to 2015. Reported planned capital expenditure, mainly on roads and public buildings, increased by 4.3 % in 2014, 8.7 % in 2015 to 13.7 % in 2016.
Beginning in the mid-1920s, the Japanese colonial administration in Korea concentrated its industrial - development efforts in the comparatively under - populated and resource - rich northern portion of the country, resulting in a considerable movement of people northward from the agrarian southern provinces of the Korean Peninsula.
This trend did not reverse until after the end (1945) of World War II, when more than 2 million Koreans moved from North to South following the division of Korea into Soviet and American military zones of administration. This southward exodus continued after the establishment of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (North Korea) in 1948 and during the 1950 -- 53 Korean War. The North Korean population as of October 2008 was given as 24 million.
The post-World War II division of the Korean Peninsula resulted in imbalances of natural and human resources, with disadvantages for both the North and the South. In 1945, about 65 % of Korean heavy industry was in the North but only 31 % of light industry, 37 % of agriculture, and 18 % of the peninsula 's total commerce.
North and South Korea both suffered from the massive destruction caused during the Korean War. Historian Charles K. Armstrong stated that "North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society ''. In the years immediately after the war, North Korea mobilized its labour force and natural resources in an effort to achieve rapid economic development. Large amounts of aid from other communist countries, notably the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China, helped the country achieve a high growth - rate in the immediate postwar period.
In 1961 an ambitious seven - year plan was launched to continue industrial expansion and increase living standards, but within three years it became clear this was failing and the plan period was extended to 1970. The failure was due to reduced support from the Soviet Union when North Korea aligned more with China, and military pressure from the U.S. leading to increased defence spending. In 1965 South Korea 's rate of economic growth first exceeded North Korea 's in most industrial areas, though South Korea 's per capita GNP remained lower than North Korea 's.
In 1979, North Korea renegotiated much of its international debt, but in 1980 it defaulted on its loans except those from Japan. By the end of 1986, hard - currency debt had reached more than US $1 billion. It also owed nearly $2 billion to communist creditors, principally the Soviet Union. The Japanese declared North Korea in default. By 2000, taking into account penalties and accrued interest, North Korea 's debt was estimated at $10 -- 12 billion. By 2012, North Korea 's external debt had grown to an estimated US $20 billion despite Russia reportedly writing off about $8 billion of debt in exchange for participation in natural resources development. Besides Russia, major creditors included Hungary, the Czech Republic and Iran.
Largely because of these debt problems and because of a prolonged drought and mismanagement, North Korea 's industrial growth slowed, and per capita GNP fell below that of the South. By the end of 1979 per capita GNP in North Korea was about one - third of that in the South. The causes for this relatively poor performance are complex, but a major factor is the disproportionately large percentage of GNP (possibly as much as 25 %) that North Korea devotes to the military.
There were minor efforts toward relaxing central control of the economy in the 1980s that involve industrial enterprises. Encouraged by Kim Jong - il 's call to strengthen the implementation of the independent accounting system (독립 채산제, tongnip ch'aesanje) of enterprises in March 1984, interest in enterprise management and the independent accounting system increased, as evidenced by increasing coverage of the topic in North Korean journals. Under the system, factory managers still are assigned output targets but are given more discretion in decisions about labour, equipment, materials, and funds.
In addition to fixed capital, each enterprise is allocated a minimum of working capital from the state through the Central Bank and is required to meet operating expenses with the proceeds from sales of its output. Up to 50 % of the "profit '' is taxed, the remaining half being kept by the enterprise for purchase of equipment, introduction of new technology, welfare benefits, and bonuses. As such, the system provides some built - in incentives and a degree of micro-level autonomy, unlike the budget allocation system, under which any surplus is turned over to the government in its entirety.
Another innovation, the August Third People 's Consumer Goods Production Movement, is centred on consumer goods production. This measure was so named after Kim Jong - il made an inspection tour of an exhibition of light industrial products held in Pyongyang on August 3, 1984. The movement charges workers to use locally available resources and production facilities to produce needed consumer goods. On the surface, the movement does not appear to differ much from the local industry programs in existence since the 1960s, although some degree of local autonomy is allowed. However, a major departure places output, pricing, and purchases outside central planning. In addition, direct sales stores were established to distribute goods produced under the movement directly to consumers. The movement is characterized as a third sector in the production of consumer goods, alongside centrally controlled light industry and locally controlled traditional light industry. Moreover, there were some reports in the mid-1980s of increasing encouragement of small - scale private handicrafts and farm markets. As of 1992, however, no move was reported to expand the size of private garden plots.
All these measures appear to be minor stop - gap measures to alleviate severe shortages of consumer goods by infusing some degree of incentives. In mid-1993, no significant moves signalling a fundamental deviation from the existing system had occurred. The reluctance to initiate reform appears to be largely political. This concern is based on the belief that economic reform will produce new interests that will demand political expression and that demands for the institutionalization of such pluralism eventually will lead to political liberalization.
Beginning in the mid-1980s and particularly around the end of the decade, North Korea slowly began to modify its rigid self - reliant policy. The changes, popularly identified as the open - door policy, included an increasing emphasis on foreign trade, a readiness to accept direct foreign investment by enacting a joint venture law, the decision to open the country to international tourism, and economic cooperation with South Korea.
The main targets of the Third Seven - Year Plan of 1987 -- 93 were to achieve the "Ten Long - Range Major Goals of the 1980s for the Construction of the Socialist Economy ''. These goals, conceived in 1980, were to be fulfilled by the end of the decade. The fact that these targets were rolled over to the end of the Third Seven - Year Plan is another indication of the disappointing economic performance during the Second Seven - Year Plan. The three policy goals of self - reliance, modernization, and scientification were repeated. Economic growth was set at 7.9 % annually, lower than the previous plan. Although achieving the ten major goals of the 1980s was the main thrust of the Third Seven - Year Plan, some substantial changes have been made in specific quantitative targets. For example, the target for the annual output of steel was reduced by a third: from 15 million tons to 10 million tons. The output targets of cement and non-ferrous metals -- two major export items -- have been increased significantly. The June 1989 introduction of the Three - Year Plan for Light Industry as part of the Third Seven - Year Plan is intended to boost the standard of living by addressing consumer needs.
The Third Seven - Year Plan gave a great deal of attention to developing foreign trade and joint ventures, the first time a plan has addressed these issues. By the end of 1991, however, two years before the termination of the plan, no quantitative plan targets were made public, an indication that the plan has not fared well. The diversion of resources to build highways, theatres, hotels, airports, and other facilities to host the Thirteenth World Festival of Youth and Students in July 1989 must have had a negative impact on industrial and agricultural development, although the expansion and improvement of social infrastructure have resulted in some long - term economic benefits.
Although general economic policy objectives are decided by the Central People 's Committee (CPC), it is the task of the State Planning Committee to translate the broad goals into specific annual and long - term development plans and quantitative targets for the economy as a whole, as well as for each industrial sector and enterprise. Under the basic tenets of the 1964 reforms, the planning process is guided by the principles of "unified planning '' (일원화, ilwŏnhwa) and of "detailed planning '' (새 분화, saebunhwa).
Under "unified planning, '' regional committees are established in each province, city, and county to systematically coordinate planning work. These committees do not belong to any regional organization and are directly supervised by the State Planning Committee. As a result of a reorganization in 1969, they are separated into provincial planning committees, city / county committees, and enterprise committees (for large - scale enterprises).
The planning committees, under the auspices of the State Planning Committee, coordinate their work with the planning offices of the economy - related government organizations the corresponding regional and local areas. The system attempts to enable the regional planning staff to better coordinate with economic establishments in their areas, which are directly responsible to them in planning, as well as communicating directly with staff at the CPC. "Detailed planning '' seeks to construct plans with precision and scientific methods based on concrete assessment of the resources, labour, funds, plant capacities, and other necessary information.
There are four stages in drafting the final national economic plan.
The plan then becomes legal and compulsory. Frequent directives from the central government contain changes in the plan targets or incentives for meeting the plan objectives.
Although the central government is most clearly involved in the formulation and evaluation of the yearly and long - term plans, it also reviews summaries of quarterly or monthly progress. Individual enterprises divide the production time into daily, weekly, ten - day, monthly, quarterly, and annual periods. In general, the monthly plan is the basic factory planning period.
The success of an economic plan depends on the quality and detail of information received, the establishment of realistic targets, coordination among sectors, and correct implementation. High initial growth during the Three - Year Plan and, to a lesser extent, during the Five - Year Plan contributed to a false sense of confidence among the planners. Statistical over reporting -- an inherent tendency in an economy where rewards lie in fulfilling the quantitative targets, particularly when the plan target year approaches -- leads to overestimation of economic potential, poor product quality, and eventually to plan errors. Inefficient use of plants, equipment, and raw materials add to planning errors. Lack of coordination in planning and production competition among sectors and regions cause imbalances and disrupt input - output relationships. The planning reforms in 1964 were supposed to solve these problems, but the need for correct and detailed planning and strict implementation of plans was so great that their importance was emphasized in the report unveiling the Second Seven - Year Plan, indicating that planning problems persisted in the 1980s.
In the mid-1990s North Korea abandoned firm directive planning, and multi-year plans became more of a long - term economic strategy.
The Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method (청산리 방법) of management was born out of Kim Il - sung 's February 1960 visit to the Ch'ŏngsan - ni Cooperative Farm in South P'yŏngan Province. Kim and other members of the KWP Central Committee offered "on - the - spot guidance '' (현지 지도, hyŏnji chido) and spent two months instructing and interacting with the workers. The avowed objective of this new method is to combat "bureaucratism '' and "formalism '' in the farm management system.
The leadership claimed that farm workers were unhappy and produced low output because low - ranking functionaries of the Workers ' Party of Korea (who expounded abstract Marxist theories and slogans) were using tactics that failed to motivate. To correct this, the leadership recommended that the workers receive specific guidance in solving production problems and be promised readily available material incentives. The Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method called for high - ranking party officials, party cadres, and administrative officials to emulate Kim Il Sung by making field inspections. The system provided opportunities for farmers to present their grievances and ideas to leading cadres and managers.
Perhaps more important than involving administrative personnel in on - site inspections was the increased use of material incentives, such as paid vacations, special bonuses, honorific titles, and monetary rewards. In fact, the Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method appeared to accommodate almost any expedient to spur production. The method, subsequently, was undercut by heavy - handed efforts to increase farm production and amalgamate farms into ever - larger units. Actual improvement in the agricultural sector began with the adoption of the subteam contract system as a means of increasing peasant productivity by adjusting individual incentives to those of the immediate, small working group. Thus the increasing scale of collective farms was somewhat offset by the reduction in the size of the working unit. "On - the - spot guidance '' by high government functionaries, however, continued in the early 1990s, as exemplified by Kim Il - sung 's visits to such places as the Wangjaesan Cooperative Farm in Onsŏng County and the Kyŏngsŏn Branch Experimental Farm of the Academy of Agricultural Sciences between August 20 and 30, 1991. Kim Jong - il carried on the tradition, despite having refused to do so before, and even expanded it to the Korean People 's Army. Today Kim Jong - un continues the practices of the method.
The industrial management system developed in three distinct stages. The first was a period of enterprise autonomy that lasted until December 1946. The second stage was a transitional system based on local autonomy, with each enterprise managed by the enterprise management committee under the direction of the local people 's committee. This system was replaced by the "one - man management system '' (지배인 단독 책임 제), with management patterned along Soviet lines as large enterprises were nationalized and came under central control. The third stage, the Taean Work System (대안 의 사업 체계, Taeanŭi saŏpch'e), was introduced in December 1961 as an application and refinement of agricultural management techniques to industry. The Taean industrial management system grew out of the Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method.
The highest managerial authority under the Taean system is the party committee. Each committee has approximately 25 to 35 members elected from the ranks of managers, workers, engineers, and the leadership of "working people 's organizations '' at the factory. A smaller "executive committee '', about one - quarter the size of the regular committee, has practical responsibility for day - to - day plant operations and major factory decisions. The most important staff members, including the party committee secretary, factory manager, and chief engineer, make up its membership. The system focuses on co-operation among workers, technicians, and party functionaries at the factory level.
Each factory has two major lines of administration, one headed by the manager, the other by the party committee secretary. A chief engineer and his or her assistants direct a general staff in charge of all aspects of production, planning, and technical guidance. Depending on the size of the factory, varying numbers of deputies oversee factory logistics, marketing, and workers ' services. The supply of materials includes securing, storing, and distributing all materials for factory use, as well as storing finished products and shipping them from the factory.
Deputies are assign workers to their units and handle factory accounts and payroll. Providing workers ' services requires directing any farming done on factory lands, stocking factory retail shops, and taking care of all staff amenities. Deputies in charge of workers ' services are encouraged to meet as many of the factory 's needs as possible using nearby agricultural cooperatives and local industries.
The secretary of the party committee organizes all political activities in each of the factory party cells and attempts to ensure loyalty to the party 's production targets and management goals. According to official claims, all management decisions are arrived at by consensus among the members of the party committee. Given the overwhelming importance of the party in the country 's affairs, it seems likely that the party secretary has the last say in any major factory disputes.
The Taean system heralded a more rational approach to industrial management than that practised previously. Although party functionaries and workers became more important to management under the new system, engineers and technical staff received more responsibility in areas where their expertise could contribute the most. The system recognizes the importance of material as well as "politico - moral '' incentives for managing the factory workers. The "internal accounting system '', a spin - off of the "independent accounting system '', grants bonuses to work teams and workshops that use raw materials and equipment most efficiently. These financial rewards come out of enterprise profits.
A measure of the success of the Taean work system is its longevity and its continued endorsement by the leadership. In his 1991 New Year 's address marking the 13th anniversary of the creation of the system, Kim Il - sung said that the
Taean work system is the best system of economic management. It enables the producer masses to fulfill their responsibility and role as masters and to manage the economy in a scientific and rational manner by implementing the mass line in economic management, and by combining party leadership organically with administrative, economic, and technical guidance.
Parallel to management techniques such as the Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method and the Taean work system, which were designed to increase output in more normalized and regularized operations of farms and enterprises, the leadership continuously resorts to exhortations and mass campaigns to motivate the workers to meet output targets. The earliest and the most pervasive mass production campaign was the Ch'ŏllima Movement. Introduced in 1958 and fashioned after China 's Great Leap Forward (1958 -- 60), the Ch'ŏllima Movement organized the labour force into work teams and brigades to compete at increasing production. The campaign was aimed at industrial and agricultural workers and at organizations in education, science, sanitation and health, and culture.
In addition to work teams, units eligible for Ch'ŏllima citations included entire factories, factory workshops, and such self - contained units as a ship or a railroad station. The "socialist emulation '' among the industrial sectors, enterprises, farms, and work teams under the Ch'ŏllima Movement frantically sought to complete the First Five - Year Plan (1957 -- 60) but instead created chaotic disruptions in the economy. This made it necessary to set aside 1959 as a "buffer year '' to restore balance in the economy.
Although the Ch'ŏllima Movement was replaced in the early 1960s by the Ch'ŏngsan - ni Method and the Taean Work System, the regime 's reliance on mass campaigns continued into the early 1990s. Campaigns conducted after the Ch'ŏllima to speed battles toward the end of a period (such as a month, a year, or an economic plan) to reach production targets to carry out the economic goals of the decade.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the principal source of external support, North Korea announced in December 1993 a three - year transitional economic policy placing primary emphasis on agriculture, light industry, and foreign trade. However, lack of fertilizer, natural disasters, and poor storage and transportation practices the country fell more than a million tons per year short of grain self - sufficiency. Moreover, lack of foreign exchange to purchase spare parts and oil for electricity generation left many factories idle.
The shortage of foreign exchange because of a chronic trade deficit, a large foreign debt, and dwindling foreign aid has constrained economic development. In addition, North Korea has been diverting scarce resources from developmental projects to defence; it spent more than 20 % of GNP on defence toward the end of the 1980s, a proportion among the highest in the world. These negative factors, compounded by the declining efficiency of the central planning system and the failure to modernize the economy, have slowed the pace of growth since the 1960s. The demise of the communist regimes in the Soviet Union and East European countries -- North Korea 's traditional trade partners and benefactors -- has compounded the economic difficulties in the early 1990s.
Economically, the collapse of the Soviet Union the end of Soviet support to North Korean industries caused a contraction of the North Korea 's economy by 25 percent during the 1990s. While, by some accounts, North Korea had a higher per capita income than South Korea in the 1970s, by 2006 its per capita income was estimated to be only $1108, one seventeenth that of South Korea.
Experimentation in small scale entrepreneurship took place from 2009 to 2013, and although there continue to be legal uncertainties this has developed into a significant sector. By 2016 economic liberalisation had progressed to the extent that both locally - responsible and state industrial enterprises gave the state 20 % to 50 % of their output, selling the remainder to buy raw materials with market - based prices in akin to a free market.
In 2014 the Enterprise Act was amended to allow state - owned enterprise managers to engage in foreign trade and joint ventures, and to accept investment from non-government domestic sources. Under the new rules the enterprise director became more like the western chief executive officer, and the chief engineer had an operational role more like a western chief operating officer. As of 2017 it was unclear if the Taean Work System (described above) still in practice operated to give local people 's committees much influence.
In 2017 Dr. Mitsuhiro Mimura, Senior Research Fellow at Japan 's Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia, who has visited North Korea 45 times described it as the "poorest advanced economy in the world '', in that while having comparatively low GDP, it had built a sophisticated production environment. He described the recent rise of entrepreneurial groups through "socialist cooperation '', where groups of individuals could start small enterprises as cooperative groups. Managers in state - owned industries or farms were also free to sell or trade production beyond state plan targets, providing incentives to increase production. Managers could also find investment for expansion of successful operations, in a process he called "socialist competition ''. A state plan was still the basis for production, but was more realistic leaving room for excess production.
The state budget is a major government instrument in carrying out the country 's economic goals. Expenditures represented about three - quarters of GNP in the mid-1980s -- the allocation of which reflected the priorities assigned to different economic sectors. Taxes were abolished in 1974 as "remnants of an antiquated society. '' This action, however, was not expected to have any significant effect on state revenue because the overwhelming proportion of government funds -- an average of 98.1 % during 1961 - 70 -- was from turnover (sales) taxes, deductions from profits paid by state enterprises, and various user fees on machinery and equipment, irrigation facilities, television sets, and water.
In order to provide a certain degree of local autonomy as well as to lessen the financial burden of the central government, a "local budget system '' was introduced in 1973. Under this system, provincial authorities are responsible for the operating costs of institutions and enterprises not under direct central government control, such as schools, hospitals, shops, and local consumer goods production. In return, they are expected to organize as many profitable ventures as possible and to turn over profits to the central government.
Around December of every year, the state budget for the following calendar year is drafted, subject to revision around March. Typically, total revenue exceeds expenditure by a small margin, with the surplus carried over to the following year. The largest share of state expenditures goes to the "people 's economy, '' which averaged 67.3 % of total expenditures between 1987 and 1990, followed in magnitude by "socio - cultural, '' "defense, '' and "administration. ''
Defense spending, as a share of total expenditures, has increased significantly since the 1960s: from 3.7 % in 1959 to 19 % in 1960, and, after averaging 19.8 % between 1961 and 1966, to 30.4 % in 1967. After remaining around 30 % until 1971, the defense share decreased abruptly to 17 % in 1972, and continued to decline throughout the 1980s. Officially, in both 1989 and 1990 the defense share remained at 12 %, and for 1991 it was 12.3 % with 11.6 % planned for 1992. The declining trend was consistent with the government 's announced intentions to stimulate economic development and increase the social benefits. However, Western experts have estimated that actual military expenditures are higher than budget figures indicate.
In the 1999 budget, expenditures for the farming and power sectors were increased by 15 % and 11 %, respectively, compared with those of 1998.
In the 2007 budget, it was estimated an increase in revenue at 433.2 bn won ($3.072 bn, $1 = 141won). In 2006, 5.9 % were considered the public revenue, whereas this year, this figure was raised to 7.1 %.
North Korea claims that it is the only state in the world that does not levy taxes. Taxes were abolished beginning on April 1, 1974.
Since 2003, North Korean authorities issue government bonds called The "People 's Life Bonds ''.
North Korea sold bonds internationally in the late 1970s for 680 million Deutsche marks and 455 million Swiss francs. North Korea defaulted on these bonds by 1984, although the bonds remain traded internationally on speculation that the country would eventually perform on the obligations.
North Korea 's self - reliant development strategy assigned top priority to developing heavy industry, with parallel development in agriculture and light industry. This policy was achieved mainly by giving heavy industry preferential allocation of state investment funds. More than 50 % of state investment went to the industrial sector during the 1954 - 76 period (47.6 %, 51.3 %, 57.0 %, and 49.0 %, respectively, during the Three - Year Plan, Five - Year Plan, First Seven - Year Plan, and Six - Year Plan). As a result, gross industrial output grew rapidly.
As was the case with the growth in national output, the pace of growth has slowed markedly since the 1960s. The rate declined from 41.7 % and 36.6 % a year during the Three - Year Plan and Five - Year Plan, respectively, to 12.8 %, 16.3 %, and 12.2 %, respectively, during the First Seven Year Plan, Six - Year Plan, and Second Seven - Year Plan. As a result of faster growth in industry, that sector 's share in total national output increased from 16.8 % in 1946 to 57.3 % in 1970. Since the 1970s, industry 's share in national output has remained relatively stable. From all indications, the pace of industrialization during the Third Seven - Year Plan up to 1991 is far below the planned rate of 9.6 %. In 1990 it was estimated that the industrial sector 's share of national output was 56 %.
Industry 's share of the combined total of gross agricultural and industrial output climbed from 28 % in 1946 to well over 90 % in 1980. Heavy industry received more than 80 % of the total state investment in industry between 1954 and 1976 (81.1 %, 82.6 %, 80 %, and 83 %, respectively, during the Three - Year Plan, Five - Year Plan, First Seven - Year Plan, and Six - Year Plan), and was overwhelmingly favored over light industry.
North Korea claims to have fulfilled the Second Seven - Year Plan (1978 -- 84) target of raising the industrial output in 1984 to 120 % of the 1977 target, equivalent to an average annual growth rate of 12.2 %. Judging from the production of major commodities that form the greater part of industrial output, however, it is unlikely that this happened. For example, the increase during the 1978 - 84 plan period for electric power, coal, steel, metal - cutting machines, tractors, passenger cars, chemical fertilizers, chemical fibers, cement, and textiles, respectively, was 78 %, 50 %, 85 %, 67 %, 50 %, 20 %, 56 %, 80 %, 78 %, and 45 %. Raw materials were in short supply and so were energy and hard currency. Infrastructure decayed and machinery became obsolete. Unlike other socialist countries in the Eastern Europe, North Korea kept planning in a highly centralized manner and refused to liberalize economic management.
In the mid-1980s, the speculation that North Korea would emulate China in establishing Chinese - style special economic zones was flatly denied by then deputy chairman of the Economic Policy Commission Yun Ki - pok (Yun became chairman as of June 1989). China 's special economic zones typically are coastal areas established to promote economic development and the introduction of advanced technology through foreign investment. Investors are offered preferential tax terms and facilities. The zones, which allow greater reliance on market forces, have more decision making power in economic activities than do provincial - level units. Over the years, China has tried to convince the North Korean leadership of the advantages of these zones by giving tours of the various zones and explaining their values to visiting high - level officials.
In April 1982, Kim Il - sung announced a new economic policy giving priority to increased agricultural production through land reclamation, development of the country 's infrastructure -- especially power plants and transportation facilities -- and reliance on domestically produced equipment. There also was more emphasis on trade.
In September 1984, North Korea promulgated a joint venture law to attract foreign capital and technology. The new emphasis on expanding trade and acquiring technology was not, however, accompanied by a shift in priorities away from support of the military. In 1991, North Korea announced the creation of a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in the northeast regions of Rason (Rason Special Economic Zone) and Ch'ŏngjin. Investment in this SEZ has been slow in coming. Problems with infrastructure, bureaucracy, uncertainties about the security of investments, and viability have hindered growth and development. Nevertheless, thousands of small Chinese businesses had set up profitable operations in North Korea by 2011.
A government research center, the Korea Computer Center, was set up in 1990, starting the slow development of an information technology industry.
In 2013 and 2014 the State Economic Development Administration announced a number of smaller special economic zones covering export handling, mineral processing, high technology, gaming and tourism.
The most successful export industry is the garment industry. Production is by a North Korean firm for a European or other foreign partner, by a Chinese firm operating in North Korea with a North Korean partner, or by North Korean workers working in Chinese or other foreign factories. Wages are the lowest in northeastern Asia.
The North Korean motor vehicle production establishes military, industrial and construction goals, with private car ownership by citizens remaining on low demand. Having Soviet origins, (the subsequent practice of cloning foreign specimens, and a recent one automobile joint - venture) North Korea has developed a wide - range automotive industry with production of all types of vehicles. The basis for production is in an urban and off - road mini; luxury; SUV cars; small, mid, heavy, and super-heavy cargo; construction and off - road trucks; a mini bus / van, coach buses, civilian and articulated buses, trolleybuses, and trams. However, North Korea produces far fewer vehicles than its production capability due to the ongoing economic crisis. North Korea has not joined or collaborated with the OICA, or with any other automotive organization, so any critical information about its motor vehicle industry is limited.
The energy sector is one of the most serious bottlenecks in the North Korean economy. Since 1990, the supply of oil, coal, and electricity declined steadily, and seriously affected all sectors of the economy. Crude oil was formerly imported by pipeline at "friendship prices '' from the former Soviet Union or China, but the withdrawal of Russian concessions and the reduction of imports from China brought down annual imports from about 23 million barrels (3.7 × 10 ^ m) in 1988 to less than 4 million barrels (640 × 10 ^ m) by 1997. As the imported oil was refined for fuels for transportation and agricultural machinery, a serious cutback in oil imports caused critical problems in transportation and agriculture.
According to statistics compiled by the South Korean agency Statistics Korea based on International Energy Agency (IEA) data, per capita electricity consumption fell from its peak in 1990 of 1247 kilowatt hours to a low of 712 kilowatt hours in 2000. It slowly rose since then to 819 kilowatt hours in 2008, a level below that of 1970.
North Korea has no coking coal, but has substantial reserves of anthracite in Anju, Aoji (Ŭndŏk), and other areas. Coal production peaked at 43 million tons in 1989 and steadily declined to 18.6 million tons in 1998. Major causes of coal shortages include mine flooding, and outdated mining technology. As coal was used mainly for industry and electricity generation, decrease in coal production caused serious problems in industrial production and electricity generation. Coal production may not necessarily increase significantly until North Korea imports modern mining technology.
Electricity generation of North Korea peaked in 1989 at about 30 TWh. There were seven large hydroelectric plants in the 1980s. Four were along the Yalu River, built with Chinese aid, and supplying power to both countries. In 1989, 60 % of electricity generation was hydroelectric and 40 % fossil fueled, mostly coal - fired.
In 1997, coal accounted for more than 80 % of primary energy consumption and hydro power more than 10 %. Net imports of coal represented only about 3 % of coal consumption. Hydroelectric power plants generated about 65 % of North Korea 's electricity and coal - fired thermal plants about 35 % in 1997. However, with only 20 % of the per capita electricity generation of Japan, North Korea suffered from chronic supply shortages. Coal exports to China currently account for a major portion of North Korea 's revenue.
Some hydroelectric facilities were believed to be out of operation due to damages from major flooding in 1995. Coal - fired power plants were running well under capacity, due in part to a serious decline in coal supply and in part to problems with transportation of coal. The electricity supply steadily declined and was 17 TWh in 1998. Since electricity generated needed to be doubled just to return to the 1989 level, power shortages continued until coal production could increase substantially and generating equipment is refurbished. Transmission losses were reported to be around 30 %.
Construction has been an active sector in North Korea. This was demonstrated not only through large housing programmes, of which most were visible in the high - rise apartment blocks in Pyongyang, but also in the smaller modern apartment complexes widespread even in the countryside. These are dwarfed in every sense by "grand monumental edifices ''. The same may apply even to apparently economically useful projects such as the Nampo Dam, which cost US $4 bn.
The years of economic contraction in the 1990s slowed this sector as it did others; the shell of the 105 - story Ryugyŏng Hotel towered unfinished on Pyongyang 's skyline for over a decade. The Bank of Korea claims that construction 's share of GDP fell by almost one - third between 1992 and 1994, from 9.1 % to 6.3 %. This accords with a rare official figure of 6 % for 1993, when the sector was said to have employed 4.2 % of the labour force. However, the latter figure excludes the Korean People 's Army, which visibly does much of the country 's construction work.
Since about 2012, when 18 tower blocks were built in Pyongyang, a construction boom has taken place in Pyongyang. Major projects include the Mansudae People 's Theatre (2012), Munsu Water Park (2013), the modernisation of Pyongyang Sunan International Airport (2015) and the Science and Technology Center (2015).
The Central Bank of North Korea, under the Ministry of Finance, has a network of 227 local branches. Several reissues of banknotes in recent years suggest that citizens are inclined to hoard rather than bank any savings that they make from their incomes; reportedly they now also prefer foreign currency. At least two foreign aid agencies have recently set up microcredit schemes, lending to farmers and small businesses.
In late 2009, North Korea revalued its currency, effectively confiscating all privately held money above the equivalent of US $35 per person. The revaluation effectively wiped out the savings of many North Koreans. Days after the revaluation the won dropped 96 % against the United States Dollar. Pak Nam - gi, the director of the Planning and Finance Department of North Korea 's ruling Workers ' Party, was blamed for the disaster and later executed in 2010.
In 2004 and 2006 laws were passed to codify rules for savings and commercial banking. However it was not until 2012 that North Korean banks started to seriously compete for retail customers. Competing electronic cash cards have become widely accepted in Pyongyang and other cities, but are generally not linked to bank accounts. North Korean banks have introduced retail products which permit a mobile phone app to make payments and top - ups.
As of May 2013, the Chinese banks, China Merchants Bank, Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, China Construction Bank, and Agricultural Bank of China, stopped "all cross-border cash transfers, regardless of the nature of the business '' with North Korea. The Bank of China, the China 's primary institution for foreign exchange transactions, said, on May 14, 2013, that "it had closed the account of Foreign Trade Bank, North Korea 's main foreign exchange bank. '' However, "smaller banks based in northeastern China across the border from North Korea said it was still handling large - scale cross-border transfers. '' For example, the Bank of Dalian branch in Dandong was still doing transfers to North Korea.
Until the early 2000s the official retail sector was mainly state - controlled, under the direction of the People 's Services Committee. Consumer goods were few and of poor quality, with most provided on a ration basis. There were state - run stores and direct factory outlets for the masses, and special shops with luxuries for the elite -- as well as a chain of hard - currency stores (a joint venture with the association of pro-Pyongyang Korean residents in Japan, the Ch'ongryŏn), with branches in large cities.
In 2002 and in 2010, private markets were progressively legalized, mostly for food sales. As of 2013, urban and farmer markets were held every 10 days, and most urban residents lived within 2 km of a market.
In 2012, the third large shopping mall in Pyongyang, the Kwangbok Area Shopping Center, opened. In 2014 the construction of another large shopping mall started. As of 2017, these malls sold competing brands of goods, for example at least ten different kinds of toothpaste were being sold.
North Korea 's sparse agricultural resources limit agricultural production. Climate, terrain, and soil conditions are not particularly favorable for farming, with a relatively short cropping season. Only about 17 % of the total landmass, or approximately 20,000 km, is arable, of which 14,000 km is well suited for cereal cultivation; the major portion of the country is rugged mountain terrain.
The weather varies markedly according to elevation, and lack of precipitation, along with infertile soil, makes land at elevations higher than 400 meters unsuitable for purposes other than grazing. Precipitation is geographically and seasonally irregular, and in most parts of the country as much as half the annual rainfall occurs in the three summer months. This pattern favors the cultivation of paddy rice in warmer regions that are outfitted with irrigation and flood control networks. Rice yields are 5.3 tonnes per hectare, close to international norms. In 2005, North Korea was ranked by the FAO as an estimated 10th in the production of fresh fruit and as an estimated 19th in the production of apples.
Farming is concentrated in the flatlands of the four west coast provinces, where a longer growing season, level land, adequate rainfall, and good irrigated soil permit the most intensive cultivation of crops. A narrow strip of similarly fertile land runs through the eastern seaboard Hamgyŏng provinces and Kangwŏn Province, but the interior provinces of Chagang and Ryanggang are too mountainous, cold, and dry to allow much farming. The mountains contain the bulk of North Korea 's forest reserves while the foothills within and between the major agricultural regions provide lands for livestock grazing and fruit tree cultivation.
Since self - sufficiency remains an important pillar of North Korean ideology, self - sufficiency in food production is deemed a worthy goal. Another aim of government policies -- to reduce the "gap '' between urban and rural living standards -- requires continued investment in the agricultural sector. The stability of the country depends on steady, if not rapid, increases in the availability of food items at reasonable prices. In the early 1990s, there were severe food shortages.
The most far - reaching statement on agricultural policy is embodied in Kim Il - sung 's 1964 Theses on the Socialist Agrarian Question in Our Country, which underscores the government 's concern for agricultural development. Kim emphasized technological and educational progress in the countryside as well as collective forms of ownership and management. As industrialization progressed, the share of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the total national output declined from 63.5 % and 31.4 %, respectively, in 1945 and 1946, to a low of 26.8 % in 1990. Their share in the labor force also declined from 57.6 % in 1960 to 34.4 % in 1989.
In the 1990s, the decreasing ability to carry out mechanized operations (including the pumping of water for irrigation), as well as lack of chemical inputs, was clearly contributing to reduced yields and increased harvesting and post-harvest losses.
Incremental improvements in agricultural production have been made since the late 1990s, bringing North Korea close to self - sufficiency in staple foods by 2013. In particular, rice yields have steadily improved, though yields on other crops have generally not improved. The production of protein foods remains inadequate. Access to chemical fertilizer has declined, but the use of compost and other organic fertilizer has been encouraged.
Since the 1950s, a majority of North Koreans have received their food through the public distribution system (PDS). The PDS requires farmers in agricultural regions to hand over a portion of their production to the government and then reallocates the surplus to urban regions, which can not grow their own foods. About 70 % of the North Korean population, including the entire urban population, receives food through this government - run system.
Before the floods, recipients were generally allotted 600 - 700 grams per day while high officials, military men, heavy laborers, and public security personnel were allotted slightly larger portions of 700 - 800 grams per day. As of 2013, the target average distribution was 573 grams of cereal equivalent per person per day, but varied according to age, occupation, and whether rations are received elsewhere (such as school meals).
Decreases in production affected the quantity of food available through the public distribution system. Shortages were compounded when the North Korean government imposed further restrictions on collective farmers. When farmers, who had never been covered by the PDS, were mandated by the government to reduce their own food allotments from 167 kilograms to 107 kilograms of grain per person each year, they responded by withholding portions of the required amount of grain. Famine refugees reported that the government decreased PDS rations to 150 grams in 1994 and to as low as 30 grams by 1997. It was further reported that the PDS failed to provide any food from April to August 1998 (the "lean '' season) as well as from March to June 1999. In January 1998, the North Korean government publicly announced that the PDS would no longer distribute rations and that families needed to somehow procure their own food supplies. By 2005, the PDS was only supplying households with approximately one half of an absolute minimum caloric need. By 2008, the system had significantly recovered, and, from 2009 to 2013, daily per person rations averaged at 400 grams per day for much of the year, though in 2011 it dropped to 200 grams per day from May to September.
It is estimated that in the early 2000s, the average North Korean family drew some 80 % of its income from small businesses that were technically illegal (though unenforced) in North Korea. In 2002 and in 2010, private markets were progressively legalized. As of 2013, urban and farmer markets were held every 10 days, and most urban residents lived within 2 km of a market, with markets having an increasing role in obtaining food.
From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered a famine. Since 1998 there has been a gradual recovery in agriculture production, which by 2013 brought North Korea back close to self - sufficiency in staple foods. However, as of 2013, most households have borderline or poor food consumption, and consumption of protein remains inadequate.
In the 1990s, the North Korean economy saw stagnation turning into crisis. Economic assistance received from the Soviet Union and China was an important factor of its economic growth. Upon its collapse in 1991, the Soviet Union withdrew its support and demanded payment in hard currency for imports. China stepped in to provide some assistance and supplied food and oil, most of it reportedly at concessionary prices. But in 1994 China reduced its exports to North Korea. The rigidity in the political and economic systems of North Korea left the country ill - prepared for a changing world. The North Korean economy was undermined and its industrial output began to decline in 1990. Deprived of industrial inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides, and electricity for irrigation, agricultural output also started to decrease even before North Korea had a series of natural disasters in the mid-1990s. This evolution, combined with a series of natural disasters including record floods in 1995, caused one of the worst economic crises in North Korea 's history. Other causes of this crisis were high defense spending (about 25 % of GDP) and bad governance. It was estimated that between 1992 and 1998 North Korea 's economy contracted by 50 % and many (possibly up to 3.5 million) people died of starvation.
In December 1991, North Korea established a "zone of free economy and trade '' to include the northeastern port cities of Unggi (Sŏnbong), Ch'ŏngjin, and Najin. The establishment of this zone also had ramifications on the questions of how far North Korea would go in opening its economy to the West and to South Korea, the future of the development scheme for the Tumen River area, and, more important, how much North Korea would reform its economic system.
North Korea announced in December 1993 a three - year transitional economic policy placing primary emphasis on agriculture, light industry, and foreign trade. However, lack of fertilizer, natural disasters, and poor storage and transportation practices have left the country more than a million tons per year short of grain self - sufficiency. Moreover, lack of foreign exchange to purchase spare parts and oil for electricity generation left many factories idle.
The 1990s famine paralyzed many of the Marxist -- Leninist economic institutions. The government pursued Kim Jong - il 's Songun policy, under which the military is deployed to direct production and infrastructure projects. As a consequence of the government 's policy of establishing economic self - sufficiency, the North Korean economy has become increasingly isolated from that of the rest of the world, and its industrial development and structure do not reflect its international competitiveness. Domestic firms are shielded from international as well as domestic competition; the result is chronic inefficiency, poor quality, limited product diversity, and underutilization of plants. This protectionism also limits the size of the market for North Korean producers, which prevents taking advantage of economies of scale.
The food shortage was primarily precipitated by the loss of fuel and other raw materials imports from China and the Soviet Union which had been essential to support an energy intensive and energy inefficient farming system. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the former concessional trade relationships which benefited the North Korea were not available. The three flood and drought years between 1994 and 1996 only served to complete the collapse of the agriculture sector. In 2004, more than half (57 %) of the population did not have enough food to stay healthy. 37 % of children had their growth stunted and 1 / 3 of mothers severely lacked nutrition.
In 2006, the World Food Program (WFP) and FAO estimated a requirement of 5.3 to 6.5 million tons of grain when domestic production fulfilled only 3.825 million tons. The country also faces land degradation after forests stripped for agriculture resulted in soil erosion. In 2008, a decade after the worst years of the famine, total production was 3.34 million tons (grain equivalent) compared with a need of 5.98 million tons. Thirty seven percent of the population was deemed to be insecure in food access. Weather continued to pose challenges every year, but overall food production grew gradually, and by 2013, production had increased to the highest level since the crisis, to 5.03 million tons cereal equivalent, against a minimum requirement of 5.37 MMT.
In 2014 North Korea had an exceptionally good harvest, 5.08 million tonnes of cereal equivalent, almost sufficient to feed the entire population. While food production had recovered significantly since the hardest years of 1996 and 1997, the recovery was fragile, subject to adverse weather and year to year economic shortages. Distribution was uneven with the Public Distribution System largely ineffective. Any shortfall between production and need could be easily met by government funded imports, should the decision to make those purchases be made.
According to a 2012 report by South Korea - based North Korea Resource Institute (NKRI), North Korea has substantial reserves of iron ore, coal, limestone, and magnesite. In addition, North Korea is thought to have tremendous potential rare metal resources, which have been valued in excess of US $6 trillion.
It is the world 's 18th largest producer of iron and zinc, and has the 22nd largest coal reserves in the world. It is also the 15th largest fluorite producer and 12th largest producer of copper and salt in Asia. Other major natural resources in production include lead, tungsten, graphite, magnesite, gold, pyrites, fluorspar, and hydropower.
In 2015, North Korea exported 19.7 million tonnes of coal, worth $1.06 billion, much of it to China. In 2016 it was estimated that coal shipments to China accounted for about 40 % of exports.
However, starting from February 2017 China suspended all North Korean coal imports, although according to China overall trade with North Korea increased.
North Korea 's cartoon animation studios such as SEK Studio sub-contract work from South Korean animation studios. Mansudae Overseas Projects builds monuments around the world.
North Korean fisheries export seafood, primarily crab, to Dandong, Liaoning, illicitly. Crabs, clams and conches from the Yellow Sea waters of North Korea are popular in China, possibly because the less salty water improves taste.
North Korea 's economy has been unique in its elimination of markets. By the 1960s, market elements had been suppressed almost completely. Almost all items, from food to clothes, have traditionally been handed out through a public distribution system, with money only having a symbolic meaning. Ratios of food depend on hierarchy in the system, wherein the positions seem to be semi-hereditary. Until the late 1980s, peasants were not allowed to cultivate private garden plots.
Since the government is the dominant force in the development and management of the economy, bureaus and departments have proliferated at all administrative levels. There are fifteen committees -- such as the agricultural and state planning committees -- one bureau, and twenty departments under the supervision of the State Administration Council; of these, twelve committees -- one bureau, and sixteen departments are involved in economic management. In the early 1990s, several vice premiers of the State Administration Council supervised economic affairs. Organizations undergo frequent reorganization. Many of these agencies have their own separate branches at lower levels of government while others maintain control over subordinate sections in provincial and county administrative agencies.
Around 1990, with the collapse of the Soviet Union, restrictions on private sales, including grain, ceased to be enforced. It is estimated that in the early 2000s, the average North Korean family drew some 80 % of its income from small businesses that were technically illegal (though unenforced) in North Korea. In 2002, and in 2010, private markets were progressively legalized. As of 2013, urban and farmer markets were held every 10 days, and most urban residents lived within 2 km of a market.
In 2014, North Korea announced the "May 30th measures. '' These planned to give more freedom to farmers, allowing them to keep 60 % of their produce. Also enterprise managers would be allowed to hire and fire workers, decide who they do business with and where they buy raw materials and spare parts. Some reports suggest that these measures would allow nominally state run enterprises to be run on capitalist lines like those on China.
North Korea, one of the world 's most centrally planned and isolated economies, faces desperate economic conditions. Industrial capital stock is nearly beyond repair as a result of years of underinvestment and shortages of spare parts. Industrial and power output have declined in parallel. During what North Korea called the "peaceful construction '' period before the Korean War, the fundamental task of the economy was to overtake the level of output and efficiency attained toward the end of the Japanese occupation; to restructure and develop a viable economy reoriented toward the communist - bloc countries; and to begin the process of socializing the economy. Nationalization of key industrial enterprises and land reform, both of which were carried out in 1946, laid the groundwork for two successive one - year plans in 1947 and 1948, respectively, and the Two - Year Plan of 1949 - 50. It was during this period that the piece - rate wage system and the independent accounting system began to be applied and that the commercial network increasingly came under state and cooperative ownership.
The basic goal of the Three - Year Plan, officially named "The Three - Year Post-war Reconstruction Plan of 1954 - 56 '', was to reconstruct an economy torn by the Korean War. The plan stressed more than merely regaining the prewar output levels. The Soviet Union, other East European countries and China provided reconstruction assistance. The highest priority was developing heavy industry, but an earnest effort to collectivize farming also was begun. At the end of 1957, output of most industrial commodities had returned to 1949 levels, except for a few items such as chemical fertilizers, carbides, and sulfuric acid, whose recovery took longer.
Having basically completed the task of reconstruction, the state planned to lay a solid foundation for industrialization while completing the socialization process and solving the basic problems of food and shelter during the Five - Year Plan of 1957 -- 60. The socialization process was completed by 1958 in all sectors of the economy, and the Ch'ŏllima Movement was introduced. Although growth rates reportedly were high, there were serious imbalances among the different economic sectors. Because rewards were given to individuals and enterprises that met production quotas, frantic efforts to fulfill plan targets in competition with other enterprises and industries caused disproportionate growth among various enterprises, between industry and agriculture and between light and heavy industries. Because resources were limited and the transportation system suffered bottlenecks, resources were diverted to politically well - connected enterprises or those whose managers complained the loudest. An enterprise or industry that performed better than others often did so at the expense of others. Such disruptions intensified as the target year of the plan approached.
Until the 1960s, North Korea 's economy grew much faster than South Korea 's. Although North Korea was behind in total national output, it was ahead of South Korea in per capita national output, because of its smaller population relative to South Korea. For example, in 1960 North Korea 's population was slightly over 10 million people, while South Korea 's population was almost 25 million people. Annual economic growth rates of 30 % and 21 % during the Three - Year Plan of 1954 - 56 and the Five - Year Plan of 1957 - 60, respectively, were reported. After claiming early fulfillment of the Five - Year Plan in 1959, North Korea officially designated 1960 a "buffer year '' -- a year of adjustment to restore balances among sectors before the next plan became effective in 1961. Not surprisingly the same phenomenon recurred in subsequent plans. Because the Five - Year Plan was fulfilled early, it became a de facto four - year plan. Beginning in the early 1960s, however, North Korea 's economic growth slowed until it was stagnant at the beginning of the 1990s.
Various factors explain the very high rate of economic development of the country in the 1950s and the general slowdown since the 1960s. During the reconstruction period after the Korean War, there were opportunities for extensive economic growth -- attainable through the communist regime 's ability to marshall idle resources and labor and to impose a low rate of consumption. This general pattern of initially high growth resulting in a high rate of capital formation was mirrored in other Soviet - type economies. Toward the end of the 1950s, as reconstruction work was completed and idle capacity began to diminish, the economy had to shift from the extensive to the intensive stage, where the simple communist discipline of marshaling underutilized resources became less effective. In the new stage, inefficiency arising from emerging bottlenecks led to diminishing returns. Further growth would only be attained by increasing efficiency and technological progress.
Beginning in the early 1960s, a series of serious bottlenecks began to impede development. Bottlenecks were pervasive and generally were created by the lack of arable land, skilled labor, energy, and transportation, and deficiencies in the extractive industries. Moreover, both land and marine transportation lacked modern equipment and modes of transportation. The inability of the energy and extractive industries as well as of the transportation network to supply power and raw materials as rapidly as the manufacturing plants could absorb them began to slow industrial growth.
The First Seven - Year Plan (initially 1961 - 67) built on the groundwork of the earlier plans but changed the focus of industrialization. Heavy industry, with the machine tool industry as its linchpin, was given continuing priority. During the plan, however, the economy experienced widespread slowdowns and reverses for the first time, in sharp contrast to the rapid and uninterrupted growth during previous plans. Disappointing performance forced the planners to extend the plan three more years, until 1970. During the last part of the de facto ten - year plan, emphasis shifted to pursuing parallel development of the economy and of defense capabilities. This shift was prompted by concern over the military takeover in South Korea by General Park Chung - hee (1961 -- 79), escalation of the United States involvement in Vietnam, and the widening Sino - Soviet split. It was thought that stimulating a technological revolution in the munitions industry was one means to achieve these parallel goals. In the end, the necessity to divert resources to defense became the official explanation for the plan 's failure.
The Six - Year Plan of 1971 - 76 followed immediately in 1971. In the aftermath of the poor performance of the preceding plan, growth targets of the Six - Year Plan were scaled down substantially. Because some of the proposed targets in the First Seven - Year Plan had not been attained even by 1970, the Six - Year Plan did not deviate much from its predecessor in basic goals. The Six - Year Plan placed more emphasis on technological advance, self - sufficiency (Juche) in industrial raw materials, improving product quality, correcting imbalances among different sectors, and developing the power and extractive industries; the last of these had been deemed largely responsible for slowdowns during the First Seven - Year Plan. The plan called for attaining a self - sufficiency rate of 60 - 70 % in all industrial sectors by substituting domestic raw materials wherever possible and by organizing and renovating technical processes to make the substitution feasible. Improving transport capacity was seen as one of the urgent tasks in accelerating economic development -- it was one of the major bottlenecks of the Six - Year Plan.
North Korea claimed to have fulfilled the Six - Year Plan by the end of August 1975, a full year and four months ahead of schedule. Under the circumstances, it was expected that the next plan would start without delay in 1976, a year early, as was the case when the First Seven - Year Plan was instituted in 1961. Even if the Six - Year Plan had been completed on schedule, the next plan should have started in 1977. However, it was not until nearly two years and four months later that the long - awaited plan was unveiled -- 1977 had become a "buffer year. ''
The inability of the planners to continuously formulate and institute economic plans reveals as much about the inefficacy of planning itself as the extent of the economic difficulties and administrative disruptions facing the country. For example, targets for successive plans have to be based on the accomplishments of preceding plans. If these targets are underfulfilled, all targets of the next plan -- initially based on satisfaction of the plan -- have to be reformulated and adjusted. Aside from underfulfillment of the targets, widespread disruptions and imbalances among various sectors of the economy further complicate plan formulation.
The basic thrust of the Second Seven - Year Plan (1978 -- 84) was to achieve the three - pronged goals of self - reliance, modernization, and "scientification. '' Although the emphasis on self - reliance was not new, it had not previously been the explicit focus of an economic plan. This new emphasis might have been a reaction to mounting foreign debt originating from large - scale imports of Western machinery and equipment in the mid - 1970s. Through modernization North Korea hoped to increase mechanization and automation in all sectors of the economy. "Scientification '' means the adoption of up - to - date production and management techniques. The specific objectives of the economic plan were to strengthen the fuel, energy, and resource bases of industry through priority development of the energy and extractive industries; to modernize industry; to substitute domestic resources for certain imported raw materials; to expand freight - carrying capacity in railroad, road, and marine transportation systems; to centralize and containerize the transportation system; and to accelerate a technical revolution in agriculture.
In order to meet the manpower and technology requirements of an expanding economy, the education sector also was targeted for improvements. The quality of the comprehensive eleven - year compulsory education system was to be enhanced to train more technicians and specialists, and to expand the training of specialists, particularly in the fields of fuel, mechanical, electronic, and automation engineering.
Successful fulfillment of the so - called nature - remaking projects also was part of the Second Seven - Year Plan. These projects referred to the five - point program for nature transformation unveiled by Kim Il - sung in 1976: completing the irrigation of non-paddy fields; reclaiming 1,000 square kilometres of new land; building 1,500 to 2,000 km2 of terraced fields; carrying out afforestation and water conservation work; and reclaiming tidal land.
From all indications, the Second Seven - Year Plan was not successful. North Korea generally downplayed the accomplishments of the plan, and no other plan received less official fanfare. It was officially claimed that the economy had grown at an annual rate of 8.8 % during the plan, somewhat below the planned rate of 9.6 %. The reliability of this aggregate measure, however, is questionable. During the plan, the target annual output of 10 million tons of grains (cereals and pulses) was attained. However, by official admission, the targets of only five other commodities were fulfilled. Judging from the growth rates announced for some twelve industrial products, it is highly unlikely that the total industrial output increased at an average rate of 12.2 % as claimed. After the plan concluded, there was no new economic plan for two years, indications of both the plan 's failure and the severity of the economic and planning problems confronting the economy in the mid-1980s. From 1998 to 2003, the government implemented a plan for scientific and technical development, which focused on the nation 's IT and electronic industry.
Growth and changes in the structure and ownership pattern of the economy also have changed the labor force. By 1958 individual private farmers, who once constituted more than 70 % of the labor force, had been transformed into or replaced by state or collective farmers. Private artisans, merchants, and entrepreneurs had joined state or cooperative enterprises. In the industrial sector in 1963, the last year for which such data are available, there were 2,295 state enterprises and 642 cooperative enterprises. The size and importance of the state enterprises can be surmised by the fact that state enterprises, which constituted 78 % of the total number of industrial enterprises, contributed 91 % of total industrial output.
Labor force (12.6 million) - by occupation:
Statistics from North Korea 's trade partners is collected by international organizations like the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund, and by the South Korean Ministry of Unification.
It has also been estimated that imports of arms from the Soviet Union in the period 1988 to 1990 accounted for around 30 % of the North Korea 's total imports, and that between 1981 and 1989 North Korea earned approximately $4 billion from the export of arms, approximately 30 % of North Korea 's total exports in that period. The nominal dollar value of arms exports from North Korea in 1996 was estimated to have been around $50 million.
North Korea 's foreign trade deteriorated in the 1990s. After hitting the bottom of $1.4 billion in 1998, it recovered slightly. North Korea 's trade total in 2002 was $2.7 billion: only about 50 % of $5.2 billion in 1988, even in nominal US dollars. These figures exclude intra-Korean trade, deemed internal, which rose in 2002 to $641 million. During the late 2000s trade grew strongly, almost tripling between 2007 and 2011 to $5.6 billion, with much of the growth being with China. By about 2010 external trade had returned to 1990 levels, and by 2014 was near double 1990 levels, with trade with China increasing from 50 % of total trade in 2005 to near 90 % in 2014. In 2015, it was estimated that exports to China were $2.3 billion - 83 % of total exports of $2.83 billion.
In addition to Kaesŏng and Kŭmgang - san, other special economic areas were established at Sinŭiju in the northwest (on the border with China), and at Rasŏn in the northeast (on the border with China and Russia).
International sanctions impeded international trade to some degree, many related to North Korea 's development of weapons of mass destruction. United States President Barack Obama approved an executive order in April 2011 that declared "the importation into the United States, directly or indirectly, of any goods, services, or technology from North Korea is prohibited. '' Operational sanctions included United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1695, 1718, 1874, 1928, 2087, and 2094. Reports in 2018 indicated that trade sanctions (bans on almost all exports and the freezing of overseas accounts) were seriously affecting the economy. The main paper Rodong Sinmun was running short of paper and was publishing only a third of its normal print run, two energy plants supplying electricity to Pyongyang had to be shut down intermittently due to lack of coal, causing blackouts, coal mines were operating under capacity due to lack of fuel, coal could not be transported due to lack of fuel and food rations had been cut by half.
The Taep'oong International Investment Group of Korea is the official company that manages oversea investments to North Korea.
North and South Korea 's economic ties have fluctuated greatly over the past 30 years or so. In the late 1990s and most of the 2000s, North - South relations warmed under the Sunshine Policy of President Kim Dae - jung. Many firms agreed to invest in North Korea, encouraged by the South Korean government 's commitment to cover their losses, should investment projects in the north fail to become profitable.
Following a 1988 decision by the South Korean Government to allow trade with the North (see Reunification efforts since 1971), South Korean firms began to import North Korean goods. Direct trade with the South began in the fall of 1990 after the unprecedented September 1990 meeting of the two Korean Prime Ministers. Trade between the countries increased from $18.8 million in 1989 to $333.4 million in 1999, much of it processing or assembly work undertaken in the North.
During this decade, the chairman of the South Korean company Daewoo visited North Korea and reached agreement on building a light industrial complex at Namp'o. In other negotiations, Hyundai Asan obtained permission to bring tour groups by sea to Kŭmgang - san on the North Korea 's southeast coast (see Kŭmgang - san Tourist Region), and more recently to construct the 800 acres (3.2 km) Kaesŏng Industrial Park, near the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), at a cost of more than $1 billion.
In response to the summit between Kim Jong - il and Kim Dae - jung in 2000, North and South Korea agreed in August 2000 to reconnect the section of the Seoul - Pyongyang Gyeongui Railway Line across the DMZ. In addition, the two governments said they would build a four - lane highway bypassing the truce village at Panmunjeom.
TV commercials for Samsung 's Anycall cell phone featuring North Korean dancer Cho Myong - ae and South Korea 's Lee Hyo - ri were first broadcast on June 11, 2006.
Trade with South Korea declined after Lee Myung - bak was elected President of South Korea in 2008, who reduced trade to put pressure on North Korea over nuclear matters. Trade with South Korea fell from $1.8 billion to $1.1 billion between 2007 and 2013, most of the remaining trade being through the Kaesŏng Industrial Park. The Park has been subject to frequent shutdowns due to political tensions.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, China has been North Korea 's primary trading partner. Bilateral trade rose sharply after 2007. In 2007 trade between the two countries was $1.97 billion (₩ 1.7 trillion). By 2011 trade had increased to $5.6 billion (₩ 5.04 trillion). Trade with China represented 57 % of North Koreas imports and 42 % of exports.
Chinese statistics for 2013 indicate that North Korean exports to China were nearly $3 billion, with imports of about $3.6 billion. Exports to China in 2015 were estimated at $2.3 billion.
Some South Korean companies launched joint ventures in areas like animation and computer software, and Chinese traders have done a booming business back and forth across the China -- North Korea border. In a 2007 survey of 250 Chinese operations in North Korea, a majority reported paying bribes. Robert Suter, who headed the Seoul office of Swedish - Swiss power generation company ABB, says ABB was staking out a position in North Korea, "It is the same as it was in China years ago. You had to be there and you had to build trust. '' A number of South Korean enterprises were mainly active in a specially developed industrial zone in Kaesong Industrial Region and Chinese enterprises were known to be involved in a variety of activities in trade and manufacturing in North Korea. European enterprises founded in 2005 the European Business Association (EBA), Pyongyang, a de facto chamber of commerce representing a number of European - invested joint ventures and other businesses. Ch'ongryŏn, the pro-North Korean General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, broadcast on their TV channel in 2008 a TV film in three parts featuring foreign investment and business in North Korea. This film was put on a YouTube channel called "BusinessNK '' and could be watched together with a number of other videos on foreign joint ventures as well as other investment and business activities in North Korea.
Though no international banks operated in the isolated socialist state in 2013, foreign companies were said to be increasingly interested in dealing with North Korea.
A flat LCD television factory in North Korea was funded by the Ch'ongryŏn in 2010.
The Rason Special Economic Zone was established in the early 1990s, in the northeastern corner of the country bordering China and Russia. In June 2011, an agreement with China was made to establish a joint free trade area on North Korea 's Hwanggumpyong and Wihwa Islands and China 's border area near Dandong.
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who is responsible for approving the project management plan | Project plan - wikipedia
A project plan, according to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), is: "... a formal, approved document used to guide both project execution and project control. The primary uses of the project plan are to document planning assumptions and decisions, facilitate communication among project stakeholders, and document approved scope, cost, and schedule baselines. A project plan may be summarized or detailed. ''
The latest edition of the PMBOK (v5) uses the term project charter to refer to the contract that the project sponsor and project manager use to agree on the initial vision of the project (scope, baseline, resources, objectives, etc.) at a high level. In the PMI methodology described in the PMBOK v5, the project charter and the project management plan are the two most important documents for describing a project during the initiation and planning phases.
PRINCE2 defines:
The project manager creates the project management plan following input from the project team and key project stakeholders. The plan should be agreed and approved by at least the project team and its key stakeholders.
The objective of a project plan is to define the approach to be used by the project team to deliver the intended project management scope of the project.
At a minimum, a project plan answers basic questions about the project:
To be a complete project plan according to industry standards such as the PMBOK or PRINCE2, the project plan must also describe the execution, management and control of the project. This information can be provided by referencing other documents that will be produced, such as a procurement plan or construction plan, or it may be detailed in the project plan itself.
The project plan typically covers topics used in the project execution system and includes the following main aspects:
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what are the two types of leads used to record an ecg waveform | Electrocardiography - wikipedia
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) is the process of recording the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time using electrodes placed over the skin. These electrodes detect the tiny electrical changes on the skin that arise from the heart muscle 's electrophysiologic pattern of depolarizing and repolarizing during each heartbeat. It is very commonly performed to detect any cardiac problems.
In a conventional 12 - lead ECG, ten electrodes are placed on the patient 's limbs and on the surface of the chest. The overall magnitude of the heart 's electrical potential is then measured from twelve different angles ("leads '') and is recorded over a period of time (usually ten seconds). In this way, the overall magnitude and direction of the heart 's electrical depolarization is captured at each moment throughout the cardiac cycle. The graph of voltage versus time produced by this noninvasive medical procedure is an electrocardiogram.
There are three main components to an ECG: the P wave, which represents the depolarization of the atria; the QRS complex, which represents the depolarization of the ventricles; and the T wave, which represents the repolarization of the ventricles. It can also be further broken down into the following:
During each heartbeat, a healthy heart has an orderly progression of depolarization that starts with pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node, spreads throughout the atrium, passes through the atrioventricular node down into the bundle of His and into the Purkinje fibers, spreading down and to the left throughout the ventricles. This orderly pattern of depolarization gives rise to the characteristic ECG tracing. To the trained clinician, an ECG conveys a large amount of information about the structure of the heart and the function of its electrical conduction system. Among other things, an ECG can be used to measure the rate and rhythm of heartbeats, the size and position of the heart chambers, the presence of any damage to the heart 's muscle cells or conduction system, the effects of heart drugs, and the function of implanted pacemakers.
The overall goal of performing an ECG is to obtain information about the structure and function of the heart. Medical uses for this information are varied and generally need knowledge of the structure and / or function of the heart to be interpreted. Some indications for performing an ECG include:
The United States Preventive Services Task Force does not recommend an ECG for routine screening in patients without symptoms and those at low risk for coronary artery disease. This is because an ECG may falsely indicate the existence of a problem, leading to misdiagnosis, the recommendation of invasive procedures, or overtreatment. However, persons employed in certain critical occupations, such as aircraft pilots, may be required to have an ECG as part of their routine health evaluations.
Continuous ECG monitoring is used to monitor critically ill patients, patients undergoing general anesthesia, and patients who have an infrequently occurring cardiac arrhythmia that would unlikely be seen on a conventional ten - second ECG.
In the United States, a 12 - lead ECG is commonly performed by specialized technicians that may be certified as electrocardiogram technicians. ECG interpretation is a component of many healthcare fields (nurses and physicians and cardiac surgeons being the most obvious), but anyone trained to interpret an ECG is free to do so. However, "official '' interpretation is performed by a cardiologist. Certain fields such as anesthesia utilize continuous ECG monitoring, and knowledge of interpreting ECGs is crucial to their jobs.
One additional form of ECG is used in clinical cardiac electrophysiology in which a catheter is used to measure the electrical activity. The catheter is inserted through the femoral vein and can have several electrodes along its length to record the direction of electrical activity from within the heart.
Evidence does not support the use of ECGs among those without symptoms or at low risk of cardiovascular disease as an effort for prevention.
An electrocardiograph is a machine that is used to perform electrocardiography, and produces the electrocardiogram. The first electrocardiographs are discussed later and are electrically primitive compared to today 's machines.
The fundamental component to an ECG is the instrumentation amplifier, which is responsible for taking the voltage difference between leads (see below) and amplifying the signal. ECG voltages measured across the body are on the order of hundreds of micro volts up to 1 millivolt (the small square on a standard ECG is 100 microvolts). This low voltage necessitates a low noise circuit and instrumentation amplifiers.
Early ECGs were constructed with analog electronics and the signal could drive a motor to print the signal on paper. Today, electrocardiographs use analog - to - digital converters to convert to a digital signal that can then be manipulated with digital electronics. This permits digital recording of ECGs and use on computers.
There are other components to the ECG:
The typical design for a portable ECG is a combined unit that includes a screen, keyboard, and printer on a small wheeled cart. The unit connects to a long cable that branches to each lead and attaches to a conductive pad on the patient.
The ECG may include a rhythm analysis algorithm that produces a computerized interpretation of the ECG. The results from these algorithms are considered "preliminary '' until verified and / or modified by someone trained in interpreting ECGs. Included in this analysis is computation of common parameters that include PR interval, QT interval, corrected QT (QTc) interval, PR axis, QRS axis, and more. Earlier designs recorded each lead sequentially but current designs employ circuits that can record all leads simultaneously. The former introduces problems in interpretation since there may be beat - to - beat changes in the rhythm, which makes it unwise to compare across beats.
More recent advancements in electrocardiography include work in diminishing the size of the unit to make it more portable and therefore more accessible to larger groups of patients. To achieve this, these smaller devices rely on only two electrodes which together deliver "lead I '' of the standard ECG.
Electrodes are the actual conductive pads attached to the body surface. Any pair of electrodes can measure the electrical potential difference between the two corresponding locations of attachment. Such a pair forms a lead. However, "leads '' can also be formed between a physical electrode and a virtual electrode, known as the Wilson 's central terminal, whose potential is defined as the average potential measured by three limb electrodes that are attached to the right arm, the left arm, and the left foot, respectively.
Commonly, 10 electrodes attached to the body are used to form 12 ECG leads, with each lead measuring a specific electrical potential difference (as listed in the table below).
Leads are broken down into three types: limb; augmented limb; and precordial or chest. The 12 - lead ECG has a total of three limb leads and three augmented limb leads arranged like spokes of a wheel in the coronal plane (vertical), and six precordial leads or chest leads that lie on the perpendicular transverse plane (horizontal).
In medical settings, the term leads is also sometimes used to refer to the electrodes themselves, although this is technically incorrect. This misuse of terminology can be the source of confusion.
The 10 electrodes in a 12 - lead ECG are listed below.
Two types of electrodes in common use are a flat paper - thin sticker and a self - adhesive circular pad. The former are typically used in a single ECG recording while the latter are for continuous recordings as they stick longer. Each electrode consists of an electrically conductive electrolyte gel and a silver / silver chloride conductor. The gel typically contains potassium chloride -- sometimes silver chloride as well -- to permit electron conduction from the skin to the wire and to the electrocardiogram.
The common virtual electrode, known as the Wilson 's central terminal (V), is produced by averaging the measurements from the electrodes RA, LA, and LL to give an average potential of the body:
In a 12 - lead ECG, all leads except the limb leads are unipolar (aVR, aVL, aVF, V, V, V, V, V, and V). The measurement of a voltage requires two contacts and so, electrically, the unipolar leads are measured from the common lead (negative) and the unipolar lead (positive). This averaging for the common lead and the abstract unipolar lead concept makes for a more challenging understanding and is complicated by sloppy usage of "lead '' and "electrode. ''
Leads I, II and III are called the limb leads. The electrodes that form these signals are located on the limbs -- one on each arm and one on the left leg. The limb leads form the points of what is known as Einthoven 's triangle.
Leads aVR, aVL, and aVF are the augmented limb leads. They are derived from the same three electrodes as leads I, II, and III, but they use Goldberger 's central terminal as their negative pole. Goldberger 's central terminal is a combination of inputs from two limb electrodes, with a different combination for each augmented lead. It is referred to immediately below as "the negative pole. ''
Together with leads I, II, and III, augmented limb leads aVR, aVL, and aVF form the basis of the hexaxial reference system, which is used to calculate the heart 's electrical axis in the frontal plane.
The precordial leads lie in the transverse (horizontal) plane, perpendicular to the other six leads. The six precordial electrodes act as the positive poles for the six corresponding precordial leads: (V, V, V, V, V and V). Wilson 's central terminal is used as the negative pole.
Additional electrodes may rarely be placed to generate other leads for specific diagnostic purposes. Right - sided precordial leads may be used to better study pathology of the right ventricle or for dextrocardia (and are denoted with an R (e.g., V). Posterior leads (V to V) may be used to demonstrate the presence of a posterior myocardial infarction. A Lewis lead (requiring an electrode at the right sternal border in the second intercostal space) can be used to study pathological rhythms arising in the right atrium.
An esophogeal lead can be inserted to a part of the esophagus where the distance to the posterior wall of the left atrium is only approximately 5 -- 6 mm (remaining constant in people of different age and weight). An esophageal lead avails for a more accurate differentiation between certain cardiac arrhythmias, particularly atrial flutter, AV nodal reentrant tachycardia and orthodromic atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia. It can also evaluate the risk in people with Wolff - Parkinson - White syndrome, as well as terminate supraventricular tachycardia caused by re-entry.
An intracardiac electrogram (ICEG) is essentially an ECG with some added intracardiac leads (that is, inside the heart). The standard ECG leads (external leads) are I, II, III, aVL, V, and V. Two to four intracardiac leads are added via cardiac catheterization. The word "electrogram '' (EGM) without further specification usually means an intracardiac electrogram.
A standard 12 - lead ECG report (an electrocardiograph) shows a 2.5 second tracing of each of the twelve leads. The tracings are most commonly arranged in a grid of four columns and three rows. the first column is the limb leads (I, II, and III), the second column is the augmented limb leads (aVR, aVL, and aVF), and the last two columns are the precordial leads (V to V). Additionally, a rhythm strip may be included as a fourth or fifth row.
The timing across the page is continuous and not tracings of the 12 leads for the same time period. In other words, if the output were traced by needles on paper, each row would switch which leads as the paper is pulled under the needle. For example, the top row would first trace lead I, then switch to lead aVR, then switch to V, and then switch to V and so none of these four tracings of the leads are from the same time period as they are traced in sequence through time.
Each of the 12 ECG leads records the electrical activity of the heart from a different angle, and therefore align with different anatomical areas of the heart. Two leads that look at neighboring anatomical areas are said to be contiguous.
In addition, any two precordial leads next to one another are considered to be contiguous. For example, though V is an anterior lead and V is a lateral lead, they are contiguous because they are next to one another.
The formal study of the electrical conduction system of the heart is called cardiac electrophysiology (EP). An electrophysiology study involves a formal study of the conduction system and can be done for various reasons. During such a study, catheters are used to access the heart and some of these catheters include electrodes that can be placed anywhere in the heart to record the electrical activity from within the heart. Some catheters contain several electrodes and can record the propagation of electrical activity.
Interpretation of the ECG is fundamentally about understanding the electrical conduction system of the heart. Normal conduction starts and propagates in a predictable pattern, and deviation from this pattern can be a normal variation or be pathological. An ECG does not equate with mechanical pumping activity of the heart, for example, pulseless electrical activity produces an ECG that should pump blood but no pulses are felt (and constitutes a medical emergency and CPR should be performed). Ventricular fibrillation produces an ECG but is too dysfunctional to produce a life - sustaining cardiac output. Certain rhythms are known to have good cardiac output and some are known to have bad cardiac output. Ultimately, an echocardiogram or other anatomical imaging modality is useful in assessing the mechanical function of the heart.
Like all medical tests, what constitutes "normal '' is based on population studies. The heartrate range of between 60 and 100 beats per minute (bpm) is considered normal since data shows this to be the usual resting heart rate.
Interpretation of the ECG is ultimately that of pattern recognition. In order to understand the patterns found, it is helpful to understand the theory of what ECGs represent. The theory is rooted in electromagnetics and boils down to the four following points:
Thus, the overall direction of depolarization and repolarization produces a vector that produces positive or negative deflection on the ECG depending on which lead it points to. For example, depolarizing from right to left would produce a positive deflection in lead I because the two vectors point in the same direction. In contrast, that same depolarization would produce minimal deflection in V and V because the vectors are perpendicular and this phenomenon is called isoelectric.
Normal rhythm produces four entities -- a P wave, a QRS complex, a T wave, and a U wave -- that each have a fairly unique pattern.
However, the U wave is not typically seen and its absence is generally ignored. Changes in the structure of the heart and its surroundings (including blood composition) change the patterns of these four entities.
ECGs are normally printed on a grid. The horizontal axis represents time and the vertical axis represents voltage. The standard values on this grid are shown in the adjacent image:
The "large '' box is represented by a heavier line weight than the small boxes.
Not all aspects of an ECG rely on precise recordings or having a known scaling of amplitude or time. For example, determining if the tracing is a sinus rhythm only requires feature recognition and matching, and not measurement of amplitudes or times (i.e., the scale of the grids are irrelevant). An example to the contrary, the voltage requirements of left ventricular hypertrophy require knowing the grid scale.
In a normal heart, the heart rate is the rate in which the sinoatrial node depolarizes as it is the source of depolarization of the heart. Heart rate, like other vital signs like blood pressure and respiratory rate, change with age. In adults, a normal heart rate is between 60 and 100 bpm (normocardic) where in children it is higher. A heart rate less than normal is called bradycardia (< 60 in adults) and higher than normal is tachycardia (> 100 in adults). A complication of this is when the atria and ventricles are not in synchrony and the "heart rate '' must be specified as atrial or ventricular (e.g., the ventricular rate in ventricular fibrillation is 300 -- 600 bpm, whereas the atrial rate can be normal (60 -- 100) or faster (100 -- 150)).
In normal resting hearts, the physiologic rhythm of the heart is normal sinus rhythm (NSR). Normal sinus rhythm produces the prototypical pattern of P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. Generally, deviation from normal sinus rhythm is considered a cardiac arrhythmia. Thus, the first question in interpreting an ECG is whether or not there is a sinus rhythm. A criterion for sinus rhythm is that P waves and QRS complexes appear 1 - to - 1, thus implying that the P wave causes the QRS complex.
Once sinus rhythm is established, or not, the second question is the rate. For a sinus rhythm this is either the rate of P waves or QRS complexes since they are 1 - to - 1. If the rate is too fast then it is sinus tachycardia and if it is too slow then it is sinus bradycardia.
If it is not a sinus rhythm, then determining the rhythm is necessary before proceeding with further interpretation. Some arrhythmias with characteristic findings:
Determination of rate and rhythm is necessary in order to make sense of further interpretation.
The heart has several axes, but the most common by far is the axis of the QRS complex (references to "the axis '' imply the QRS axis). Each axis can be computationally determined to result in a number representing degrees of deviation from zero, or it can be categorized into a few types.
The QRS axis is the general direction of the ventricular depolarization wavefront (or mean electrical vector) in the frontal plane. It is often sufficient to classify the axis as one of three types: normal, left deviated, or right deviated. Population data shows that a normal QRS axis is from − 30 ° to 105 °, with 0 ° being along lead I and positive being inferior and negative being superior (best understood graphically as the hexaxial reference system). Beyond + 105 ° is right axis deviation and beyond − 30 ° is left axis deviation (the third quadrant of − 90 ° to − 180 ° is very rare and is an indeterminate axis). A shortcut for determining if the QRS axis is normal is if the QRS complex is mostly positive in lead I and lead II (or lead I and aVF if + 90 ° is the upper limit of normal).
The normal QRS axis is generally down and to the left, following the anatomical orientation of the heart within the chest. An abnormal axis suggests a change in the physical shape and orientation of the heart or a defect in its conduction system that causes the ventricles to depolarize in an abnormal way.
The extent of a normal axis can be + 90 ° or 105 ° depending on the source.
All of the waves on an ECG tracing and the intervals between them have a predictable time duration, a range of acceptable amplitudes (voltages), and a typical morphology. Any deviation from the normal tracing is potentially pathological and therefore of clinical significance.
For ease of measuring the amplitudes and intervals, an ECG is printed on graph paper at a standard scale: each 1 mm (one small box on the standard ECG paper) represents 40 milliseconds of time on the x-axis, and 0.1 millivolts on the y - axis.
Ischemia or non-ST elevation myocardial infarctions (non-STEMIs) may manifest as ST depression or inversion of T waves. It may also affect the high frequency band of the QRS.
ST elevation myocardial infarctions (STEMIs) have different characteristic ECG findings based on the amount of time elapsed since the MI first occurred. The earliest sign is hyperacute T waves, peaked T waves due to local hyperkalemia in ischemic myocardium. This then progresses over a period of minutes to elevations of the ST segment by at least 1 mm. Over a period of hours, a pathologic Q wave may appear and the T wave will invert. Over a period of days the ST elevation will resolve. Pathologic Q waves generally will remain permanently.
The coronary artery that has been occluded can be identified in an STEMI based on the location of ST elevation. The left anterior descending (LAD) artery supplies the anterior wall of the heart, and therefore causes ST elevations in anterior leads (V and V). The LCx supplies the lateral aspect of the heart and therefore causes ST elevations in lateral leads (I, aVL and V). The right coronary artery (RCA) usually supplies the inferior aspect of the heart, and therefore causes ST elevations in inferior leads (II, III and aVF).
An ECG tracing is affected by patient motion. Some rhythmic motions (such as shivering or tremors) can create the illusion of cardiac arrhythmia. Artifacts are distorted signals caused by a secondary internal or external sources, such as muscle movement or interference from an electrical device.
Distortion poses significant challenges to healthcare providers, who employ various techniques and strategies to safely recognize these false signals. Accurately separating the ECG artifact from the true ECG signal can have a significant impact on patient outcomes and legal liabilities.
Improper lead placement (for example, reversing two of the limb leads) has been estimated to occur in 0.4 % to 4 % of all ECG recordings, and has resulted in improper diagnosis and treatment including unnecessary use of thrombolytic therapy.
Numerous diagnoses and findings can be made based upon electrocardiography, and many are discussed above. Overall, the diagnoses are made based on the patterns. For example, an "irregularly irregular '' QRS complex without P waves is the hallmark of atrial fibrillation; however, other findings can be present as well, such as a bundle branch block that alters the shape of the QRS complexes. ECGs can be interpreted in isolation but should be applied -- like all diagnostic tests -- in the context of the patient. For example, an observation of peaked T waves is not sufficient to diagnose hyperkalemia; such a diagnosis should be verified by measuring the blood potassium level. Conversely, a discovery of hyperkalemia should be followed by an ECG for manifestations such as peaked T waves, widened QRS complexes, and loss of P waves. The following is an organized list of possible ECG - based diagnoses.
Rhythm disturbances or arrhythmias:
Heart block and conduction problems:
Electrolytes disturbances and intoxication:
Ischemia and infarction:
Structural:
The etymology of the word is derived from the Greek electro, because it is related to electrical activity, kardia, Greek for heart, and graph, a Greek root meaning "to write ''.
Alexander Muirhead is reported to have attached wires to a feverish patient 's wrist to obtain a record of the patient 's heartbeat in 1872 at St Bartholomew 's Hospital. Another early pioneer was Augustus Waller, of St Mary 's Hospital in London. His electrocardiograph machine consisted of a Lippmann capillary electrometer fixed to a projector. The trace from the heartbeat was projected onto a photographic plate that was itself fixed to a toy train. This allowed a heartbeat to be recorded in real time.
An initial breakthrough came when Willem Einthoven, working in Leiden, the Netherlands, used the string galvanometer (the first practical electrocardiograph) he invented in 1901. This device was much more sensitive than both the capillary electrometer Waller used and the string galvanometer that had been invented separately in 1897 by the French engineer Clément Ader. Einthoven had previously, in 1895, assigned the letters P, Q, R, S, and T to the deflections in the theoretical waveform he created using equations which corrected the actual waveform obtained by the capillary electrometer to compensate for the imprecision of that instrument. Using letters different from A, B, C, and D (the letters used for the capillary electrometer 's waveform) facilitated comparison when the uncorrected and corrected lines were drawn on the same graph. Einthoven probably chose the initial letter P to follow the example set by Descartes in geometry. When a more precise waveform was obtained using the string galvanometer, which matched the corrected capillary electrometer waveform, he continued to use the letters P, Q, R, S, and T, and these letters are still in use today. Einthoven also described the electrocardiographic features of a number of cardiovascular disorders. In 1924, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his discovery.
By 1927, General Electric had developed a portable apparatus that could produce electrocardiograms without the use of the string galvanometer. This device instead combined amplifier tubes similar to those used in a radio with an internal lamp and a moving mirror that directed the tracing of the electric pulses onto film.
In 1937, Taro Takemi invented a new portable electrocardiograph machine.
Though the basic principles of that era are still in use today, many advances in electrocardiography have been made over the years. Instrumentation has evolved from a cumbersome laboratory apparatus to compact electronic systems that often include computerized interpretation of the electrocardiogram.
In September 2018, Apple Inc., introduced the Apple Watch Series 4, with a built - in titanium electrode in the digital crown and the sapphire crystal electronic heart sensor, which allows the watch to give a single lead electrocardiogram using only the watch interface.
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twinkle twinkle little star jackie chan full movie | Twinkle, Twinkle Lucky Stars - Wikipedia
Twinkle, Twinkle Lucky Stars (Chinese: 夏 日 福星) is a 1985 Hong Kong martial arts action comedy film directed by Sammo Hung, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao. The film was released in the Hong Kong on 15 August 1985.
It is the third instalment in the Lucky Stars series, following Winners and Sinners (1983) and My Lucky Stars (1985).
The film was released under several different titles in other regions, including:
The Five Lucky Stars, one of them being replaced by a younger brother, are assigned by the police to allow an actress to live with them. The actress has information on a crime syndicate and assassins are sent after her. Ricky (Yuen Biao) and Swordflower are to stay at the actress 's home undercover to capture the assassins. Throughout the course of the movie, the Stars chase the attractive woman around the house, though their efforts are largely unsuccessful. At the climax, the three assassins eventually end up at a recreation building to take down Swordflower (mistaking her to be their target), but coincidentally Kidstuff (Sammo Hung) and his friends are there and they recognize one of them, with help from the actress. Muscle (Jackie Chan) and Ricky arrive in the nick of time and a showdown takes place, eventually ending with the protagonists victorious. The police and a large ensemble of Chinese actors arrive to congratulate them.
The film sees the return of John Shum. In Winners And Sinners, Shum had played one of the Five Lucky Stars, "Curly ''. However, he was absent from the second film, My Lucky Stars, due to his commitments as a political activist and was ostensibly replaced by Eric Tsang. Tsang retains his role as "Roundhead '' in this film, whereas Shum plays a supporting role as an actor working and living alongside Rosamund Kwan 's character.
The film grossed HK $28,911,851 at the Hong Kong box office.
On 30 June 2003, DVD was released by Hong Kong Legends at the United Kingdom in Region 2.
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when was the statement of cash flows required | Cash flow statement - wikipedia
In financial accounting, a cash flow statement, also known as statement of cash flows, is a financial statement that shows how changes in balance sheet accounts and income affect cash and cash equivalents, and breaks the analysis down to operating, investing and financing activities. Essentially, the cash flow statement is concerned with the flow of cash in and out of the business. The statement captures both the current operating results and the accompanying changes in the balance sheet. As an analytical tool, the statement of cash flows is useful in determining the short - term viability of a company, particularly its ability to pay bills. International Accounting Standard 7 (IAS 7), is the International Accounting Standard that deals with cash flow statements.
People and groups interested in cash flow statements include:
The cash flow statement was previously known as the flow of funds statement. The cash flow statement reflects a firm 's liquidity.
The statement of financial position is a snapshot of a firm 's financial resources and obligations at a single point in time, and the income statement summarizes a firm 's financial transactions over an interval of time. These two financial statements reflect the accrual basis accounting used by firms to match revenues with the expenses associated with generating those revenues. The cash flow statement includes only inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents; it excludes transactions that do not directly affect cash receipts and payments. These non-cash transactions include depreciation or write - offs on bad debts or credit losses to name a few. The cash flow statement is a cash basis report on three types of financial activities: operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities. Non-cash activities are usually reported in footnotes.
The cash flow statement is intended to
The cash flow statement has been adopted as a standard financial statement because it eliminates allocations, which might be derived from different accounting methods, such as various timeframes for depreciating fixed assets.
Cash basis financial statements were very common before accrual basis financial statements. The "flow of funds '' statements of the past were cash flow statements.
In 1863, the Dowlais Iron Company had recovered from a business slump, but had no cash to invest for a new blast furnace, despite having made a profit. To explain why there were no funds to invest, the manager made a new financial statement that was called a comparison balance sheet, which showed that the company was holding too much inventory. This new financial statement was the genesis of cash flow statement that is used today.
In the United States in 1973, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) defined rules that made it mandatory under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (US GAAP) to report sources and uses of funds, but the definition of "funds '' was not clear. Net working capital might be cash or might be the difference between current assets and current liabilities. From the late 1970 to the mid-1980s, the FASB discussed the usefulness of predicting future cash flows. In 1987, FASB Statement No. 95 (FAS 95) mandated that firms provide cash flow statements. In 1992, the International Accounting Standards Board issued International Accounting Standard 7 (IAS 7), Cash Flow Statement, which became effective in 1994, mandating that firms provide cash flow statements.
US GAAP and IAS 7 rules for cash flow statements are similar, but some of the differences are:
The cash flow statement is partitioned into three segments, namely:
The money coming into the business is called cash inflow, and money going out from the business is called cash outflow.
Operating activities include the production, sales and delivery of the company 's product as well as collecting payment from its customers. This could include purchasing raw materials, building inventory, advertising, and shipping the product.
Under IAS 7, operating cash flows include:
Items which are added back to (or subtracted from, as appropriate) the net income figure (which is found on the Income Statement) to arrive at cash flows from operations generally include:
Examples of Investing activities are
Financing activities include the inflow of cash from investors such as banks and shareholders, as well as the outflow of cash to shareholders as dividends as the company generates income. Other activities which impact the long - term liabilities and equity of the company are also listed in the financing activities section of the cash flow statement.
Under IAS 7,
Items under the financing activities section include:
Under IAS 7, non-cash investing and financing activities are disclosed in footnotes to the financial statements. Under US General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), non-cash activities may be disclosed in a footnote or within the cash flow statement itself. Non-cash financing activities may include
The direct method of preparing a cash flow statement results in a more easily understood report. The indirect method is almost universally used, because FAS 95 requires a supplementary report similar to the indirect method if a company chooses to use the direct method.
The direct method for creating a cash flow statement reports major classes of gross cash receipts and payments. Under IAS 7, dividends received may be reported under operating activities or under investing activities. If taxes paid are directly linked to operating activities, they are reported under operating activities; if the taxes are directly linked to investing activities or financing activities, they are reported under investing or financing activities. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) vary from International Financial Reporting Standards in that under GAAP rules, dividends received from a company 's investing activities is reported as an "operating activity, '' not an "investing activity. ''
Sample cash flow statement using the direct method
The indirect method uses net - income as a starting point, makes adjustments for all transactions for non-cash items, then adjusts from all cash - based transactions. An increase in an asset account is subtracted from net income, and an increase in a liability account is added back to net income. This method converts accrual - basis net income (or loss) into cash flow by using a series of additions and deductions.
The following rules can be followed to calculate Cash Flows from Operating Activities when given only a two - year comparative balance sheet and the Net Income figure. Cash Flows from Operating Activities can be found by adjusting Net Income relative to the change in beginning and ending balances of Current Assets, Current Liabilities, and sometimes Long Term Assets. When comparing the change in long term assets over a year, the accountant must be certain that these changes were caused entirely by their devaluation rather than purchases or sales (i.e. they must be operating items not providing or using cash) or if they are nonoperating items.
The intricacies of this procedure might be seen as,
Net Cash Flows from Operating Activities = Net Income + Rule Items (\ displaystyle (\ text (Net Cash Flows from Operating Activities)) = (\ text (Net Income)) + (\ text (Rule Items)))
For example, consider a company that has a net income of $100 this year, and its A / R increased by $25 since the beginning of the year. If the balances of all other current assets, long term assets and current liabilities did not change over the year, the cash flows could be determined by the rules above as $100 -- $25 = Cash Flows from Operating Activities = $75. The logic is that, if the company made $100 that year (net income), and they are using the accrual accounting system (not cash based) then any income they generated that year which has not yet been paid for in cash should be subtracted from the net income figure in order to find cash flows from operating activities. And the increase in A / R meant that $25 of sales occurred on credit and have not yet been paid for in cash.
In the case of finding Cash Flows when there is a change in a fixed asset account, say the Buildings and Equipment account decreases, the change is added back to Net Income. The reasoning behind this is that because Net Income is calculated by, Net Income = Rev - Cogs - Depreciation Exp - Other Exp then the Net Income figure will be decreased by the building 's depreciation that year. This depreciation is not associated with an exchange of cash, therefore the depreciation is added back into net income to remove the non-cash activity.
Finding the Cash Flows from Financing Activities is much more intuitive and needs little explanation. Generally, the things to account for are financing activities:
In the case of more advanced accounting situations, such as when dealing with subsidiaries, the accountant must
A traditional equation for this might look something like,
Example: cash flow of XYZ:
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where did the name gold coast come from | History of Gold Coast, Queensland - Wikipedia
The history of the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia began in prehistoric times with archaeological evidence revealing occupation of the district by Australian Aborigines for at least 23,000 years. The first early European colonizers began arriving in the late 1700s, settlement soon followed throughout the 19th century, and by 1959 the town was proclaimed a city. Today, the Gold Coast is one of the fastest growing cities in Australia.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Aboriginal people have inhabited the Gold Coast region for about 23,000 years before European settlement and the present. By the early 18th century there were several distinct clan estate groups (previously referred to as tribes) living between the Tweed and Logan Rivers and bounded approximately in the west by the town of Beaudesert; they are believed to be: the Gugingin, Bullongin, Kombumerri, Minjingbal, Birinburra, Wangerriburra, Mununjali and Migunberri Collectively they were known as Kombumerri people and spoke the Yugambeh language, for which there was and is evidence of several distinct dialects in the region.
The historical Kombumerri people were hunters, gatherers and fishers, and are reported to have trained dingos and even dolphins to aid them in the hunting and fishing processes. Various species were targeted in various seasons, including shellfish including eugaries, (cockles or pipis), oysters and mudcrabs. In winter, large schools of finfish species "running '' along the coast in close inshore waters were targeted, those being sea mullet, which were followed by a fish known as tailor. Turtles and dugong were eaten, but the latter only rarely due to their more northerly distribution. Various species of parrots and lizards were eaten along with bush honey. Echidnas, (an Australian native similar to a porcupine, but a monotreme not a rodent), are still hunted with dogs today and various marsupials including koalas and possums were also consumed. Numerous plants and plant products were included in the diet including macadamias and Bunya nuts and were used for medicinal purposes.
Unlike their neighbours to the north of the Logan and west and south west of Beaudesert, the Kombumerri people not only spoke dialects of a different language group, but along with other members of the Y - Bj dialect chain to the south, subscribe to an originary myth known as "The Three Brothers '', which is based on the arrival to this part of the eastern Australian coastline by 3 men / mythical culture heroes and their wives and children in a canoe:
Berang - ngehn gurilahbu, ngering Mumuhm, Yabirahyn or Berrungen korillåbo, ngerring Mommóm, Yaburóng Berrung came long long ago, with Mommóm (and) Yaburóng
Long ago, Berrung together with Mommóm (and) Yabúrong came to this land. They came with their wives and children in a great canoe, from an island across the sea. As they came near the shore, a woman on the land made a song that raised a storm which broke the canoe in pieces, but all the occupants, after battling with the waves, managed to swim ashore. This is how ' the men, ' the paigål (baygal) black race, came to this land. The pieces of the canoe are to be seen to this day. If any one will throw a stone and strike a piece of the canoe, a storm will arise, and the voices of Berrúng and his boys will be heard calling to one another, amidst the roaring elements. The pieces of the canoe are certain rocks in the sea. At Ballina, Berrúng looked around and said, nyung? (nyang) and all the paigål about there say nyung to the present day. On the Tweed he said, ngando? (ngahndu) and the Tweed paigål say ngando to the present day. This is how the blacks came to have different dialects. Berrúng and his brothers came back to the Brunswick River, where he made a fire, and showed the paigål how to make fire. He taught them their laws about the kippåra, and about marriage and food. After a time, a quarrel arose, and the brothers fought and separated, Mommóm going south, Yaburóng west, and Berrúng keeping along the coast. This is how the paigål were separated into tribes.
The area around present day Bundall, proximate to the Nerang River and Surfers Paradise, along with various other locations in the region was an established meeting place for tribes visiting from as far away as Grafton and Maryborough. Great corroborees were held there and traces of Aboriginal camps and intact bora rings are still visible in the Gold Coast and Tweed River region today, including the bora ring at the Jebribillum Bora Park at Burleigh Heads.
As Europeans settled the Gold Coast region and began farming and timber - gathering in the 19th century it was thought by some that the Kombumerri were driven from their traditional hunting, gathering and fishing grounds into the hinterland and Aboriginal Missions and reserves which followed on the heels of the passage of the Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (61 Vic, No. 17), generally cited as the 1897 Act:
"... (it) was the first comprehensive Aboriginal protection act in Queensland and, indeed, in Australia; it ushered in the long era of protection and segregation during which Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders lost their legal status as British citizens and became, in effect, wards of the state ''.
"Regional administrative control of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population of the State was achieved by dividing the State into Protectorates. Each Protectorate was administered by a local Protector of Aboriginals who was a police officer in all cases except for Thursday Island. The appointment of local Protectors began in 1898. Local Protectors had many responsibilities including the administration of Aboriginal employment, wages, and savings bank accounts. Local Protectors also played a significant role in the removal of Aboriginal people to reserves ''.
However, analyses of historical and anthropological records show that many of the Kombumerri remained in their traditional country and found employment with farmers, oyster producers and fishermen, timber cutters and mills constructed for the production of resources like sugar and arrowroot, whilst continuing to varying degrees with the Kombumerri cultural practices, laws and customs that were in evidence at the time of the arrival of the colonists. Many of them, both men and women (and sometimes children), found employment as servants or staff in the houses of the wealthy squatters and businessmen.
Due to the harshness of the 1897 Act, and the various equally draconian amendments to it in the last century, and with respect to various government administrations, Kombumerri Aboriginal people have to date maintained a relatively low political profile in the Gold Coast region so that they would not be removed from their families, or from their traditional country with which they had (and retain) strong spiritual links. As a result, and since that time, the Kombumerri people have maintained close and generally closed networks of communication amongst themselves regarding their cultural practices and use of language which were not accommodated by the authorities.
English navigator Captain James Cook became the first European to visit the Gold Coast when he sailed past on 16 May 1770. As an explorer under the commission of the Royal Navy he had the foresight to name Mount Warning (a volcanic outcrop 25 kilometres (16 mi) inland) as a natural beacon for a hazardous reef off the mouth of the Tweed River near a rocky outcrop he named Point Danger. Captain Matthew Flinders, an explorer charting the continent north from the colony of New South Wales, sailed past again in 1802 but the region remained uninhabited by Europeans until 1823 when explorer John Oxley landed at Mermaid Beach, (named after his boat, a cutter called Mermaid). Despite the area 's relatively early appearance on colonial maps, it was n't until New South Wales government surveyors charted the region in 1840 that the area was really brought to the attention of European settlers.
The hinterland 's supply of redcedar began drawing timber cutters to the region in large numbers in the mid-19th century and in 1865 the inland township of Nerang (named after the local aboriginal word neerang, meaning ' shovel - nosed shark ') was surveyed and established as a base for the industry. The surrounding valleys and plains were quickly developed as cattle, sugar and cotton farms and by 1869 settlement had reached the mouth of the Nerang River on the Southern edge of Moreton Bay. The township of Southport was surveyed in 1875 in a location known as Nerang Creek Heads.
In 1885 Queensland Governor Musgrave built a holiday home known as the ' Summer Place ' on the banks of the Nerang River near Southport and the surrounding coastal area began to get a reputation as a resort for Brisbane 's wealthy and influential. Summer Place remains in situ at The Southport School and serves as Biddle House, the senior school boarding house.
The rough bush tracks and numerous creek crossings be between Brisbane and Southport made it difficult to reach without a boat, but in 1889 a railway line was extended to the town and numerous guesthouses and hotels were soon established up and down the coastline.
During the 19th century many ships ran aground along the Gold Coast. One of the most famous of these shipwrecks was the Scottish Prince. Where in 1887, "'' The Scottish Prince "'', a 3 steel - masted iron barque 64 metres long, sank as she was sailing from Glasgow, Scotland to Brisbane with a cargo of whiskey, mousetraps, linen and other assorted cargo. The reason for it running aground, is because it is believed that the captain and many of the crew were drunk at the time. Today only the hull remains which is covered with soft corals and sponges, and is a haven for crayfish, Shovelnose rays, Leopard and wobbegong sharks, and other tropical fish.
The permanent population of the region increased slowly until 1925 when a new coastal road was built between Brisbane and Southport. That same year, Jim Cavill built the Surfers Paradise hotel 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) south of Southport in an area between the Nerang River and the beach known as Elston, and the real tourism boom began.
As automobile technology became more and more reliable in the 1930s, the number of holiday makers traveling down the coast road from Brisbane increased, and by 1935 most of the coastal strip between Southport and the New South Wales border had been developed with housing estates and hotels. Elston residents successfully lobbied to change the name of their town to Surfers Paradise in 1933. The Surfers Paradise hotel burnt down in 1936 and was quickly replaced with another much grander structure, which had art deco styling and even included a zoo; complete with kangaroos and other wildlife.
Although the Gold Coast was not attacked by a foreign power in WW2, the war itself had a dramatic impact as well as most other coastal towns. It was in 1942, when the Americans began arriving. They commandeered the beach area at Coolangatta to establish rest areas. The Coolangatta Rest Area included five rest camps for Enlisted Men, and two hotels specifically for submariners. Camp No. 1 was located at Kirra Beach, along the foreshore north of Musgrave Street, in today 's Roughton Park. Huts, ablutions and latrines, a kitchen / mess and an Officer 's quarters and sick bay were located between the intersection with Winston Street and Lord Street, as well as down the east side of Lord Street. Camp No. 2 was at Kirra Hill, while Camp No. 3 was on Marine Parade at Coolangatta Beach. Camp No. 4 was located at Greenmount, and Camp No. 5 was at Greenmount Hill. The latter camp was located in today 's Pat Fagan Park, to the north of Marine Parade. Camp No. 5 included five huts divided into 10 single cabins, a mess and recreation room, ablutions and latrines.
The Royal Australian Air Force also operated a seaplane alighting area at Southport Broadwater during World War II; however, it is not known whether any particular on - shore installations were constructed as distinct from possibly floating moored pontoon landing structures.
The South Coast region was a very popular holiday destination for servicemen returning from World War II.
However, inflated prices for real estate and other goods and services led to the nickname of "Gold Coast '' from 1950. South Coast locals initially considered the name "Gold Coast '' derogatory. However, soon the "Gold Coast '' simply became a convenient way to refer to the holiday strip from Southport to Coolangatta. As the tourism industry grew into the 1950s, local businesses began to adopt the term in their names, and on 23 October 1958 the South Coast Town Council was renamed "Gold Coast Town Council ''. The area was proclaimed a city less than one year later.
Specific Gold Coast areas became the holiday destinations for many who lived inland. Coolangatta had a caravan and camping park on the New South Wales border and numerous families from Ipswich spent their Christmas holidays there. In later times, many holiday rental flats sprung up in the area. The Ipswich roots remain as the Currumbin Lifesavers, share with a similar Ipswich swimming club the title ' Vikings '. Many Vikings swimming club members joined the life saving squads at Currumbin during the holiday periods.
By the 1960s the Gold Coast 's infrastructure had grown considerably, and the local building industry was able to support the development of high - rise holiday apartments and hotels (the first of which, Kinkabool, was completed in 1959). Surfers Paradise had firmly established itself as the leading destination and the introduction of bikini - clad meter maids in 1965 to feed parking meters by the beach to prevent holiday makers from getting parking fines was a particularly popular innovation. In 1965, the World water skiing championships were held at the Surfers Paradise Ski Gardens, now known as Sea World. This was the first international event held on the coast.
The hi - rise boom continued in earnest during the 1970s and by the time the Gold Coast Airport terminal opened in Coolangatta in 1981, the region had become Australia 's most well - known family holiday destination and much of the vacant land within 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of the coast had been developed. Japanese property investment during the 1980s made the skyline soar, and the construction of modern theme parks including Dreamworld, Sea World, Warner Bros. Movie World and Wet'n'Wild Water World confirmed the Gold Coast 's reputation as an international tourist centre.
Some unethical business practices and State Government corruption during the late 1980s tainted the Coast 's reputation as a place of business, and property marketeering (seminars which duped interstate and overseas investors into paying premium prices for new Gold Coast property developments) during the 1990s did little to help the region 's image.
In 1994, Queensland Local Government Commissioner, Greg Hoffmann began reviewing the local government boundaries in the Gold Coast, Albert and Beaudesert areas. After public debate, the ' Local Government (Albert, Beaudesert and Gold Coast) Regulation 1994 ' provided for the amalgamation of Gold Coast City Council and the Shire of Albert to create a new local authority called the City of Gold Coast Council. An election was held on 11 March 1995 and the first Council meeting was held on 24 March 1995.
By the turn of the 21st century the Gold Coast had shrugged off its shady past and fully embraced the real estate boom. This boom reached its physical, and economical peak in 2005 with the opening of the 322.5 m ' Worlds Tallest Residential Tower ' Q1, in Surfers Paradise.
In September 2010 the Gold Coast Native Title Claim QUD346 / 06 was registered by the Registrar of the National Native Title Tribunal (NNTT). This administrative decision was made under the Australian Federal Government 's Native Title Act 1993 which is administered by the Federal Court of Australia. A registered claim entered on the Tribunal 's Register of Claims, (which in this case is currently in mediation in the Federal Court) means that in all matters which may affect the claimants ' native title rights and interests in the claim area, and under the procedural rights afforded by the Native Title Act (Cwth 1993), consultation and often negotiation with the claim group is required. Jabree Limited on behalf of the claim group is the registered cultural heritage body. Yugambeh people are now recognised as significant stakeholders in the Gold Coast region.
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list of 10 largest cities in the united states | List of United States cities by population - wikipedia
Population
The following is a list of the most populous incorporated places of the United States. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, an "incorporated place '' includes a variety of designations, including city, town, village, borough, and municipality. A few exceptional Census Designated Places (CDPs) are also included in the Census Bureau 's listing of incorporated places. Consolidated city - counties represent a distinct type of government that includes the entire population of a county, or county equivalent. Some consolidated city - counties, however, include multiple incorporated places. This list presents only that portion (or "balance '') of such consolidated city - counties that are not a part of another incorporated place.
This list refers only to the population of individual municipalities within their defined limits, which does not include other municipalities or unincorporated suburban areas within urban agglomerations. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metropolitan area populations.
The following table lists the 307 incorporated places in the United States with a population of at least 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. Five states -- Delaware, Maine, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming -- do not have cities with populations of 100,000 or more. The table below contains the following information:
For cities with populations of 100,000 or more, the following distributions hold. Smaller incorporated places are not included.
The mean density is 4,128.21 inhabitants per square mile (1,593.91 / km).
The median is 3,160.85 inhabitants per square mile (1,220.41 / km).
The following table lists the five municipalities (municipios) of Puerto Rico with a population greater than 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. census - designated places (CDPs) with populations of at least 100,000 according to the 2010 Census. A CDP is a concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. CDPs are delineated for each decennial census as the statistical counterparts of incorporated places such as cities, towns and villages. CDPs are populated areas that lack separate municipal government, but which otherwise physically resemble incorporated places. Unlike the incorporated cities in the main list, the US Census Bureau does not release annual population estimates for CDPs.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. cities that, in past censuses, have had populations of at least 100,000 but have since decreased beneath this threshold or have been consolidated with or annexed into a neighboring city.
The table below contains the following information:
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on a national level the american public was | Education in the United States - wikipedia
Education in the United States is provided by public, private and home schools.
State governments set overall educational standards, often mandate standardized tests for K -- 12 public school systems and supervise, usually through a board of regents, state colleges, and universities. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government. Private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities, although some state regulation can apply.
In 2013, about 87 % of school - age children (those below higher education) attended state funded public schools, about 10 % attended tuition - and foundation - funded private schools and roughly 3 % were home - schooled.
By state law, education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state - certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, compulsory education is divided into three levels: elementary school, middle or junior high school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten (5 -- 6 year olds) and first grade for the youngest children, up to twelfth grade (17 -- 18 years old) as the final year of high school.
There are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, and graduate school, is described in a separate section below.
The United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson / Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U.S. high school students No. 40 globally in Math and No. 24 in Science and Reading. The President of the National Center on Education and the Economy said of the results "the United States can not long operate a world - class economy if our workers are, as the OECD statistics show, among the worst - educated in the world ''. Former U.S. Education Secretary John B. King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U.S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U.S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, eight are American (the other two are Oxford and Cambridge, in the United Kingdom).
Colonial New England encouraged its towns to support free public schools funded by taxation. In the early 19th century Massachusetts took the lead in school reform, with programs designed by Horace Mann that were widely emulated across the North. Teachers were especially trained in normal schools and taught the three Rs (of reading, writing, and arithmetic) and also history and geography. Public education was at the elementary level in most places. After the Civil War, the cities began building high schools. The South was far behind northern standards on every educational measure, and gave weak support to its segregated all - black schools. However northern philanthropy and northern churches provided assistance to private black colleges across the South. Religious denominations across the country set up their private colleges. States also opened state universities, but they were quite small well into the 20th century.
In 1823, the Reverend Samuel Read Hall founded the first normal school, the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont, aimed at improving the quality of the burgeoning common school system by producing more qualified teachers.
In the mid-20th century, the rapidly increasing Catholic population led to the formation of parochial schools in the largest cities. Theologically oriented Episcopalian, Lutheran and Jewish bodies on a smaller scale set up their own parochial schools. There were debates over whether tax money could be used to support them, with the answer typically being no. From about 1876, thirty - nine states passed a constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called Blaine Amendments after James G. Blaine, one of their chief promoters, forbidding the use of public tax money to fund local parochial schools.
States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 (Massachusetts) and 1917 (Mississippi). They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land - Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture and engineering. By 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. According to a 2018 study in the Economic Journal, states were more likely to adopt compulsory education laws during the Age of Mass Migration (1850 - 1914) if they hosted more European immigrants with lower exposure to civic values.
Following Reconstruction the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute was founded in 1881 as a state college, in Tuskegee, Alabama, to train "Colored Teachers, '' led by Booker T. Washington, (1856 -- 1915), who was himself a freed slave. His movement spread, leading many other Southern states to establish small colleges for "Colored or Negro '' students entitled "A. & M., '' ("Agricultural and Mechanical '') or "A. & T., '' ("Agricultural and Technical ''), some of which later developed into state universities. Before the 1940s, there were very few black students at private or state colleges in the North, and almost none in the South.
Responding to the many competing academic philosophies being promoted at the time, an influential working group of educators, known as the Committee of Ten and established in 1892 by the National Education Association, recommended that children should receive twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of elementary education (in what were also known as "grammar schools '') followed by four years in high school ("freshmen, '' "sophomores, '' "juniors, '' and "seniors '').
Gradually by the late 1890s, regional associations of high schools, colleges and universities were being organized to coordinate proper accrediting standards, examinations, and regular surveys of various institutions in order to assure equal treatment in graduation and admissions requirements, as well as course completion and transfer procedures.
By 1910, 72 percent of children were attending school. Private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and -- in the rural centers -- land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in rapidly increasing public high school enrollment and graduations. By 1930, 100 percent of children were attending school (excluding children with significant disabilities or medical concerns).
During World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plummeted as many high school and college students -- and teachers -- dropped out to enlist or take war jobs.
The 1946 National School Lunch Act, which is still in operation, provided low - cost or free school lunch meals to qualified low - income students through subsidies to schools, based on the idea that a "full stomach '' during the day supported class attention and studying.
The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas made racial desegregation of public elementary and high schools mandatory, although white families often attempted to avoid desegregation by sending their children to private secular or religious schools. In the years following this decision, the number of Black teachers rose in the North but dropped in the South.
In 1965, the far - reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act (' ESEA '), passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education (' Title I funding '). Title VI explicitly forbade the establishment of a national curriculum. Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965 created the Pell Grant program which provides financial support to students from low - income families to access higher education.
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act established funding for special education in schools.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 made standardized testing a requirement. The Higher Education Amendments of 1972 made changes to the Pell Grants. The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) required all public schools accepting federal funds to provide equal access to education and one free meal a day for children with physical and mental disabilities. The 1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education report, famously titled A Nation at Risk, touched off a wave of local, state, and federal reform efforts, but by 1990 the country still spent only 2 per cent of its budget on education, compared with 30 per cent on support for the elderly. In 1990, the EHA was replaced with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which placed more focus on students as individuals, and also provided for more post-high school transition services.
The 2002 No Child Left Behind Act, passed by a bipartisan coalition in Congress provided federal aid to the states in exchange for measures to penalize schools that were not meeting the goals as measured by standardized state exams in mathematics and language skills. In the same year, the U.S. Supreme Court diluted some of the century - old "Blaine '' laws upheld an Ohio law allowing aid to parochial schools under specific circumstances. The 2006 Commission on the Future of Higher Education evaluated higher education. In December 2015, President Barack Obama signed legislation replacing No Child Left Behind with the Every Student Succeeds Act.
The Great Recession of 2008 - 09 caused a sharp decline in tax revenues in all cities and states. The response was to cut education budgets. Obama 's $800 billion stimulus package included $100 billion for public schools, which every state used to protect its educational budget. In terms of sponsoring innovation, however, Obama and his Education Secretary Arne Duncan pursued K - 12 education reform through the Race to the Top grant program. With over $15 billion of grants at stake, 34 states quickly revised their education laws according to the proposals of advanced educational reformers. In the competition points were awarded for allowing charter schools to multiply, for compensating teachers on a merit basis including student test scores, and for adopting higher educational standards. There were incentives for states to establish college and career - ready standards, which in practice meant adopting the Common Core State Standards Initiative that had been developed on a bipartisan basis by the National Governors Association, and the Council of Chief State School Officers. The criteria were not mandatory, they were incentives to improve opportunities to get a grant. Most states revised their laws accordingly, even though they realized it was unlikely they would when a highly competitive new grant. Race to the Top had strong bipartisan support, with centrist elements from both parties. It was opposed by the left wing of the Democratic Party, and by the right wing of the Republican Party, and criticized for centralizing too much power in Washington. Complaints also came from middle - class families, who were annoyed at the increasing emphasis on teaching to the test, rather than encouraging teachers to show creativity and stimulating students ' imagination.
In 2000, 76.6 million students had enrolled in schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72 percent aged 12 to 17 were considered academically "on track '' for their age, i.e. enrolled in at or above grade level. Of those enrolled elementary and secondary schools, 5.2 million (10.4 percent) were attending private schools.
Over 85 percent of the adult population have completed high school and 27 percent have received a bachelor 's degree or higher. The average salary for college or university graduates is greater than $51,000, exceeding the national average of those without a high school diploma by more than $23,000, according to a 2005 study by the U.S. Census Bureau. The 2010 unemployment rate for high school graduates was 10.8 %; the rate for college graduates was 4.9 %.
The country has a reading literacy rate of 99 % of the population over age 15, while ranking below average in science and mathematics understanding compared to other developed countries. In 2014, a record high of 82 % of high school seniors graduated, although one of the reasons for that success might be a decline in academic standards.
The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such as the No Child Left Behind Act. In addition, the ratio of college - educated adults entering the workforce to general population (33 %) is slightly below the mean of other developed countries (35 %) and rate of participation of the labor force in continuing education is high. A 2000s (decade) study by Jon Miller of Michigan State University concluded that "A slightly higher proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate than European or Japanese adults ''.
In 2006, there were roughly 600,000 homeless students in the United States, but after the Great Recession this number more than doubled to approximately 1.36 million.
Formal education in the U.S. is divided into a number of distinct educational stages. Most children enter the public education system around ages five or six. Children are assigned into year groups known as grades.
The American school year traditionally begins at the end of August or early in September, after a traditional summer recess. Children customarily advance together from one grade to the next as a single cohort or "class '' upon reaching the end of each school year in late May or early June.
Depending upon their circumstances, they may begin school in pre-kindergarten, kindergarten or first grade. They normally attend 12 grades of study over 12 calendar years of primary / elementary and secondary education before graduating and earning a diploma that makes them eligible for admission to higher education. Education is mandatory until age 16 (18 in some states).
In the U.S., ordinal numbers (e.g., first grade) are used for identifying grades. Typical ages and grade groupings in contemporary, public and private schools may be found through the U.S. Department of Education. Generally there are three stages: elementary school (K -- 5th / 6th grade), middle school (6th / 7th -- 8th grades) and high school (9th -- 12th grades).
There is considerable variability in the exact arrangement of grades, as the following table indicates.
Students completing high school may choose to attend a college or university, which offer undergraduate degrees such as Associate 's degrees or Bachelor 's degrees (baccalaureate).
Community college or junior college typically offer two - year associate degrees, although some community colleges offer a limited number of bachelor 's degrees. Some community college students choose to transfer to a four - year institution to pursue a bachelor 's degree. Community colleges are generally publicly funded (usually by local cities or counties) and offer career certifications and part - time programs.
Four - year institutions may be public or private colleges or universities.
Some counties and cities have established and funded four - year institutions. Some of these institutions, such as the City University of New York, are still operated by local governments. Others such as the University of Louisville and Wichita State University are now operated as state universities.
Private institutions are privately funded and there is a wide variety in size, focus, and operation. Some private institutions are large research universities, while others are small liberal arts colleges that concentrate on undergraduate education. Some private universities are nonsectarian and secular, while others are religiously - affiliated. While most private institutions are non-profit, a growing number in the past decade have been established as for - profit.
Curriculum varies widely depending on the institution. Typically, an undergraduate student will be able to select an academic "major '' or concentration, which comprises the main or special subjects, and students may change their major one or more times.
Some students, typically those with a bachelor 's degree, may choose to continue on to graduate or professional school, sometimes attached to a university. Graduate degrees may be either master 's degrees (e.g., M.A., M.S., M.B.A., M.S.W.) or doctorate degrees (e.g., Ph. D., J.D., M.D., D.O.). Programs range from full - time, evening and executive which allows for flexibility with students ' schedules. Academia - focused graduate school typically includes some combination of coursework and research (often requiring a thesis or dissertation to be written), while professional graduate - level schools grants a first professional degree. These include medical, law, business, education, divinity, art, journalism, social work, architecture, and engineering schools.
In K -- 12 education, sometimes students who receive failing grades are held back a year and repeat coursework in the hope of earning satisfactory scores on the second try.
High school graduates sometimes take a gap year before the first year of college, for travel, work, public service, or independent learning.
Many undergraduate college programs now commonly are five year programs. This is especially common in technical fields, such as engineering. The five - year period often includes one or more periods of internship with an employer in the chosen field.
Of students who were freshmen in 2005 seeking bachelor 's degrees at public institutions, 32 % took four years, 12 % took five years, 6 % took six years, and 43 % did not graduate within six years. The numbers for private non-profit institutions were 52 % in four, 10 % in five, 4 % in six, and 35 % failing to graduate.
Some undergraduate institutions offer an accelerated three - year bachelor 's degree, or a combined five - year bachelor 's and master 's degrees.
Many graduate students do not start professional schools immediately after finishing undergraduate studies, but work for a time while saving up money or deciding on a career direction.
The National Center for Education Statistics found that in 1999 -- 2000, 73 % of people attending institutions of higher education were non-traditional students.
Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States, but the age range for which school attendance is required varies from state to state. Some states allow students to leave school between 14 -- 17 with parental permission, before finishing high school; other states require students to stay in school until age 18. Public (free) education is typically from kindergarten to grade 12 (frequently abbreviated K -- 12).
Most parents send their children to either a public or private institution. According to government data, one - tenth of students are enrolled in private schools. Approximately 85 % of students enter the public schools, largely because they are tax - subsidized (tax burdens by school districts vary from area to area). School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets.
There are more than 14,000 school districts in the country, and more than $500 billion is spent each year on public primary and secondary education. Most states require that their school districts within the state teach for 180 days a year. In 2010, there were 3,823,142 teachers in public, charter, private, and Catholic elementary and secondary schools. They taught a total of 55,203,000 students, who attended one of 132,656 schools.
Most children begin elementary education with kindergarten (usually five to six years old) and finish secondary education with twelfth grade (usually 17 -- 18 years old). In some cases, pupils may be promoted beyond the next regular grade. Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home; 1.7 % of children are educated in this manner.
Around 3 million students between the ages of 16 and 24 drop out of high school each year, a rate of 6.6 percent as of 2012. In the United States, 75 percent of crimes are committed by high school dropouts. Around 60 percent of black dropouts end up spending time incarcerated. The incarceration rate for African - American male high school dropouts was about 50 times the national average as of 2010.
States do not require reporting from their school districts to allow analysis of efficiency of return on investment. The Center for American Progress commends Florida and Texas as the only two states that provide annual school - level productivity evaluations which report to the public how well school funds are being spent at the local level. This allows for comparison of school districts within a state. In 2010, American students rank 17th in the world. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development says that this is due to focusing on the low end of performers. All of the recent gains have been made, deliberately, at the low end of the socioeconomic scale and among the lowest achievers. The country has been outrun, the study says, by other nations because the US has not done enough to encourage the highest achievers.
About half of the states encourage schools to recite the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag.
Teachers worked from about 35 to 46 hours a week, in a survey taken in 1993. In 2011, American teachers worked 1,097 hours in the classroom, the most for any industrialized nation measured by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. They spend 1,913 hours a year on their work, just below the national average of 1,932 hours for all workers. In 2011, the average annual salary of a preK -- 12 teacher was $55,040.
Transporting students to and from school is a major concern for most school districts. School buses provide the largest mass transit program in the country, 8.8 billion trips per year. Non-school transit buses give 5.2 billion trips annually. 440,000 yellow school buses carry over 24 million students to and from schools. In 1971, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that forced busing of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation. This ruling resulted in a white flight from the inner cities which largely diluted the intent of the order. This flight had other, non-educational ramifications as well. Integration took place in most schools though de facto segregation often determined the composition of the student body. By the 1990s, most areas of the country had been released from mandatory busing.
School start times are computed with busing in mind. There are often three start times: for elementary, for middle / junior high school, and for high school. One school district computed its cost per bus (without the driver) at $20,575 annually. It assumed a model where the average driver drove 80 miles per day. A driver was presumed to cost $. 62 per mile (1.6 km). Elementary schools started at 7: 30, middle schools / junior high school started at 8: 30, and high schools at 8: 15. While elementary school started earlier, they also finish earlier, at 2: 30, middle schools at 3: 30 and high schools at 3: 20. All school districts establish their own times and means of transportation within guidelines set by their own state.
Preschool refers to non-compulsory classroom - based early - childhood education. Pre-kindergarten (also called Pre-K or PK) is the preschool year immediately before Kindergarten. Preschool education may be delivered through a preschool or as a reception year in elementary school. Head Start program, the federally funded pre-kindergarten program founded in 1965 prepares children, especially those of a disadvantaged population, to better succeed in school. However, limited seats are available to students aspiring to take part in the Head Start program. Many community - based programs, commercial enterprises, non-profit organizations, faith communities, and independent childcare providers offer preschool education. Preschool may be general or may have a particular focus, such as arts education, religious education, sports training, or foreign language learning, along with providing general education. In the United States, Preschool and Pre-K programs are not required, however they are encouraged by educators. Only 69 percent of 4 year old American children are enrolled in early childhood development programs. Preschool age ranges anywhere from 2 1 / 2 to 4 1 / 2 years old. Pre-Kindergarten age ranges from 4 to 5 years old. Pre-kindergarten is focused on preparing kindergarten readiness, which includes activities of deeper learning and more structured skill building. The curriculum for the day will consist of music, art, pretend play, science, reading, math, and other social activities. Both preschool as well as pre-k programs emphasize on inquiry base learning, however pre-k dives deeper into preparing kindergarten readiness.
Historically, in the United States, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through sixth grade (or sometimes, to fourth grade, fifth grade or eighth grade). Basic subjects are taught in elementary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day, except for specialized programs, such as physical education, library, music, and art classes. There are (as of 2001) about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.
Typically, the curriculum in public elementary education is determined by individual school districts or county school system. The school district selects curriculum guides and textbooks that reflect a state 's learning standards and benchmarks for a given grade level. The most recent curriculum that has been adopted by most states is Common Core. Learning Standards are the goals by which states and school districts must meet adequate yearly progress (AYP) as mandated by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This description of school governance is simplistic at best, however, and school systems vary widely not only in the way curricular decisions are made but also in how teaching and learning take place. Some states or school districts impose more top - down mandates than others. In others, teachers play a significant role in curriculum design and there are few top - down mandates. Curricular decisions within private schools are often made differently from in public schools, and in most cases without consideration of NCLB.
Public elementary school teachers typically instruct between twenty and thirty students of diverse learning needs. A typical classroom will include children with a range of learning needs or abilities, from those identified as having special needs of the kinds listed in the Individuals with Disabilities Act IDEA to those that are cognitively, athletically or artistically gifted. At times, an individual school district identifies areas of need within the curriculum. Teachers and advisory administrators form committees to develop supplemental materials to support learning for diverse learners and to identify enrichment for textbooks. There are special education teachers working with the identified students. Many school districts post information about the curriculum and supplemental materials on websites for public access.
In general, a student learns basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects. Learning standards are identified for all areas of a curriculum by individual States, including those for mathematics, social studies, science, physical development, the fine arts, and reading. While the concept of State Learning standards has been around for some time, No Child Left Behind has mandated that standards exist at the State level.
Secondary education is often divided into two phases, middle / junior high school and high school. Students are usually given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, and being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives).
"Middle school '' (or "junior high school '') has a variable range between districts. It usually includes seventh and eighth grades and occasionally also includes one or more of the sixth, ninth, and very occasionally fifth grades as well. High school (occasionally senior high school) includes grades 9 through 12. Students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10), juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12). At the high school level, students generally take a broad variety of classes without specializing in any particular subject, with the exception of vocational schools. Students are generally required to take a broad range of mandatory subjects, but may choose additional subjects ("electives '') to fill out their required hours of learning. High school grades normally are included in a student 's official transcript, e.g. for college admission.
Each state sets minimum requirements for how many years of various mandatory subjects are required; these requirements vary widely, but generally include 2 -- 4 years of each of: Science, Mathematics, English, Social sciences, Physical education; some years of a foreign language and some form of art education are often also required, as is a health curriculum in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, drug awareness, and birth control. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to "test out '' of this requirement or complete independent study to meet it.
Many high schools provide Honors, Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. Honors, AP or IB courses are usually taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade. Some international schools offer international school leaving qualifications, to be studied for and awarded instead of or alongside of the high school diploma, Honors, Advanced Placement, or International Baccalaureate. Regular honors courses are more intense and faster paced than typical college preparatory courses. AP and IB on the other hand, are college - level classes.
In schools in the United States children are assessed throughout the school year by their teachers, and report cards are issued to parents at varying intervals. Generally the scores for individual assignments and tests are recorded for each student in a grade book, along with the maximum number of points for each assignment. End - of - term or - year evaluations are most frequently given in the form of a letter grade on an A-F scale, whereby A is the best possible grade and F is a failing grade (most schools do not include the letter E in the assessment scale), or a numeric percentage. The Waldorf schools, most democratic schools, and some other private schools, give (often extensive) verbal characterizations of student progress rather than letter or number grades. Some school districts allow flexibility in grading scales at the Student information system level, allowing custom letters or symbols to be used (though transcripts must use traditional A-F letters)
Under the No Child Left Behind Act and Every Student Succeeds Acts, all American states must test students in public schools statewide to ensure that they are achieving the desired level of minimum education, such as on the New York Regents Examinations, the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) or the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS); students being educated at home or in private schools are not included. The act also required that students and schools show adequate yearly progress. This means they must show some improvement each year. When a student fails to make adequate yearly progress, NCLB mandated that remediation through summer school or tutoring be made available to a student in need of extra help. On December 10, 2015 President Barack Obama signed legislation replacing NCLB with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). However, the enactment of ESSA did not eliminate provisions relating to the periodic standardized tests given to students.
Academic performance impacts the perception of a school 's educational program. Rural schools fare better than their urban counterparts in two key areas: test scores and drop - out rate. First, students in small schools performed equal to or better than their larger school counterparts. In addition, on the 2005 National Assessment of Education Progress, 4th and 8th grade students scored as well or better in reading, science, and mathematics.
During high school, students (usually in 11th grade) may take one or more standardized tests depending on their post-secondary education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In theory, these tests evaluate the overall level of knowledge and learning aptitude of the students. The SAT and ACT are the most common standardized tests that students take when applying to college. A student may take the SAT, ACT, both, or neither depending upon the post-secondary institutions the student plans to apply to for admission. Most competitive post-secondary institutions also require two or three SAT Subject Tests (formerly known as SAT IIs), which are shorter exams that focus strictly on a particular subject matter. However, all these tests serve little to no purpose for students who do not move on to post-secondary education, so they can usually be skipped without affecting one 's ability to graduate.
Standardized testing has become increasingly controversial in recent years. Creativity and the need for applicable knowledge are becoming rapidly more valuable than simple memorization. Opponents of standardized education have stated that it is the system of standardized education itself that is to blame for employment issues and concerns over the questionable abilities of recent graduates. Others consider standardized tests to be a valuable objective check on grade inflation. In recent years, grade point averages (particularly in suburban schools) have been rising while SAT scores have been falling.
Suggestions for improving standardized testing include evaluating a student 's overall growth, possibly including non-cognitive qualities such as social and emotional behaviors, not just achievement; introducing 21st century skills and values; and making the tests open - ended, authentic, and engaging.
A major characteristic of American schools is the high priority given to sports, clubs and activities by the community, the parents, the schools and the students themselves. Extracurricular activities are educational activities not falling within the scope of the regular curriculum but under the supervision of the school. Extracurriculars at the high school age (15 - 18), this can be anything that does n't require a high school credit or paid employment, but simply done out of pleasure or to also look good on a college transcript. Extracurricular activates for all ages can be categorized under clubs, art, culture and language, community, leadership, government, media, military, music, performing arts, religion, role play / fantasy, speech, sports, technology, and volunteer All of which take place outside of school hours. These sorts of activities are put in place as other forms of teamwork, time management, goal setting, self - discovery, building self - esteem, relationship building, finding interests, and academics. These extracurricular activities and clubs can be sponsored by fund raising, or by the donation of parents who give towards the program in order for it to keep running. Students and Parents are also obligated to spend money on whatever supplies are necessary for this activity that are not provided for the school (sporting equipment, sporting attire, costumes, food, instruments) These activities can extend to large amounts of time outside the normal school day; home - schooled students, however, are not normally allowed to participate. Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and spirit groups can amount to hours of practices and performances. Most states have organizations that develop rules for competition between groups. These organizations are usually forced to implement time limits on hours practiced as a prerequisite for participation. Many schools also have non-varsity sports teams; however, these are usually afforded fewer resources and less attention.
Sports programs and their related games, especially football and basketball, are major events for American students and for larger schools can be a major source of funds for school districts.
High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest in the community.
In addition to sports, numerous non-athletic extracurricular activities are available in American schools, both public and private. Activities include Quizbowl, musical groups, marching bands, student government, school newspapers, science fairs, debate teams, and clubs focused on an academic area (such as the Spanish Club) or community service interests (such as Key Club).
In 2014, approximately 1.5 million children were homeschooled, up 84 % from 1999 when the U.S. Department of Education first started keeping statistics. This was 2.9 % of all children.
As of spring 2016, there are 2.3 million homeschooled students in the United States. It is appearing that homeschooling is a continuing trend in the US with an 2 percent to 8 percent per annum over the past few years Many select moral or religious reasons for homeschooling their children. The second main category is unschooling, those who prefer a non-standard approach to education. This is a parent - led type of schooling that takes place at home and is now boarding a mainstream form of education in the United States. The Demography for homeschoolers has a variety of people; these are atheists, Christians, and Mormons; conservatives, libertarians, and liberals; low -, middle -, and high - income families; black, Hispanic, and white; parents with Ph. D.s, GEDs, and no high - school diplomas. One study shows that 32 percent of homeschool students are Black, Asian, Hispanic, and others (i.e., not White / non-Hispanic). There is no required taxes on this form of education and most homeschooled families spend an average of $600 per student for their education
Opposition to homeschooling comes from varied sources, including teachers ' organizations and school districts. The National Education Association, the largest labor union in the United States, has been particularly vocal in the past. Opponents ' stated concerns fall into several broad categories, including fears of poor academic quality, and lack of socialization with others. At this time, over half of states have oversight into monitoring or measuring the academic progress of home schooled students, with all but ten requiring some form of notification to the state.
Commonly known as special classes, are taught by teachers with training in adapting curricula to meet the needs of students with special needs.
According to the National Association of School Nurses, 5 % of students in 2009 have a seizure disorder, another 5 % have ADHD and 10 % have mental or emotional disorders.
On January 25, 2013, the Office for Civil Rights of the US Department of Education issued guidance, clarifying school districts ' existing legal obligations to give disabled students an equal chance to compete in extracurricular sports alongside their able - bodied classmates.
The federal law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires states to ensure that all government - run schools provide services to meet the individual needs of students with special needs, as defined by the law. All students with special needs are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE).
Schools meet with the parents or guardians to develop an Individualized Education Program that determines best placement for the child. Students must be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) that is appropriate for the student 's needs. Public schools that fail to provide an appropriate placement for students with special needs can be taken to due process wherein parents may formally submit their grievances and demand appropriate services for the child.
Nationwide, 62 % of students with disabilities attending public schools graduate high school.
At - risk students (those with educational needs that are not associated with a disability) are often placed in classes with students with minor emotional and social disabilities. Critics assert that placing at - risk students in the same classes as these disabled students may impede the educational progress of both the at - risk and the disabled students. Some research has refuted this assertion, and has suggested this approach increases the academic and behavioral skills of the entire student population.
In the United States, state and local government have primary responsibility for education. The Federal Department of Education plays a role in standards setting and education finance, and some primary and secondary schools, for the children of military employees, are run by the Department of Defense.
K -- 12 students in most areas have a choice between free tax - funded public schools, or privately funded private schools.
Public school systems are supported by a combination of local, state, and federal government funding. Because a large portion of school revenues come from local property taxes, public schools vary widely in the resources they have available per student. Class size also varies from one district to another. Curriculum decisions in public schools are made largely at the local and state levels; the federal government has limited influence. In most districts, a locally elected school board runs schools. The school board appoints an official called the superintendent of schools to manage the schools in the district.
Local property taxes for public school funding may have disadvantages depending on how wealthy or poor these cities may be. Some of the disadvantages may be not having the proper electives of students interest or advanced placement courses to further the knowledge and education of these students. Cases such as these limit students and causes inequality in education because there is no easy way to gain access to those courses since the education system might not view them as necessary. The public education system does provide the classes needed to obtain a GED (General Education Development) and obtain a job or pursue higher education.
The largest public school system in the United States is in New York City, where more than one million students are taught in 1,200 separate public schools. Because of its immense size -- there are more students in the system than residents in the eight smallest US states -- the New York City public school system is nationally influential in determining standards and materials, such as textbooks.
Admission to individual public schools is usually based on residency. To compensate for differences in school quality based on geography, school systems serving large cities and portions of large cities often have magnet schools that provide enrollment to a specified number of non-resident students in addition to serving all resident students. This special enrollment is usually decided by lottery with equal numbers of males and females chosen. Some magnet schools cater to gifted students or to students with special interests, such as the sciences or performing arts.
Private schools in the United States include parochial schools (affiliated with religious denominations), non-profit independent schools, and for - profit private schools. Private schools charge varying rates depending on geographic location, the school 's expenses, and the availability of funding from sources, other than tuition. For example, some churches partially subsidize private schools for their members. Some people have argued that when their child attends a private school, they should be able to take the funds that the public school no longer needs and apply that money towards private school tuition in the form of vouchers. This is the basis of the school choice movement.
5,072,451 students attended 33,740 private elementary and secondary schools in 2007. 74.5 % of these were Caucasian, non-Hispanic, 9.8 % were African American, 9.6 % were Hispanic. 5.4 % were Asian or Pacific Islander, and. 6 % were American Indian. Average school size was 150.3 students. There were 456,266 teachers. The number of students per teacher was about 11. 65 % of seniors in private schools in 2006 - -- 7 went on to attend a 4 - year college.
Private schools have various missions: some cater to college - bound students seeking a competitive edge in the college admissions process; others are for gifted students, students with learning disabilities or other special needs, or students with specific religious affiliations. Some cater to families seeking a small school, with a nurturing, supportive environment. Unlike public school systems, private schools have no legal obligation to accept any interested student. Admission to some private schools is often highly selective. Private schools also have the ability to permanently expel persistently unruly students, a disciplinary option not legally available to public school systems.
Private schools offer the advantages of smaller classes, under twenty students in a typical elementary classroom, for example; a higher teacher / student ratio across the school day, greater individualized attention and in the more competitive schools, expert college placement services. Unless specifically designed to do so, private schools usually can not offer the services required by students with serious or multiple learning, emotional, or behavioral issues. Although reputed to pay lower salaries than public school systems, private schools often attract teachers by offering high - quality professional development opportunities, including tuition grants for advanced degrees. According to elite private schools themselves, this investment in faculty development helps maintain the high quality program that they offer.
An August 17, 2000 article by the Chicago Sun - Times refers to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago Office of Catholic Schools as the largest private school system in the United States.
Secretary Devos convened with 2018 Teachers of the Year from all states, territories, and the District of Columbia as well as the Department of Defense Education Activity on May 1, 2018 to discuss pressing concerns. The views of DeVos generally disagree with those of the teachers. These educators are known for disputing government officials on relevant concerns, as in the case of former President Barack Obama whose focus on high - stakes (or essential) testing the teachers considered detrimental.
President Donald Trump and DeVos emphasized the Trump administration 's priority is to open out options for traditional public schools where the majority of American students are enrolled. DeVos has been supporting the development of charter schools for many decades. These are subsidized from public funds diverted from public schools to schools privately owned and operated. DeVos also objects to teachers going on strike for higher pay. Many teachers from states with Republican representatives have been engaged in protests to get extra subsidies for schools with inadequate resources, and for higher wages. The Huffington Post reported one teacher arguing with DeVos and saying that the Secretary 's policies have an adverse effect on public schools.
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) together with the Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates and the National Federation of the Blind filed a federal lawsuit with the United States District Court of Maryland against Devos and the Education Department. They charged Devos with forgoing enforcement of civil rights regulations and dismissing numerous grievances. These organizations alleged that the Department of Education challenged the responsibility of the Office of Civil Rights to conduct investigations related to racial and gender issues. The NAACP claimed changing rules means the DOE abandoned the protection of civil rights and rights of disable persons.
According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000. However, the United States is ranked 37th in the world in education spending as a percentage of gross domestic product. All but seven of the leading countries are developing countries; ranked high because of a low GDP.
Figures exist for education spending in the United States, both total and per student, and by state and school district. They show a very wide range in spending, but due to the varying spending policies and circumstances among school districts, a cost - effectiveness analysis is very difficult to perform.
Changes in funding appear to have little effect on a school system 's performance. Between 1970 and 2012, the full amount spent by all levels of government on the K -- 12 education of an individual public school student graduating in any given year, adjusted for inflation, increased by 185 %. The average funding by state governments increased by 120 % per student. However, scores in mathematics, science and language arts over that same period remained almost unchanged. Multi-year periods in which a state 's funding per student declined substantially also appear to have had little effect.
Property taxes as a primary source of funding for public education have become highly controversial, for a number of reasons. First, if a state 's population and land values escalate rapidly, many longtime residents may find themselves paying property taxes much higher than anticipated. In response to this phenomenon, California 's citizens passed Proposition 13 in 1978, which severely restricted the ability of the Legislature to expand the state 's educational system to keep up with growth. Some states, such as Michigan, have investigated or implemented alternate schemes for funding education that may sidestep the problems of funding based mainly on property taxes by providing funding based on sales or income tax. These schemes also have failings, negatively impacting funding in a slow economy.
One of the biggest debates in funding public schools is funding by local taxes or state taxes. The federal government supplies around 8.5 % of the public school system funds, according to a 2005 report by the National Center for Education Statistics. "Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education, Table 1 ''. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved June 4, 2014. The remaining split between state and local governments averages 48.7 percent from states and 42.8 percent from local sources.
Rural schools struggle with funding concerns. State funding sources often favor wealthier districts. The state establishes a minimum flat amount deemed "adequate '' to educate a child based on equalized assessed value of property taxes. This favors wealthier districts with a much larger tax base. This, combined with the history of slow payment in the state, leaves rural districts searching for funds. Lack of funding leads to limited resources for teachers. Resources that directly relate to funding include access to high - speed internet, online learning programs and advanced course offerings. These resources can enhance a student 's learning opportunities, but may not be available to everyone if a district can not afford to offer specific programs. One study found that school districts spend less efficiently in areas in which they face little or no competition from other public schools, in large districts, and in areas in which residents are poor or less educated.
The reliance on local funding sources has led to a long history of court challenges about how states fund their schools. These challenges have relied on interpretations of state constitutions after a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that school funding was not a matter of the U.S. Constitution (San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973)). The state court cases, beginning with the California case of Serrano v. Priest, 5 Cal. 3d 584 (1971), were initially concerned with equity in funding, which was defined in terms of variations in spending across local school districts. More recently, state court cases have begun to consider what has been called ' adequacy. ' These cases have questioned whether the total amount of spending was sufficient to meet state constitutional requirements. Perhaps the most famous adequacy case is Abbott v. Burke, 100 N.J. 269, 495 A. 2d 376 (1985), which has involved state court supervision over several decades and has led to some of the highest spending of any U.S. districts in the so - called Abbott districts. The background and results of these cases are analyzed in a book by Eric Hanushek and Alfred Lindseth. That analysis concludes that funding differences are not closely related to student outcomes and thus that the outcomes of the court cases have not led to improved policies.
In McCleary v. Washington State (2012), Supreme Court decision that found the state had failed to "amply '' fund public education for Washington 's 1 million school children. Washington state had budgeted $18.2 billion for education spending in the two - year fiscal period ending in July 2015. The state Supreme Court decided that this budget must be boosted by $3.3 billion in total by July 2019. On September 11, 2014, the state Supreme Court found the legislature in contempt for failing to uphold a court order to come up with a plan to boost its education budget by billions of dollars over the next five years. The state had argued that it had adequately funded education and said diverting tax revenue could lead to shortfalls in other public services.
While the hiring of teachers for public schools is done at the local school district level, the pension funds for teachers are usually managed at the state level. Some states have significant deficits when future requirements for teacher pensions are examined. In 2014, these were projected deficits for various states: Illinois - $187 billion, Connecticut - $57 billion, Kentucky - $41 billion, Hawaii - $16.5 billion, and Louisiana - $45.6 billion. These deficits range from 184 % to 318 % of these states ' annual total budget.
The test scores of students attending U.S. public schools are lower than student scores in schools of other developed countries, in the areas of reading, math, and science.
Out of 21 industrialized countries, U.S. 12th graders ranked 19th in math, 16th in science, and last in advanced physics.
Schools use several methods to determine grade placement. One method involves placing students in a grade based on a child 's birthday. Cut off dates based on the child 's birthday determine placement in either a higher or lower grade level. For example, if the school 's cut off date is September 1st, and an incoming student 's birthday is August 2nd, then this student would be placed in a higher grade level. If the student is in high school, this could mean that the student gets placed as a junior instead of a sophomore because of their birthday. If the student 's birthday falls after the cut off date, such as November 1st, then s / he would be placed in the lower grade, which in this example, would be a sophomore.
Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education, often at one of the 4,495 colleges or universities and junior colleges in the country. In 2008, 36 % of enrolled students graduated from college in four years. 57 % completed their undergraduate requirements in six years, at the same college they first enrolled in. The U.S. ranks 10th among industrial countries for percentage of adults with college degrees. Over the past 40 years the gap in graduation rates for wealthy students and low income students has widened significantly. 77 % of the wealthiest quartile of students obtained undergraduate degrees by age 24 in 2013, up from 40 % in 1970. 9 % of the least affluent quartile obtained degrees by the same age in 2013, up from 6 % in 1970.
Like high school, the four undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (alternatively called first year, second year, etc.). Students traditionally apply for admission into colleges. Schools differ in their competitiveness and reputation. Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high school courses taken, the students ' GPA, class ranking, and standardized test scores (Such as the SAT or the ACT tests). Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. While colleges will rarely list that they require a certain standardized test score, class ranking, or GPA for admission, each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.
Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor 's degree in a field of concentration known as a major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor '' in another field of study.) The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor 's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng.,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (B. Phil.) Five - Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B. Arch.)
Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are offered as graduate study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor 's degree depending on the program. These professional fields do not require a specific undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.
Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four - year college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four - year institution, see articulation). Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four - year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards the associate degree, and the university awards the bachelor 's and master 's degrees.
Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master 's degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master 's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). Some students pursue a graduate degree that is in between a master 's degree and a doctoral degree called a Specialist in Education (Ed. S.).
After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master 's degree or Ed. S. degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.), a first professional degree, or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Podiatry Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry Doctor of Psychology, or Juris Doctor. Some programs, such as medicine and psychology, have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation, such as residencies and internships, which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam to legally practice law in nearly all states).
Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student 's undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the Graduate Record Examination (GRE - graduate schools in general), the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor 's degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. 8.9 percent of students receive postgraduate degrees. Most, after obtaining their bachelor 's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.
A few charity institutions cover all of the students ' tuition, although scholarships (both merit - based and need - based) are widely available. Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference. Because each state supports its own university system with state taxes, most public universities charge much higher rates for out - of - state students.
Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state, and many additional fees apply. In 2009, average annual tuition at a public university (for residents of the state) was $7,020. Tuition for public school students from outside the state is generally comparable to private school prices, although students can often qualify for state residency after their first year. Private schools are typically much higher, although prices vary widely from "no - frills '' private schools to highly specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $50,000. Note that these prices do not include living expenses (rent, room / board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as "activities fees '' or health insurance. These fees, especially room and board, can range from $6,000 to $12,000 per academic year (assuming a single student without children).
The mean annual total cost (including all costs associated with a full - time post-secondary schooling, such as tuition and fees, books and supplies, room and board), as reported by collegeboard.com for 2010:
Total, four - year schooling:
College costs are rising at the same time that state appropriations for aid are shrinking. This has led to debate over funding at both the state and local levels. From 2002 to 2004 alone, tuition rates at public schools increased over 14 percent, largely due to dwindling state funding. An increase of 6 percent occurred over the same period for private schools. Between 1982 and 2007, college tuition and fees rose three times as fast as median family income, in constant dollars.
From the US Census Bureau, the median salary of an individual who has only a high school diploma is $27,967; The median salary of an individual who has a bachelor 's degree is $47,345. Certain degrees, such as in engineering, typically result in salaries far exceeding high school graduates, whereas degrees in teaching and social work fall below.
The debt of the average college graduate for student loans in 2010 was $23,200.
A 2010 study indicates that the return on investment for graduating from the top 1000 colleges exceeds 4 % over a high school degree.
According to Uni in the USA, "One of the reasons American universities have thrived is due to their remarkable management of financial resources. '' To combat costs colleges have hired adjunct professors to teach. In 2008 these teachers cost about $1,800 per 3 - credit class as opposed to $8,000 per class for a tenured professor. Two - thirds of college instructors were adjuncts. There are differences of opinion whether these adjuncts teach better or worse than regular professors. There is a suspicion that student evaluation of adjuncts, along with their subsequent continued employment, can lead to grade inflation.
American college and university faculty, staff, alumni, students, and applicants monitor rankings produced by magazines such as U.S. News and World Report, Washington Monthly, Academic Ranking of World Universities, test preparation services such as The Princeton Review or another university itself such as the Top American Research Universities by the University of Florida 's The Center. These rankings are based on factors like brand recognition, selectivity in admissions, generosity of alumni donors, and volume of faculty research. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 27 of the top 50 universities, and 72 institutions of the top 200, are located within the United States. The US has thereby more than twice as many universities represented in the top 200 as does the country with the next highest number, the United Kingdom, which has 29. A small percentage of students who apply to these schools gain admission.
Included among the top 20 institutions identified by ARWU in 2009 are six of the eight schools in the Ivy League; 4 of the 10 schools in the University of California system (Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco); the private Universities of Stanford, Chicago, and Johns Hopkins; the public Universities of Washington and Wisconsin; and the Massachusetts and California Institutes of Technology.
Also renowned within the United States are the so - called Little Ivies and a number of prestigious liberal arts colleges. Certain public universities (sometimes referred to as Public Ivies) are also recognized for their outstanding record in scholarship. Some of these institutions currently place among the elite in certain measurements of graduate education and research, especially among engineering and medical schools.
Each state in the United States maintains its own public university system, which is always non-profit. The State University of New York and the California State University are the largest public higher education systems in the United States; SUNY is the largest system that includes community colleges, while CSU is the largest without. Most areas also have private institutions, which may be for - profit or non-profit. Unlike many other nations, there are no public universities at the national level outside of the military service academies.
Prospective students applying to attend four of the five military academies require, with limited exceptions, nomination by a member of Congress. Like acceptance to "top tier '' universities, competition for these limited nominations is intense and must be accompanied by superior scholastic achievement and evidence of "leadership potential. ''
Aside from these aforementioned schools, academic reputations vary widely among the ' middle - tier ' of American schools, (and even among academic departments within each of these schools.) Most public and private institutions fall into this ' middle ' range. Some institutions feature honors colleges or other rigorous programs that challenge academically exceptional students, who might otherwise attend a ' top - tier ' college. Aware of the status attached to the perception of the college that they attend, students often apply to a range of schools. Some apply to a relatively prestigious school with a low acceptance rate, gambling on the chance of acceptance but, as a backup, also apply to a safety school.
Lower status institutions include community colleges. These are primarily two - year public institutions, which individual states usually require to accept all local residents who seek admission, and offer associate 's degrees or vocational certificate programs. Many community colleges have relationships with four - year state universities and colleges or even private universities that enable their students to transfer to these universities for a four - year degree after completing a two - year program at the community college.
Regardless of perceived prestige, many institutions feature at least one distinguished academic department, and most post-secondary American students attend one of the 2,400 four - year colleges and universities or 1,700 two - year colleges not included among the twenty - five or so ' top - tier ' institutions.
Economics professor Alan Zagier blames credential inflation for the admission of so many unqualified students into college. He reports that the number of new jobs requiring college degrees is less than the number of college graduates. He states that the more money that a state spends on higher education, the slower the economy grows, the opposite of long held notions. Other studies have shown that the level of cognitive achievement attained by students in a country (as measured by academic testing) is closely correlated with the country 's economic growth, but that "increasing the average number of years of schooling attained by the labor force boosts the economy only when increased levels of school attainment also boost cognitive skills. In other words, it is not enough simply to spend more time in school; something has to be learned there. ''
At the college and university level student loan funding is split in half; half is managed by the Department of Education directly, called the Federal Direct Student Loan Program (FDSLP). The other half is managed by commercial entities such as banks, credit unions, and financial services firms such as Sallie Mae, under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP). Some schools accept only FFELP loans; others accept only FDSLP. Still others accept both, and a few schools will not accept either, in which case students must seek out private alternatives for student loans.
Grant funding is provided by the federal Pell Grant program.
Major issues include assessment of proficiency versus growth, funding and legal protection of special education, and excessive student loan debt.
It has been alleged, since the 1950s and especially in recent years, that American schooling is undergoing a crisis in which academic performance is behind other countries, such as Russia, Japan, or China, in core subjects. Congress passed the National Defense Education Act in 1958 in an attempt to rectify these problems, and a series of other legislative acts in later decades such as No Child Left Behind. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, however, American students of 2012 ranked 25th in math, 17th in science, and 14th in reading compared with students in 27 other countries. In 2013, Amanda Ripley published the popular book The Smartest Kids in the World (And How They Got That Way), a comparative study of how the American education system differs from top - performing countries such as Finland and South Korea, but she found some students in South Korea spent over 12 hours per day in the classroom, with evening tutors, plus 2 months longer, while Finland demanded teachers attend extra teacher training and pass rigorous checks which 80 % of teachers failed. Rather than using some clever learning techniques, instead the teachers and students were forced to spend extra, rigorous time in training or double hours to improve results, which in some cases faded away after a year, although the testing of results was also questionable. The author also noted U.S. teachers generally failed to have extra training and selection which could mean better teaching, but also indicated the U.S. could benefit from a culture which valued some higher intellectual levels.
Recent allegations take the perspective of employers who demand more vocational training. Voters in both major parties have been critical of the Common Core initiative.
In 2003 a Supreme Court decision concerning affirmative action in universities allowed educational institutions to consider race as a factor in admitting students, but ruled that strict point systems are unconstitutional. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle - and upper - class non-Asian people of color at the expense of lower class European Americans and Asian Americans.
African American academics Henry Louis Gates and Lani Guinier, while favoring affirmative action, have argued that in practice, it has led to recent black immigrants and their children being greatly overrepresented at elite institutions, at the expense of the historic African American community made up of descendants of slaves. In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, stating that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission.
The rise of the high school movement in the beginning of the 20th century was unique in the United States, such that, high schools were implemented with property - tax funded tuition, openness, non-exclusivity, and were decentralized.
The academic curriculum was designed to provide the students with a terminal degree. The students obtained general knowledge (such as mathematics, chemistry, English composition, etc.) applicable to the high geographic and social mobility in the United States. The provision of the high schools accelerated with the rise of the second industrial revolution. The increase in white collar and skilled blue - collar work in manufacturing was reflected in the demand for high school education.
In the 21st century, the educational attainment of the US population is similar to that of many other industrialized countries with the vast majority of the population having completed secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high school dropouts. As a whole, the population of the United States is becoming increasingly more educated.
Post-secondary education is valued very highly by American society and is one of the main determinants of class and status. As with income, however, there are significant discrepancies in terms of race, age, household configuration and geography.
Since the 1980s the number of educated Americans has continued to grow, but at a slower rate. Some have attributed this to an increase in the foreign born portion of the workforce. However, the decreasing growth of the educational workforce has instead been primarily due to slowing down in educational attainment of people schooled in the United States.
High schools and colleges sharply disagree about the college readiness of high school graduates, in that 90 % of high school teachers believe graduating students are well - prepared, while 44 % of college faculty believe that first - year students are not ready for writing at the college level. Although the high school graduation rate is about 91 % nationwide, the proficiency rates of twelfth - grade students are only 37 % in English and 25 % in mathematics. Despite having a high school diploma that includes a college - preparatory curriculum, along with appropriate high school exit examination scores, 60 % of first - year college students must take noncredit remedial courses in order to bring their literary and mathematical skills up to an adequate level. Even then, only 58 % of students in four - year programs at public colleges will have graduated after six years. The cause can not be excessively demanding college courses, since grade inflation has made those courses increasingly easy in recent decades.
According to research from within the past 20 years, girls generally outperform boys in the classroom on measures of grades across all subjects and graduation rates. This is a turnaround from the early 20th century when boys usually outperformed girls. Boys have still been found to score higher on standardized tests than girls and go on to be better represented in the more prestigious, high - paying STEM fields. There is an ongoing debate over which gender is the most short - changed in the classroom. Parents and educators are concerned about how to motivate males to become better students.
The racial achievement gap in the US refers to the educational disparities between Black and Hispanic students compared with Asian and Caucasian students. This disparity manifests itself in a variety of ways: African - American and Hispanic students are more likely to receive lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, drop out of high school, and are less likely to enter and complete college.
Several reasons have been suggested for these disparities.
One explanation is the disparity in income that exists between African Americans and Whites. This school of thought argues that the origin of this "wealth gap '' is the slavery and racism that made it extremely difficult for African - Americans to accumulate wealth for almost 100 years after slavery was abolished. A comparable history of discrimination created a similar gap between Hispanics and Whites. This results in many minority children being born into low socioeconomic backgrounds, which in turn affects educational opportunities.
Another explanation has to do with family structure. Professor Lino Graglia has suggested that Blacks and Hispanics are falling behind in education because they are increasingly raised in single - parent families.
A third explanation which has been suggested, by, for example University of California, Berkeley Professor Arthur Jensen, in a controversial paper published in 1969, is that there is an innate difference in intelligence between blacks and whites. Other publications are critical of Jensen 's methods and disagree with his conclusions. The idea that the difference in achievement is primarily genetic is controversial, and few members of the academic community accept these findings as fact.
Other explanations offered for the racial achievement gap include: social class, institutional racism, lower quality of schools and teachers in minority communities, and civil injustice. Most authors mention several such factors as influential on outcomes, both in the United States and worldwide.
In the OECD 's Programme for International Student Assessment 2003, which emphasizes problem solving, American 15 - year - olds ranked 24th of 38 in mathematics, 19th of 38 in science, 12th of 38 in reading, and 26th of 38 in problem solving. In the 2006 assessment, the U.S. ranked 35th out of 57 in mathematics and 29th out of 57 in science. Reading scores could not be reported due to printing errors in the instructions of the U.S. test booklets. U.S. scores were behind those of most other developed nations.
However, the picture changes when low achievers, Blacks and Hispanics, in the U.S. are broken out by race. White and Asian students in the United States are generally among the best - performing pupils in the world; black and Hispanic students in the U.S. are among the lowest - achieving pupils. Black and Hispanic students in the US do out perform their counterparts in all African and Hispanic countries.
US fourth and eighth graders tested above average on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study tests, which emphasizes traditional learning.
The United States is one of three OECD countries where the government spends more on schools in rich neighborhoods than in poor neighborhoods, with the others being Turkey and Israel.
Poor education also carries on as students age. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 's (OECD) administer another survey called the Survey of Adult Skills, which is a part of its Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). In the most recent survey done in 2013, 33 nations took part with adults ages 16 to 65 in numeracy, literacy and problem - solving. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) found that millennials -- age from teens to early 30s -- scored low. Millennials in Spain and Italy scored lower than those in the U.S., while in numeracy, the three countries tied for last. U.S. millennials came in last among all 33 nations for problem - solving skills.
Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geography. In an economic analysis, consulting firm McKinsey & Company reports that closing the educational achievement gap between the United States and nations such as Finland and Korea would have increased US GDP by 9 - to - 16 % in 2008.
Narrowing the gap between white students and black and Hispanic students would have added another 2 -- 4 % GDP, while closing the gap between poor and other students would have yielded a 3 - to - 5 % increase in GDP, and that of under - performing states and the rest of the nation another 3 - to - 5 % GDP. In sum, McKinsey 's report suggests, "These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession. ''
Overall the households and demographics featuring the highest educational attainment in the United States are also among those with the highest household income and wealth. Thus, while the population of the US is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, a direct link between income and educational attainment remains.
ACT Inc. reports that 25 % of US graduating high school seniors meet college - readiness benchmarks in English, reading, mathematics, and science. Including the 22 % of students who do not graduate on time, fewer than 20 % of the American youth, who should graduate high school each year, do so prepared for college. The United States has fallen behind the rest of the developed world in education, creating a global achievement gap that alone costs the nation 9 - to - 16 % of potential GDP each year.
In 2007, Americans stood second only to Canada in the percentage of 35 - to 64 - year - olds holding at least two - year degrees. Among 25 - to 34 - year - olds, the country stands tenth. The nation stands 15 out of 29 rated nations for college completion rates, slightly above Mexico and Turkey.
A five - year, $14 million study of U.S. adult literacy involving lengthy interviews of U.S. adults, the most comprehensive study of literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government, was released in September 1993. It involved lengthy interviews of over 26,700 adults statistically balanced for age, gender, ethnicity, education level, and location (urban, suburban, or rural) in 12 states across the U.S. and was designed to represent the U.S. population as a whole. This government study showed that 21 % to 23 % of adult Americans were not "able to locate information in text '', could not "make low - level inferences using printed materials '', and were unable to "integrate easily identifiable pieces of information. ''
The U.S. Department of Education 's 2003 statistics indicated that 14 % of the population -- or 32 million adults -- had very low literacy skills. Statistics were similar in 2013.
In addition to its economic impact, social science provides evidence that the level of educational attainment of a community also has quantifiable impacts on many aspects of well - being, including life expectancy, low birthweight rates, crime, and political engagement.
A 2011 study found that students who were expelled were three times as likely to become involved with the juvenile justice system the following school year.
The United States is one of the very few developed countries where corporal punishment is officially permitted and practiced in its public schools, although the practice has been banned in an increasing number of states beginning in the 1970s. The punishment virtually always consists of spanking the buttocks of a student with a paddle in a punishment known as "paddling. '' Students can be physically punished from kindergarten to the end of high school, meaning that even adults who have reached the age of majority are sometimes spanked by school officials. Although uncommon relative to the overall U.S. student population, more than 167,000 students were paddled in the 2011 -- 2012 school year in American public schools. Virtually all paddling in public schools occurs in the Southern United States, however, with 70 % of paddled students living in just five states: Mississippi, Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia. The practice has been on a steady decline in American schools.
For some schools, a police officer, titled a school resource officer, is on site to screen students for firearms and to help avoid disruptions.
In 2006, one survey found that 50 % to 95 % of American students admitted to having cheated in high school or college at one time or another, results that cast some doubt on measured academic attainment tests.
The charter school movement began in 1990 and have spread rapidly in the United States, members, parents, teachers, and students to allow for the "expression of diverse teaching philosophies and cultural and social life styles. ''
Curricula in the United States can vary widely from district to district. Different schools offer classes centering on different topics, and vary in quality. Some private schools even include religious classes as mandatory for attendance. This raises the question of government funding vouchers in states with anti-Catholic Blaine Amendments in their constitution. This in turn has produced camps of argument over the standardization of curricula and to what degree it should exist. These same groups often are advocates of standardized testing, which is mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act.
There is debate over which subjects should receive the most focus, with astronomy and geography among those cited as not being taught enough in schools.
Schools in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, teach primarily in English, with the exception of specialized language immersion programs.
In 2015, 584,000 students in Puerto Rico were taught in Spanish, their native language.
The Native American Cherokee Nation instigated a 10 - year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. In 2010, 84 children were being educated in this manner.
Some 9.7 million children aged 5 to 17 primarily speak a language other than English at home. Of those, about 1.3 million children do not speak English well or at all.
In 1999 the School Board of the state of Kansas caused controversy when it decided to eliminate teaching of evolution in its state assessment tests. Scientists from around the country objected. Many religious and family values groups, on the other hand, stated that evolution is "simply a theory '' in the colloquial sense (not the academic sense, which means specific and well supported reasoning), and as such creationist ideas should therefore be taught alongside it as an alternative viewpoint. A majority of the board supported teaching intelligent design or creationism in public schools. The new standards, including Intelligent Design, were enacted on November 8, 2005. On February 13, 2007, the board rejected these amended science standards enacted in 2005, overturning the mandate to teach Intelligent Design.
Almost all students in the U.S. receive some form of sex education at least once between grades 7 and 12; many schools begin addressing some topics as early as grades 4 or 5. However, what students learn varies widely, because curriculum decisions are so decentralized. Many states have laws governing what is taught in sex education classes or allowing parents to opt out. Some state laws leave curriculum decisions to individual school districts.
For example, a 1999 study by the Guttmacher Institute found that most U.S. sex education courses in grades 7 through 12 cover puberty, HIV, STDs, abstinence, implications of teenage pregnancy, and how to resist peer pressure. Other studied topics, such as methods of birth control and infection prevention, sexual orientation, sexual abuse, and factual and ethical information about abortion, varied more widely.
However, according to a 2004 survey, a majority of the 1001 parent groups polled wants complete sex education in the schools. The American people are heavily divided over the issue. Over 80 % of polled parents agreed with the statement "Sex education in school makes it easier for me to talk to my child about sexual issues, '' while under 17 % agreed with the statement that their children were being exposed to "subjects I do n't think my child should be discussing. '' 10 percent believed that their children 's sexual education class forced them to discuss sexual issues "too early. '' On the other hand, 49 percent of the respondents (the largest group) were "somewhat confident '' that the values taught in their children 's sex ed classes were similar to those taught at home, and 23 percent were less confident still. (The margin of error was plus or minus 4.7 percent.)
According to The 74, an American education news website, the United States uses two methods to teach sex education. Comprehensive sex education focuses on sexual risk reduction. This method focuses on the benefits of contraception and safe sex. The abstinence - emphasized curriculum focuses on sexual risk avoidance, discouraging activity that could become a "gateway '' to sexual activities.
In some states, textbooks are selected for all students at the state level, and decisions made by larger states, such as California and Texas, that represent a considerable market for textbook publishers and can exert influence over the content of textbooks generally, thereby influencing the curriculum taught in public schools,
In 2010, the Texas Board of Education passed more than 100 amendments to the curriculum standards, affecting history, sociology and economics courses to ' add balance ' given that academia was ' skewed too far to the left '. One specific result of these amendments is to increase education on Moses ' influences on the founding of the United States, going as far as calling him a "founding father ''.
This effect is however reduced with modern publishing techniques which allow books to be tailored to individual states.
As of January 2009, the four largest college textbook publishers in the United States were: Pearson Education (including such imprints as Addison - Wesley and Prentice Hall), Cengage Learning (formerly Thomson Learning), McGraw - Hill Education, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Other US textbook publishers include: John Wiley & Sons, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, F.A. Davis Company, W.W. Norton & Company, SAGE Publications, and Flat World Knowledge.
Culturally - responsive curriculum is a framework for teaching that acknowledges and the various cultural backgrounds of all students in the classroom to make learning more accessible, especially for students of color. It is the outgrowth of research evidence that suggests that attitudes towards others, especially with regard to race, are socially constructed (or learned) at a young age. Therefore, the values that we attach to various groups of people are a reflection of the behavior we have observed around us, especially in the classroom. Culturally - responsive curriculum responds to the importance of teachers connecting with students in increasingly diverse classrooms in the US by incorporating sociocultural elements into curriculum. The goal of culturally - responsive curriculum is to ensure equitable access to education for students from all cultures.
Culturally - responsive curriculum draws directly on the idea of a "hidden curriculum '' or system of values that teachers impart on students in the classroom. Culturally - responsive curriculum attempts to break down the dominant cultural bias that often pervades curriculum and instruction. Similar to the anti-bias approach, culturally - responsive curriculum is intended to help students and teachers "recognize the connections between ethnicity, gender, religion, and social class, and power, privilege, prestige, and opportunity. '' Culturally - responsive curriculum specifically responds to the cultural needs of students as learners in the classroom.
A study by Howard in 2001, documents student 's responses to culturally - responsive curriculum and teaching strategies. The study found that these methods had a positive effect on student engagement and effort in the classroom. These findings are consistent with the theoretical claims of culturally - responsive curriculum.
Teachers can gain in - depth understandings of their students ' individual needs by engaging with parents, learning about culturally - specific ways of communicating and learning, and allowing students to direct their learning and to collaborate on assignments that are both culturally and socially relevant to them.
Culturally - responsive curriculum is also implemented at the level of preservice teacher education. One study by Evans - Winters and Hoff found that preservice teachers do not necessarily recognize or acknowledge the intersections of race and other social factors in understanding and characterizing systems of oppression. A shift in preservice training has been made toward a more self - reflective model that encourages teachers to be reflective of the types of cultural and social attitudes they are promoting in their teaching practices. This kind of preservice education can help teachers anticipate social - identity related tensions that might occur in the classroom and think critically about how to approach them.
Reality pedagogy is one model of culturally - responsive pedagogy that uses individual student backgrounds to adapt curriculum and instruction. It was introduced by Columbia Teachers ' College professor, Christopher Emdin, and elaborated in his book For White Folks who Teach in the Hood... and the Rest of Y'all Too: Reality Pedagogy and Urban Education. Emdin promotes the use of cultural code - switching in the classroom to connect vernacular concepts with academic concepts. Reality pedagogy is a form of culturally - responsive pedagogy that attempts to bridge community - based knowledge with classroom learning experiences.
The notion of gender - sensitive curriculum acknowledges the current reality of our bi-gender world and attempts to break down socialized learning outcomes that reinforce the notion that girls and boys are good at different things. Research has shown that while girls do struggle more in the areas of math and science and boys in the area of language arts, this is a socialization phenomenon, rather than a physiological one. One key to creating a gender - friendly classroom is "differentiation '' which essentially means when teachers plan and deliver their instruction with an awareness of gender and other student differences. Teachers can strategically group students for learning activities by a variety of characteristics so as to maximize individual strengths and contributions. Research has also shown that teacher 's differ in how they treat girls and boys in the classroom. Gender - sensitive practices necessitate equitable and appropriate attention to all learners. Teacher attention to content is also extremely important. For example, when trying to hold boy 's attention teachers will often use examples that reference classically male roles, perpetuating a gender bias in content.
In addition to curriculum that recognizes that gender impacts all students and their learning, other gender - sensitive curriculum directly engages gender - diversity issues and topics. Some curricular approaches include integrating gender through story problems, writing prompts, readings, art assignments, research projects and guest lectures that foster spaces for students to articulate their own understandings and beliefs about gender.
LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum is curriculum that includes positive representations of LGBTQ people, history, and events. LGBTQ curriculum also attempts to integrate these narratives without biasing the LGBTQ experience as a separate and fragmented from overarching social narratives and not as intersecting with ethnic, racial, and other forms of diversity that exist among LGBTQ individuals.
The purpose of LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum is to ensure that LGBTQ students feel properly represented in curriculum narratives and therefore safer coming to school and more comfortable discussing LGBTQ - related topics. A study by GLSEN examined the impact of LGBTQ - inclusive practices on LGBTQ student 's perceptions of safety. They study found that LGBT students in inclusive school - settings were much less likely to feel unsafe because of their identities and more likely to perceive their peers as accepting and supportive.
Implementation of LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum involves both curriculum decisions and harnessing teachable moments in the classroom. One study by Snapp et al. showed that teachers often failed to intervene in LGBTQ - bullying.
Other research has suggested that education for healthcare professionals on how to better support LGBTQ patients has benefits for LGBTQ - healthcare service. Education in how to be empathic and conscientious of the needs of LGBTQ patients fits within the larger conversation about culturally - responsive healthcare.
Ability - inclusive curriculum is another curriculum model that adapts to the social, physical, and cultural needs of the students. Inclusion in the US education system refers to the approach to educating students with special needs in a mainstream classroom. This model involves cultivating a strong relationship between teacher and student, and between non-special needs students and special needs students. Like the other models of culturally - inclusive curriculum, ability - inclusive curriculum often involves collaboration, parental - involvement, the creation of a safe and welcoming environment, returning agency to the students over their learning, and fostering open discussion about individual differences and strengths.
Research generally demonstrates neutral or positive effects of inclusive education. A study by Kreimeyer et al. showed that a group of deaf / hard - of - hearing students in an inclusive classroom scored better than the national averages on reading comprehension, vocabulary, and mathematical problem solving measures. Another study showed that inclusive practices increased literacy rates for autistic students. Many theorists champion the potential socio - emotional benefits of inclusion. However research on the social dynamics of inclusive classrooms suggest that special needs students might occupy a lower social standing that non-special needs students.
Currently, the state and national governments share power over public education, with the states exercising most of the control. Except for Hawaii, states delegate power to county, city or township - level school boards that exercise control over a school district. Some school districts may further delegate significant authority to principals, such as those who have adopted the Portfolio strategy.
The U.S. federal government exercises its control through the U.S. Department of Education. Education is not mentioned in the constitution of the United States, but the federal government uses the threat of decreased funding to enforce laws pertaining to education. Under recent administrations, initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind Act and Race to the Top have attempted to assert more central control in a heavily decentralized system.
Nonprofit private schools are widespread, are largely independent of the government, and include secular as well as parochial schools. Educational accreditation decisions for private schools are made by voluntary regional associations.
Tracking is the practice of dividing students at the primary or secondary school level into classes on the basis of ability or achievement. One common use is to offer different curricula for students preparing for college and for those preparing for direct entry into technical schools or the workplace.
The method of placing students in a specific grade based on birthday cut off dates has often been used with immigrant children. A study conducted by Dylan Conger on effects of grade placement on English learners found that schools are often rushed to make a decision on what grade an incoming student should be placed, so they base their decision on the child 's birthday. Unfortunately, teachers and staff are not always able to test the child 's knowledge to determine what grade level would be better for the students based on what they already know. This can cause some difficulties for immigrant students. A study conducted on teacher expectation of Somali Bantu refugee students found that teachers can hold expectations for students to already know certain material when they enter their classroom, such as how to use a computer or how to behave in a classroom. When these students learned something that the teacher already expected them to know, it was not given the same importance compared to learning something that was being taught in that grade level, such as math proficiency or computer use. Things can become more difficult for students when entering in the middle of the academic year. A study focused on the impact of late arrivals for immigrant students found that, due to constant moving, students entering in the middle of the academic year encountered material they were not familiar with or ended up repeating material they had already learned.
There is still limited research that has been conducted in the United States on the effects of placing immigrant students in a specific grade based on birthday cut off dates. In a study about Thailand 's education policy on children of migrants, Thai schools often required migrant students to be proficient in the Thai language and to have gone through a learning center before enrolling into a public school. If a student was younger than 7, they would be placed in kindergarten, and if they were older, they would be placed in a first grade class. Therefore, students that were 15 could still enroll as a first grader. The purpose for these methods was to ensure that migrant students were better prepared to start school, but it did cause some issues for both the student and the teachers. The study found that even though older students placed in first grade classrooms were more obedient, the students had trouble connecting with their fellow classmates and teacher had to address them differently due to their age. Thai public schools attempted to address this issue by some implementing a rule that a student could not be older than 9 to enroll, but this lead to learning centers not given recommendations to public school for older students. More research is needed in order to better understand the effects of grade placement in immigrant students.
Libraries have been considered important to educational goals. Library books are more readily available to Americans than to people in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, Austria and all the Mediterranean nations. The average American borrowed more library books in 2001 than his or her peers in Germany, Austria, Norway, Ireland, Luxembourg, France and throughout the Mediterranean. Americans buy more books than people in Europe.
Teachers have been frustrated with lack of parent involvement in the learning process, particularly in the earlier grades. Children spend about 26 % of their time in school, sleep 40 %, leaving about 34 % of their time left - over. Teachers believe that parents are not supervising their children 's free time to encourage the learning process, such as basic literacy, which is crucial not only to later success in life, but also to keeping them out of prison.
The Trump Administration proposed to combine the Department of Education with the Department of Labor as one of the federal government reforms. The supposed logic behind this move is that majority of Americans attend school hoping to land a job. Therefore, it is not practical for the federal government to maintain separate departments for schools and employment. This proposal takes for granted that government must create a career path suitable for the younger generation. President Trump presumes the current economic power platform must have the backing of educational institutions. His administration presents its political philosophy in the report, Delivering Government Solutions in the 21st Century.
The Trump administration prefers the federal branch to concentrate on making use of the effectiveness of skills - building as well as the so - called "education to career pipeline. '' A recent report from Fortune.com mentioned that the Department of Education is among the smallest government agencies with only 3,900 employees. On the other hand, the Department of Labor employs around 15,000 personnel. The two departments can coordinate on training matters with the enactment of the Workforce innovation and Opportunity Act in 2014. However, actual savings on expenditures with this planned fusion may not be too significant.
This is not the first time such a combination was suggested. During the administration of President Clinton, Republicans also proposed putting together these two departments with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission under a single umbrella called the Department of Education and Employment. Regardless of whether the proposition becomes legislation, the introduction of this plan can be a political factor for the Republican Party. Going further, such consolidation will create a new and unified department and four sub-agencies which include the American Workforce and Higher Education Administration. The proposal will establish these sub-agencies that will focus on K - 12 Education as well as research, assessment, administration, and enforcement.
for more detailed bibliography see History of Education in the United States: Bibliography
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exponent of avant garde artistic movement early 20 century | Avant - garde - wikipedia
The avant - garde (from French, "advance guard '' or "vanguard '', literally "fore - guard '') are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, and it may offer a critique of the relationship between producer and consumer.
The avant - garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant - garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, as distinct from postmodernism. Many artists have aligned themselves with the avant - garde movement and still continue to do so, tracing a history from Dada through the Situationists to postmodern artists such as the Language poets around 1981.
The avant - garde also promotes radical social reforms. It was this meaning that was evoked by the Saint Simonian Olinde Rodrigues in his essay "L'artiste, le savant et l'industriel '' ("The artist, the scientist and the industrialist '', 1825), which contains the first recorded use of "avant - garde '' in its now customary sense: there, Rodrigues calls on artists to "serve as (the people 's) avant - garde '', insisting that "the power of the arts is indeed the most immediate and fastest way '' to social, political and economic reform.
Several writers have attempted to map the parameters of avant - garde activity. The Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the earliest analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dell'arte d'avanguardia (The Theory of the Avant - Garde). Surveying the historical, social, psychological and philosophical aspects of vanguardism, Poggioli reaches beyond individual instances of art, poetry, and music to show that vanguardists may share certain ideals or values which manifest themselves in the non-conformist lifestyles they adopt: He sees vanguard culture as a variety or subcategory of Bohemianism. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggioli 's study. The German literary critic Peter Bürger 's Theory of the Avant - Garde (1974) looks at the Establishment 's embrace of socially critical works of art and suggests that in complicity with capitalism, "art as an institution neutralizes the political content of the individual work ''.
Bürger 's essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art - historians such as the German Benjamin H.D. Buchloh (born 1941). Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry (2000) critically argues for a dialectical approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre - specific definitions.
The concept of avant - garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to mainstream cultural values and often has a trenchant social or political edge. Many writers, critics and theorists made assertions about vanguard culture during the formative years of modernism, although the initial definitive statement on the avant - garde was the essay Avant - Garde and Kitsch by New York art critic Clement Greenberg, published in Partisan Review in 1939. As the essay 's title suggests, Greenberg argued that vanguard culture has historically been opposed to "high '' or "mainstream '' culture, and that it has also rejected the artificially synthesized mass culture that has been produced by industrialization. Each of these media is a direct product of Capitalism -- they are all now substantial industries -- and as such they are driven by the same profit - fixated motives of other sectors of manufacturing, not the ideals of true art. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch: phony, faked or mechanical culture, which often pretended to be more than they were by using formal devices stolen from vanguard culture. For instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal.
Various members of the Frankfurt School argued similar views: thus Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer in their essay The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass - Deception (1944), and also Walter Benjamin in his highly influential "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction '' (1935, rev. 1939). Where Greenberg used the German word kitsch to describe the antithesis of avant - garde culture, members of the Frankfurt School coined the term "mass culture '' to indicate that this bogus culture is constantly being manufactured by a newly emerged culture industry (comprising commercial publishing houses, the movie industry, the record industry, and the electronic media). They also pointed out that the rise of this industry meant that artistic excellence was displaced by sales figures as a measure of worth: a novel, for example, was judged meritorious solely on whether it became a best - seller, music succumbed to ratings charts and to the blunt commercial logic of the Gold disc. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales increasingly became the measure, and justification, of everything. Consumer culture now ruled.
The avant - garde 's co-option by the global capitalist market, by neoliberal economies, and by what Guy Debord called The Society of the Spectacle, have made contemporary critics speculate on the possibility of a meaningful avant - garde today. Paul Mann 's Theory - Death of the Avant - Garde demonstrates how completely the avant - garde is embedded within institutional structures today, a thought also pursued by Richard Schechner in his analyses of avant - garde performance.
Despite the central arguments of Greenberg, Adorno and others, various sectors of the mainstream culture industry have co-opted and misapplied the term "avant - garde '' since the 1960s, chiefly as a marketing tool to publicise popular music and commercial cinema. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film - makers as "avant - garde '', the very word having been stripped of its proper meaning. Noting this important conceptual shift, major contemporary theorists such as Matei Calinescu in Five Faces of Modernity: Modernism, Avant - garde, Decadence, Kitsch, Postmodernism (1987), and Hans Bertens in The Idea of the Postmodern: A History (1995), have suggested that this is a sign our culture has entered a new post-modern age, when the former modernist ways of thinking and behaving have been rendered redundant.
Nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Trying to strike a balance between the insights of Renato Poggioli and the claims of Clement Greenberg, Rosenberg suggested that from the mid-1960s onward progressive culture ceased to fulfill its former adversarial role. Since then it has been flanked by what he called "avant - garde ghosts to the one side, and a changing mass culture on the other '', both of which it interacts with to varying degrees. This has seen culture become, in his words, "a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it ''.
Avant - garde in music can refer to any form of music working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether. By this definition, some avant - garde composers of the 20th century include Arnold Schoenberg, Charles Ives, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, George Antheil (in his earliest works only), Alban Berg, Henry Cowell (in his earliest works), Philip Glass, Harry Partch, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Richard Strauss (in his earliest work), Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgard Varèse, and Iannis Xenakis. Although most avant - garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant - gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, and Laurie Anderson.
There is another definition of "Avant - gardism '' that distinguishes it from "modernism '': Peter Bürger, for example, says avant - gardism rejects the "institution of art '' and challenges social and artistic values, and so necessarily involves political, social, and cultural factors. According to the composer and musicologist Larry Sitsky, modernist composers from the early 20th century who do not qualify as avant - gardists include Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Igor Stravinsky; later modernist composers who do not fall into the category of avant - gardists include Elliott Carter, Milton Babbitt, György Ligeti, Witold Lutosławski, and Luciano Berio, since "their modernism was not conceived for the purpose of goading an audience. ''
Whereas the avant - garde has a significant history in 20th - century music, it is more pronounced in theatre and performance art, and often in conjunction with music and sound design innovations, as well as developments in visual media design. There are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant - garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada.
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joni mitchell - you turn me on i'm a radio | You Turn Me on, I 'm a Radio - wikipedia
"You Turn Me On, I 'm a Radio '' is a song written and originally recorded by Canadian singer songwriter Joni Mitchell. It was released on her fifth studio album entitled For the Roses and was issued as a single as well.
Joni Mitchell originally wrote the song in response to her record label 's desire for her to write a hit song. Mitchell reveals her purpose on lines such as, "And I 'm sending you out this signal here, I hope you can pick it up loud and clear ''. She believed that including words in the song about radio themes would convince stations to play the recording. The song was recorded in preparation for Mitchell 's upcoming fifth studio album in Hollywood, California, United States at A&M Studios. Although Graham Nash, David Crosby, and Neil Young all contributed to the recording session for the song, only the harmonica piece performed by Graham Nash was included on the official release.
"You Turn Me On, I 'm a Radio '' was released as a single in November 1972 via Asylum Records. The song became Mitchell 's first top - ten hit in Canada, reaching the tenth position on the RPM Top Singles chart. Additionally, the single became her first top - forty hit in the United States, reaching number twenty - five on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside North America, "You Turn Me On, I 'm a Radio '' peaked within the top - forty on the Australian Kent Music Report chart. The single was included on Mitchell 's fifth studio effort For the Roses, which was issued in November 1972.
Among numerous cover versions, American country artist Gail Davies released her version of "You Turn Me On, I 'm a Radio '' as a single in 1982. Davies befriended Joni Mitchell during the early 1970s after becoming a session musician for A&M Records in California. As a tribute to Mitchell, Davies decided to record the song. Following the single 's release to radio, Davies was congratulated by both Mitchell and Henry Lewy. Lewy was responsible for introducing Davies to the self - production of her own recordings. The song was recorded at the "Producer 's Workshop '' in Hollywood, California, United States in July 1982. It was produced entirely by Davies in preparation for her fourth studio record Givin ' Herself Away.
"You Turn Me On, I 'm a Radio '' was released as a single via Warner Bros. Records in June 1982. The song reached the seventeenth position on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in 1982. It became her seventh top - twenty hit on the country singles chart and her second from her fourth studio album. Additionally, the single peaked at number seven on the Canadian RPM Country Singles chart, becoming her second top - ten single on that chart.
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who was burned in game of thrones season 2 episode 7 | A Man Without Honor - wikipedia
"A Man Without Honor '' is the seventh episode of the second season of HBO 's medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones.
The episode is written by series co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss and directed, for the second time in this season, by David Nutter. It premiered on May 13, 2012.
The name of the episode comes from Catelyn Stark 's assessment of Ser Jaime Lannister: "You are a man without honor, '' after he kills a member of his own family to attempt escape.
Sansa Stark thanks Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane for saving her during the riots, but her thanks are met with a cold reception. Later, Sansa is awakened by a nightmare of the riots and discovers that she has bled, with the implication that she can now be wed to Joffrey Baratheon and bear his children. When Shae discovers Sansa trying to cut the blood from her sheets, she begins to aid her, but they are discovered by one of the Queen 's handmaidens, who rushes to tell Queen Regent Cersei Lannister. Shae catches the maid in the hall and threatens her life should the maid tell anyone, but upon Shae 's return, Shae discovers the Hound has seen the sheet as well. Cersei meets with Sansa to discuss her duty to Joffrey, but tells Sansa that it will be impossible to love Joffrey, so she should just focus on loving her children. Tyrion Lannister tells Cersei that Stannis Baratheon 's fleet will be arriving in days and the king 's plan to repel them might not work. Cersei tries to defend her relationship with Jaime Lannister by reiterating how incest was relatively common (and particularly common in House Targaryen during its nearly 300 - year rule over Westeros), but she ultimately tells Tyrion her belief that she is being punished with an uncontrollable Joffrey for committing incest.
Jon Snow continues to search for his companions with his prisoner, Ygritte, in tow. When Ygritte deduces that Jon has never been with a woman, and upon learning of his vow of celibacy, she is dumbfounded and tries to convince him that life would be better with the wildlings, under Mance Rayder. She also teases him about his lack of sexual experience, offering to show him how. Jon remains true to his vows and repeatedly rebuffs her advances. While crossing a muddy passage, Ygritte is able to slip away from Jon and make an escape. Jon pursues her but is unable to find her until she draws his attention by whistling to him, revealing herself and several wildlings that have been hiding nearby. More wildlings then emerge from nearby hiding places, revealing that Jon is surrounded.
Lord Tywin Lannister orders Ser Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane to find Amory Lorch 's killer, believing that the murder of Lorch was actually an attempt on his own life. When Clegane leaves, Tywin invites Arya Stark to eat with him. They discuss Tywin 's desire to leave a legacy and the conquest of Westeros by Aegon the Conqueror, which led to the destruction of Harrenhal. Tywin is surprised to learn that Arya knows so much about Aegon and his sister - wives. Having deduced that she is highborn, he tells her that she says, "My lord, '' instead of, "M'lord, '' like a commoner would, and advises her that if she is trying to hide her highborn status, she should do it more carefully. She rebuffs this by stating her mother served a noblewoman for many years, and taught her to speak properly. He (not unkindly) tells her she is too smart for her own good.
King Robb Stark hears Alton Lannister 's unfavorable reply to the peace terms he brought to Queen Regent Cersei. Lord Roose Bolton informs Robb that his prisons are full, so Robb orders the construction of a new pen to keep Alton in, and orders him placed with Ser Jaime Lannister in the meantime. Robb also meets with Talisa Maegyr to discuss getting her more medical supplies. Robb asks her to come with him to the Crag to see the Maester for her supplies, which she agrees to do.
After a prolonged friendly conversation, Jaime brutally kills Alton to kick off an escape plan. When the jailer, Torrhen Karstark, enters the pen to investigate the disturbance, Jaime strangles him with his chains, takes the key from his body to free himself, and flees. In the morning, he is recaptured and brought back to the Stark camp. Lord Rickard Karstark demands the Kingslayer 's head in retribution for murdering his son. Catelyn Stark, with the assistance of Brienne of Tarth, is able to delay the execution until Robb returns from the Crag. Catelyn confronts Jaime about Alton 's death and calls him a man without honor for breaking his vows. Jaime bitterly explains that his vows as a knight included requirements to defend the innocent, obey his father, and serve the king... but that his father despised his king, and his king was slaughtering the innocent, rendering his vows conflicting. Jaime considers concepts like "honor '' and "loyalty '' naive at best and hypocritical at worst. Jaime also asserts that he has only been intimate with Cersei and thus has more honor than Eddard Stark, Catelyn 's late husband, who fathered the bastard Jon Snow. He baits and insults Catelyn by telling her that she must hate Jon as a living reminder of Ned 's infidelity. This brings Catelyn to a breaking point and she asks for Brienne 's sword.
Having lost her dragons, Daenerys Targaryen has difficulty trusting Xaro Xhoan Daxos when he tells her he did not take them. Later, Ser Jorah Mormont returns from his search for a ship and vows to Daenerys to find her dragons. He seeks out the shadowbinder Quaithe, who knows much of the dragons and Jorah 's feelings for Daenerys. Quaithe informs Jorah that although she does not have the dragons, Daenerys is currently with the one who does. At a meeting of the Thirteen, Pyat Pree tells Daenerys that he has her dragons in the "House of the Undying. '' Shortly after this revelation, Xaro, with the aid of Pree, proclaims himself King of Qarth. Pree, having multiplied himself around the room, assassinates the remaining eleven members of the Thirteen, and Daenerys flees with Mormont and Kovarro.
Prince Theon Greyjoy wakes in the morning and finds the wildling Osha gone from his bed. Outside, he discovers one of his men has been killed, and Bran Stark, Rickon Stark, Hodor and Osha have fled Winterfell in the night. While berating his men for the escape of the children, he is challenged by Black Lorren for sleeping with Osha. Theon brutally beats Lorren and then begins a hunt for the two boys and their companions, against the wishes of Maester Luwin. After arriving at a farm, Theon is displeased to learn the dogs have lost the trail, but Dagmer Cleftjaw discovers walnut shells in the farm yard, indicating Bran and Rickon may have passed through. Theon then orders Luwin back to Winterfell so he may interrogate the farm owner.
After returning from the hunt, Theon calls the people to the square, and after Luwin 's arrival, reveals to them the charred remains of two children as a warning to those who do not respect his rule. Luwin cries out in horror for Bran and Rickon, while Theon looks upon the corpses and appears visibly uncomfortable, barely able to hide his guilt.
The episode was written by producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, their fourth of six scripts for the second season. This episode adapts content from the second novel, A Clash of Kings, chapters Theon IV, Sansa IV and parts of Catelyn V and Catelyn VII.
"A Man Without Honor '' was watched by 3.69 million American households in its initial telecast on HBO. In the United Kingdom, the episode was seen by 0.935 million viewers on Sky Atlantic, being the channel 's highest - rated broadcast that week.
The episode received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 12 reviews of the episode and judged 92 % of them to be positive, with an average score of 8.85 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Quieter and more meditative than previous episodes, ' A Man Without Honor ' is bolstered by incredible performances and a welcome return to an unlikely but surprisingly satisfying onscreen duo. '' IGN 's Matt Fowler gave the episode a 9 out of 10, noting that "While A Man Without Honor did n't have as many big, striking scenes as some of the past few episodes, it made up for its lack of face - melting moments with some absolutely fantastic one - on - one scenes. '' The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave it an A -.
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how do you say young lady in german | Fräulein - wikipedia
Fräulein (German: (ˈfʁɔɪ̯laɪ̯n) (listen)) is the German language honorific previously in common use for unmarried women, comparable to Miss in English.
Fräulein is the diminutive form of Frau, which was previously reserved only for married women. Frau is in origin the equivalent of "Mylady '' or "Madam '', a form of address of a noblewoman. But by an ongoing process of devaluation of honorifics, it came to be used as the unmarked term for "woman '' by about 1800. Therefore, Fräulein came to be interpreted as expressing a "diminutive of woman '', as it were implying that a Fräulein is not - quite - a-woman. By the 1960s, this came to be seen as patronising by proponents of feminism, and during the 1970s and 1980s, the term Fräulein became nearly taboo in urban and official settings, while it remained an unmarked standard in many rural areas. This process was somewhat problematic, at least during the 1970s to 1980s, since many unmarried women of the older generation insisted on Fräulein as a term of distinction, respecting their status, and took the address of Frau as offensive or suggestive of extra-marital sexual experience.
Since the 1970s, Fräulein has come to be used less often, and was banned from official use in West Germany in 1972 by the Minister of the Interior. Nowadays, style guides and dictionaries recommend that all women be addressed as Frau regardless of marital status, particularly in formal situations. A newsletter published on the website of the German dictionary Duden in 2002, for instance, noted that women should only be addressed as Fräulein when they specifically request this form of address.
Despite its less common everyday use nowadays, Fräulein has seen a revival in recent years as a vogue term, especially in popular culture. The term has also seen a rise in use by antiquarians, traditionalists and reactionaries.
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who had jerusalem at the end of the crusades | History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem - wikipedia
Jerusalem was conquered by the Christian First Crusade in 1099, after it had been under the Muslim rule for 450 years. It became the capital of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem, until it was again conquered by the Ayyubids in 1187. For the next forty years, a series of Christian campaigns (the Third, Fourth and Fifth Crusades) attempted in vain to retake the city, until Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor leading the Sixth Crusade successfully negotiated its return in 1229. In 1244, the city was taken by the Khwarazmian dynasty and mostly destroyed. After 1250, it came under the rule of the Mamluk sultanate and was gradually rebuilt during the later 13th century.
The Crusaders conquered the city in 1099 and held it until its conquest by the army of Saladin in 1187 and its surrender to the Ayyubid dynasty, a Muslim sultanate that ruled in the Middle East in the early 12th century. The Sixth Crusade put Jerusalem back under Crusader rule (1229 -- 44), until the city was captured by the Khwarazmian dynasty. The Crusader -- Ayyubid conflict ended with the rise of the Mamluks from Egypt in 1260 and their conquest of the Holy Land.
The Ayyubid period ended with waves of destruction of the city. Its fortifications were destroyed first, and later most of the buildings, as part of a deliberate scorched earth policy intended to prevent all future crusades from gaining a foothold in the city and region.
This was a short but relatively turbulent and significant period in the history of Jerusalem. For the first time since the destruction of the city in 70 C.E., Jerusalem was the capital of a separate political entity, a status only regained during the British Mandate in the 20th century.
The Crusader period in the history of Jerusalem decisively influenced the history of the whole Middle East, radiating beyond the region into the Islamic World and Christian Europe. The Crusades elevated the position of Jerusalem in the hierarchy of places holy to Islam, but it did not become a spiritual or political center of Islam. By the end of the Ayyubid period the name of Jerusalem was no longer connected to the idea of jihad, and the city 's geopolitical status declined, becoming a secondary city, first for the Mamluk Empire, and later for the Ottomans.
These turmoils did not spare the Jewish community of Jerusalem, who, despite difficult circumstances, struggled amid the waves of death and destruction, and rebuilt the fallen city.
The conquest of Jerusalem became the prime objective of the First Crusade, which was launched in 1095 with Pope Urban II 's call to arms. Four main crusader armies left Europe in August 1096. On June 7, 1099, having given up on the unsuccessful siege of Arqa, the crusaders arrived at Jerusalem. The city was besieged by the army on June 13. Attacks on the city walls started on July 14, and on July 15 they raised a siege tower. By noon the Crusaders were on the wall and the Muslim defenses collapsed.
With the conquest of Jerusalem, most Crusaders returned home to Europe, and only a small number of pilgrims settled in the Holy Land. They faced vast challenges, including having their capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem outside the main trade routes and away from coastal ports.
The Crusaders ' massacre in Jerusalem created a dramatic change in the composition of the population. Muslims and Jews were murdered or deported and banned from the city. William of Tyre wrote:
gentiles who had almost lost all its inhabitants with the sword after the city was broken into by force, if some escaped by accident, do not give them more room in the city to live. Heaven - fearing leaders seemed sacrilege which would allow those who were not among the followers of Christianity have such an esteemed residents instead.
After the conquest, Jerusalem was emptied of inhabitants, and many houses were abandoned. The Latin city 's population was very small and centered upon the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Tower of David. William of Tyre wrote:
within the walls of cities, in houses, just hard to find a safe place, that the inhabitants were few and scattered and ruined walls were open enemy attack. Thieves were attacking at night, breaking into the abandoned cities, whose inhabitants lived far from one another. As a result, some secretly, others openly would have left the property that have acquired and began returning to their countries.
The Crusaders ' first step was to stop the fleeing population by announcing a law that a person holding an asset for a year becomes its owner. Real improvement was achieved by populating Jerusalem with residents belonging to sects of Eastern Christianity. First, Christians who had been deported before the siege were returned to the city and named by the Crusaders as "Syrian. '' At the same time, the local authorities encouraged other Christians to settle in Jerusalem Christians, although suspicious relations between these various groups and the struggle for supremacy and control of the Holy Sepulchre caused many problems. In 1115 Syrian Christians, uprooted from their homes in Transjordan, settled in the city, creating a continuously populated district on the north side of town, which was named after them. Simultaneously, the Crusader rulers encouraged commerce, and in 1120 King Baldwin II of Jerusalem imposed duties on goods and food products brought into Jerusalem. This was then extended to all types of trade and all agricultural food products brought from the hinterland into the city.
Unusually for a city in the Middle Ages, the economy of Jerusalem relied heavily on the tourism of pilgrims from Christian Europe. It received a further boost when it was exempted from customs enabling the city 's markets to develop and sell the pilgrims imported goods. The importance of this industry continued to grow with the establishment of Jerusalem as a holy place, which also led to improved roads and traffic safety. Another factor affecting the economy of the city was the various administrative centers - regal, ecclesiastical, and military - that operated from Jerusalem.
Being a capital city, Jerusalem was the center of a number of military orders. The oldest was the Knights Hospitaller, which was originally established to provide medical assistance to Christian pilgrims who travelled to Jerusalem. In time, the order assumed military functions to fight against Muslims. Its first location was in a place that is now known as Muristan, close to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The order built hospital and a shelter for pilgrims there. Benjamin of Tudela said that the Order was set to fight against the infidels ' 400 knights riding.
The second order was the Knights Templar, founded in 1118. Its official function, as stated in the founders ' declaration, was to protect the Crusader kingdom in the Holy Land and the pilgrims ' access to the holy places in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Alongside the protection of pilgrims, the Templars provided a significant military force that included thousands of soldiers, with several hundred knights, in defense of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Templars established their headquarters at Al - Aqsa Mosque and over time added complex structures and strengthened the fortifications. Benjamin of Tudela said that "300 knights '' out of Solomon 's Temple were ready to fight the enemies of the Christian faith.
Another order, the Order of Saint Lazarus, was founded to care for leprosy patients. A special place was set for them outside of the walls of Jerusalem, named after Saint Lazarus. This Leper House gave its name to leper colonies established all over Europe. The Order of Saint Lazarus included both lepers and healthy people who held religious and military positions. This phenomenon, a military religious order of lepers who took an active part in the country alongside a healthy population, had no parallel in Europe at that time.
After the victory of the Muslims in the Battle of Hattin on July 4, 1187, almost all the cities and citadels of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were conquered by the Muslim army led by Saladin. On September 17, Muslim troops came against the walls of Jerusalem, and on September 20, Saladin himself at the head of his army besieged Jerusalem, which contained about 30,000 residents and another 30,000 refugees from around the Christian Holy Land. The siege was relatively short but intense and violent, as both sides saw the city as their religious and cultural center. After bitter fighting, the Muslims were able to undermine the city 's fortifications in the area between Damascus Gate and Herod 's Gate, near where the Crusaders broke into the town in 1099. The defenders realized that they were doomed, and that it was not possible to maintain the Christian conquest of Jerusalem. At the request of the Latin Patriarch Hiraklios, and probably under pressure from the civilian population, the Christians decided to enter into negotiations with Saladin, leading to a conditional surrender. The Crusaders threatened to harm the Islamic holy sites on the Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock and Al - Aqsa Mosque if the blockade continued. This threat, combined with pressure from the Muslim battalion commanders to end the fighting, led to the signing of a contract which surrendered the city to Saladin, making the residents prisoners of war who could redeem themselves for a fee.
On October 2 Jerusalem was given to Saladin. The rich of the city, including the Dean and Latin Christians, managed to save themselves, but the poor and refugees who had come to the city with nothing were unable to pay the ransom. Most of the church treasures were taken from the city by the Latin Patriarch, who passed them to the Muslim cavalry in order to release certain prisoners. Saladin released thousands of others without compensation, including Queen Sybil, wife of Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, who was allowed to visit her husband in prison in Nablus. About 15,000 Christians were left destitute in the city. After 40 days, they were taken as prisoners in convoys to Muslim cities such as Damascus and Cairo, where they spent their lives as slaves. Christians who managed to escape from Palestine and Jerusalem went through ports controlled by the Egyptians, such as Ashkelon, and even Alexandria, where they were loaded on to ships of the Italian communes on their way to Europe. The fall of Jerusalem and the holy places shocked Europe. The shock led to the sudden death of Pope Urban III, and the departure of the Third Crusade. For Saladin, the conquest of Jerusalem was a significant political achievement, placing him as the defender of religion, a legendary military commander in chief, and giving him special status in the Muslim world.
After the conquest of Jerusalem, Saladin acted to erase the city 's Christian character. Crosses over the holy places in the Temple Mount were removed, and the buildings returned to their previous states as mosques. Al - Aqsa Mosque, which during the Crusader period was the center of the Templar Order, was "purified '' of any Christian symbols. Crusader additions to buildings were destroyed. In the Dome of the Rock, statues and altars were removed and the building returned to being a mosque. The great Church of Saint Mary building became a hospital. The Church of St. Anne became a madrasa, and other churches were destroyed and their stones used to repair damage from the siege. In addition, much attention was devoted to the restoration and enhancement of the fortifications of the city to prepare for a possible future attack by the Christians.
The Crusaders had been driven from the city, but local Christians belonging to the Orthodox Churches, remained in the city as dhimmis by paying a poll tax (Arabic: Jizz'ya جزية), and in return were allowed to stay in the city. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was handed over to the Greek Orthodox community, and the keys of the church were entrusted to two Muslim families. To strengthen the position and image of the Muslims of Jerusalem, Saladin created a system of waqf, which sustained religious institutions in Jerusalem, such as schools and mosques, by linking revenues and rent to assets, providing endowments which funded the ongoing maintenance of the buildings and supported believers.
The Christian world 's response came quickly, and the Third Crusade came from Europe in 1190, seeking to reverse the effects of the defeat at the Battle of Hattin, and retake the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the city of Jerusalem. Fighting began with the siege of Acre (1189 -- 91), and from there the Crusaders, led by Richard the Lionheart, moved on to Jerusalem. After the military success in the Battle of Arsuf, the Crusaders arrived at Jerusalem, but for various tactical and political reasons, withdrew and decided not to try to conquer it. Instead, both sides entered negotiations, during which Saladin declared that the idea of jihad and the sanctity of Jerusalem to Islam receive a new and central meaning. In a letter to the king of England, he admitted that he could not discuss the future of Jerusalem:
Do not resemble the king in his soul that such a waiver is possible, I would never dare to voice a word of it to the Muslims.
Eventually Richard the Lionheart was forced by the Muslims to leave the Holy Land, but under the 1192 Treaty of Jaffa Christians were granted freedom to make pilgrimages to the holy places.
With the death of Saladin in 1193, the Ayyubid Empire disintegrated and was divided among his sons. This led to struggles between various principalities as alliances were formed and dissolved. Jerusalem lost its status as the capital and religious center, and became a provincial city in an empire whose center was often Damascus or Cairo. However, for the Crusaders it remained a focus for Christian -- Muslim conflict. This combination of reduced geopolitical status and inter-religious strife brought devastation to the city during the Fifth Crusade.
The Ayyubid ruler of Syria, Al - Mu'azzam, who until that time had been determined to rehabilitate fortifications and buildings in Jerusalem, decided to systematically destroy the Crusader fortifications in the Levant in general and Jerusalem in particular. The Sultan 's command to raze the town to the ground seemed so implausible that it took the personal presence of Al - Mu'azzam in Jerusalem to carry it out. The city suffered two waves of destruction in 1219 and 1220. This was absolute and brutal destruction, with most buildings in Jerusalem and its walls destroyed, and led to severe reactions from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, who thought that it was Judgment Day. Muslim women of Jerusalem cut their hair in a sign of mourning at the plaza on the Temple Mount. The vast majority of the population, including the Jewish community, left Jerusalem, and all that remained standing in the city were the Tower of David Citadel, Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the sacred Muslim domain of the Temple Mount.
Attempts to restore Christian power in Jerusalem during the 1190s to 1210s were unsuccessful.
The Sixth Crusade led by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor left Italy in 1228. The death of al - Mu'azzam negated the proposed alliance with al - Kamil, who along with his brother al - Ashraf had taken possession of Damascus (as well as Jerusalem) from their nephew, al - Mu'azzam's son an - Nasir Dawud. However, al - Kamil presumably did not know of the small size of Frederick 's army, nor the divisions within it caused by his excommunication, and wished to avoid defending his territories against another crusade. Frederick 's presence alone was sufficient to regain Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and a number of surrounding castles without a fight: these were recovered in February 1229, in return for a ten - year truce with the Ayyubids and freedom of worship for Jerusalem 's Muslim inhabitants. The terms of the treaty were unacceptable to the Patriarch of Jerusalem Gerald of Lausanne, who placed the city under interdict. In March, Frederick crowned himself in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, but because of his excommunication and the interdict Jerusalem was never truly reincorporated into the kingdom, which continued to be ruled from Acre.
The treaty with the Ayyubids was set to expire in 1239. Plans for a new crusade to be led by Frederick came to nothing, and Frederick himself was excommunicated by Gregory IX again in 1239. However, other European nobles took up the cause, including Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and King of Navarre, Peter of Dreux, and Amaury VI of Montfort, who arrived in Acre in September 1239. Theobald was elected leader of the crusade at a council in Acre, attended by the most of the important nobles of the kingdom, including Walter of Brienne, John of Arsuf, and Balian of Sidon. The crusaders may have been aware of the new divisions among the Ayyubids; al - Kamil had occupied Damascus in 1238 but had died soon afterwards, and his territory was inherited by his family. His sons al - Adil abu Bakr and as - Salih Ayyub inherited Egypt and Damascus.
The Ayyubids were still divided between Ayyub in Egypt, Isma'il in Damascus, and Dawud in Kerak. Isma'il, Dawud, and al - Mansur Ibrahim of Homs went to war with Ayyub, who hired the Khwarazmians to fight for him. With Ayyub 's support the Khwarazmians sacked Jerusalem in the summer of 1244, leaving it in ruins and useless to both Christians and Muslims. In October, the Khwarazmians, along with the Egyptian army under the command of Baibars, were met by the Frankish army, led by Philip of Montfort, Walter of Brienne, and the masters of the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, along with al - Mansur and Dawud. On October 17 the Egyptian - Khwarazmian army destroyed the Frankish - Syrian coalition, and Walter of Brienne was taken captive and later executed. By 1247, Ayyub had reoccupied most of the territory that had been conceded in 1239, and had also gained control of Damascus.
There is little evidence to indicate whether or not the Mongol raids penetrated Jerusalem in either 1260 or 1300. Historical reports from the time period tend to conflict, depending on which nationality of historian was writing the report. There were also a large number of rumors and urban legends in Europe, claiming that the Mongols had captured Jerusalem and were going to return it to the Crusaders. However, these rumors turned out to be false. The general consensus of modern historians is that though Jerusalem may or may not have been subject to raids, that there was never any attempt by the Mongols to incorporate Jerusalem into their administrative system, which is what would be necessary to deem a territory "conquered '' as opposed to "raided ''.
Even during the conflicts, pilgrims continued to come in small numbers. Pope Nicholas IV negotiated an agreement with the Mamluk sultan to allow Latin clergy to serve in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. With the Sultan 's agreement, Pope Nicholas, a Franciscan himself, sent a group of friars to keep the Latin liturgy going in Jerusalem. With the city little more than a backwater, they had no formal quarters, and simply lived in a pilgrim hostel, until in 1300 King Robert of Sicily gave a large gift of money to the Sultan. Robert asked that the Franciscans be allowed to have the Sion Church, the Mary Chapel in the Holy Sepulchre, and the Nativity Cave, and the Sultan gave his permission. But the remainder of the Christian holy places were kept in decay.
Mamluk sultans made a point of visiting the city, endowing new buildings, encouraging Muslim settlement, and expanding mosques. During the reign of Sultan Baibars, the Mamluks renewed the Muslim alliance with the Jews and he established two new sanctuaries, one to Moses and one to Salih, to encourage numerous Muslim and Jewish pilgrims to be in the area at the same time as the Christians, who filled the city during Easter. In 1267 Nahmanides (also known as Ramban) made aliyah. In the Old City he established the Ramban Synagogue, the oldest active synagogue in Jerusalem. However, the city had no great political power, and was in fact considered by the Mamluks as a place of exile for out - of - favor officials. The city itself was ruled by a low - ranking emir.
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who is credited with much of the rebuilding of athens | Pericles - wikipedia
Pericles (/ ˈpɛrɪkliːz /; Greek: Περικλῆς Periklēs, pronounced (pe. ri. klɛ̂ːs) in Classical Attic; c. 495 -- 429 BC) was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator and general of Athens during the Golden Age -- specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family.
Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens ''. Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles '', though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century. Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people. Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.
Pericles was born c. 495 BC, in Athens, Greece. He was the son of the politician Xanthippus, who, though ostracized in 485 -- 484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. Pericles ' mother, Agariste, a member of the powerful and controversial noble family of the Alcmaeonidae, and her familial connections played a crucial role in helping start Xanthippus ' political career. Agariste was the great - granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, and the niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes.
According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a few nights before Pericles ' birth, that she had borne a lion. Interestingly, legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a similar dream before the birth of his son, Alexander the Great. One interpretation of the dream treats the lion as a traditional symbol of greatness, but the story may also allude to the unusually large size of Pericles ' skull, which became a popular target of contemporary comedians (who called him "Squill - head '', after the squill or sea - onion). Although Plutarch claims that this deformity was the reason that Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet, this is not the case; the helmet was actually the symbol of his official rank as strategos (general).
Pericles belonged to the tribe of Acamantis (Ἀκαμαντὶς φυλή). His early years were quiet; the introverted young Pericles avoided public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies.
His family 's nobility and wealth allowed him to fully pursue his inclination toward education. He learned music from the masters of the time (Damon or Pythocleides could have been his teacher) and he is considered to have been the first politician to attribute importance to philosophy. He enjoyed the company of the philosophers Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras, in particular, became a close friend and influenced him greatly.
Pericles ' manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have been in part products of Anaxagoras ' emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble and skepticism about divine phenomena. His proverbial calmness and self - control are also often regarded as products of Anaxagoras ' influence.
In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy, demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens. Simon Hornblower has argued that Pericles ' selection of this play, which presents a nostalgic picture of Themistocles ' famous victory at Salamis, shows that the young politician was supporting Themistocles against his political opponent Cimon, whose faction succeeded in having Themistocles ostracized shortly afterwards.
Plutarch says that Pericles stood first among the Athenians for forty years. If this was so, Pericles must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC - in his early or mid-thirties. Throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. For example, he would often avoid banquets, trying to be frugal.
In 463 BC, Pericles was the leading prosecutor of Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction who was accused of neglecting Athens ' vital interests in Macedon. Although Cimon was acquitted, this confrontation proved that Pericles ' major political opponent was vulnerable.
Around 461 BC, the leadership of the democratic party decided it was time to take aim at the Areopagus, a traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy, which had once been the most powerful body in the state. The leader of the party and mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes, proposed a reduction of the Areopagus ' powers. The Ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) adopted Ephialtes ' proposal without opposition. This reform signaled the beginning of a new era of "radical democracy ''.
The democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politics, and Pericles seemed willing to follow a populist policy in order to cajole the public. According to Aristotle, Pericles ' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent, Cimon, was both rich and generous, and was able to gain public favor by lavishly handing out portions of his sizable personal fortune. The historian Loren J. Samons II argues, however, that Pericles had enough resources to make a political mark by private means, had he so chosen.
In 461 BC, Pericles achieved the political elimination of this opponent using ostracism. The accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city by aiding Sparta.
After Cimon 's ostracism, Pericles continued to promote a populist social policy. He first proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying, with the state covering the cost of their admission. With other decrees he lowered the property requirement for the archonship in 458 -- 457 BC and bestowed generous wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia (the supreme court of Athens) some time just after 454 BC. His most controversial measure, however, was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.
Such measures impelled Pericles ' critics to hold him responsible for the gradual degeneration of the Athenian democracy. Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, argues that Pericles sought for the expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions. Hence, he enacted legislation granting the lower classes access to the political system and the public offices, from which they had previously been barred.
According to Samons, Pericles believed that it was necessary to raise the demos, in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance. (The fleet, backbone of Athenian power since the days of Themistocles, was manned almost entirely by members of the lower classes.)
Cimon, on the other hand, apparently believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed. He was certain that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles ' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism. According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, because Athens, after Pericles ' death, sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy. Paparrigopoulos maintains that an unprecedented regression descended upon the city, whose glory perished as a result of Pericles ' populist policies.
According to another historian, Justin Daniel King, radical democracy benefited people individually, but harmed the state. On the other hand, Donald Kagan asserts that the democratic measures Pericles put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political strength. After all, Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law, after he returned from exile in 451 BC.
Ephialtes ' murder in 461 BC paved the way for Pericles to consolidate his authority. Without opposition after the expulsion of Cimon, the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the unchallengeable ruler of Athens. He remained in power until his death in 429 BC.
Pericles made his first military excursions during the First Peloponnesian War, which was caused in part by Athens ' alliance with Megara and Argos and the subsequent reaction of Sparta. In 454 BC he attacked Sicyon and Acarnania. He then unsuccessfully tried to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf, before returning to Athens. In 451 BC, Cimon returned from exile and negotiated a five years ' truce with Sparta after a proposal of Pericles, an event which indicates a shift in Pericles ' political strategy. Pericles may have realized the importance of Cimon 's contribution during the ongoing conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians. Anthony J. Podlecki argues, however, that Pericles ' alleged change of position was invented by ancient writers to support "a tendentious view of Pericles ' shiftiness ''.
Plutarch states that Cimon struck a power - sharing deal with his opponents, according to which Pericles would carry through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army, campaigning abroad. If it was actually made, this bargain would constitute a concession on Pericles ' part that he was not a great strategist. Kagan 's view is that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean liberals and Cimonian conservatives.
In the mid-450s the Athenians launched an unsuccessful attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia, which led to a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta. The campaign culminated in disaster; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed. In 451 -- 450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus. Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis - in - Cyprus, but died of disease in 449 BC. Pericles is said to have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus, although some researchers, such as Karl Julius Beloch, argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon 's policy.
Complicating the account of this period is the issue of the Peace of Callias, which allegedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians. The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed, and its particulars and negotiation are ambiguous. Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first ratified in 463 BC (making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace), and renegotiated at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus, taking force again by 449 -- 448 BC.
John Fine, on the other hand, suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450 -- 449 BC, due to Pericles ' calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens ' ability to spread its influence in Greece and the Aegean. Kagan believes that Pericles used Callias, a brother - in - law of Cimon, as a symbol of unity and employed him several times to negotiate important agreements.
In the spring of 449 BC, Pericles proposed the Congress Decree, which led to a meeting ("Congress '') of all Greek states in order to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians. The Congress failed because of Sparta 's stance, but Pericles ' intentions remain unclear. Some historians think that he wanted to prompt a confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities; others think he wanted to assert Athenian pre-eminence. According to the historian Terry Buckley the objective of the Congress Decree was a new mandate for the Delian League and for the collection of "phoros '' (taxes).
During the Second Sacred War Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign rights on the oracle. In 447 BC Pericles engaged in his most admired excursion, the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli, in order to establish Athenian colonists in the region. At this time, however, Athens was seriously challenged by a number of revolts among its subjects. In 447 BC the oligarchs of Thebes conspired against the democratic faction. The Athenians demanded their immediate surrender, but after the Battle of Coronea, Pericles was forced to concede the loss of Boeotia in order to recover the prisoners taken in that battle. With Boeotia in hostile hands, Phocis and Locris became untenable and quickly fell under the control of hostile oligarchs.
In 446 BC, a more dangerous uprising erupted. Euboea and Megara revolted. Pericles crossed over to Euboea with his troops, but was forced to return when the Spartan army invaded Attica. Through bribery and negotiations, Pericles defused the imminent threat, and the Spartans returned home. When Pericles was later audited for the handling of public money, an expenditure of 10 talents was not sufficiently justified, since the official documents just referred that the money was spent for a "very serious purpose ''. Nonetheless, the "serious purpose '' (namely the bribery) was so obvious to the auditors that they approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery.
After the Spartan threat had been removed, Pericles crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there. He then punished the landowners of Chalcis, who lost their properties. The residents of Histiaea, meanwhile, who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers. The crisis was brought to an official end by the Thirty Years ' Peace (winter of 446 -- 445 BC), in which Athens relinquished most of the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460 BC, and both Athens and Sparta agreed not to attempt to win over the other state 's allies.
In 444 BC, the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle. The ambitious new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides (not to be confused with the historian of the same name), accused Pericles of profligacy, criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan. Thucydides initially managed to incite the passions of the ecclesia regarding these charges in his favor. However, when Pericles took the floor, his resolute arguments put Thucydides and the conservatives firmly on the defensive. Finally, Pericles proposed to reimburse the city for all questionable expenses from his private property, with the proviso that he would make the inscriptions of dedication in his own name. His stance was greeted with applause, and Thucydides was soundly, if unexpectedly, defeated. In 442 BC, the Athenian public voted to ostracize Thucydides from the city for 10 years and Pericles was once again the unchallenged ruler of the Athenian political arena.
Pericles wanted to stabilize Athens ' dominance over its alliance and to enforce its pre-eminence in Greece. The process by which the Delian League transformed into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before Pericles ' time, as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens instead of manning ships for the league 's fleet, but the transformation was speeded and brought to its conclusion by Pericles.
The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens ' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city 's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League 's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454 -- 453 BC.
By 450 -- 449 BC the revolts in Miletus and Erythrae were quelled and Athens restored its rule over its allies. Around 447 BC Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree, which imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights and measures on all of the allies. According to one of the decree 's most stringent provisions, surplus from a minting operation was to go into a special fund, and anyone proposing to use it otherwise was subject to the death penalty.
It was from the alliance 's treasury that Pericles drew the funds necessary to enable his ambitious building plan, centered on the "Periclean Acropolis '', which included the Propylaea, the Parthenon and the golden statue of Athena, sculpted by Pericles ' friend, Phidias. In 449 BC Pericles proposed a decree allowing the use of 9,000 talents to finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples. Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, points out the utilization of the alliance 's treasury, initiated and executed by Pericles, as one of the largest embezzlements in human history; this misappropriation financed, however, some of the most marvellous artistic creations of the ancient world.
The Samian War was one of the last significant military events before the Peloponnesian War. After Thucydides ' ostracism, Pericles was re-elected yearly to the generalship, the only office he ever officially occupied, although his influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state. In 440 BC Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot - hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians.
When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration in Athens, the Samians refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos, "alleging against its people that, although they were ordered to break off their war against the Milesians, they were not complying ''.
In a naval battle the Athenians led by Pericles and nine other generals defeated the forces of Samos and imposed on the island an Athenian administration. When the Samians revolted against Athenian rule, Pericles compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months, which resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors. Pericles then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and, when he returned to Athens, gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition.
Between 438 -- 436 BC Pericles led Athens ' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of the region. Pericles focused also on internal projects, such as the fortification of Athens (the building of the "middle wall '' about 440 BC), and on the creation of new cleruchies, such as Andros, Naxos and Thurii (444 BC) as well as Amphipolis (437 -- 436 BC).
Pericles and his friends were never immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule. Just before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and two of his closest associates, Phidias and his companion, Aspasia, faced a series of personal and judicial attacks.
Phidias, who had been in charge of all building projects, was first accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena and then of impiety, because, when he wrought the battle of the Amazons on the shield of Athena, he carved out a figure that suggested himself as a bald old man, and also inserted a very fine likeness of Pericles fighting with an Amazon.
Aspasia, who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles ' perversions. The accusations against her were probably nothing more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was very bitter for Pericles. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles, his friend, Phidias, died in prison and another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious beliefs.
Beyond these initial prosecutions, the ecclesia attacked Pericles himself by asking him to justify his ostensible profligacy with, and maladministration of, public money. According to Plutarch, Pericles was so afraid of the oncoming trial that he did not let the Athenians yield to the Lacedaemonians. Beloch also believes that Pericles deliberately brought on the war to protect his political position at home. Thus, at the start of the Peloponnesian War, Athens found itself in the awkward position of entrusting its future to a leader whose pre-eminence had just been seriously shaken for the first time in over a decade.
The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated, but many ancient historians lay the blame on Pericles and Athens. Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics "with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife ''. Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the reason for the war was Sparta 's fear of Athenian power and growth. However, as he is generally regarded as an admirer of Pericles, Thucydides has been criticized for bias against Sparta.
Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not conceal its envy of Athens ' pre-eminence, was inevitable if unfortunate. Therefore, he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against Corinth. In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the Battle of Potidaea; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth 's lasting hatred of Athens. During the same period, Pericles proposed the Megarian Decree, which resembled a modern trade embargo. According to the provisions of the decree, Megarian merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire. This ban strangled the Megarian economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara. According to George Cawkwell, a praelector in ancient history, with this decree Pericles breached the Thirty Years ' Peace "but, perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse ''. The Athenians ' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious.
After consultations with its allies, Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions, such as the immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree, threatening war if the demands were not met. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between Pericles and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later. At that time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles ' instructions. In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents ' demands, since they were militarily stronger. Pericles was not prepared to make unilateral concessions, believing that "if Athens conceded on that issue, then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands ''. Consequently, Pericles asked the Spartans to offer a quid pro quo. In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree, the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory (xenelasia) and to recognize the autonomy of its allied cities, a request implying that Sparta 's hegemony was also ruthless. The terms were rejected by the Spartans, and with neither side willing to back down, the two cities prepared for war. According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, "rather than to submit to coercive demands, Pericles chose war ''. Another consideration that may well have influenced Pericles ' stance was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed itself weak.
In 431 BC, while peace already was precarious, Archidamus II, Sparta 's king, sent a new delegation to Athens, demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta 's demands. This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens, as Pericles had already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions. The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries. With his last attempt at negotiation thus declined, Archidamus invaded Attica, but found no Athenians there; Pericles, aware that Sparta 's strategy would be to invade and ravage Athenian territory, had previously arranged to evacuate the entire population of the region to within the walls of Athens.
No definite record exists of how exactly Pericles managed to convince the residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas. For most, the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle. Therefore, although they agreed to leave, many rural residents were far from happy with Pericles ' decision. Pericles also gave his compatriots some advice on their present affairs and reassured them that, if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the city. This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus, who was a friend of his, might pass by his estate without ravaging it, either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate Pericles from his constituents.
In any case, seeing the pillage of their farms, the Athenians were outraged, and they soon began to indirectly express their discontent towards their leader, who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war. Even when in the face of mounting pressure, Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy. He also avoided convening the ecclesia, fearing that the populace, outraged by the unopposed ravaging of their farms, might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field. As meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents, the "prytanies '', Pericles had no formal control over their scheduling; rather, the respect in which Pericles was held by the prytanies was apparently sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished. While the Spartan army remained in Attica, Pericles sent a fleet of 100 ships to loot the coasts of the Peloponnese and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls of the city. When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, Pericles proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval forces. According to the most stringent provision of the decree, even proposing a different use of the money or ships would entail the penalty of death. During the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles led the Athenian forces that invaded Megara and a few months later (winter of 431 -- 430 BC) he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration, honoring the Athenians who died for their city.
In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy. Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him. According to Plutarch, just before the sailing of the ships an eclipse of the sun frightened the crews, but Pericles used the astronomical knowledge he had acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them. In the summer of the same year an epidemic broke out and devastated the Athenians. The exact identity of the disease is uncertain, typhus or typhoid fever are suspected, but this has been the source of much debate. In any case, the city 's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and Pericles was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides. This is considered to be a monumental oration, revealing Pericles ' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots ' ingratitude. Temporarily, he managed to tame the people 's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies ' final bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents. Ancient sources mention Cleon, a rising and dynamic protagonist of the Athenian political scene during the war, as the public prosecutor in Pericles ' trial.
Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC, the Athenians not only forgave Pericles but also re-elected him as strategos. He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC, having once again under his control the levers of power. In that year, however, Pericles witnessed the death of both his legitimate sons from his first wife, Paralus and Xanthippus, in the epidemic. His morale undermined, he burst into tears and not even Aspasia 's companionship could console him. He himself died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC.
Just before his death, Pericles ' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies. Pericles, though moribund, heard them and interrupted them, pointing out that they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration; "for '', said he, "no living Athenian ever put on mourning because of me ''. Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and, according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather than useful. With these bitter comments, Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired, but he also heralds the flickering of Athens ' unique glory and grandeur.
Pausanias (c. 150 AD) records (I. 29) seeing the tomb of Pericles along a road near the Academy.
Pericles, following Athenian custom, was first married to one of his closest relatives, with whom he had two sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, but around 445 BC, Pericles divorced his wife. He offered her to another husband, with the agreement of her male relatives. The name of his first wife is not known; the only information about her is that she was the wife of Hipponicus, before being married to Pericles, and the mother of Callias from this first marriage.
After Pericles divorced his wife, he had a long - term relationship with Aspasia of Miletus, with whom he had a son, Pericles the Younger. This relationship aroused many reactions and even Pericles ' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father. Nonetheless, objections did not undermine Pericles ' morale, although he burst into tears to protect Aspasia when she was accused of corrupting Athenian society. His sister and both his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, died during an epidemic of plague. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half - Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir, a decision all the more striking in consideration that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.
Pericles marked a whole era and inspired conflicting judgments about his significant decisions. The fact that he was at the same time a vigorous statesman, general and orator makes more complex the objective assessment of his actions.
Some contemporary scholars call Pericles a populist, a demagogue and a hawk, while other scholars admire his charismatic leadership. According to Plutarch, after assuming the leadership of Athens, "he was no longer the same man as before, nor alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes ''. It is told that when his political opponent, Thucydides, was asked by Sparta 's king, Archidamus, whether he or Pericles was the better fighter, Thucydides answered without any hesitation that Pericles was better, because even when he was defeated, he managed to convince the audience that he had won. In matters of character, Pericles was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians, since "he kept himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether indifferent to money - making ''.
Thucydides (the historian), an admirer of Pericles, maintains that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen ''. Through this comment, the historian illustrates what he perceives as Pericles ' charisma to lead, convince and, sometimes, to manipulate. Although Thucydides mentions the fining of Pericles, he does not mention the accusations against Pericles but instead focuses on Pericles ' integrity. On the other hand, in one of his dialogues, Plato rejects the glorification of Pericles and declares: "as I know, Pericles made the Athenians slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees ''. Plutarch mentions other criticism of Pericles ' leadership: "many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands, festival - grants, and distributions of fees for public services, thereby falling into bad habits, and becoming luxurious and wanton under the influence of his public measures, instead of frugal and self - sufficing ''.
Thucydides argues that Pericles "was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people ''. His judgement is not unquestioned; some 20th - century critics, such as Malcolm F. McGregor and John S. Morrison, proposed that he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on the proposals of advisors, or the people themselves. According to King, by increasing the power of the people, the Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader. During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles ' dependence on popular support to govern was obvious.
For more than 20 years Pericles led many expeditions, mainly naval ones. Being always cautious, he never undertook of his own accord a battle involving much uncertainty and peril and he did not accede to the "vain impulses of the citizens ''. He based his military policy on Themistocles ' principle that Athens ' predominance depends on its superior naval power and believed that the Peloponnesians were near - invincible on land. Pericles also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens, which, it has been suggested, radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations.
During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles initiated a defensive "grand strategy '' whose aim was the exhaustion of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo. According to Platias and Koliopoulos, Athens as the strongest party did not have to beat Sparta in military terms and "chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory ''. The two basic principles of the "Periclean Grand Strategy '' were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension. According to Kagan, Pericles ' vehement insistence that there should be no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from the bitter memory of the Egyptian campaign, which he had allegedly supported. His strategy is said to have been "inherently unpopular '', but Pericles managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it. It is for that reason that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history. Although his countrymen engaged in several aggressive actions soon after his death, Platias and Koliopoulos argue that the Athenians remained true to the larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve, not expand, the empire, and did not depart from it until the Sicilian Expedition. For his part, Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer.
Critics of Pericles ' strategy, however, have been just as numerous as its supporters. A common criticism is that Pericles was always a better politician and orator than strategist. Donald Kagan called the Periclean strategy "a form of wishful thinking that failed '', Barry S. Strauss and Josiah Ober have stated that "as strategist he was a failure and deserves a share of the blame for Athens ' great defeat '', and Victor Davis Hanson believes that Pericles had not worked out a clear strategy for an effective offensive action that could possibly force Thebes or Sparta to stop the war. Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts: first that by rejecting minor concessions it brought about war; second, that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility; third, that it was too feeble to exploit any opportunities; and fourth, that it depended on Pericles for its execution and thus was bound to be abandoned after his death. Kagan estimates Pericles ' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian War to be about 2,000 talents annually, and based on this figure concludes that he would only have enough money to keep the war going for three years. He asserts that since Pericles must have known about these limitations he probably planned for a much shorter war. Others, such as Donald W. Knight, conclude that the strategy was too defensive and would not succeed.
On the other hand, Platias and Koliopoulos reject these criticisms and state that "the Athenians lost the war only when they dramatically reversed the Periclean grand strategy that explicitly disdained further conquests ''. Hanson stresses that the Periclean strategy was not innovative, but could lead to a stagnancy in favor of Athens. It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character.
Modern commentators of Thucydides, with other modern historians and writers, take varying stances on the issue of how much of the speeches of Pericles, as given by this historian, do actually represent Pericles ' own words and how much of them is free literary creation or paraphrase by Thucydides. Since Pericles never wrote down or distributed his orations, no historians are able to answer this with certainty; Thucydides recreated three of them from memory and, thereby, it can not be ascertained that he did not add his own notions and thoughts.
Although Pericles was a main source of his inspiration, some historians have noted that the passionate and idealistic literary style of the speeches Thucydides attributes to Pericles is completely at odds with Thucydides ' own cold and analytical writing style. This might, however, be the result of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography. That is to say, Thucydides could simply have used two different writing styles for two different purposes.
Ioannis Kakridis and Arnold Gomme were two scholars who debated the originality of Pericles ' oratory and last speech. Kakridis believes that Thucydides altered Pericles words. Some of his strongest arguments included in the Introduction of the speech, (Thuc. 11.35). Kakridis proposes that it is impossible to imagine Pericles deviating away from the expected funeral orator addressing the mourning audience of 430 after the Peloponnesian war. The two groups addressed were the ones who were prepared to believe him when he praised the dead, and the ones who did not. Gomme rejects Kakridis position, defending the fact that "Nobody of men has ever been so conscious of envy and its workings as the Greeks, and that the Greeks and Thucydides in particular had a passion for covering all ground in their generalizations, not always relevantly. ''.
Kagan states that Pericles adopted "an elevated mode of speech, free from the vulgar and knavish tricks of mob - orators '' and, according to Diodorus Siculus, he "excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory ''. According to Plutarch, he avoided using gimmicks in his speeches, unlike the passionate Demosthenes, and always spoke in a calm and tranquil manner. The biographer points out, however, that the poet Ion reported that Pericles ' speaking style was "a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address, and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others ''.
Gorgias, in Plato 's homonymous dialogue, uses Pericles as an example of powerful oratory. In Menexenus, however, Socrates (through Plato) casts aspersions on Pericles ' rhetorical fame, claiming ironically that, since Pericles was educated by Aspasia, a trainer of many orators, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon. He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries ' veneration of Pericles.
Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that "unique as an Athenian statesman, Pericles must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator; first, because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained; secondly, because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else ever got from Athenians ''.
Ancient Greek writers call Pericles "Olympian '' and extol his talents; referring to him "thundering and lightning and exciting Greece '' and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating. According to Quintilian, Pericles would always prepare assiduously for his orations and, before going on the rostrum, he would always pray to the Gods, so as not to utter any improper word.
Pericles ' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age, most of which survive to this day. The Acropolis, though in ruins, still stands and is a symbol of modern Athens. Paparrigopoulos wrote that these masterpieces are "sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world ''.
In politics, Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of Pericles ' legacy is Athenian imperialism, which denies true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state. The promotion of such an arrogant imperialism is said to have ruined Athens. Pericles and his "expansionary '' policies have been at the center of arguments promoting democracy in oppressed countries.
Other analysts maintain an Athenian humanism illustrated in the Golden Age. The freedom of expression is regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period. Pericles is lauded as "the ideal type of the perfect statesman in ancient Greece '' and his Funeral Oration is nowadays synonymous with the struggle for participatory democracy and civic pride.
^ α: Pericles ' date of birth is uncertain; he could not have been born later than 492 -- 1 and been of age to present the Persae in 472. He is not recorded as having taken part in the Persian Wars of 480 -- 79; some historians argue from this that he was unlikely to have been born before 498, but this argument ex silentio has also been dismissed. ^ β: Plutarch says "granddaughter '' of Cleisthenes, but this is chronologically implausible, and there is consensus that this should be "niece ''. ^ γ: Thucydides records several speeches which he attributes to Pericles; however, he acknowledges that: "it was in all cases difficult to carry them word for word in one 's memory, so my habit has been to make the speakers say what was in my opinion demanded of them by the various occasions, of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what they really said. '' ^ δ: According to Aristotle, Aristodicus of Tanagra killed Ephialtes. Plutarch cites an Idomeneus as saying that Pericles killed Ephialtes, but does not believe him -- he finds it to be out of character for Pericles. ^ ε: According to Plutarch, it was thought that Pericles proceeded against the Samians to gratify Aspasia of Miletus. ^ στ: Plutarch describes these allegations without espousing them. Thucydides insists, however, that the Athenian politician was still powerful. Gomme and Vlachos support Thucydides ' view. ^ ζ: Vlachos maintains that Thucydides ' narration gives the impression that Athens ' alliance had become an authoritarian and oppressive empire, while the historian makes no comment for Sparta 's equally harsh rule. Vlachos underlines, however, that the defeat of Athens could entail a much more ruthless Spartan empire, something that did indeed happen. Hence, the historian 's hinted assertion that Greek public opinion espoused Sparta 's pledges of liberating Greece almost uncomplainingly seems tendentious. Geoffrey Ernest Maurice de Ste Croix, for his part, argues that Athens ' imperium was welcomed and valuable for the stability of democracy all over Greece. According to Fornara and Samons, "any view proposing that popularity or its opposite can be inferred simply from narrow ideological considerations is superficial ''. ^ η: Taking into consideration its symptoms, most researchers and scientists now believe that it was typhus or typhoid fever and not cholera, plague or measles. ^ θ: Pericles held the generalship from 444 BC until 430 BC without interruption. ^ ι: Vlachos criticizes the historian for this omission and maintains that Thucydides ' admiration for the Athenian statesman makes him ignore not only the well - grounded accusations against him but also the mere gossips, namely the allegation that Pericles had corrupted the volatile rabble, so as to assert himself. ^ ια: According to Platias and Koliopoulos, the "policy mix '' of Pericles was guided by five principles: a) Balance the power of the enemy, b) Exploit competitive advantages and negate those of the enemy, c) Deter the enemy by the denial of his success and by the skillful use of retaliation, d) Erode the international power base of the enemy, e) Shape the domestic environment of the adversary to your own benefit. ^ ιβ: According to Vlachos, Thucydides must have been about 30 years old when Pericles delivered his Funeral Oration and he was probably among the audience. ^ ιγ: Vlachos points out that he does not know who wrote the oration, but "these were the words which should have been spoken at the end of 431 BC ''. According to Sir Richard C. Jebb, the Thucydidean speeches of Pericles give the general ideas of Pericles with essential fidelity; it is possible, further, that they may contain recorded sayings of his "but it is certain that they can not be taken as giving the form of the statesman 's oratory ''. John F. Dobson believes that "though the language is that of the historian, some of the thoughts may be those of the statesman ''. C.M.J. Sicking argues that "we are hearing the voice of real Pericles '', while Ioannis T. Kakridis claims that the Funeral Oration is an almost exclusive creation of Thucydides, since "the real audience does not consist of the Athenians of the beginning of the war, but of the generation of 400 BC, which suffers under the repercussions of the defeat ''. Gomme disagrees with Kakridis, insisting on his belief to the reliability of Thucydides. ^ ιδ: That is what Plutarch predicates. Nonetheless, according to the 10th century encyclopedia Suda, Pericles constituted the first orator who systematically wrote down his orations. Cicero speaks about Pericles ' writings, but his remarks are not regarded as credible. Most probably, other writers used his name. ^ ιε: Ioannis Kalitsounakis argues that "no reader can overlook the sumptuous rythme of the Funeral Oration as a whole and the singular correlation between the impetuous emotion and the marvellous style, attributes of speech that Thucydides ascribes to no other orator but Pericles ''. According to Harvey Ynis, Thucydides created the Pericles ' indistinct rhetorical legacy that has dominated ever since.
Biographies
Pericles and the Athenian democracy
Further assessments about Pericles and his era
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who won coach of the year in the nba | NBA coach of the Year award - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association 's Coach of the Year is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) award given since the 1962 -- 63 NBA season. The winner receives the Red Auerbach Trophy, which is named in honor of the head coach who led the Boston Celtics to nine NBA championships from 1956 to 1966. The winner is selected at the end of regular season by a panel of sportswriters from the United States and Canada, each of whom casts a vote for first, second and third place selections. Each first - place vote is worth five points; each second - place vote is worth three points; and each third - place vote is worth one point. The person with the highest point total, regardless of the number of first - place votes, wins the award.
Since its inception, the award has been given to 40 different coaches. The most recent award winner is Houston Rockets head coach Mike D'Antoni. Gregg Popovich, Don Nelson and Pat Riley have each won the award three times, while Hubie Brown, D'Antoni, Bill Fitch, Cotton Fitzsimmons and Gene Shue have each won it twice. No coach has won consecutive Coach of the Year awards. Riley is the only coach to be named Coach of the Year with three different franchises. Larry Bird is the only recipient to have also been named MVP as a player. Tom Heinsohn, Bill Sharman, and Lenny Wilkens are the only recipients to have been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as both player and coach. Johnny Kerr is the only person to win the award with a losing record (33 -- 48 with the Chicago Bulls in 1966 -- 67). Kerr was honored because he had guided the Bulls to the NBA Playoffs in their first season in the league. Doc Rivers is the only person to win the award despite his team not making the playoffs (41 -- 41 with the Orlando Magic in 1999 -- 2000). Only five recipients also coached the team that won the championship the same season: Red Auerbach, Red Holzman, Bill Sharman, Phil Jackson, and Gregg Popovich. Popovich is the only NBA Coach of the Year recipient to win the championship in the same season twice, winning the NBA title with the San Antonio Spurs in 2003 and 2014.
2015 -- 16 recipient Steve Kerr only coached 39 of the 82 games in the season due to complications from offseason back surgery, though he received credit for all of the Golden State Warriors ' 73 wins that season. Assistant coach Luke Walton served as interim head coach for the other 43 games for the Warriors, receiving one second - place vote and two third - place votes.
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what does rdw stand for in blood test results | Red blood cell distribution width - wikipedia
Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW - CV or RCDW and RDW - SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6 - 8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW - CV in human red blood cells is 11.5 - 14.5 %. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular volume (MCV) results to determine the possible causes of the anemia. It is mainly used to differentiate an anemia of mixed causes from an anemia of a single cause.
Deficiencies of Vitamin B or folate produce a macrocytic anemia (large cell anemia) in which the RDW is elevated in roughly two - thirds of all cases. However, a varied size distribution of red blood cells is a hallmark of iron deficiency anemia, and as such shows an increased RDW in virtually all cases. In the case of both iron and B deficiencies, there will normally be a mix of both large cells and small cells, causing the RDW to be elevated. An elevated RDW (red blood cells of unequal sizes) is known as anisocytosis.
An elevation in the RDW is not characteristic of all anemias. Anemia of chronic disease, hereditary spherocytosis, acute blood loss, aplastic anemia (anemia resulting from an inability of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells), and certain hereditary hemoglobinopathies (including some cases of thalassemia minor) may all present with a normal RDW.
The "width '' in RDW - CV is sometimes thought to be "misleading, '' since it in fact is a measure of deviation of the volume of RBCs, and not directly the diameter. However, "width '' refers to the width of the volume curve (distribution width, here presented as the Coefficient of Variation, or CV), not the width of the cells. Thus, it is a reasonably accurate term.
Mathematically, the RDW - CV is calculated with the following formula:
Anemia in the presence of a normal RDW may suggest thalassemia. A low Mentzer Index, calculated from CBC data, may suggest this disorder but a hemoglobin electrophoresis would be diagnostic.
Iron Deficiency Anemia: usually presents with high RDW with low MCV
Folate and vitamin B12 deficiency anemia: usually presents with high RDW and high MCV
Mixed Deficiency (Iron + B12 or folate) anemia: usually presents with high RDW and variable MCV
Recent Hemorrhage: typical presentation is high RDW with normal MCV
A false high RDW reading can occur if EDTA anticoagulated blood is used instead of citrated blood. See Pseudothrombocytopenia.
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write about the constitution of india and its preamble | Preamble to the Constitution of India - wikipedia
((Image: Mew. jpg thumb right 250px The original text of the Preamble, (before the 42nd Ament) of the Constitution)) The preamble to the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out guiding people and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which the ordinary document derives its authority, meaning, the people. The hopes and aspirations of the people as well as the ideals before our nation are described in the preamble in clear words. It may be considered as the heart and soul of Constitution. The preamble can be referred to as the preface which highlights the entire Constitution. It was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly and came into effect on 26th January 1950.
The preamble is based on the Objectives which was drafted and moved in the Constituent Assembly by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946. B.R. Ambedkar said about the preamble:
It was, indeed, a way of life, which recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as the principles of life and which can not be divorced from each other: Liberty can not be divorced from equality; equality can not be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from fraternity. Without equality, liberty would produce the supremacy of the few over the many. Equality without liberty would kill individual initiative. Without fraternity, liberty and equality could not become a natural course of things.
The Supreme Court of India originally stated in the BeruBari case presidential reference that the preamble is not an integral part of the Indian constitution, and therefore it is not enforceable in a court of law. However, the same court, in the 1973 Kesavananda case, overruled earlier decisions and recognised that the preamble may be used to interpret ambiguous areas of the constitution where differing interpretations present themselves. In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC of India, the Supreme Court once again held that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.
As originally enacted the preamble described the state as a "sovereign democratic republic '', to which the terms "Secular '' and "Socialist '' were later added by the 42nd Amendment.
The preamble - page, along with other pages of the original Constitution of India, was designed and decorated by the renowned painter Beohar Rammanohar Sinha of Jabalpur who was at Shantiniketan with acharya Nandalal Bose at that time. Nandalal Bose endorsed Beohar Rammanohar Sinha 's artwork without any alteration whatsoever. As such, the page bears Beohar Rammanohar Sinha 's short signature Ram in Devanagari lower - right corner. The calligraphy was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizada.
According to preamble, the constitution of India has been pursuance of the solemn resolution of the people of India to constitute India into a ' Sovereign Democratic Republic ', and to secure well defined objects set forth in the preamble. Sovereignty denotes supreme and ultimate power. It may be real or normal, legal or political, individual or pluralistic. In monarchial orders, sovereignty was vested in the person of monarchs. But, in republican form of governments, which mostly prevail in the contemporary world, sovereignty is shifted to the elected representatives of the people. According to D.D Basu, the word ' sovereign ' is taken from article 5 of the constitution of Ireland. ' Sovereign or supreme power is that which is absolute and uncontrolled within its own sphere '. In the words of Cooley, "A state is sovereign when there resides within itself supreme and absolute power, acknowledging no superior ''. Sovereignty, in short, means the independent authority of a state. It has two aspects - external and internal. External sovereignty or sovereignty in international law means the independence of a state of the will of other states, in her conduct with other states in the committee of nations. Sovereign in its relation between states and among states signifies independence. The external sovereignty of India means that it can acquire foreign territory and also cede any part of the Indian territory, subject to limitations (if any) imposed by the constitution. On the other hand, internal sovereignty refers to the relationship between the states and the individuals within its territory. Internal sovereignty relates to internal and domestic affairs, and is divided into four organs, namely, the executive, the legislature, the judiciary and the administrative. Though India became a sovereign country on 26 January 1950, having equal status with the other members of the international community, she decided to remain in the Commonwealth of Nations. Pandit Nehru declared that India will continue -- "her full membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and her acceptance of the King as the symbol of the free association of the independent nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth ''. Her membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and that of the United Nations Organization do not affect her sovereignty to any extent. It is merely a voluntary association of India and it is open to India to cut off this association at her will, and that it has no constitutional significance.
Before the term was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the Constitution had a socialist content in the form of certain Directive Principles of State Policy. The term socialist here means democratic socialism i.e. achievement of socialistic goals through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means. Socialist state basically means that wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society through distributive justice. It shall not be concentrated in the hands of few. Government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio - economic inequalities.
Secular means that the relationship between the government and the people which is determined according to constitution and law. By the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the term "Secular '' was also incorporated in the Preamble. There is no difference of religion i.e. all religion are equally respected and moreover there is no state religion. All the citizens of India are allowed to profess, practise and propagate any religion. Explaining the meaning of secularism as adopted by India, Alexander Owics has written, "Secularism is a part of the basic of the Indian Constitution and it means equal freedom and respect for all religions. '
The people of India elect their governments by a system of universal adult franchise; popularly known as "one man one vote ''. Every citizen of India, 18 years of age and above and not otherwise debarred by law, is entitled to vote. The word ' democratic ' not only refers to political but also to social & economic democracy.
thus India has a president who is elected and has a fixed term of office
India seeks to secure social, economic and political justice for its people.
(i) Social Justice:
Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, color, religion, sex or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.
(ii) Economic Justice:
Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and woman on the basis of income, wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equality, end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralisation of economic resources, and securing of adequate opportunities to all for earning their living.
(iii) Political Justice:
Political Justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without any discrimination. The Constitution of India provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people have the right and freedom to participate.
The idea of Liberty refers to the freedom on the activities of Indian nationals. This establishes that there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in term of what they think, their manner of expressions and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action. This is found to be an important tool in ensuring democratic framework. However, liberty does not mean freedom to do anything, and it must be exercised within the constitutional limits. This is second provision. liberty is an absolute term while freedom is liberty with restrictions. You have the freedom to do anything provided your actions does not compromise the freedom of an other individual.
This envisages that no section of the society enjoys special privileges and individuals are provided with adequate opportunities without any discrimination. All are equal in front of law. Again, there are three dimensions of Equality - Political, Economic & Civic.
This refers to a feeling of brotherhood and a sense of belonging with the country among its people. It embraces psychological as well as territorial dimensions of National Integration. It leaves no room for regionalism, communalism, casteism etc., which hinders the Unity of the State. The inclusion of the word "Fraternity '' was proposed by Dr. B.R Ambedkar.
In Berubari Case (1960), The amendability & the Significance of the same came to the force. An important & very interesting question was raised relating to the powers of the Parliament to cede Indian territory to a foreign country, as an interpretation of the Article 3. Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to diminish the area of a state as guaranteed in article 3 of the Constitution does not cover cession of the Indian territory to a foreign country. Hence, Indian territory can be ceded to a foreign country only by means of amendment of the Constitution under the Article 368. Consequently, the 9th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1960 was enacted to transfer the Berubari Union to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan). Supreme Court also held the view that Preamble can not be a part of the constitution but later in Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973), the Supreme Court gave a comprehensive verdict. It said that Preamble is Part of Constitution and is subject to the amending power of the parliament as any other provisions of the Constitution, provided the basic structure of the constitution is not destroyed.
It has been clarified by the Supreme Court of India that being a part of Constitution, the Preamble can be subjected to Constitutional Amendments exercised under article 368, however, the basic structure can not be altered.
The preamble has been amended only once so far. On 18 December 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through several changes in the Forty - second Amendment of the constitution. A committee under the chairmanship of Sardar Swaran Singh recommended that this amendment be enacted after being constituted to study the question of amending the constitution in the light of past experience. Through this amendment the words "socialist '' and "secular '' were added between the words "Sovereign '' and "democratic '' and the words "unity of the Nation '' were changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation ''.
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what was the importance of the city of timbuktu | Timbuktu - wikipedia
Timbuktu (pron.: / ˌtɪmbʌkˈtuː /), also spelled as Tinbuktu, Timbuctoo and Timbuktoo (Berber: ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵓⴽⵜⵓ; French: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu), is an ancient city in Mali, situated 20 km (12 mi) north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Timbuktu Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali. It had a population of 54,453 in the 2009 census.
Starting out as a seasonal settlement, Timbuktu became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, Timbuktu flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory and slaves. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468. A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591, and made Timbuktu, rather than Gao, their capital.
The invaders established a new ruling class, the Arma, who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. However, the golden age of the city, during which it was a major learning and cultural centre of the Mali empire, was over and it entered a long period of decline. Different tribes governed until the French took over in 1893, a situation that lasted until it became part of the current Republic of Mali in 1960. Presently, Timbuktu is impoverished and suffers from desertification.
In its Golden Age, the town 's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network made possible an important book trade: together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus, have described Timbuktu. These stories fueled speculation in Europe, where the city 's reputation shifted from being extremely rich to being mysterious.
Over the centuries, the spelling of Timbuktu has varied a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante 's Thambet, used in a letter he wrote in 1447 and also adopted by Alvise Cadamosto in his Voyages of Cadamosto, to Heinrich Barth 's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu. French spelling often appears in international reference as "Tombouctou. '' As well as its spelling, Timbuktu 's toponymy is still open to discussion. At least four possible origins of the name of Timbuktu have been described:
The validity of these theories depends on the identity of the original founders of the city: as recently as 2000, archaeological research has not found remains dating from the 11th / 12th century within the limits of the modern city given the difficulty of excavating through metres of sand that have buried the remains over the past centuries. Without consensus, the etymology of Timbuktu remains unclear.
Like other important Medieval West African towns such as Djenné (Jenné - Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have been discovered near Timbuktu that predate the traditional foundation date of the town. Although the accumulation of thick layers of sand has thwarted archaeological excavations in the town itself, some of the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards on the surface. A survey of the area by Susan and Roderick McIntosh in 1984 identified several Iron Age sites along the el - Ahmar, an ancient wadi system that passes a few kilometres to the east of the modern town.
An Iron Age tell complex located 9 kilometres (6 miles) southeast of the Timbuktu near the Wadi el - Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale University and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou. The results suggest that the site was first occupied during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second half of the 1st millennium AD and eventually collapsed sometime during the late 10th or early 11th century AD.
Timbuktu was a regional trade centre in medieval times, where caravans met to exchange salt from the Sahara Desert for gold, ivory, and slaves from the Sahel, which could be reached via the nearby Niger River. The population swelled from 10,000 in the 13th century to about 50,000 in the 16th century after the establishment of a major Islamic university, which attracted scholars from throughout the Muslim world. In the 1600s, a combination of a purge by a monarch who accused the scholars of "disloyalty '' and a decline in trade caused by increased competition from newly available trans - Atlantic sailing routes caused the city to decline. The first European to reach Timbuktu, Alexander Gordon Laing, did not arrive until 1826, and it was not until the 1890s that Timbuktu was formally incorporated into the French colony of Mali. Today, the city is still inhabited, but it plays little role on the world stage.
Timbuktu is located on the southern edge of the Sahara 15 km (9 mi) north of the main channel of the River Niger. The town is surrounded by sand dunes and the streets are covered in sand. The port of Kabara is 8 km (5 mi) to the south of the town and is connected to an arm of the river by a 3 km (2 mi) canal. The canal had become heavily silted but in 2007 it was dredged as part of a Libyan financed project.
The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and northern Ivory Coast. The rainfall in these areas peaks in August but the flood water takes time to pass down the river system and through the Inner Niger Delta. At Koulikoro, 60 km (37 mi) downstream from Bamako, the flood peaks in September, while in Timbuktu the flood lasts longer and usually reaches a maximum at the end of December.
In the past, the area flooded by the river was more extensive and in years with high rainfall, floodwater would reach the western outskirts of Timbuktu itself. A small navigable creek to the west of the town is shown on the maps published by Heinrich Barth in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 and 1921, during the colonial period, the French used slave labour to dig a narrow canal linking Timbuktu with Kabara. Over the following decades this became silted and filled with sand, but in 2007 as part of the dredging project, the canal was re-excavated so that now when the River Niger floods, Timbuktu is again connected to Kabara. The Malian government has promised to address problems with the design of the canal as it currently lacks footbridges and the steep unstable banks make access to the water difficult.
Kabara can only function as a port in December to January when the river is in full flood. When the water levels are lower, boats dock at Korioumé which is linked to Timbuktu by 18 km (11 mi) of paved road.
Timbuktu features a hot desert climate according to the Köppen Climate Classification. The weather is hot and dry throughout much of the year. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year -- April, May and June -- exceed 40 ° C (104 ° F). Lowest temperatures occur during the Northern hemisphere winter -- December, January and February. However, average maximum temperatures do not drop below 30 ° C (86 ° F). These winter months are characterized by a dry, dusty trade wind blowing from the Saharan Tibesti Region southward to the Gulf of Guinea: picking up dust particles on their way, these winds limit visibility in what has been dubbed the ' Harmattan Haze '. Additionally, when the dust settles in the city, sand builds up and desertification looms.
The wealth and very existence of Timbuktu depended on its position as the southern terminus of an important trans - Saharan trade route; nowadays, the only goods that are routinely transported across the desert are slabs of rock salt brought from the Taoudenni mining centre in the central Sahara 664 km (413 mi) north of Timbuktu. Until the second half of the 20th century most of the slabs were transported by large salt caravans or azalai, one leaving Timbuktu in early November and the other in late March.
The caravans of several thousand camels took three weeks each way, transporting food to the miners and returning with each camel loaded with four or five 30 kg (66 lb) slabs of salt. The salt transport was largely controlled by the desert nomads of the Arabic - speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe. Although there are no roads, the slabs of salt are now usually transported from Taoudenni by truck. From Timbuktu the salt is transported by boat to other towns in Mali.
Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu 's population grew immensely due to an influx of Tuaregs, Fulanis, and Songhais seeking trade, security, or to study. By 1300, the population increased to 10,000 and kept increasing until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s.
There is insufficient rainfall in the Timbuktu region for purely rain - fed agriculture and crops are therefore irrigated using water from the River Niger. The main agricultural crop is rice. African floating rice (Oryza glaberrima) has traditionally been grown in regions near the river that are inundated during the annual flood. Seed is sown at the beginning of the rainy season (June -- July) so that when the flood water arrives plants are already 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) in height.
The plants grow up to three metres (9.8 feet) in height as the water level rises. The rice is harvested by canoe in December. The procedure is very precarious and the yields are low but the method has the advantage that little capital investment is required. A successful crop depends critically on the amount and timing of the rain in the wet season and the height of the flood. To a limited extent the arrival of the flood water can be controlled by the construction of small mud dikes that become submerged as the water rises.
Although floating rice is still cultivated in the Timbuktu Cercle, most of the rice is now grown in three relatively large irrigated areas that lie to the south of the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha) and Hamadja (623 ha). Water is pumped from the river using ten large Archimedes ' screws which were first installed in the 1990s. The irrigated areas are run as cooperatives with approximately 2,100 families cultivating small plots. Nearly all the rice produced is consumed by the families themselves. The yields are still relatively low and the farmers are being encouraged to change their agricultural practices.
Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November and February when the air temperature is lower. In the 1980s, accommodation for the small number of tourists was provided by two small hotels: Hotel Bouctou and Hotel Azalaï. Over the following decades the tourist numbers increased so that by 2006 there were seven small hotels and guest houses. The town benefited by the revenue from the CFA 5000 tourist tax, by the sale of handicrafts and by the employment for the guides.
Starting in 2008 the Al - Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb began kidnapping groups of tourists in the Sahel region. In January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the Mali - Niger border after attending a cultural festival at Anderamboukané. One of these tourists was subsequently murdered. As a result of this and various other incidents a number of states including France, Britain and the US, began advising their citizens to avoid travelling far from Bamako. The number of tourists visiting Timbuktu dropped precipitously from around 6000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011.
Because of the security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010 Festival in the Desert from Essakane to the outskirts of Timbuktu. In November 2011 gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel in Timbuktu, killing one of them and kidnapping three others. This was the first terrorist incident in Timbuktu itself.
On 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of Gao, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military by the Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine. Five days later, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad. The declared political entity was not recognized by any local nations or the international community and it collapsed three months later on 12 July.
On 28 January 2013, French and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels. The force of 1,000 French troops with 200 Malian soldiers retook Timbuktu without a fight. The Islamist groups had already fled north a few days earlier, having set fire to the Ahmed Baba Institute, which housed many important manuscripts. The building housing the Ahmed Baba Institute was funded by South Africa, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service radio news reported on 29 January 2013 that approximately 28,000 of the manuscripts in the Institute had been removed to safety from the premises before the attack by the Islamist groups, and that the whereabouts of about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown. It was intended to be a resource for Islamic research.
On 30 March 2013, jihadist rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu nine days before a suicide bombing on a Malian army checkpoint at the international airport killing a soldier. Fighting lasted until 1 April, when French warplanes helped Malian ground forces chase the remaining rebels out of the city center.
Tales of Timbuktu 's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the most famous descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus and Shabeni.
Perhaps most famous among the accounts written about Timbuktu is that by Leo Africanus. Born El Hasan ben Muhammed el - Wazzan - ez - Zayyati in Granada in 1485, his family was among the thousands of Muslims expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella after their reconquest of Spain in 1492. They settled in Morocco, where he studied in Fes and accompanied his uncle on diplomatic missions throughout North Africa. During these travels, he visited Timbuktu. As a young man he was captured by pirates and presented as an exceptionally learned slave to Pope Leo X, who freed him, baptized him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici '', and commissioned him to write, in Italian, a detailed survey of Africa. His accounts provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next several centuries. Describing Timbuktu when the Songhai empire was at its height, the English edition of his book includes the description:
According to Leo Africanus, there were abundant supplies of locally produced corn, cattle, milk and butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city. In another passage dedicated to describing the wealth of both the environment and the king, Africanus touches upon the rarity of some of Timbuktu 's trade commodities: salt. These descriptions and passages alike caught the attention of European explorers. Africanus, though, also described the more mundane aspects of the city, such as the "cottages built of chalk, and covered with thatch '' -- although these went largely unheeded.
Roughly 250 years after Leo Africanus ' visit to Timbuktu, the city had seen many rulers. The end of the 18th century saw the grip of the Moroccan rulers on the city wane, resulting in a period of unstable government by quickly changing tribes. During the rule of one of those tribes, the Hausa, a 14 - year - old child from Tetouan accompanied his father on a visit to Timbuktu. Growing up a merchant, he was captured and eventually brought to England.
Shabeni, or Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny stayed in Timbuktu for three years before moving to Housa. Two years later, he returned to Timbuktu to live there for another seven years -- one of a population that was even centuries after its peak and excluding slaves, double the size of the 21st - century town.
By the time Shabeni was 27, he was an established merchant in his hometown. Returning from a trademission to Hamburgh, his English ship was captured and brought to Ostende by a ship under Russian colours in December 1789. He was subsequently set free by the British consulate, but his ship set him ashore in Dover for fear of being captured again. Here, his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an indication of the size of the city in the second half of the 18th century. In an earlier passage, he described an environment that was characterized by forest, as opposed to nowadays ' arid surroundings.
The most well - known cultural event is the Festival au Désert. When the Tuareg rebellion ended in 1996 under the Konaré administration, 3,000 weapons were burned in a ceremony dubbed the Flame of Peace on 29 March 2007 -- to commemorate the ceremony, a monument was built. The Festival au Désert, to celebrate the peace treaty, is held near the city in January.
During its twelfth session, in December 1988, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) selected parts of Timbuktu 's historic centre for inscription on its World Heritage list. The selection was based on three criteria:
An earlier nomination in 1979 failed the following year as it lacked proper demarcation: the Malian government included the town of Timbuktu as a whole in the wish for inclusion. Close to a decade later, three mosques and 16 mausoleums or cemeteries were selected from the Old Town for World Heritage status: with this conclusion came the call for protection of the buildings ' conditions, an exclusion of new construction works near the sites and measures against the encroaching sand.
Shortly afterwards, the monuments were placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger by the Malian government, as suggested by the selection committee at the time of nomination. The first period on the Danger List lasted from 1990 until 2005, when a range of measures including restoration work and the compilation of an inventory warranted "its removal from the Danger List ''. In 2008 the WHC placed the protected area under increased scrutiny dubbed "reinforced monitoring '', a measure made possible in 2007, as the impact of planned construction work was unclear. Special attention was given to the build of a cultural centre.
During a session in June 2009, UNESCO decided to cease its increased monitoring program as it felt sufficient progress had been made to address the initial concerns. Following the takeover of Timbuktu by MNLA and the Islamist group Ansar Dine, it was returned to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2012.
In May 2012, Ansar Dine destroyed a shrine in the city and in June 2012, in the aftermath of the Battle of Gao and Timbuktu, other shrines, including the mausoleum of Sidi Mahmoud, were destroyed when attacked with shovels and pickaxes by members of the same group. An Ansar Dine spokesman said that all shrines in the city, including the 13 remaining World Heritage sites, would be destroyed because they consider them to be examples of idolatry, a sin in Islam. These acts have been described as crimes against humanity and war crimes. After the destruction of the tombs, UNESCO created a special fund to safeguard Mali 's World Heritage Sites, vowing to carry out reconstruction and rehabilitation projects once the security situation allows.
Timbuktu was a world centre of Islamic learning from the 13th to the 17th century, especially under the Mali Empire and Askia Mohammad I 's rule. The Malian government and NGOs have been working to catalog and restore the remnants of this scholarly legacy: Timbuktu 's manuscripts.
Timbuktu 's rapid economic growth in the 13th and 14th centuries drew many scholars from nearby Walata (today in Mauretania), leading up to the city 's golden age in the 15th and 16th centuries that proved fertile ground for scholarship of religions, arts and sciences. To the people of Timbuktu, literacy and books were symbols of wealth, power, and blessings and the acquisition of books became a primary concern for scholars. An active trade in books between Timbuktu and other parts of the Islamic world and emperor Askia Mohammed 's strong support led to the writing of thousands of manuscripts.
Knowledge was gathered in a manner similar to the early, informal European Medieval university model. Lecturing was presented through a range of informal institutions called madrasahs. Nowadays known as the University of Timbuktu, three madrasahs facilitated 25,000 students: Djinguereber, Sidi Yahya and Sankore.
These institutions were explicitly religious, as opposed to the more secular curricula of modern European universities and more similar to the medieval Europe model. However, where universities in the European sense started as associations of students and teachers, West - African education was patronized by families or lineages, with the Aqit and Bunu al - Qadi al - Hajj families being two of the most prominent in Timbuktu -- these families also facilitated students is set - aside rooms in their housings. Although the basis of Islamic law and its teaching were brought to Timbuktu from North Africa with the spread of Islam, Western African scholarship developed: Ahmad Baba al Massufi is regarded as the city 's greatest scholar.
Timbuktu served in this process as a distribution centre of scholars and scholarship. Its reliance on trade meant intensive movement of scholars between the city and its extensive network of trade partners. In 1468 -- 1469 though, many scholars left for Walata when Sunni Ali 's Songhay Empire absorbed Timbuktu and again in 1591 with the Moroccan occupation.
This system of education survived until the late 19th century, while the 18th century saw the institution of itinerant Quranic school as a form of universal education, where scholars would travel throughout the region with their students, begging for food part of the day. Islamic education came under pressure after the French occupation, droughts in the 70s and 80s and by Mali 's civil war in the early 90s.
Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were collected in Timbuktu over the course of centuries: some were written in the town itself, others -- including exclusive copies of the Qur'an for wealthy families -- imported through the lively booktrade.
Hidden in cellars or buried, hid between the mosque 's mud walls and safeguarded by their patrons, many of these manuscripts survived the city 's decline. They now form the collection of several libraries in Timbuktu, holding up to 700,000 manuscripts: In late January 2013 it was reported that rebel forces destroyed many of the manuscripts before leaving the city. However, there was no malicious destruction of any library or collection as most of the manuscripts were safely hidden away.
These libraries are the largest among up to 60 private or public libraries that are estimated to exist in Timbuktu today, although some comprise little more than a row of books on a shelf or a bookchest. Under these circumstances, the manuscripts are vulnerable to damage and theft, as well as long term climate damage, despite Timbuktu 's arid climate. Two Timbuktu Manuscripts Projects funded by independent universities have aimed to preserve them.
Although French is Mali 's official language, today the large majority of Timbuktu 's inhabitants speaks Koyra Chiini, a Songhay language that also functions as the lingua franca. Before the 1990 -- 1994 Tuareg rebellion, both Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek were represented by 10 % each to an 80 % dominance of the Koyra Chiini language. With Tamashek spoken by both Ikelan and ethnic Tuaregs, its use declined with the expulsion of many Tuaregs following the rebellion, increasing the dominance of Koyra Chiini.
Arabic, introduced together with Islam during the 11th century, has mainly been the language of scholars and religion, comparable to Latin in Western Christianity. Although Bambara is spoken by the most numerous ethnic group in Mali, the Bambara people, it is mainly confined to the south of the country. With an improving infrastructure granting Timbuktu access to larger cities in Mali 's South, use of Bambara was increasing in the city at least until Azawad independence.
With no railroads in Mali except for the Dakar - Niger Railway up to Koulikoro, access to Timbuktu is by road, boat or, since 1961, aircraft. With high water levels in the Niger from August to December, Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV) passenger ferries operate a leg between Koulikoro and downstream Gao on a roughly weekly basis. Also requiring high water are pinasses (large motorized pirogues), either chartered or public, that travel up and down the river.
Both ferries and pinasses arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu 's port, which is linked to the city centre by an 18 km (11 mi) paved road running through Kabara. In 2007, access to Timbuktu 's traditional port, Kabara, was restored by a Libyan funded project that dredged the 3 km (2 mi) silted canal connecting Kabara to an arm of the Niger River. COMANAV ferries and pinassses are now able to reach the port when the river is in full flood.
Timbuktu is poorly connected to the Malian road network with only dirt roads to the neighbouring towns. Although the Niger River can be crossed by ferry at Korioumé, the roads south of the river are no better. However, a new paved road is under construction between Niono and Timbuktu running to the north of the Inland Niger Delta. The 565 km (351 mi) road will pass through Nampala, Léré, Niafunké, Tonka, Diré and Goundam. The completed 81 km (50 mi) section between Niono and the small village of Goma Coura was financed by the Millennium Challenge Corporation. This new section will service the Alatona irrigation system development of the Office du Niger. The 484 km (301 mi) section between Goma Coura and Timbuktu is being financed by the European Development Fund.
Timbuktu Airport is served by both Air Mali and Mali Air Express, hosting flights to and from Bamako, Gao and Mopti. Its 6,923 ft (2,110 m) runway in a 07 / 25 runway orientation is both lighted and paved.
In the imagination of Europeans and North Americans, Timbuktu is a place that bears with it a sense of mystery: a 2006 survey of 150 young Britons found 34 % did not believe the town existed, while the other 66 % considered it "a mythical place ''. This sense has been acknowledged in literature describing African history and African - European relations.
The origin of this mystification lies in the excitement brought to Europe by the legendary tales, especially those by Leo Africanus: Arabic sources focused mainly on more affluent cities in the Timbuktu region, such as Gao and Walata. In West Africa the city holds an image that has been compared to Europe 's view on Athens. As such, the picture of the city as the epitome of distance and mystery is a European one.
Down - to - earth - aspects in Africanus ' descriptions were largely ignored and stories of great riches served as a catalyst for travellers to visit the inaccessible city -- with prominent French explorer René Caillié characterising Timbuktu as "a mass of ill - looking houses built of earth ''. Now opened up, many travellers acknowledged the unfitting description of an "African El Dorado ''. This development shifted the city 's reputation -- from being fabled because of its gold to fabled because of its location and mystery: Being used in this sense since at least 1863, English dictionaries now cite Timbuktu as a metaphor for any faraway place. Long part of colloquial language, Timbuktu also found its way into literature: in Tom Robbins ' novel Half Asleep in Frog Pajamas, Timbuktu provides a central theme. One lead character, Larry Diamond, is vocally fascinated with the city.
In the original 1932 recording of the popular seaside song The Sun Has Got His Hat On, the second verse contains the lines: "(The Sun 's) been tanning niggers out in Timbuktu / Now he 's coming back to do the same to you! '' Due to the controversial nature of the racial epithet "nigger '', controversy has arisen when this song has been played and various replacements, including "negroes '' and "roasting peanuts '' have been offered.
In the stage play Oliver!, a 1960 musical, when the title character sings to Bet, "I 'd do anything for you, dear '', one of her responses is "Go to Timbuktu? '' "And back again '', Oliver responds.
In the Dr. Seuss book Hop on Pop, he says "My brothers read a little bit. Little words like If and it. My father can read big words, too. Like CONSTANTINOPLE and Timbuktu ''.
Similar uses of the city are found in movies, where it is used to indicate a place a person or good can not be traced -- in a Dutch Donald Duck comic subseries situated in Timbuktu, Donald Duck uses the city as a safe haven, and in the 1970 Disney animated feature The Aristocats, Edgar, the villain of the story, threatens the cats with being sent to Timbuktu only for their friends to rescue them and send Edgar there instead. It is mistakenly noted to be in French Equatorial Africa, instead of French West Africa. Timbuktu provided the main setting for the 1959 film Timbuktu, which was set in the city in 1940 although it was filmed in Kanab, Utah, and for Timbuktu in 2014.
Ali Farka Touré inverted the stereotype: "For some people, when you say ' Timbuktu ' it is like the end of the world, but that is not true. I am from Timbuktu, and I can tell you that we are right at the heart of the world. ''
Timbuktu! was a 1978 Broadway musical based on the 1953 Kismet, which re-imagined the original, transposing it from an "Arabian Nights '' setting to eleventh - century Mali.
In Stanley Kubrick 's The Shining, Jack Torrance names the ghostly bartender Lloyd "the best damn bartender from Timbuktu to Portland, Maine, or Portland, Oregon for that matter. ''
In the video game Uncharted Waters: New Horizons Timbuktu is visitable by a relatively long voyage up the Niger River. Its mythical reputation from history is represented by a very low price for gold bars, which can be taken back to Europe and sold for a large profit. It is also the location of the most powerful melee weapon in the game.
Timbuktu is a 2014 French - Mauritanian drama film directed by Abderrahmane Sissako. In the movie, some self - described jihadists with some high - caliber weaponry, are presuming to rule a small village and its surrounding grazing land and waters near the place of the film 's title.
Timbuktu is a sister city to the following cities:
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i got a picture of you kid rock | Picture (song) - wikipedia
"Picture '' is a duet written by American music artists Kid Rock and Sheryl Crow, released on November 12, 2002 as the fourth single and ninth track from Kid Rock 's 2001 album Cocky. The original recording on the album is performed by Kid Rock and Sheryl Crow. Rock re-recorded the song for the radio with alternative country singer Allison Moorer because Atlantic was initially unable to get the rights from Crow 's label to release the album version as a single. When the Moorer version was released, some radio stations began playing the Crow version instead, leading Billboard to credit the song variously to Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer. The song was a commercial and critical success and was nominated for Vocal Event of The Year at the 2003 Country Music Association awards.
Kid Rock 's label, Atlantic Records, was unable to obtain permission from Crow 's label, A&M Records, to release the original version as a single. Therefore, Atlantic Records decided to rework the song with country singer Allison Moorer (coincidentally signed to A&M 's sister label Universal South Records) instead. Moorer re-recorded Crow 's vocals for the commercial release.
Even though Atlantic Records was unable to obtain rights to release Crow 's version as a single, mainstream, rock / alternative, and some country radio stations disregarded this and played the original version featuring Crow, while other country music radio stations played the radio edit featuring Allison Moorer instead. Because of this, Billboard credited the song on the charts as Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer.
Since the release of the single, Kid Rock has performed live versions with country singers Kellie Pickler, Martina McBride, Miranda Lambert, Jessie James, Sheryl Crow, Gretchen Wilson, LeAnn Rimes, and Allison Moorer. The version with Wilson was released on Kid Rock 's 2006 Live Trucker album. As of September 2017, "Picture '' sold 836,300 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.
The song is performed in the key of G major in common time with a tempo of 98 beats per minute. The verses of the song follow a chord progression of G -- C -- D -- C. The vocals span from G to B.
Being the third Kid Rock single that entered Billboard 's Hot 100 chart, "Picture '' remains his highest - charting single in the United States, peaking at number 4 in April, 2003. The song also charted on the Hot Country Songs, peaking at number 21. Until 2008 's "All Summer Long '', it also marked his only Top 40 country hit. The song is also Sheryl Crow 's second-most successful single in the United States, after her 1994 hit "All I Wanna Do '' which reached number 2.
On the Hot Country Songs chart, the song was credited only to Kid Rock and Crow for 22 weeks. By then, the single had reached # 33 on the charts. The following week, however, the song began to be credited to Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer. The song spent a total of 33 weeks on the country chart, reaching # 21 in 2003.
Even though Crow 's label did not release licensing permissions for the original version, Crow was featured in the music video singing instead of Moorer. The video takes place in a studio showing Rock and Crow recording the song, accompanied by clips of the duo hanging out in the winter time.
US CD Single
Fleet Foxes frontman Robin Pecknold covered the song with Joanna Newsom in 2010 when the former opened for the latter.
Rascal Flatts have covered the song with Sheryl Crow on their joint 2014 tour together.
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what is the relationship between cuba and the us | Cuba -- United States relations - wikipedia
Cuba and the United States restored diplomatic relations on 20 July 2015, which had been severed in 1961 during the Cold War. U.S. diplomatic representation in Cuba is handled by the United States Embassy in Havana, and there is a similar Cuban Embassy in Washington, D.C.. The United States, however, continues to maintain its commercial, economic, and financial embargo, which makes it illegal for U.S. corporations to do business with Cuba. Leaders in both houses of Congress as well as President Donald Trump support the embargo, although the Cuban government has called for it to be repealed.
The hold of the Spanish Empire on possessions in the Americas was reduced in the 1820s as a result of the Spanish American wars of independence; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish -- American War (1898) that resulted from the Cuban War of Independence. Under the Treaty of Paris, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate; the U.S. gained a position of economic and political dominance over the island, which persisted after it became formally independent in 1902.
Following the Cuban Revolution of 1959, bilateral relations deteriorated substantially. In 1961, the U.S. severed diplomatic ties with Cuba and began pursuing covert operations to topple the Communist regime. Moreover, the U.S. imposed and subsequently tightened a comprehensive set of restrictions and bans vis - à - vis the Cuban regime as retaliation for the nationalization of U.S. corporations ' property by Cuba. Meanwhile, several organizations, including a nearly unanimous United Nations General Assembly, have called for "an end to the United States ' decades - long economic, commercial and financial embargo against Cuba. ''
On 17 December 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raúl Castro announced the beginning of a process of normalizing relations between Cuba and the U.S., which media sources have named "the Cuban Thaw ''. Negotiated in secret in Canada and Vatican City over preceding months, and with the assistance of Pope Francis, the agreement led to the lifting of some U.S. travel restrictions, fewer restrictions on remittances, U.S. banks access to the Cuban financial system, and the establishment of a U.S. embassy in Havana, which closed after Cuba became closely allied with the USSR in 1961. The countries ' respective "interests sections '' in one another 's capitals were upgraded to embassies on 20 July 2015. On 20 March 2016, President Barack Obama visited Cuba, becoming the first President in 88 years to visit the island.
On June 16, 2017 President Donald Trump announced that he was suspending the policy for unconditional sanctions relief for Cuba, while also leaving the door open for a "better deal '' between the US and Cuba.
Relations between the Spanish colony of Cuba and polities on the North American mainland first established themselves in the early 18th century through illicit commercial contracts by the European colonies of the New World, trading to elude colonial taxes. As both legal and illegal trade increased, Cuba became a comparatively prosperous trading partner in the region, and a center of tobacco and sugar production. During this period Cuban merchants increasingly traveled to North American ports, establishing trade contracts that endured for many years. The British occupation of Havana in 1762 opened up trade with the British colonies in North America, and the rebellion of the thirteen colonies in 1776 provided additional trade opportunities. Spain opened Cuban ports to North American commerce officially in November 1776 and the island became increasingly dependent on that trade.
After the opening of the island to world trade in 1818, trade agreements began to replace Spanish commercial connections. In 1820 Thomas Jefferson thought Cuba is "the most interesting addition which could ever be made to our system of States '' and told Secretary of War John C. Calhoun that the United States "ought, at the first possible opportunity, to take Cuba. '' In a letter to the U.S. Minister to Spain Hugh Nelson, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams described the likelihood of U.S. "annexation of Cuba '' within half a century despite obstacles: "But there are laws of political as well as of physical gravitation; and if an apple severed by the tempest from its native tree can not choose but fall to the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined from its own unnatural connection with Spain, and incapable of self support, can gravitate only towards the North American Union, which by the same law of nature can not cast her off from its bosom. ''
In August 1851, 40 Americans who took part in Narciso López 's filibustering expedition in Cuba, including William L. Crittenden, were executed by Spanish authorities in Havana. In 1854, a secret proposal known as the Ostend Manifesto was devised by U.S. diplomats, interested in adding a slave state to the Union. The Manifesto proposed buying Cuba from Spain for $130 million. If Spain were to reject the offer, the Manifesto implied that, in the name of Manifest Destiny, war would be necessary. When the plans became public, because of one author 's vocal enthusiasm for the plan, the manifesto caused a scandal, and was rejected, in part because of objections from anti-slavery campaigners.
By 1877, Americans purchased 83 percent of Cuba 's total exports. North Americans were also increasingly taking up residence on the island, and some districts on the northern shore were said to have more the character of America than Spanish settlements. Between 1878 and 1898 American investors took advantage of deteriorating economic conditions of the Ten Years ' War to take over estates they had tried unsuccessfully to buy before while others acquired properties at very low prices. Above all this presence facilitated the integration of the Cuban economy into the North American system and weakened Cuba 's ties with Spain.
As Cuban resistance to Spanish rule grew, rebels fighting for independence attempted to get support from U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. Grant declined and the resistance was curtailed, though American interests in the region continued. U.S. Secretary of State James G. Blaine wrote in 1881 of Cuba, "that rich island, the key to the Gulf of Mexico, and the field for our most extended trade in the Western Hemisphere, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system... If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination. ''
After some rebel successes in Cuba 's second war of independence in 1897, U.S. President William McKinley offered to buy Cuba for $300 million. Rejection of the offer, and an explosion that sank the American battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor, led to the Spanish -- American War. In Cuba the war became known as "the U.S. intervention in Cuba 's War of Independence ''. On the 10th December 1898 Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris and, in accordance with the treaty, Spain renounced all rights to Cuba. The treaty put an end to the Spanish Empire in the Americas and marked the beginning of United States expansion and long - term political dominance in the region. Immediately after the signing of the treaty, the U.S. - owned "Island of Cuba Real Estate Company '' opened for business to sell Cuban land to Americans. U.S. military rule of the island lasted until 1902 when Cuba was finally granted formal independence.
The Teller Amendment to the U.S. declaration of war against Spain in 1898 disavowed any intention of exercising "sovereignty, jurisdiction or control '' over Cuba, but the United States only agreed to withdraw its troops from Cuba when Cuba agreed to the eight provisions of the Platt Amendment, an amendment to the 1901 Army Appropriations Act authored by Connecticut Republican Senator Orville H. Platt, which would allow the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs if needed for the maintenance of good government and committed Cuba to lease to the U.S. land for naval bases. Cuba leased to the United States the southern portion of Guantánamo Bay, where a United States Naval Station had been established in 1898. The Platt Amendment defined the terms of Cuban - U.S. relations for the following 33 years and provided the legal basis for U.S. military interventions with varying degrees of support from Cuban governments and political parties.
Despite recognizing Cuba 's transition into an independent republic, United States Governor Charles Edward Magoon assumed temporary military rule for three more years following a rebellion led in part by José Miguel Gómez. In the following 20 years the United States repeatedly intervened militarily in Cuban affairs: 1906 -- 09, 1912 and 1917 -- 22. In 1912 U.S. forces were sent to quell protests by Afro - Cubans against discrimination.
By 1926 U.S. companies owned 60 % of the Cuban sugar industry and imported 95 % of the total Cuban crop, and Washington was generally supportive of successive Cuban governments. However, internal confrontations between the government of Gerardo Machado and political opposition led to his military overthrow by Cuban rebels in 1933. U.S. Ambassador Sumner Welles requested U.S. military intervention. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, despite his promotion of the Good Neighbor policy toward Latin America, ordered 29 warships to Cuba and Key West, alerting United States Marines, and bombers for use if necessary. Machado 's replacement, Ramón Grau assumed the Presidency and immediately nullified the Platt amendment. In protest, the United States denied recognition to Grau 's government, Ambassador Welles describing the new regime as "communistic '' and "irresponsible ''.
The rise of General Fulgencio Batista in the 1930s to de facto leader and President of Cuba for two terms (1940 -- 44 and 1952 -- 59) led to an era of close co-operation between the governments of Cuba and the United States. The United States and Cuba signed another Treaty of Relations in 1934. Batista 's second term as President was initiated by a military coup planned in Florida, and U.S. President Harry S. Truman quickly recognized Batista 's return to rule providing military and economic aid. The Batista era witnessed the almost complete domination of Cuba 's economy by the United States, as the number of American corporations continued to swell, though corruption was rife and Havana also became a popular sanctuary for American organized crime figures, notably hosting the infamous Havana Conference in 1946. U.S. Ambassador to Cuba Arthur Gardner later described the relationship between the U.S. and Batista during his second term as President:
Batista had always leaned toward the United States. I do n't think we ever had a better friend. It was regrettable, like all South Americans, that he was known -- although I had no absolute knowledge of it -- to be getting a cut, I think is the word for it, in almost all the things that were done. But, on the other hand, he was doing an amazing job.
As armed conflict broke out in Cuba between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Batista government, the U.S. was urged to end arms sales to Batista by Cuban president - in - waiting Manuel Urrutia Lleó. Washington made the critical move in March 1958 to prevent sales of rifles to Batista 's forces, thus changing the course of the revolution irreversibly towards the rebels. The move was vehemently opposed by U.S. ambassador Earl E.T. Smith, and led U.S. State Department adviser William Wieland to lament that "I know Batista is considered by many as a son of a bitch... but American interests come first... at least he was our son of a bitch. ''
Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president.
U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower officially recognized the new Cuban government after the 1959 Cuban Revolution which had overthrown the Batista government, but relations between the two governments deteriorated rapidly. Within days Earl E.T. Smith, U.S. Ambassador to Cuba, was replaced by Philip Bonsal. The U.S. government became increasingly concerned by Cuba 's agrarian reforms and the nationalization of industries owned by U.S. citizens. Between 15 and 26 April 1959, Fidel Castro and a delegation of representatives visited the U.S. as guests of the Press Club. This visit was perceived by many as a charm offensive on the part of Castro and his recently initiated government, and his visit included laying a wreath at the Lincoln memorial. After a meeting between Castro and Vice-President Richard Nixon, where Castro outlined his reform plans for Cuba, the U.S. began to impose gradual trade restrictions on the island. On 4 September 1959, Ambassador Bonsal met with Cuban Premier Fidel Castro to express "serious concern at the treatment being given to American private interests in Cuba both agriculture and utilities. ''
As state intervention and take - over of privately owned businesses continued, trade restrictions on Cuba increased. The U.S. stopped buying Cuban sugar and refused to supply its former trading partner with much needed oil, with a devastating effect on the island 's economy, leading to Cuba turning to their newfound trading partner the Soviet Union for petroleum. In March 1960, tensions increased when the freighter La Coubre exploded in Havana Harbor, killing over 75 people. Fidel Castro blamed the United States and compared the incident to the sinking of the Maine, though admitting he could provide no evidence for his accusation. That same month, President Eisenhower quietly authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to organize, train, and equip Cuban refugees as a guerrilla force to overthrow Castro.
Each time the Cuban government nationalized American citizens properties, the American government took countermeasures, resulting in the prohibition of all exports to Cuba on 19 October 1960. Consequently, Cuba began to consolidate trade relations with the USSR, leading the U.S. to break off all remaining official diplomatic relations. Later that year, U.S. diplomats Edwin L. Sweet and William G. Friedman were arrested and expelled from the island having been charged with "encouraging terrorist acts, granting asylum, financing subversive publications and smuggling weapons ''. On 3 January 1961 the U.S. withdrew diplomatic recognition of the Cuban government and closed the embassy in Havana.
Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy believed that Eisenhower 's policy toward Cuba had been mistaken. He criticized what he saw as use of the U.S. government influence to advance the interest and increase the profits of private U.S. companies instead of helping Cuba to achieve economic progress, saying that Americans dominated the island 's economy and had given support to one of the bloodiest and most repressive dictatorships in the history of Latin America. "We let Batista put the U.S. on the side of tyranny, and we did nothing to convince the people of Cuba and Latin America that we wanted to be on the side of freedom ''.
In 1961 Cuba resisted an armed invasion by about 1,500 CIA trained Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs. President John F. Kennedy 's complete assumption of responsibility for the venture, which provoked a popular reaction against the invaders, proved to be a further propaganda boost for the Cuban government. The U.S. began the formulation of new plans aimed at destabilizing the Cuban government. These activities were collectively known as the "Cuban Project '' (also known as Operation Mongoose). This was to be a coordinated program of political, psychological, and military sabotage, involving intelligence operations as well as assassination attempts on key political leaders. The Cuban project also proposed attacks on mainland U.S. targets, hijackings and assaults on Cuban refugee boats to generate U.S. public support for military action against the Cuban government, these proposals were known collectively as Operation Northwoods.
A U.S. Senate Select Intelligence Committee report later confirmed over eight attempted plots to kill Castro between 1960 and 1965, as well as additional plans against other Cuban leaders. After weathering the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba observed as U.S. armed forces staged a mock invasion of a Caribbean island in 1962 named Operation Ortsac. The purpose of the invasion was to overthrow a leader whose name, Ortsac, was Castro spelled backwards. Tensions between the two nations reached their peak in 1962, after U.S. reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet construction of intermediate - range missile sites. The discovery led to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Trade relations also deteriorated in equal measure. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy broadened the partial trade restrictions imposed after the revolution by Eisenhower to a ban on all trade with Cuba, except for non-subsidized sale of foods and medicines. A year later travel and financial transactions by U.S. citizens with Cuba was prohibited. The United States embargo against Cuba was to continue in varying forms.
Relations began to thaw during President Lyndon B. Johnson 's tenure continuing through the next decade and a half. In 1964 Fidel Castro sent a message to Johnson encouraging dialogue, he wrote:
I seriously hope that Cuba and the United States can eventually respect and negotiate our differences. I believe that there are no areas of contention between us that can not be discussed and settled within a climate of mutual understanding. But first, of course, it is necessary to discuss our differences. I now believe that this hostility between Cuba and the United States is both unnatural and unnecessary -- and it can be eliminated.
Through the late 1960s and early 1970s a sustained period of aircraft hijackings between Cuba and the U.S. by citizens of both nations led to a need for cooperation. By 1974, U.S. elected officials had begun to visit the island. Three years later, during the Carter administration, the U.S. and Cuba simultaneously opened interests sections in each other 's capitals. In 1980, after 10,000 Cubans crammed into the Peruvian embassy seeking political asylum, Castro stated that any who wished to do so could leave Cuba, in what became known as the Mariel boatlift. Approximately 125,000 people left Cuba for the United States.
In 1977, Cuba and the United States signed a maritime boundary treaty in which the countries agreed on the location of their border in the Straits of Florida. The treaty was never sent to the United States Senate for ratification, but the agreement has been implemented by the U.S. State Department.
In 1981 President Ronald Reagan 's new administration announced a tightening of the embargo. The U.S. also re-established the travel ban, prohibiting U.S. citizens from spending money in Cuba. The ban was later supplemented to include Cuban government officials or their representatives visiting the U.S. In 1985 Radio y Televisión Martí, backed by Ronald Reagan 's administration, began to broadcast news and information from the U.S. to Cuba.
The Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early - 1990s, leaving Cuba without its major international sponsor. The ensuing years were marked by economic difficulty in Cuba, a time known as the Special Period. U.S. law allowed private humanitarian aid to Cuba for part of this time. However, the long standing U.S. embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act (the "Torricelli Law '') and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act (known as the Helms - Burton Act). The 1992 act prohibited foreign - based subsidiaries of U.S. companies from trading with Cuba, travel to Cuba by U.S. citizens, and family remittances to Cuba. Sanctions could also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba. As a result, multinational companies had to choose between Cuba and the U.S., the latter being a much larger market.
On 24 February 1996, two unarmed Cessna 337s flown by the group "Brothers to the Rescue '' were shot down by Cuban Air Force MiG - 29, killing three Cuban - Americans and one Cuban U.S. resident. The Cuban government claimed that the planes had entered into Cuban airspace.
Some veterans of CIA 's 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, while no longer being sponsored by the CIA, are still active, though they are now in their seventies or older. Members of Alpha 66, an anti-Castro paramilitary organization, continue to practice their AK - 47 skills in a camp in South Florida.
In January 1999, U.S. President Bill Clinton eased travel restrictions to Cuba in an effort to increase cultural exchanges between the two nations. The Clinton administration approved a two - game exhibition series between the Baltimore Orioles and Cuban national baseball team, marking the first time a Major League Baseball team played in Cuba since 1959.
At the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000, Castro and Clinton spoke briefly at a group photo session and shook hands. U.N. Secretary - General Kofi Annan commented afterwards, "For a U.S. president and a Cuban president to shake hands for the first time in over 40 years -- I think it is a major symbolic achievement ''. While Castro said it was a gesture of "dignity and courtesy '', the White House denied the encounter was of any significance. In November 2001, U.S. companies began selling food to the country for the first time since Washington imposed the trade embargo after the revolution. In 2002, former U.S. President Jimmy Carter became the first former or sitting U.S. president to visit Cuba since 1928.
Relations deteriorated again following the election of George W. Bush. During his campaign Bush appealed for the support of Cuban - Americans by emphasizing his opposition to the government of Fidel Castro and supporting tighter embargo restrictions Cuban Americans, who until 2008 tended to vote Republican, expected effective policies and greater participation in the formation of policies regarding Cuba - U.S. relations. Approximately three months after his inauguration, the Bush administration began expanding travel restrictions. The United States Department of the Treasury issued greater efforts to deter American citizens from illegally traveling to the island. Also in 2001, five Cuban agents were convicted on 26 counts of espionage, conspiracy to commit murder, and other illegal activities in the United States. On 15 June 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court denied review of their case. Tensions heightened as the Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Affairs, John R. Bolton, accused Cuba of maintaining a biological weapons program. Many in the United States, including ex-president Carter, expressed doubts about the claim. Later, Bolton was criticized for pressuring subordinates who questioned the quality of the intelligence John Bolton had used as the basis for his assertion. Bolton identified the Castro government as part of America 's "axis of evil, '' highlighting the fact that the Cuban leader visited several U.S. foes, including Libya, Iran and Syria.
Following his 2004 reelection, Bush declared Cuba to be one of the few "outposts of tyranny '' remaining in the world.
In January 2006, United States Interests Section in Havana began, in an attempt to break Cuba 's "information blockade '', displaying messages, including quotes from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, on a scrolling "electronic billboard '' in the windows of their top floor. Following a protest march organized by the Cuban government, the government erected a large number of poles, carrying black flags with single white stars, obscuring the messages.
On 10 October 2006, the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies to pursue more aggressively American violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, with penalties as severe as 10 years of prison and hundreds of thousands of dollars in fines for violators of the embargo.
In November 2006, U.S. Congressional auditors accused the development agency USAID of failing properly to administer its program for promoting democracy in Cuba. They said USAID had channeled tens of millions of dollars through exile groups in Miami, which were sometimes wasteful or kept questionable accounts. The report said the organizations had sent items such as chocolate and cashmere jerseys to Cuba. Their report concluded that 30 % of the exile groups who received USAID grants showed questionable expenditures.
After Fidel Castro 's announcement of resignation in 2008, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State John Negroponte said that the United States would maintain its embargo.
In 2003, the United States Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba was formed to "explore ways the U.S. can help hasten and ease a democratic transition in Cuba. '' The commission immediately announced a series of measures that included a tightening of the travel embargo to the island, a crackdown on illegal cash transfers, and a more robust information campaign aimed at Cuba. Castro insisted that, in spite of the formation of the Commission, Cuba is itself "in transition: to socialism (and) to communism '' and that it was "ridiculous for the U.S. to threaten Cuba now ''.
In a 2004 meeting with members of the Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba, President Bush stated, "We 're not waiting for the day of Cuban freedom; we are working for the day of freedom in Cuba. '' The President reaffirmed his commitment to Cuban - Americans just in time for his 2004 reelection with promises to "work '' rather than wait for freedom in Cuba.
In April 2006, the Bush administration appointed Caleb McCarry "transition coordinator '' for Cuba, providing a budget of $59 million, with the task of promoting the governmental shift to democracy after Castro 's death. Official Cuban news service Granma alleges that these transition plans were created at the behest of Cuban exile groups in Miami, and that McCarry was responsible for engineering the overthrow of the Aristide government in Haiti.
In 2006, the Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba released a 93 - page report. The report included a plan that suggested the United States spend $80 million to ensure that Cuba 's communist system did not outlive the death of Fidel Castro. The plan also feature a classified annex that Cuban officials mistakenly claimed could be a plot to assassinate Fidel Castro or a United States military invasion of Cuba.
Relations between Cuba and the United States remain tenuous, but since Fidel Castro stepped down from official leadership of the Cuban state and Barack Obama became president of the United States, they have improved.
In April 2009, Obama, who had received nearly half of the Cuban Americans vote in the 2008 presidential election, began implementing a less strict policy towards Cuba. Obama stated that he was open to dialogue with Cuba, but that he would only lift the trade embargo if Cuba underwent political change. In March 2009, Obama signed into law a congressional spending bill which eased some economic sanctions on Cuba and eased travel restrictions on Cuban - Americans (defined as persons with a relative "who is no more than three generations removed from that person '') traveling to Cuba. The April executive decision further removed time limits on Cuban - American travel to the island. Another restriction loosened in April 2009 was in the realm of telecommunications, which would allow quicker and easier access to the internet for Cuba. The loosening of restrictions is likely to help nonprofits and scientists from both countries who work together on issues of mutual concern, such as destruction of shared biodiversity and diseases that affect both populations. At the 2009 5th Summit of the Americas, President Obama signaled the opening of a new beginning with Cuba.
Obama 's overtures were reciprocated, to some degree, by new Cuban President Raúl Castro. On 27 July 2012, Raúl Castro said that the Government of Cuba is willing to hold talks with the United States government to "discuss anything ''. On 10 December 2013, at a state memorial service for Nelson Mandela, Barack Obama and Raúl Castro shook hands, with Castro saying in English: "Mr. President, I am Castro. '' Though both sides played down the handshake (much like the Clinton handshake of 2000), an adviser to Obama said that Obama wanted to improve relations with Cuba, yet had concerns about human rights on the island.
Beginning in 2013, Cuban and U.S. officials held secret talks brokered in part by Pope Francis and hosted in Canada and Vatican City to start the process of restoring diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States. On 17 December 2014, the framework of an agreement to normalize relations and eventually end the longstanding embargo was announced by Castro in Cuba and Obama in the United States. Cuba and the United States pledged to start official negotiations with the aim of reopening their respective embassies in Havana and Washington. As part of the agreement, aid worker Alan Gross and Rolando Sarraff Trujillo, a Cuban national working as a U.S. intelligence officer, were released by the Cuban government, which also promised to free an unspecified number of Cuban nationals from a list of political prisoners earlier submitted by the United States. For its part, the U.S. government released the last three remaining members of the Cuban Five. Reaction to this change in policy within the Cuban - American community was mixed, and Cuban - American senators Bob Menendez (D - NJ), Marco Rubio (R - FL), and Ted Cruz (R - TX) all condemned the Obama administration 's change in policy. However, opinion polls indicated the thaw in relations was broadly popular with the American public.
High - level diplomats from Cuba and the United States met in Havana in January 2015. While the talks did not produce a significant breakthrough, both sides described them as "productive '', and Cuban Foreign Ministry official Josefina Vidal said further talks would be scheduled.
Under new rules implemented by the Obama administration, restrictions on travel by Americans to Cuba are significantly relaxed as of 16 January 2015, and the limited import of items like Cuban cigars and rum to the United States is allowed, as is the export of American computer and telecommunications technology to Cuba.
On 14 April 2015, the Obama administration announced that Cuba would be removed from the United States "Terrorist Sponsor '' list. The House and Senate had 45 days from 14 April 2015 to review and possibly block this action, but this did not occur, and on 29 May 2015, the 45 days lapsed, therefore officially removing Cuba from the United States ' list of state sponsors of terrorism. This move by President Obama was a long - overdue recognition that Cuba 's SST designation was no longer valid with the end of the Cold War. On 1 July 2015, President Barack Obama announced that formal diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States would resume, and embassies would be opened in Washington and Havana. Relations between Cuba and the United States were formally re-established on 20 July 2015, with the opening of the Cuban embassy in Washington and the U.S. embassy in Havana. Barack Obama visited Cuba for three days in March 2016. In August 2016, JetBlue Flight 387 landed in Santa Clara, becoming the first direct commercial flight to travel between the two countries since the early 1960s. On November 28, 2016, the first normally scheduled commercial flight after more than 50 years landed in Havana from Miami on an American Airlines jet.
With the election of Republican Donald Trump as U.S. president, the state of relations between the United States and Cuba was unclear as of January 2017. While a candidate for the presidency, Trump criticized aspects of the Cuban Thaw, suggesting he could suspend the normalization process unless he can negotiate "a good agreement ''.
On June 16, 2017, President Trump announced that he was suspending what he called a "completely one - sided deal with Cuba '' (referring to Obama 's policy of granting Cuba economic sanctions relief for nothing in return). A new policy aims to impose new restrictions with regards to travel and funding, however travelling via airlines and cruise lines will not be prohibited completely. Moreover, diplomatic relations remain intact and embassies in Washington D.C. and Havana stay open.
In the summer of 2017, reports surfaced that American and Canadian diplomats stationed in Havana had experienced unusual physical symptoms affecting the brain -- including hearing loss, dizziness, and nausea. American investigators have been unable to identify the cause of these symptoms.
In September 2017, the U.S. ordered nonessential diplomats and families out of Cuba as a result of these mysterious health issues.
Under the Trade Sanctions Reform and Enhancement Act of 2000, exports from the United States to Cuba in the industries of food and medical products are permitted with the proper licensing and permissions from the U.S. Department of Commerce and the United States Department of the Treasury.
The Obama administration eased specific travel and other restrictions on Cuba in January 2011. A delegation from the United States Congress called on Cuban president Raúl Castro on 24 February 2012 to discuss bilateral relations. The Congress delegation included Patrick Leahy, Democratic Senator from the state of Vermont and chairman of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and Richard Shelby, Republican Senator from the state of Alabama and ranking member of the Committee of Banking, Housing and Urban Matters; they went to Cuba as part of a delegation of Senators and Representatives of the Congress of United States.
Travel and import restrictions imposed by the United States were further relaxed by executive action in January 2015 as part of the Cuban Thaw.
The U.S. continues to operate a naval base at Guantánamo Bay under a 1903 lease agreement "for the time required for the purposes of coaling and naval stations ''. The U.S. issues a check to Cuba annually for its lease, but since the revolution, Cuba has cashed only one payment. The Cuban government opposes the treaty, arguing that it violates article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, titled "Coercion of a State by the threat or use of force ''. However, Article 4, titled "Non-retroactivity of the present Convention '' of the same document states that Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties shall not be retroactively applied to any treaties made before itself.
The leasing of land like the Guantánamo Bay tract was one of the requirements of the Platt Amendment, conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba following the Spanish -- American War.
Over time, the United States ' laws and foreign policy regarding Cuba has changed drastically due to strained relationship. Beginning with opposition to the Castro led Independence Revolution in Cuba, the Spanish -- American War, naval use of Guantanamo Bay Trade restrictions imposed by Nixon, and a trade embargo opened in the year 2000.
Since the 1990s, American public opinion of Cuba has overall become more favorable, and people became more supportive of ending the trade embargo as well as re-establishing diplomatic ties to Cuba. Gallup 's poll that asked, "Is your overall opinion of Cuba very favorable, mostly favorable, mostly unfavorable or very unfavorable?, '' began in 1997 with only 10 % of people voting favorable, or mostly favorable and in 2015, Cuba 's favorability reached 46 %, almost half of the population believing Cuba to be very or mostly favorable, the highest percentage since the question has been asked. That question has a had a constant rise in favorability, while asking whether or not Cuba was a serious threat had a constant decrease. According to the Roper Center, 68 % of people in 1983 viewed Cuba has a serious or moderately serious threat to the United States, while in 2014 only 25 % of the American population see Cuba as a threat. In a separate question by Gallup, "Do you favor or oppose re-establishing diplomatic relationships with Cuba? '' this question has varied quite a bit over time, reaching its highest 71 % in 1999 and most recently 51 % in 2015. Data is likely to change more with higher favorability proceeding President Obama 's 2016 actions to lift the Cold War embargo policy off of Cuba.
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who does frenchy end up with in grease | Grease (film) - wikipedia
Grease is a 1978 American musical romantic comedy film based on the 1971 musical of the same name by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey. Written by Bronte Woodard and directed by Randal Kleiser in his theatrical feature film debut, the film depicts the lives of greaser Danny Zuko and Australian transfer student Sandy Olsson who develop an attraction for each other. The film stars John Travolta as Danny, Olivia Newton - John as Sandy, and Stockard Channing as Betty Rizzo, a member of the Pink Ladies.
Released on June 16, 1978, Grease was successful both critically and commercially. Its soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second - best selling album of the year in the United States, behind the soundtrack of the 1977 blockbuster Saturday Night Fever, and earned the film its lone Oscar nomination for "Hopelessly Devoted to You '' (which lost the Academy Award for Best Original Song to Donna Summer 's "Last Dance '' from Thank God It 's Friday at the 51st Academy Awards).
A sequel, Grease 2, was released in 1982, starring Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer as a later class of greasers. Few of the original cast members reprised their roles.
In the summer of 1958, greaser Danny Zuko and sweet Australian girl Sandy Olsson meet at the beach and fall in love. When the summer comes to an end, Sandy, whose family is returning to Australia, worries that they might never meet again, but Danny tells her that their love is "only the beginning. '' At the beginning of the new school year at Rydell High School ("Grease ''), Danny reunites with his fellow gang members, the T - Birds, of whom his best friend Kenickie, along with Doody, Sonny, and Putzie are members. Meanwhile, unbeknownst to Danny, Sandy arrives at school, with her family 's plans having changed, with her new friend Frenchy, a member of the Pink Ladies. Other Pink Ladies Rizzo, Marty, and Jan also arrive, excited to be seniors, as does Patty Simcox, a high - achieving cheerleader.
At lunch, Frenchy introduces Sandy to the other Pink Ladies while Danny and the T - Birds make fun of practicing football players, including the handsome Tom Chisum. Each group asks Danny and Sandy, respectively, about their summers and they each independently describe their romance without using the other 's name, with Sandy 's description far more innocent than Danny 's ("Summer Nights ''). Headed back to class, Sandy reveals that it was Danny Zuko she met, and Rizzo teases that perhaps she 'll meet him again.
At a pep rally before a football game, Sandy and Patty perform as cheerleaders; there, Sandy and Tom flirt. Kenickie arrives with a used car he plans on rebuilding so he can race it at Thunder Road, a popular street race spot; as he says this, Leo, a rival greaser, drives by in a menacing manner. Rizzo puts Sandy and Danny together, surprising both of them. Sandy is thrilled to see Danny, but he is obnoxious and indifferent, upsetting Sandy. Frenchy invites Sandy to a sleepover with the Pink Ladies to cheer her up.
Rizzo and the other girls pressure Sandy into smoking a cigarette and having a drink of wine at the sleepover. Frenchy reveals that she plans to drop out of Rydell to go to beauty school and in an effort to prove herself, tries to pierce Sandy 's ear, making Sandy sick. Rizzo makes fun of her innocent nature ("Look At Me, I 'm Sandra Dee '') and leaves when the T - Birds arrive in Kenickie 's car. Rizzo tries to make Danny jealous by flirting with Kenickie, but Danny is unmoved and leaves. Kenickie leaves with Rizzo, stranding Putzie, Sonny, and Doody. Sandy laments over her feelings towards Danny, despite his earlier behavior ("Hopelessly Devoted to You '').
Kenickie and Rizzo, while in the midst of sex, are interrupted when Leo, along with his girlfriend Cha - Cha, deliberately crashes his own street racer into Kenickie 's and insults Rizzo. At the same time, Kenickie 's condom breaks.
The next day, the T - Birds look over Kenickie 's car, and although they are initially skeptical of its potential, Danny and Kenickie explain the modifications they could add to make it a hot - rodding sex machine ("Greased Lightnin ' ''). At the popular hangout The Frosty Palace, Danny, after brushing off an attempt by Patty to flirt with him, apologizes to Sandy for his behavior at the pep rally, but she rejects him having started dating Tom instead. Danny approaches Coach Calhoun about playing a sport. After picking fights with the jocks in basketball, wrestling and baseball, Calhoun suggests cross-country running; Danny proves to be a successful runner, which impresses Sandy and angers Tom.
Danny takes Sandy to the Frosty Palace for a date; they are soon joined by the rest of the greasers, and Danny and Sandy quickly leave in discomfort. Putzie and Jan, in an awkward exchange, agree to pair off for the dance; Kenickie and Rizzo get into an argument and go their separate ways, while Sonny unsuccessfully tries to court Marty. After everyone else has left, Frenchy, whose hair has turned bright pink, tells a waitress she has dropped out of beauty school and is visited by a guardian angel who advises her to return to Rydell ("Beauty School Dropout '').
At the school dance, Leo and Cha - Cha show up as Rizzo 's and Kenickie 's respective dates. Vince Fontaine, who is hosting a live telecast of the dance, flirts with Marty. All of the students take part in a dance contest that descends into chaos ("Born to Hand Jive ''). Danny and Sandy do well, but Sonny pulls Sandy off the dance floor, allowing Cha Cha to step in and win with Danny. During the last dance ("Blue Moon ''), Sonny, Putzie, and Doody moon the national TV audience.
Danny apologizes to Sandy and tries to make it up to her by taking her to a drive - in movie theater. She 's unmoved by his pleas for forgiveness until he asks her to wear his ring, which she gleefully accepts. Danny then tries to make out with her, causing Sandy to angrily throw his ring at him and run off in disgust, leaving Danny distraught ("Sandy ''). Meanwhile, Rizzo admits she may be pregnant to Marty and asks her to keep it a secret, but the story gets back to Kenickie, and he tells Rizzo he does n't run away from his mistakes. Rizzo tells Kenickie the baby is n't his, which both relieves and upsets him.
The next day, the T - Birds have finished Kenickie 's car and he is eager to race it against Leo 's at Thunder Road. Sandy tells Rizzo she plans to watch the race and offers to help Rizzo despite the rumors about Rizzo 's character that have been spread around school. She thanks Sandy and muses to herself about how her sins are not as bad as they could be ("There Are Worse Things I Could Do '').
The T - Birds, Pink Ladies, and Scorpions gather for the race, with the winner receiving the loser 's car as a prize. Just before the race begins, Kenickie hits his head, and Danny takes the wheel. Despite Leo using bladed hub caps (in a sequence paying homage to Ben - Hur), Danny wins the race. Sandy watches from afar and concludes that she must change her approach to life if she wants to win over Danny, asking Frenchy for help ("Look At Me, I 'm Sandra Dee (Reprise) '').
The gang celebrates graduation at a school carnival where Rizzo tells Kenickie she is n't pregnant and they reunite. Danny arrives wearing a letterman 's sweater, to the other T - Birds ' dismay. Sandy shocks everyone when she arrives with a new, wilder hairstyle and wearing a revealing black outfit and leather jacket. In song, Danny and Sandy reaffirm their commitment to each other ("You 're the One That I Want ''). As the film ends, the greasers promise to stay together after school ends ("We Go Together '') and Danny and Sandy depart in a red hot rod, which takes flight as they wave goodbye to their friends.
John Travolta had previously worked with producer Robert Stigwood on Saturday Night Fever, had a nascent singing career at the time (including the top - 10 hit "Let Her In '' in 1976), and had previously appeared as Doody in a touring production of the stage version of Grease. He made a number of casting recommendations that Stigwood ultimately accepted, including suggesting Randal Kleiser (who had never directed a theatrical feature before this but had directed Travolta in the 1976 telefilm The Boy in the Plastic Bubble) as director, and Olivia Newton - John, then known almost exclusively as a country music singer, as Sandy. Newton - John had done little acting before this film, with only one film credit (the unreleased 1970 film Toomorrow, which predated her singing breakthrough) to her name up to that time. Before accepting the role, Newton - John requested a screen test for Grease to avoid another career setback. The screen test was done with the drive - in movie scene. Newton - John, who is native to England and lived most of her life in Australia, was unable to perform with a convincing American accent, and thus her character was rewritten to be Australian. Before Newton - John was hired, Allan Carr was considering numerous names such as Ann - Margret, Susan Dey and Marie Osmond for the lead role; Newton - John agreed to a reduced asking price in exchange for star billing. In a case of life imitating art, Newton - John 's own musical career would undergo a transformation similar to that of the Sandy Olsson character; her next album after Grease, the provocatively titled Totally Hot, featured a much more sexual and pop - oriented approach, with Newton - John appearing on the album cover in similar all - leather attire and teased hair.
Jeff Conaway, like Travolta, had previously appeared in the stage version of Grease; he had played Danny Zuko during the show 's run on Broadway. Jamie Donnelly reprised her role as Jan from the Broadway show, the only cast member to do so; as her hair had begun to gray by this point, she had to dye her hair to resemble her stage character. Kelly Ward had previously appeared as a similar sarcastic supporting character in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble with Travolta under Kleiser; he was cast as Putzie, a mostly new character.
Lorenzo Lamas was a last - minute replacement for Steven Ford, who developed stage fright shortly before filming and backed out. His role contained no spoken dialogue and required Lamas to dye his hair blond to avoid looking like most of the other T - Birds (although Conaway and Ward were also blonds).
Henry Winkler was once considered for a lead in the film. Winkler, who was playing Arthur Fonzarelli on Happy Days, was originally chosen to play Danny. His lack of singing experience and fear of being typecast after Happy Days and the film The Lords of Flatbush led him to decline the role. Adult film star Harry Reems was originally signed to play Coach Calhoun; however, executives at Paramount nixed the idea due to Reems ' previous work in adult films, and producers cast Sid Caesar instead. Caesar was one of several veterans of 1950s television (Eve Arden, Frankie Avalon, Joan Blondell, Edd Byrnes, Alice Ghostley, Dody Goodman) to be cast in supporting roles. Coincidentally, Frankie Avalon and Randal Kleiser had both appeared in 1966 's Fireball 500, the latter as an extra.
The opening beach scene was shot at Malibu 's Leo Carrillo State Beach, making explicit reference to From Here to Eternity. The exterior Rydell scenes, including the basketball, baseball and track segments, were shot at Venice High School in Venice, California, while the Rydell interiors, including the high school dance, were filmed at Huntington Park High School. The sleepover was shot at a private house in East Hollywood. The Paramount Pictures studio lot was the location of the scenes that involve Frosty Palace and the musical numbers "Greased Lightning '' and "Beauty School Dropout ''. The drive - in movie scenes were shot at the Burbank Pickwick Drive - In (it was closed and torn down in 1989 and a shopping center took its place). The race was filmed at the Los Angeles River, between the First and Seventh Street Bridges, where many other films have been shot. The final scene where the carnival took place used John Marshall High School. Furthermore, owing to budget cuts, a short scene was filmed at Hazard Park in Los Angeles.
Scenes inside the Frosty Palace contain obvious blurring of various Coca - Cola signs. Prior to the film 's release, producer Allan Carr had made a product - placement deal with Coca - Cola 's main competitor Pepsi (for example, a Pepsi logo can be seen in the animated opening sequence). When Carr saw the footage of the scene with Coca - Cola products and signage, he ordered director Randal Kleiser to either reshoot the scene with Pepsi products or remove the Coca - Cola logos from the scene. As reshoots were deemed too expensive and time - consuming, optical mattes were used to cover up or blur out the Coca - Cola references. The ' blurring ' covered up trademarked menu signage and a large wall poster, but a red cooler with the logo could not be sufficiently altered so was left unchanged. According to Kleiser, "We just had to hope that Pepsi would n't complain. They did n't. ''
Due to an editing error, a closing scene in which Danny and Sandy kiss was removed from the finished print and lost before its theatrical release. The scene was preserved only in black - and - white; Kleiser attempted to have the existing footage colorized and restored to the film for the film 's re-release in 1998 but was dissatisfied with the results. The scene is included as an extra on the 40th anniversary home video release, and Kleiser hopes to make another attempt at colorizing the footage that is effective enough for the footage to be inserted into the film as he originally intended by the time the film 's 50th anniversary comes in 2028.
Grease was originally released to North American theaters on June 16, 1978 and was an immediate box office success. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $8,941,717 in 862 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking at No. 2 (behind Jaws 2) at the box office for the weekend and with the all - time opening weekend records. Despite losing the weekend, it set a record gross in its first 19 days with $40,272,000.
Grease has grossed $188,755,690 domestically and $206,200,000 internationally, totaling $394,955,690 worldwide. Globally, it was the highest - grossing musical ever, eclipsing the 13 - year - old record held by The Sound of Music, but has since been overtaken by Les Misérables, Mamma Mia! and the 2017 release of Beauty and the Beast. Grease is now the fourth highest - grossing live action musical.
Grease received mostly positive reviews from movie critics and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1978.
Vincent Canby on its initial release in June 1978 called the film "terrific fun '', describing it as a "contemporary fantasy about a 1950s teen - age musical -- a larger, funnier, wittier and more imaginative - than - Hollywood movie with a life that is all its own ''; Canby pointed out that the film was "somewhat in the manner of Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which recalls the science - fiction films of the ' 50s in a manner more elegant and more benign than anything that was ever made then, Grease is a multimillion - dollar evocation of the B - picture quickies that Sam Katzman used to turn out in the ' 50s (Do n't Knock the Rock, 1956) and that American International carried to the sea in the 1960s (Beach Party, 1963). ''
Grease was voted the best musical ever on Channel 4 's 100 greatest musicals in 2004. The film holds a 75 % approval rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 64 reviews with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Grease is a pleasing, energetic musical with infectiously catchy songs and an ode to young love that never gets old. '' It holds a score of 70 / 100 on the review aggregator Metacritic based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Grease premiered for the first time on American television in 1981 on ABC - TV. It was re-released to theaters in 1998 to mark the 20th anniversary. The film was also ranked number 21 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.
Grease was first released in the US on VHS by Paramount Home Video in 1982, with reissues in 1989 and 1994; the last VHS release was on June 23, 1998 and titled the 20th Anniversary Edition following a theatrical re-release that March. On September 24, 2002, it was released on DVD for the first time. On September 19, 2006, it was re-released on DVD as the Rockin ' Rydell Edition, which came with a black Rydell High T - Bird jacket cover, a white Rydell "R '' letterman 's sweater cover or the Target - exclusive Pink Ladies cover. It was released on Blu - ray Disc on May 5, 2009. In connection with the film 's 40th anniversary, Paramount released Grease on 4K, UHD, Blu - Ray and DVD on April 24, 2018.
The sequel, Grease 2 (1982), stars Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer. While only a few cast members from the original movie such as Dody Goodman, Sid Caesar, Eddie Deezen, Didi Conn, Dennis Stewart and Eve Arden reprise their respective roles. Dick Patterson returned, playing a different character. It grossed $15 million on its $13 million budget. Patricia Birch, the original movie 's choreographer, directed the sequel. It would be the only movie that she would direct.
On July 8, 2010, a sing - along version of Grease was released to select theaters around the U.S. A trailer was released in May 2010, with cigarettes digitally removed from certain scenes, implying heavy editing; however, Paramount confirmed these changes were done only for the film 's advertising, and the rating for the film itself changed from its original PG to that of PG - 13 for "sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language. '' The movie was shown for two weekends only; additional cities lobbied by fans from the Paramount official website started a week later and screened for one weekend.
On March 12, 2013, Grease and Grease 2 were packaged together in a Double Feature DVD set from Warner Home Video.
The soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second - best selling album of the year in the United States, exceeded only by another soundtrack album, from the film Saturday Night Fever, which also starred Travolta. The song "Hopelessly Devoted to You '' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Music -- Original Song. The song "You 're the One That I Want '' was released as a single prior to the film 's release and became an immediate chart - topper, despite not being in the stage show or having been seen in the film at that time. Additionally, the dance number to "You 're the One That I Want '' was nominated for TV Land 's award for "Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room '' in 2008. In the United Kingdom, the two Travolta / Newton - John duets, "You 're the One That I Want '' and "Summer Nights '', were both number one hits and as of 2011 are still among the 20 best - selling singles of all time (at Nos. 6 and 19 respectively). The movie 's title song was also a number - one hit single for Frankie Valli.
The song "Look at Me, I 'm Sandra Dee '' references Sal Mineo in the original stage version. Mineo was stabbed to death a year before filming, so the line was changed to refer to Elvis Presley instead. The references to Troy Donohue, Doris Day, Rock Hudson and Annette Funicello are from the original stage version. Coincidentally, this scene as well as the scene before and the scene after it were filmed on August 16, 1977, the date of Elvis Presley 's death.
Some of the songs were not present in the film; songs that appear in the film but not in the soundtrack are "La Bamba '' by Ritchie Valens, "Whole Lotta Shaking Going On '' by Jerry Lee Lewis, "Alma Mater '', "Alma Mater Parody '', and "Rydell Fight Song ''. "Alone at a Drive - in Movie (instrumental) '', "Mooning '', and "Freddy My Love '' are not present in the film, although all three are listed in the end credits in - addition to being on the soundtrack. (Both "Mooning '' and "Rock'n'Roll Party Queen, '' the latter of which was played in the film as background music, were written in the musical for a character named Roger that was written out of the film, replaced by the non-singing Putzie. In general, all of the songs in the musical that were performed by characters other than Danny, Rizzo, Sandy or Johnny Casino were either taken out of the film or given to other characters, including Marty Maraschino 's number "Freddy My Love, '' Kenickie 's "Greased Lightnin ', '' and Doody 's "Those Magic Changes. '') Two songs from the musical, "Shakin ' at the High School Hop '' "and "All Choked Up, '' were left off both the film and the soundtrack.
The songs appear in the film in the following order:
On August 17, 2009, a television series inspired by the film premiered in Venezuela. The series was produced and directed by Vladimir Perez. The show explores and expands on the characters and story from the film.
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discuss the power and position of president of india | President of India - wikipedia
The President of the Republic of India is the head of state of India and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising the Parliament of India (both houses) and the Legislative Assemblies of each of India 's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected.
Although the Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the President can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions, all of the executive powers vested in the President are, in practice, exercised by the Prime Minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers. The President is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as long as the advice is not violating the constitution.
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India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor - general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor - general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as the first incumbent.
The constitution of the Republic of India (Articles 53, 74 (2), 79 & 111) gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after President 's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The President is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74 (2), Article 78 c, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law.
Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the President is the head, to facilitate the law making process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The President of the Republic summons both the Houses (The House of the People and ' The Council of States ') of the Parliament and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87 (1). The Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111. After a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President can not withhold his assent from it. The President can also withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to Parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of prime minister or council of ministers per Article 74 if it is inconsistent to the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the constitutional validity of any issue. The President shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per Article 368 (2).
When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the President can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as an act passed by Parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under Article 123, the President as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and he is confident that the government commands majority support in the Parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and Parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of Parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the President to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and President, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the President. The President should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires amendment to the constitution. The President should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the Parliament or violates the constitution.
Per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the President and is exercised by President either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per Article 70 which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per Article 160. Union cabinet with Prime Minister as its head, should aid and advice the President in performing his functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or Prime Minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the President but it is the sole responsibility of the President to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties. President or his subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by union cabinet.
Per Article 142, it is the duty of President to enforce the decrees of Supreme Court.
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The President appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of the Chief Justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by a two - thirds majority of the members present.
Attorney General for India who is the Indian government 's chief legal advisor, is appointed by the President of India under Article 76 (1) and holds office during the pleasure of the President. If the President considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, he can also ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court per Article 143. Per Article 88, President can ask the Attorney General to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.
The President appoints, as Prime Minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power at the ' pleasure ' of the President.
The President appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. President may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Article 331
Governors of States are also appointed by the President who shall work at the pleasure of the President. Per Article 156, President is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in his acts.
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The President is the first citizen of the country.
The President is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The President can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the President 's name. He also appoints the chiefs of the service branches of the armed forces.
As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian Constitution, the President is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the President are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the President exercises his executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister and the cabinet.
The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo - China war), 1971 (Indo - Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi).
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution, the President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament with two thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval - there is no maximum duration.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty can not be suspended (Article 21).
The President can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the President for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India till date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino - Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V.V. Giri on the eve of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.
If the President is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state can not be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of 2 months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation).
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6 - month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President 's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.
There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president 's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president 's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President 's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible in the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purpose. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the union government. However union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.
Under article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government.
Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months by simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
The President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Article 58 of the Constitution sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President must be:
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office - holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
In the event that the Vice-President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
A member of Parliament or of a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the President but if he is elected as President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in Parliament or State Legislature on the date on which he enters upon his office as President (Article 59 (1)).
Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as President shall, subject to the other provisions of this Constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.
Under The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his name to appear on the ballot.
Article 56 (1) of the Constitution provides that the President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of his death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of election due to death of a candidate or on account of postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56 (1) (c) provides that the President shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his office.
Certain conditions, per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new President is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of Parliament (M.P.s), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (M.L.A.s) of two Union Territories (i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry). The election process of President is more extensive process than Prime Minister who is also elected indirectly (not elected by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members only. Whereas President being constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the President must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of ₹ 15,000 (US $220) in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one - sixth of the votes polled.
The election is held in accordance to the system of Proportional representation by means of the Single transferable vote method. The voting takes place by secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the Constitution.
Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of Parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in a state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.
The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state 's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.
Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.
The President is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India (or in his absence, the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court), an oath or affirmation that he / she shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution as follows:
I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well - being of the people of the Republic of India.
The President of India used to receive ₹ 10,000 (US $100) per month per the Second Schedule of the Constitution. This amount was increased to ₹ 50,000 (US $700) in 1998. On 11 September 2008 the Government of India increased the salary of the President to ₹ 1.5 lakh (US $2,200). This amount was further increased to ₹ 5 lakh (US $7,500) in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the President does or wants to do is taken care of by the annual ₹ 225 million (US $3.4 million) budget that the Government allots for his or her upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the President 's official residence, is the largest Presidential Palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the President of India. The official state car of the President is a custom - built heavily armoured Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard.
The former presidents and spouses of deceased Presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.
Rashtrapati Bhavan, official residence of the President, located at New Delhi
Rashtrapati Nilayam is the official retreat of the President located in Hyderabad.
The President 's Bodyguards is an elite household cavalry regiment of the Indian Army.
Air India One is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the President. The aircraft are operated as VIP flights by the Indian Air Force.
A chopper of IAF 's special VIP fleet, meant for carrying the President of India
Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a President per Article 71 (1) of the constitution. Supreme Court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Lok Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), Parliament made applicable rules / procedure to petition the Supreme Court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions / deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.
The President may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two - third majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.
Under Article 361 of the constitution, though president can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the union government for the president 's role. As clarified by the Supreme Court in the case ' Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs Union Of India & Anr on 24 January 2006 ', though president can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can be prosecuted after he / she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during the term of presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts though many decisions taken during the term of presidency had been declared by Supreme Court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc.
The Office of the President falls vacant in the following scenarios:
Article 65 of the Indian Constitution says that the Vice-President of India will have to discharge the duties, if the Office falls vacant due to any reason other than expiry of the term. The Vice-President reverts to office when a new President is elected and enters office. When the President is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President discharges the President 's functions until the President resumes the duties.
A Vice-President who acts as or discharges the functions of the President has all the powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to the same emoluments as the President. When the Vice-President discharges the duties of the President, he / she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
The Indian Parliament has enacted the law (The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969) for the discharge of the functions of the President when vacancies occur in the offices of the President and of the Vice-President simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the Chief Justice, or in his absence, the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court of India available discharges the functions of the President until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice-President begins to act as President under Article 65 of the Constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V.V. Giri served as the acting President of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 Presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting President of India until the next President was elected.
The President 's role as defender of the Constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the Prime Minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning Presidential intervention.
In 1979, the Prime Minister, Charan Singh, did not enjoy a Parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the President to summon Parliament. Since then, Presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene Parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, Presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a Prime Minister prove he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the House) within weeks of being sworn into office.
Since the Indian Constitution does not provide any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could exercise a "pocket veto '' by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. The President did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.
In the late 1990s, President K.R. Narayanan introduced explaining to the nation (by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan communiqués), the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising his discretionary powers; this has led to openness and transparency in the functioning of the President.
The constitution gives the President the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the Parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the President is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of ' offices of profit ', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.
Arunachal Pradesh governor who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the President after the Supreme Court has quashed his unconstitutional acts.
There are two living former Indian Presidents:
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who has got the most subscribers on youtube 2018 | List of Most - Subscribed YouTube Channels - wikipedia
This article lists the fifty most - subscribed channels on the video platform YouTube. The ability to subscribe to channels was introduced by October 2005, and the website began publishing a list of its most - subscribed channels by May 2006, at which time Smosh, with fewer than three thousand subscribers, occupied the number - one position. Since December 22, 2013, the most - subscribed channel has been PewDiePie, with over 65 million as of August 2018.
The following table lists the fifty most subscribed channels on YouTube, with each total rounded down to the nearest million subscribers, as well as the network and language of each channel. Channels marked as "Auto - generated by YouTube '' (such as Music, Gaming, Sports and Movies) and channels whose content has been transferred (such as JustinBieberVEVO and RihannaVEVO) are excluded. As of August 2018, 33 of these channels primarily produce content in English.
Self - owned channel (without a network)
The following table lists the most subscribed YouTube channel in each country and territory from which at least one channel with at least five million subscribers originates, according to social media statistics compiler DBase.
The following table lists the last 16 channels to become YouTube 's most subscribed channel, from May 2006 to present.
Timeline of Most Subscribed Channels (May 2006 -- August 2018)
In late 2006, when Peter Oakley, also known as Geriatric1927, became most subscribed, a number of TV channels wanted to interview him on his rise to fame. The Daily Mail and TechBlog published an article about him and his success. In 2009, the FRED channel was the first to have over one million subscribers.
Following the third time that Smosh became most subscribed, Ray William Johnson collaborated with the duo. A flurry of top YouTubers including Ryan Higa, Shane Dawson, Felix Kjellberg, Michael Buckley, Kassem Gharaibeh, The Fine Brothers, and Johnson himself, congratulated the duo shortly after they surpassed Johnson as the most subscribed channel.
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maroon 5 i never gonna leave this bed | Never Gonna Leave This Bed - wikipedia
"Never Gonna Leave This Bed '' is a song performed by American pop rock band Maroon 5, taken from their third studio album, Hands All Over (2010). The song is a ballad and was written by frontman Adam Levine and produced by Robert John "Mutt '' Lange. It was released as the third single by A&M / Octone Records. It was released in Australia in January 2011. The song was listed under Cool New Music on All Access in the Hot Adult Contemporary section and in early February 2011, it started gaining airplay there, even though an official Hot AC radio adds date never came to fruition. It had an official radio adds date to Mainstream Radio on May 17, 2011.
The song received positive reviews from most music critics, who complimented the track 's lyric and its sweet sound. It has gained significant airplay on U.S. radio and has charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and Adult Pop Songs, while reaching the top ten on the latter. The music video features Russian model Anne Vyalitsyna and sees the frontman snuggling with her on beds in various Los Angeles settings, as passersby give them curious looks.
Frontman Adam Levine wrote this song after a "weekend bender. '' He told The Sun September 17, 2010: "I was totally depleted and got home, picked up a guitar and started writing this song. It 's my favourite on the record. It 's the most honest. It reflects a desperate longing to have somebody in my life, which I did n't at the time. ''
"Never Gonna Leave This Bed '' is written in the key of A minor (performed in G ♯ minor) with a moderate pop rock tempo of 117 beats per minute. The song follows the chord progression Am -- F / A -- C / G -- G (the pop - punk progression), and Levine 's vocals span from G to D.
Jakof Dorof from Slant Magazine said that: "The band turns in career highlights with the harmony - laden "Never Gonna Leave This Bed. '' Sarah Rodman from The Boston Globe said that: ""Never Gonna Leave This Bed '' nails the hunger to prolong the perfect moment with an intoxicating partner with its sweet, sexy swing. '' IGN said: "the romance - friendly track "Never Gonna Leave This Bed, '' has a Keane - like feel ". Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly opined that: "Levine 's romantic roundelay trundles on the Train - ish midrange balladry (Never Gonna Leave This Bed) ''.
The band performed the song on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on January 17, 2011. The band also performed it on the Super Bowl 2011 pre-show, the Logie Awards of 2011, on May 1, 2011. and on the Today Show on August 5, 2011.
The music video for the song was shot at several different places including Santa Monica and downtown Los Angeles, California. The video shows scenes of Levine and Anne Vyalitsyna in three different bed settings, including one at a pier on the beach of Santa Monica, another on Broadway in Los Angeles, and a third setting in an upper floor of the Hilton Hotel. The video also features the band performing in a glass truck from Aardvark Event Logistics, alternatively while driving down a highway during the day, and on a busy street in downtown Los Angeles at night, while onlookers take photos. The music video was released on January 28, 2011 on VEVO. The music video for the single premiered on February 5, 2011 on VH1 's Top 20 Video Countdown. The video hit number seven on the Yahoo! Video chart published by Billboard.
Chris Ryan wrote for MTV that "It 's a gorgeously shot and sunny video for a slightly melancholy but incredibly catchy song. ''
In late January 2011, the song was listed under Cool New Music on All Access in the Hot Adult Contemporary section and in early February 2011, it started gaining airplay there, even though an official Hot AC radio adds date never came to fruition. The song debuted at # 35 on the Billboard 's Adult Pop Songs chart and reached a peak of # 4. On the week of May 14, the song entered the Hot 100 at # 100, reaching a peak of # 55. It also charted on the Belgian, Hungary, Netherlands and Slovakia charts.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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i'm a love with a shape of you song | Shape of You - wikipedia
"Shape of You '' is a song by English singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran. It was released as a digital download on 6 January 2017 as one of the double lead singles from his third studio album ÷ (2017), along with "Castle on the Hill ''.
The dancehall - infused pop song was written and produced by Ed Sheeran and Steve Mac, along with additional writing contributions from Johnny McDaid, Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs.
"Shape of You '' peaked at number - one on the singles charts of 44 countries, including the US Billboard Hot 100, as well as the UK, Australian and Canadian singles charts. It has stayed at number one for 16 consecutive weeks on the Canadian Hot 100 tied for the record, and 14 non-consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and 12 non-consecutive weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. On 21 September 2017 it became the most streamed song on Spotify, with over 1.32 billion streams.
On 4 January 2017, Sheeran uploaded a six - second teaser video of a blue background to social media, with lyrics "the club is n't the best place to find a lover '', which is the first line of "Shape of You ''. On 6 January 2017, when hosting The Radio 1 Breakfast Show, Sheeran revealed that "Shape of You '' had originally been written with Rihanna in mind. To further tease the release, Sheeran and his label used a sponsored Snapchat lens filter with 30 seconds on the song to increase buzz among the general public. He said:
"(' Shape of You ') is actually a really random one because I went in to write songs for other people with a guy called Steve Mac and Johnny McDaid, and we were writing this song and I was like ' this would really work for Rihanna, ' '' he explained. "And then I started singing lyrics like ' putting Van The Man on the jukebox ' and I was like ' well she 's not really going to sing that, is she? ' And then we sort of decided halfway through that we were just going to make it for me. ''
He continued, "This was the last song that was finished, and I just did n't put two and two together that this was even going to be on the album. I just kind of wrote it and was like ' oh, that was fun. ' ''
"Shape of You '' is a pop, dancehall and tropical house song with "strummy acoustics. '' In the song, Sheeran sings over a marimba - fueled percussive sway about a budding romance. "The club is n't the best place to find a lover, so the bar is where I go / Me and my friends at the table doing shots drinking fast and then we talk slow '', he sings. "Come over and start up a conversation with just me / And trust me I 'll give it a chance. '' According to NT News, the song "tells the story of loved (or lusted) up Sheeran meeting a girl in a bar where he and his mates are doing shots. '' "Shape of You '' is written in the key of C ♯ minor with a tempo of 96 beats per minute. The song is composed in common time (4 4 time), and follows a basic chord progression of C ♯ m -- F ♯ m -- A -- B (i -- iv -- VI -- VII), and Sheeran 's vocals span from G ♯ to G ♯.
The song 's lyrical rhythm drew comparisons to the TLC song "No Scrubs '', particularly in the pre-chorus line, "Boy, let 's not talk too much / Grab on my waist and put that body on me. '' As a result, the composers of "No Scrubs '', Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs, were awarded co-writing credits on "Shape of You ''.
Jon Caramanica from The New York Times said, "' Shape of You ' is trickier, a nimble and effective song that takes the aggressive thinning of ' Caribbean music '. '' Billboard 's Taylor Weatherby wrote about the song saying, "' Shape of You ' does n't quite sound like your typical Sheeran tune. But that almost serves as an indication of what the "Thinking Out Loud '' singer has been up to during his hiatus: creating music that still feels like Sheeran, just with a new twist. '' Jeremy Gordon of Spin gave the song a positive review, stating that the song "is a plausible attempt at convincing us he has had sex... a lot of it. It kind of slaps, though you ca n't really picture Sheeran ever saying ' put that body on me ' to a real human woman. '' News website Metro wrote that it sounds similar to the song "Cheap Thrills '' by Sia.
"Shape of You '' reached number one in the official charts of 30 countries, and has received various certifications. It debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 13 January, selling 227,000 combined units in its first week. Sheeran also debuted at number 2 with the song "Castle on the Hill '', making him the only artist in UK chart history to debut in the top two positions. "Shape of You '' debuted at number two on the Scottish Singles Chart behind "Castle on the Hill ''. The song was certified Silver in the first week due to selling 200,000 units and Gold in the second week selling 400,000 units. The song remained at number one in its second week, selling 139,000. It has stayed at number one for 13 consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and a further week at the top after a week 's interruption by Harry Styles ' "Sign of the Times ''. In July 2017, the song reached 184 million in streams, making it the most - streamed song in the UK of all time. As of September 2017, the song has sold 755,000 copies with 212 million streams, making a combined sales of 2.88 million units across all platform in the UK.
The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, selling 240,000 downloads and gaining 20 million streams in its debut week in the US, becoming Sheeran 's first number one song in the country. Sheeran also became the first artist to debut two songs in the top 10 the same week in the history of the Hot 100, with "Castle on the Hill '' also debuting at number six. "Shape of You '' topped the Hot 100 for 12 non-consecutive weeks. In its fourth week at number one, the song also topped the Mainstream Top 40, becoming Sheeran 's second number - one single on the chart (after 2015 's "Thinking Out Loud ''). On 6 May 2017, it fell to number two on the Hot 100, being displaced by "Humble '' by Kendrick Lamar. On the issue date, 2 September 2017, "Shape of You '' spent its 32nd week in the top ten of Hot 100, tying the record for most week on that chart with LeAnn Rimes ' "How Do I Live '' and "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey. The following week, "Shape of You '' spent its 33rd consecutive week in the top 10, breaking the 20 - year - old record. On Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart, "Shape of You '' became Sheeran 's first number one on a Dance / EDM chart (his third top ten and sixth overall at Dance / Mix Show Airplay) in the United States. Afterwards, the song topped Dance Club Songs in its 18 March 2017 issue, his first as a solo artist and his second entry on this chart, when he was a featured artist on Rudimental 's "Lay It All on Me '', which peaked at No. 38 in 2016. As of August 2017, "Shape of You '' is the best selling song of 2017 in the US with 2.3 million copies sold, the only one to sell over two million. It is also the most streamed song with 799.7 million combined audio and video streams.
It debuted at number one in France, and was later certified diamond there. According to Pure Charts, in the first half of the year 2017, the song reached 631,000 units (105,000 sales and 526,000 units from streams) and as of September 2017, it exceeds 812,109 units (707,109 from streams). In Australia, the song stayed at No. 1 for 15 weeks, breaking a record set 22 years ago by Coolio 's "Gangsta 's Paradise ''. In doing this, it also broke ABBA 's record of fourteen weeks at number one, which was set on the previous Australian charts before the ARIA charts became Australia 's official charts. In Australia it also achieved 24 weeks inside the top ten, equaling the record with The Prodigy 's "Breathe ''. The song is the first ever number one single of the Philippine Hot 100 upon the chart 's inception on 12 June 2017. It stayed at the peak position for 4 consecutive weeks before it was dethroned by Despacito by Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber.
Worldwide, the song reached one billion streams on Spotify in June 2017. It became the most streamed song on Spotify in September 2017, reaching 1,318,420,396 streams overtaking Drake 's "One Dance ''.
On 5 January 2017, to accompany the song 's release, a lyric video for "Shape of You '' was released on Sheeran 's YouTube channel with "Castle on the Hill ''. As of October 2017, the official lyric video has amassed over 720 million views on YouTube.
On 30 January 2017, the song 's official music video, starring American dancer and model Jennie Pegouskie and retired professional sumo wrestler Yamamotoyama Ryūta (credited as "Yama ''), was released on Sheeran 's channel. It was shot on location in Seattle, and was directed by Jason Koenig. On 8 May 2017, 97 days after its release, it became one of the fastest music videos to reach 1 billion views on YouTube, and as of October 2017, the music video has amassed over 2.6 billion views on the site. and is the site 's sixth most - watched video.
The official remix of "Shape of You '' features newly additional verses and guest vocals by English grime artist Stormzy. The remix premiered during Sheeran and Stormzy 's live collaboration at the 2017 Brit Awards at The O2 in London on 22 February 2017. Sheeran announced on Twitter that the remix would be released officially on 24 February 2017. On the same date, various remixes of the song were released on digital music services. Sheeran teased the releases ahead of 2017 Brit Awards ceremony. "I 've got two things dropping on Friday that are pretty interesting '', he revealed in a BBC Radio 1 interview just hours before the big show. "One that gets debuted at the Brits, which I think people will go a bit nuts for. '' He added, "It 's something that I think nobody is expecting. I think it 'll be decent. '' The Stormzy remix reached No. 1 on The Vodafone Big Top 40. Remixes by Galantis and Major Lazer were also released, the latter of these featuring guest vocals by Jamaican reggae artists Nyla and Kranium, who had both collaborated with Lazer in the past.
In the United States, "Shape of You '' has immediately become a favorite among DJs and remixers, prompting several of them to create their own versions. One DJ, Joe "Maz '' Masurka, told Billboard that after he did his own remix on the single that he received a lot of great feedback and response: "I absolutely love the track, so I had to remix it myself so that I could play it in all my live shows. Ed is a genius; best song in the last few years. I 've been playing it literally everywhere I 've been booked since about mid-January: Hyde Bellagio in Las Vegas, E11even and Ora in Miami, Parq in San Diego, Premier Atlantic City... the dance floor loves it. '' A Latin remix featuring reggaeton duo Zion & Lennox was released on 17 March 2017. Sheeran and American rapper Lil Uzi Vert performed a live remix of "Shape Of You '' during the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards, followed by a rendition of Lil Uzi Vert 's song "XO Tour Llif3 ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what's the name of the last jurassic park movie | Jurassic Park - wikipedia
Jurassic Park is an American science fiction media franchise centered on a disastrous attempt to create a theme park of cloned dinosaurs. The dinosaurs escape confinement and terrorize the human characters. It began in 1990 when Universal Pictures and Amblin Entertainment bought the rights to the novel by Michael Crichton before it was even published.
The book was successful, as was Steven Spielberg 's 1993 film adaptation, which led to four sequels, although only the first two films were based on the novels. Numerous video games based on the franchise have been created by various software developers since the release of the 1993 film. Since 1996, several water rides based on the series have been opened at various Universal theme parks.
The Jurassic Park Ultimate Trilogy was released on DVD and Blu - ray on October 25, 2011, in North America. The first film was re-released in 3D on April 5, 2013.
The fourth film, Jurassic World, was initially scheduled to be released in the summer of 2005, but was delayed numerous times and was ultimately released in June 2015. It became the first film to gross over $500 million worldwide in its opening weekend, and has grossed over $1.6 billion through the course of its theatrical run, making it the fifth highest - grossing film of all time. When adjusted for monetary inflation, however, this film is the second highest grossing in the franchise after Jurassic Park. An animated film, Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape, was released on October 18, 2016 with the home media release of Jurassic World, alongside a short film, Employee Safety Video.
A fifth film, Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, was released in June 2018. A sixth film, tentatively titled Jurassic World 3, is scheduled to be released on June 11, 2021. As of 2000, the franchise had generated $5 billion in revenue, making it one of the highest - grossing media franchises of all time.
In 1983, Michael Crichton originally conceived a screenplay about a pterosaur being cloned from fossil DNA. After wrestling with this idea for a while, he came up with the story of Jurassic Park. Crichton worked on the book for several years; he decided his first draft would have a theme park for the setting (similar to his 1973 film Westworld) and a young boy as the main character. Response was extremely negative, so Crichton rewrote the story to make it from an adult 's point of view, which resulted in more positive feedback.
Steven Spielberg learned of the novel in October 1989 while he and Crichton were discussing a screenplay that would become the TV series ER. Warner Bros. Pictures, Columbia Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Universal Pictures bid for the rights to the novel before its publication. In May 1990, Universal acquired the rights, with the backing of Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment. Crichton put up a non-negotiable fee for $1.5 million as well as a substantial percentage of the gross. Universal further paid Crichton $500,000 to adapt his own novel (Malia Scotch Marmo, who was a writer on Spielberg 's 1991 film Hook, wrote the next draft of Jurassic Park, but was not credited. David Koepp wrote the final draft, which left out much of the novel 's exposition and violence, and made numerous changes to the characters). Universal desperately needed money to keep their company alive, and partially succeeded with Jurassic Park, as it became a critical and commercial success.
After the film adaptation of Jurassic Park was released to home video, Crichton was pressured from many sources for a sequel novel. Crichton declined all offers until Spielberg himself told him that he would be keen to direct a movie adaptation of the sequel, if one were written. Crichton began work almost immediately and in 1995 published The Lost World. Crichton confirmed that his novel had elements taken from the novel of the same name by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The book was also an outstanding success, both with professional and amateur critics. The film adaptation, The Lost World: Jurassic Park, began production in September 1996.
In the novels, the fictional company InGen (International Genetic Technologies, Inc.) is based in Palo Alto, California and has one location in Europe. Nevertheless, most of InGen 's research took place on the fictional islands of Isla Sorna and Isla Nublar, near Costa Rica. While the first novel indicated InGen was just one of any number of small 1980s genetic engineering start - ups, the events of the novel and film revealed to a select group that InGen had discovered a method of cloning dinosaurs and other animals (including a quagga) using blood extracted from mosquitoes trapped in amber during various periods in time, ranging from the Mesozoic era to the 1800s. Beacham 's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction describes InGen as comparable to another "sleazy organization ''. Other sources reference the company 's receiving the baby T. rex as an allusion to other exploitative entrepreneurs depicted in King Kong. Ken Gelder describes InGen as "resolutely secretive, just like the firm in Grisham 's novel ''.
The film is set on Isla Nublar, the location of the theme park. When an incident with a velociraptor results in the death of an employee, Jurassic Park owner John Hammond (Richard Attenborough) brings in three specialists to sign off on the park to calm investors. The specialists, paleontologist Alan Grant (Sam Neill), paleobotanist Ellie Sattler (Laura Dern), and chaos theorist Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) are surprised to see the island park 's main attraction are living, breathing dinosaurs, created with a mixture of fossilized DNA and genetic cross-breeding / cloning. However, when lead programmer Dennis Nedry (Wayne Knight) shuts down the park 's power to sneak out with samples of the dinosaur embryos to sell to a corporate rival, the dinosaurs break free, and the survivors are forced to find a way to turn the power back on and make it out alive. The film also stars Bob Peck, Martin Ferrero, BD Wong, Ariana Richards, Joseph Mazzello, and Samuel L. Jackson.
Jurassic Park is regarded as a landmark in the use of computer - generated imagery and received positive reviews from critics, who praised the effects, though reactions to other elements of the picture, such as character development, were mixed. During its release, the film grossed more than $914 million worldwide, becoming the most successful film released up to that time (surpassing E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and surpassed 4 years later by Titanic), and it is currently the 17th highest grossing feature film (taking inflation into account, it is the 20th - highest - grossing film in North America). It is the most financially successful film for NBCUniversal and Steven Spielberg.
Jurassic Park had two re-releases: The first on September 23, 2011, in the United Kingdom and the second in which it was converted into 3D on April 5, 2013, for its 20th Anniversary, which resulted in the film passing the $1 billion mark at the worldwide box office.
Before The Lost World was published, a film adaptation was already in pre-production, with its release occurring in May 1997. The film was a commercial success, breaking many box - office records when released. The film had mixed reviews, similar to its predecessor in terms of characterization. Much like the first film, The Lost World made a number of changes to the plot and characters from the book, replacing the corporate rivals with an internal power struggle and changing the roles / characterizations of several protagonists.
When a vacationing family stumbles upon the dinosaurs of Isla Sorna, a secondary island where the animals were bred en masse and allowed to grow before being transported to the park, Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) is called in by John Hammond (Richard Attenborough) to lead a team to document the island to turn it into a preserve, where the animals can roam free without interference from the outside world. Malcolm agrees to go when he discovers his girlfriend, paleontologist Sarah Harding (Julianne Moore) is already on the island, while at the same time Hammond 's nephew, Peter Ludlow (Arliss Howard), has taken over his uncle 's company and leads a team of hunters to capture the creatures and bring them back to a theme park in San Diego. The two groups clash and are ultimately forced to work together to evade the predatory creatures and survive the second island. The film also stars Pete Postlethwaite, Richard Schiff, Vince Vaughn, Vanessa Lee Chester, Peter Stormare, and a young Camilla Belle.
Joe Johnston had been interested in directing the sequel to Jurassic Park and approached his friend Steven Spielberg about the project. While Spielberg wanted to direct the first sequel, he agreed that if there was ever a third film, Johnston could direct. Spielberg, nevertheless, stayed involved in this film by becoming its executive producer. Production began on August 30, 2000, with filming in California, and the Hawaiian islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai. It is the first Jurassic Park film not to be based on a novel. The film was a financial success but received mixed reviews from critics.
When their son goes missing while parasailing at Isla Sorna, the Kirbys (William H. Macy and Téa Leoni) hire Alan Grant (Sam Neill) under false pretenses to help them navigate the island. Believing it to be nothing more than sight - seeing, and that he will act as a dinosaur guide from the safety of their plane, he is startled to find them landing on the ground, where they are stalked by a Spinosaurus (superior to the Tyrannosaurus in size), which destroys their plane. As they search for the Kirbys ' son, the situation grows dire as Velociraptors (more intelligent than ever) hunt their group and they must find a way off the island. The film also stars Alessandro Nivola, Michael Jeter, Trevor Morgan, Mark Harelik, and Laura Dern.
Steven Spielberg devised a story idea for a fourth film in 2001, during production of Jurassic Park III. In 2002, William Monahan was hired to write the script, with the film 's release scheduled for 2005. Monahan finished the first draft of the script in 2003, with the film 's plot revolving around dinosaurs escaping to the mainland. Sam Neill and Richard Attenborough were set to reprise their characters, while Keira Knightley was in talks for two separate roles. In 2004, John Sayles wrote two drafts of the script. Sayles ' first draft involved a team of Deinonychus being trained for use in rescue missions. His second draft involved genetically modified dinosaur - human mercenaries. Both drafts were scrapped. In 2006, a new script was being worked on. Laura Dern was contacted to reprise her role, with the film expected for release in 2008. The film was further delayed by the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike. Mark Protosevich wrote two film treatments in 2011, which were rejected. Rise of the Planet of the Apes screenwriters Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver were hired in 2012 to write an early draft of the script. In 2013, Colin Trevorrow was announced as a director and co-writer, with the film scheduled for release on June 12, 2015. The film was shot in 3D, and received generally positive reviews.
The film features a new park, Jurassic World, built on the remains of the original park on Isla Nublar. The film sees the park run by Simon Masrani (Irrfan Khan) and Masrani Corp, and features the return of Dr. Henry Wu (BD Wong) from the first film. Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, and Jake Johnson star, while Vincent D'Onofrio portrayed the main antagonist, Vic Hoskins. The cast also includes Lauren Lapkus, Ty Simpkins, Nick Robinson, Omar Sy, and Judy Greer. The primary dinosaur antagonist is Indominus rex, a genetically - modified hybrid of Tyrannosaurus rex and several other species, including Velociraptor, cuttlefish, tree frog, and pit viper.
A sequel to Jurassic World was released in June 2018. The film was directed by J.A. Bayona and written by Trevorrow and Connolly, with Trevorrow and Spielberg as executive producers. The film stars Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, Rafe Spall, Justice Smith, Daniella Pineda, James Cromwell, Toby Jones, Ted Levine, BD Wong, Isabella Sermon, and Geraldine Chaplin, with Jeff Goldblum reprising his role as Dr. Ian Malcolm. The film also introduces a new hybrid dinosaur called Indoraptor, who is a primary dinosaur antagonist and consists of Velociraptor and deceased Indominus Rex from Jurassic World.
During early conversations on Jurassic World, Spielberg told Trevorrow that he was interested in having several more films made. In April 2014, Trevorrow announced that sequels to Jurassic World had been discussed: "We wanted to create something that would be a little bit less arbitrary and episodic, and something that could potentially arc into a series that would feel like a complete story. '' Trevorrow, who said he would direct the film if asked, later told Spielberg that he would only focus on directing one film in the series. Trevorrow believed that different directors could bring different qualities to future films. Bayona was once considered to direct Jurassic World, but he declined as he felt there was not enough time for production. Filming took place from February to July 2017, in the United Kingdom and Hawaii.
Former Jurassic World manager Claire Dearing and Velociraptor handler Owen Grady join a mission to rescue Isla Nublar 's dinosaurs from a volcanic eruption by relocating them to a new island sanctuary. They discover that the mission is part of a scheme to sell the captured dinosaurs on the black market. The captured dinosaurs are brought to an estate in northern California, where several of the creatures are auctioned and subsequently shipped to their new owners. A new hybrid dinosaur, the Indoraptor, escapes and terrorizes people at the estate before being killed. The unsold dinosaurs are released from the estate and into the wilderness to save them from a gas leak. With the dinosaurs now dispersed, the world has entered a Neo-Jurassic Period where humans and dinosaurs must coexist. A subplot involving human cloning is introduced.
In September 2015, Trevorrow said that Bryce Dallas Howard 's character would evolve the most over the course of the Jurassic World trilogy that, in turn, is expected to conclude the storyline that began with the previous five films. In October 2015, Frank Marshall confirmed plans for a sixth film in the series. In November 2015, Universal Pictures chairman Donna Langley said that Trevorrow and Spielberg have a story idea for the sixth film. In September 2016, Bayona further confirmed that Trevorrow has plans for a Jurassic World trilogy. That month, Trevorrow was asked how much planning he had put into a new trilogy while he was filming Jurassic World in 2014: "I knew the end. I knew where I wanted it to go. '' Trevorrow later said that planning the beginning, middle, and end of the trilogy ahead of time "is crucial to a franchise like this if you really want to bring people along with you and make sure they stay interested. It needs to be thought through on that level. It ca n't be arbitrary (...) the earlier Jurassic Park movies had pretty clear definitive endings. They were much more episodic. '' In March 2017, Laura Dern commented, "As I said to the people who are making the new series, ' If you guys make a last one, you got ta let Ellie Sattler come back. ' ''
In February 2018, it was announced that the film, currently titled as Jurassic World 3, would be released on June 11, 2021. It was also announced that Trevorrow would write the script with Emily Carmichael, based on a story by Trevorrow and Connolly; and that Trevorrow and Spielberg would serve as executive producers for the film, with Marshall and Crowley as producers. On March 30, 2018, it was announced that Trevorrow would also direct the film, at the request of Spielberg. Trevorrow and Carmichael were writing the script as of April 2018. At the time, Trevorrow said that Pratt and Howard would reprise their roles from the previous films, and that "there 's other characters who we 'll meet in Fallen Kingdom you 'll realize are major characters. '' Additionally, Trevorrow said that Jurassic World 3 would be a "science thriller, '' describing it as being the Jurassic World film that would most closely match the tone of Spielberg 's original 1993 Jurassic Park film. In May 2018, Trevorrow announced that the film would focus more on real dinosaurs as opposed to hybrids, which had prominent roles in the previous Jurassic World films.
Over the course of five days from October 3, 2016 to October 7, 2016, an untitled five - part animated series based on Lego Jurassic World was released on the YouTube channels of Jurassic World and LEGO. In October 2016, the series was released as a 24 - minute animated film entitled Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape as part of a Jurassic World DVD bundle set, receiving shared billing alongside the 2015 film. The film marks the first time an animated film spin - off of Jurassic Park has been released. The film is a prequel to Jurassic World, and features most of the primary adult characters on the island (with the exception of Barry and Zara) attempting to capture a hotdog - loving Indominus rex. Zachary Levi, Sendhil Ramamurthy and Fred Tatasciore joined Jake Johnson, Lauren Lapkus, Bryce Dallas Howard and BD Wong as voice actors. The film is directed by Michael D. Black.
With the home media release of The Indominus Escape, a short film, Lego Jurassic World: Employee Safety Video, was released, featuring BD Wong, David Gunning, Jake Johnson and Lauren Lapkus reprising their roles from The Indominus Escape. Like The Indominus Escape, the short is set before the events of Jurassic World.
In promotion of Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, Lego produced a short film, with a variant featured on YouTube where it was separated into four parts, and at the end of each part the audience was given the option to choose between two different outcomes.
From June 1993 to August 1997 the now - defunct Topps Comics published comic adaptions of Jurassic Park and The Lost World: Jurassic Park, as well as several tie - in series.
Beginning in June 2010, IDW Publishing began publishing Jurassic Park comics. They also acquired the rights to reprint the issues published by Topps in the 1990s, which they began to do in trade paperback format starting in November 2010. After a four - year hiatus, IDW announced a comic series based on Jurassic World that was to be released in 2017.
This series has been collected in the following trade paperbacks:
Classic Jurassic Park Volume 2: Raptors ' Revenge
In June 1993, after the theatrical release of Jurassic Park, spokesmen for Amblin and MCA confirmed that an animated series based on the film was in development and awaiting Spielberg 's final approval. The series, titled Escape from Jurassic Park, would have consisted of 23 episodes for its first season. The series would have centered on John Hammond 's attempts to finish Jurassic Park and open it to the public, while InGen 's corporate rival Biosyn is simultaneously planning to open their own dinosaur theme park in Brazil, which ultimately ends with their dinosaurs escaping into the jungles.
If produced, it was believed that the project would be the most expensive animated series up to that time. Jeff Segal, president of Universal Cartoon Studios, said, "We are developing a TV series that we anticipate would be computer animated and very sophisticated. However, Spielberg has not had a chance yet to look at either the material or the format for the series. '' Segal said Universal was considering the possibility of developing the series for prime time. Segal said about the series ' storyline, "It would essentially pick up from the closing moments of the movie and it would continue the story in a very dramatic way. The intention would be to continue with the primary characters and also introduce new characters. '' Segal also said the series would be aimed specifically at the same target audience as the film, while hoping that it would also appeal to young children.
Animation veteran and comic artist Will Meugniot (then working at Universal Cartoon Studios for various projects, including Exosquad) contacted artist William Stout to ask if he would be interested in designing the animated series. According to Stout, "This was not going to be a kiddy show (although kids of all ages, including myself, could enjoy it). They wanted the show to be a mature prime time series with top writers and state - of - the - art television animation augmented with quite a bit of CG animation. '' Universal Animation Studios wanted the show to have the look of a graphic novel.
Stout was hired to work on the series and subsequently made a trailer to demonstrate how the series would look, and how it would combine traditional animation with computer animation. The series required Spielberg 's final approval before it could go into production. However, Spielberg had grown tired of the massive promotion and merchandise revolving around the film, and never watched the trailer. On July 13, 1993, Margaret Loesch, president of the Fox Children 's Network, confirmed that discussions had been held with Spielberg about an animated version of the film. Loesch also said, "At least for now and in the foreseeable future, there will not be an animated Jurassic Park. That 's Steven Spielberg 's decision, and we respect that decision. ''
Part three of the four - part comic adaptation of The Lost World: Jurassic Park, published by Topps Comics in July 1997, confirmed to readers that a cartoon series based on the film was in development. In November 1997, it was reported that the cartoon would be accompanied by Jurassic Park: Chaos Effect, a series of dinosaur toys produced by Kenner and based on a premise that scientists had created dinosaur hybrids consisting of DNA from different creatures. The new toys were based on the upcoming cartoon. That month, it was also reported that the cartoon could be ready by March 1998, as a mid-season replacement. The Chaos Effect toyline was released in June 1998, but the animated series was never produced, for unknown reasons.
In the short - lived toyline, the dinosaurs in this line are the results of scientists combining the DNA of dinosaurs with other dinosaurs and modern day animals. The following dinosaurs are in this category:
When the first film was released in 1993, two different video game publishers were given the rights to publish games based on it, Sega and Ocean Software. Both produced several different games based on the film for several different game systems, including the NES and Sega Genesis. In 1994, Ocean Software produced a sequel to the first game in the series for the Game Boy and SNES systems. Universal Interactive also produced an interactive game for the ill - fated 3DO system.
For the second film in the franchise, DreamWorks Interactive released five games for the most popular systems at the time. The third film had the biggest marketing push, spawning seven video games for PC and Game Boy Advance. A number of lightgun arcade games were also released for all three films.
Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis is a tycoon - style video game. The objective of the game is to fulfill Hammond 's dream of building a five - star theme park with dinosaurs. It was released 2003 for the Xbox, PlayStation 2 and PC.
Jurassic Park: The Game is an episodic video game based on the Jurassic Park franchise, bridging the story of the first two films developed by Telltale Games in a deal with Universal. It was released on November 15, 2011 to a mixed reception, with reviewers praising the story but criticizing the characters and gameplay. The game takes place during and after the events of the original film, and follows a new group of survivors trying to escape Isla Nublar. The game features several creatures from the film, as well as new additions like Troodon and a Tylosaurus. The game is available on PC, Mac, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and iPad.
Lego Jurassic World is a 2015 Lego action - adventure video game developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, Xbox One, Xbox 360, and Microsoft Windows. It followed the plots of the series ' four films, including Jurassic Park, and was released on June 12, 2015.
Jurassic World Evolution is a business simulation game developed and published by Frontier Developments, and released on June 12, 2018. The game tasks players with constructing and managing their own Jurassic World theme park. The game features the series ' fictional Muertes Archipelago, including Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna.
On June 21, 1996, Universal Studios Hollywood opened Jurassic Park: The Ride. Universal Studios Japan later opened this attraction, and Universal 's Islands of Adventure opened Jurassic Park River Adventure. The rides are heavily themed on the first three films. Another ride based on the series has also been opened at Universal Studios Singapore (Jurassic Park Rapids Adventure).
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what did japan do after the bombing of pearl harbor | Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
The results of the attack on Pearl Harbor were many and significant.
Prior to the attack, public opinion in the United States had not been unanimous. When polled in January 1940, 60 % of Americans were in favor of helping the United Kingdom in the war. A majority of Americans believed that the safety of the United States was contingent on the UK winning the war, and an even larger majority believed that the UK would lose the war if the United States stopped sending war materials to the United Kingdom. Despite this, the same poll reported that 88 % of Americans would not support entering the war against Germany and Italy.
Americans were more unsure on the prospect of conflict with Japan around the same timeframe. In a February Gallup poll, a majority of Americans believed that the United States should intervene in Japan 's conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Singapore. However, in the same poll, only 39 % supported going to war with Japan, while 46 % opposed the prospect.
Public support for assisting the United Kingdom rose through 1940, reaching about 65 % by May 1941. However, opinions on the prospect of becoming involved against Germany and Italy still remained quite high with 80 % disapproval.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. After two hours of bombing, 18 U.S. ships were sunk or damaged, 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed, and 2,403 men were killed.
The day after the attack, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a joint session of the 77th United States Congress. Roosevelt called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy ''. Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan amid outrage at the attack, the deaths of thousands of Americans, and the late delivery of the note from the Japanese government breaking off relations with the U.S. government. Pacifist Representative Jeannette Rankin, a Republican from Montana, cast the only dissenting vote. Roosevelt signed the declaration of war later the same day. Continuing to intensify its military mobilization, the U.S. government finished converting to a war economy, a process begun by provision of weapons and supplies to the Soviet Union and the British Empire. Japanese Americans from the West Coast were sent to internment camps for the duration of the war.
The attack on Pearl Harbor immediately galvanized a divided nation into action. Public opinion had been moving towards support for entering the war during 1941, but considerable opposition remained until the attack. Overnight, Americans united against the Empire of Japan in response to calls to "Remember Pearl Harbor. '' A poll taken between December 12 -- 17, 1941, showed that 97 % of respondents supported a declaration of war against Japan. Further polling showed a dramatic increase in support for every able - bodied man serving in the military, up to 70 % in December 1941. American solidarity in the war effort probably made possible the unconditional surrender position later taken by the Allied Powers. Some historians, among them Samuel Eliot Morison, believe the attack doomed Imperial Japan to defeat simply because it awakened the "sleeping giant '', regardless of whether the fuel depots or machine shops had been destroyed or even if the carriers had been caught in port and sunk. U.S. industrial and military capacity, once mobilized, was able to pour overwhelming resources into both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Others, such as Clay Blair, Jr., and Mark Parillo believe Japanese trade protection was so incompetent that American submarines alone might have strangled Japan into defeat.
The closest friend Roosevelt had in the developing Allied alliance, Sir Winston Churchill, stated that his first thought regarding American assistance to the United Kingdom was that "We have won the war '' very soon after Pearl Harbor had been attacked.
Perceptions of treachery in the attack before a declaration of war sparked fears of sabotage or espionage by Japanese sympathizers residing in the U.S., including citizens of Japanese descent and was a factor in the subsequent Japanese internment in the western United States. Other factors included misrepresentations of intelligence information suggesting sabotage, notably by General John DeWitt, commanding general of Western Defense Command on the Pacific Coast, who had personal feelings against Japanese Americans. In February 1942, Roosevelt signed United States Executive Order 9066, requiring all Japanese Americans to submit themselves for internment.
Propaganda made repeated use of the attack, because its effect was enormous and impossible to counter. "Remember Pearl Harbor! '' became the watchwords of the war.
The American government understated the damage inflicted, in hopes of preventing the Japanese from learning it, but the Japanese had, through surveillance, a good estimate.
On December 8, 1941, Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire. The Japanese document discussed world peace and the disruptive actions of the United States and the United Kingdom. The document claimed all avenues for averting war had been exhausted by the Government of Japan.
Although the Imperial Japanese government had made some effort to prepare their population for war via anti-U.S. propaganda, it appears most Japanese were surprised, apprehensive, and dismayed by the news they were now at war with the U.S., a country many of them admired. Nevertheless, the people at home and overseas thereafter generally accepted their government 's account of the attack and supported the war effort until their nation 's surrender in 1945.
Japan 's national leadership at the time appeared to have believed war between the U.S. and Japan had long been inevitable. In any case, Japanese - American relationships had already significantly deteriorated since Japan 's invasion of China beginning in the early 1930s, of which the United States strongly disapproved. In 1942, Saburō Kurusu, former Japanese ambassador to the United States, gave an address in which he talked about the "historical inevitability of the war of Greater East Asia. '' He said war had been a response to Washington 's longstanding aggression toward Japan. For example, provocations against Japan included the San Francisco School incident, Naval Limitations Treaty, other unequal treaties, the Nine Power Pact, constant economic pressure against Japan, culminating in the "belligerent '' scrap metal and oil embargo in 1941 by the United States and Allied countries to contain and / or reverse the actions of the Empire of Japan especially in Indochina during her expansion of influence and interests throughout Asia. In light of Japan 's dependence on imported oil, the trade embargoes were especially significant. These pressures directly influenced Japan to go into alliance with Germany and Italy through the Tripartite Pact. According to Kurusu, because of these reasons, the Allies had already provoked war with Japan long before the attack at Pearl Harbor, and the United States was already preparing for war with Japan. Kurusu also states the United States was also looking for world domination, beyond just Asia, with "sinister designs ''. Some of this view seems to have been shared by Adolf Hitler, when he called it one of the reasons Germany declared war on the United States. He also had mentioned European imperialism toward Japan many years before. Therefore, according to Kurusu, Japan had no choice but to defend itself and so should rapidly continue to militarize, bring Germany and Italy closer as allies and militarily combat the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands.
Japan 's leaders also saw themselves as justified in their conduct, believing that they were building the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. They also explained Japan had done everything possible to alleviate tension between the two nations. The decision to attack, at least for public presentation, was reluctant and forced on Japan. Of the Pearl Harbor attack itself, Kurusu said it came in direct response to a virtual ultimatum from the U.S. government, the Hull note, and so the surprise attack was not treacherous. Since the Japanese - American relationship already had hit its lowest point, there was no alternative; in any case, had an acceptable settlement of differences been reached, the Carrier Striking Task Force could have been called back.
On December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States, and the United States reciprocated, formally entering the war in Europe.
German dictator Adolf Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini were under no obligation to declare war on the United States under the mutual defense terms of the Tripartite Pact until the US counterattacked Japan. However, relations between the European Axis Powers and the United States had deteriorated since 1937. On December 4, 1941, the Germans learned of the U.S. military 's contingency planning to get troops in Continental Europe by 1943; this was Rainbow Five, made public by sources unsympathetic to Roosevelt 's New Deal, and published by the Chicago Tribune on that date. Moreover, with Roosevelt 's initiation of a Neutrality Patrol, which in fact also escorted British ships, as well as orders to U.S. Navy destroyers first to actively report U-boats, then "shoot on sight '', American neutrality was honored more in the breach than observance.
Having been unaware of Japanese plans, Hitler was initially furious that the United States had been dragged into the war at a time when he had not yet acquired full control of continental Europe -- on the very day of the Pearl Harbor attack, Hitler himself had issued his Nacht und Nebel decree, concerning the suppression of resistance activities within Nazi - occupied lands. Hitler, who had previously declared the Japanese "Honorary Aryans '' claimed that "this is what happens when your allies are not Anglo - Saxons ''. However, he decided war with the United States was unavoidable, and the Pearl Harbor attack, the publication of Rainbow Five, and Roosevelt 's post-Pearl Harbor address, which focused on European affairs as well as the situation with Japan, probably contributed to the declaration. Hitler expected the United States would soon declare war on Germany in any event. He disastrously underestimated American military production capacity, the United States ' own ability to fight on two fronts, and the time his own Operation Barbarossa would require. Similarly, the Nazis may have hoped the declaration of war, a showing of solidarity with Japan, would result in closer collaboration with the Japanese in Eurasia, particularly against the Soviet Union -- something that would not materialize, due to existing relations between Moscow and Tokyo at that time, as well as information submitted in mid-September 1941 by the Soviets ' top spy in Japan, Richard Sorge, that the Japanese armed forces were not likely to abrogate any treaties between Japan and the Soviets unless:
The decision to declare war on the United States allowed the United States to enter the European war in support of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union without much public opposition.
Even as early as mid-March 1941, President Roosevelt was quite acutely aware of Hitler 's hostility towards the United States, and the destructive potential it presented, in reference to Hitler 's statement of a "new order in Europe '' during the Führer 's own Berlin Sportpalast speech of January 30, 1941, the eighth anniversary of the Nazis ' Machtergreifung:
... Nazi forces are not seeking mere modifications in colonial maps or in minor European boundaries. They openly seek the destruction of all elective systems of government on every continent, including our own. They seek to establish systems of government based on the regimentation of all human beings by a handful of individual rulers who seize power by force.
Yes, these men and their hypnotized followers call this a "New Order. '' It is not new, and it is not order. For order among nations presupposes something enduring, some system of justice under which individuals over a long period of time are willing to live. Humanity will never permanently accept a system imposed by conquest, and based on slavery. These modern tyrants find it necessary to their plans to eliminate all democracies -- eliminate them one by one. The nations of Europe, and indeed we, ourselves, did not appreciate that purpose. We do now.
Author Ian Kershaw records Hitler 's initial reaction to the attack, when he was first informed about it on the evening of 7 December at Führer Headquarters: "We ca n't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years ''. Well before the attack, in 1928 Hitler had confided in the text of his then - unpublished Zweites Buch that while the Soviet Union was the most important immediate foe that the Third Reich had to defeat, the United States was the most important long - term challenge to Nazi aims.
Hitler awarded Imperial Japanese ambassador to Nazi Germany Hiroshi Ōshima the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold (1st class) after the attack, praising Japan for striking hard and without first declaring war.
The war had been going poorly for the British Empire for more than two years, and Prime Minister Winston Churchill was deeply concerned about the future. He was at his country estate, Chequers, with a few friends and his family. At dinner he seemed depressed, holding his face in his hands for minutes at a time. Just after dinner he heard of the attack. Churchill immediately, and correctly, analysed the consequences of the attack for the course of the war.
So, we had won after all!... We had won the war. England would live; Britain would live; the Commonwealth of Nations and the Empire would live. How long the war would last or in what fashion it would end no man could tell, nor did I at this moment care... We should not be wiped out. Our history would not come to an end. We might not even have to die as individuals. Hitler 's fate was sealed. Mussolini 's fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they would be ground to powder. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force.
As a result of the Japanese attack on the Americans, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada advised George VI, King of Canada, that a state of war should exist between Canada and Japan.
In the late evening of December 7, 1941, the Canadian Prime Minister, W.L. Mackenzie King, announced the Cabinet 's decision to declare war on Japan. The King approved Canada 's declaration of war in the following proclamation issued on December 8, 1941.
Whereas by and with the advice of our Privy Council for Canada we have signified our approval of the issue of a proclamation in the Canada Gazette declaring that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed in Canada as and from the 7th day of December 1941.
Now, therefore, we do hereby declare and proclaim that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed as and from the seventh day of December 1941.
Of all which our loving subjects and all others whom these presents may concern are hereby required to take notice and to govern themselves accordingly.
Canada remained focused on the European theatre however, and following VE Day was still in the process of transitioning its military force for a campaign in east Asia and the western Pacific when VJ Day arrived.
President Roosevelt appointed the Roberts Commission, headed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, to investigate and report facts and findings with respect to the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the first of many official investigations (nine in all). Both the Fleet commander, Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short (the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack), were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. They were accused of "dereliction of duty '' by the Roberts Commission for not making reasonable defensive preparations. None of the investigations conducted during the War, nor the Congressional investigation afterward, provided enough reason to reverse those actions. The decisions of the Navy and War Departments to relieve both was controversial at the time and has remained so. However, neither was court - martialed as would normally have been the result of dereliction of duty. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate voted to recommend both officers be exonerated on all charges, citing "denial to Hawaii commanders of vital intelligence available in Washington ''.
A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, 1945, to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster, and was convened on November 15, 1945.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor coupled with their alliance with the Nazis and the ensuing war in the Pacific fueled anti-Japanese sentiment, racism, xenophobia, and anti-Axis sentiment in the Allied nations like never before. Japanese, Japanese - Americans and Asians having a similar physical appearance were regarded with deep seated suspicion, distrust and hostility. The attack was viewed as having been conducted in an extremely underhanded way and also as a very "treacherous '' or "sneaky attack ''. Suspicions were further fueled by the Niihau Incident, as historian Gordon Prange stated "the rapidity with which the three resident Japanese went over to the pilot 's cause '' which troubled the Hawaiians. "The more pessimistic among them cited the Niihau Incident as proof that no one could trust any Japanese, even if an American citizen, not to go over to Japan if it appeared expedient. ''
The attack, the subsequent declarations of war, and fear of "Fifth Columnists '' resulted in internment of Japanese, German, and Italian populations in the United States and others, for instance the Japanese American internment, German American internment, Italian American internment, and Japanese Canadian internment. The attack resulted in the United States fighting the Germans and Italians among others in Europe and Japan in the Pacific.
The consequences were world - changing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill knew that the survival of the British Empire depended on American aid, and since 1940 had frequently asked Roosevelt to declare war. Churchill aide John Colville stated that the prime minister and American Ambassador John Gilbert Winant, who also supported the British, "sort of danced around the room together '' as the United States would now enter the war, making a British victory likely. Churchill later wrote, "Being saturated and satiated with emotion and sensation, I went to bed and slept the sleep of the saved and thankful. '' By opening the Pacific War, which ended in the unconditional surrender of Japan, it broke the power of an Asian check on Soviet expansion. The Allied victory in this war and subsequent U.S. emergence as a dominant world power, eclipsing Britain, have shaped international politics ever since.
Pearl Harbor is generally regarded as an extraordinary event in American history, remembered as the first time since the War of 1812 that America was attacked in strength on its territory by another country -- with only the September 11 attacks almost 60 years later being of a similarly catastrophic scale. It was the first decisive defeat for the United States in World War II. It has become synonymous with "surprise attack '' ever since in American parlance. The U.S. mistakes of intelligence collection, sharing, and analysis leading to the Japanese success at Pearl Harbor did not, in the end, lead to lessons learned.
Some Japanese today feel they were compelled to fight because of threats to their national interests and an embargo imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The most important embargo was on oil on which its Navy and much of the economy was dependent. For example, Japan Times, an English - language newspaper owned by one of the major news organizations in Japan (Asahi Shimbun), ran numerous columns in the early 2000s echoing Kurusu 's comments in reference to the Pearl Harbor attack.
In putting the Pearl Harbor attack into context, Japanese writers repeatedly contrast the thousands of U.S. non-combatants killed there with the hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians killed in U.S. air attacks on Japan later in the war, even without mentioning the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States.
However, in spite of the perceived inevitability of the war by many Japanese, many also believe the Pearl Harbor attack, although a tactical victory, was actually part of a seriously flawed strategy for engaging in war with the U.S. As one columnist wrote, "The Pearl Harbor attack was a brilliant tactic, but part of a strategy based on the belief that a spirit as firm as iron and as beautiful as cherry blossoms could overcome the materially wealthy United States. That strategy was flawed, and Japan 's total defeat would follow. '' In 1991, the Japanese Foreign Ministry released a statement saying Japan had intended to make a formal declaration of war to the United States at 1 p.m. Washington time, 25 minutes before the attack at Pearl Harbor was scheduled to begin. This officially acknowledged something that had been publicly known for years. Diplomatic communications had been coordinated well in advance with the attack, but had failed delivery at the intended time. It appears the Japanese government was referring to the "14 - part message '', which did not actually break off negotiations, let alone declare war, but did officially raise the possibility of a break in relations. However, because of various delays, the Japanese ambassador was unable to deliver this message until well after the attack had begun.
Imperial Japanese military leaders appear to have had mixed feelings about the attack. Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was unhappy about the botched timing of the breaking off of negotiations. He is on record as having said, in the previous year, "I can run wild for six months... after that, I have no expectation of success. '' The reports of American reactions, terming it a "sneak attack '' and "infamous behavior '', confirmed that the effect on American morale had been the opposite of intended.
The Prime Minister of Japan during World War II, Hideki Tōjō later wrote, "When reflecting upon it today, that the Pearl Harbor attack should have succeeded in achieving surprise seems a blessing from Heaven. ''
Yamamoto had said, regarding the imminent war with the United States, "Should hostilities once break out between Japan and the United States, it is not enough that we take Guam and the Philippines, nor even Hawaii and San Francisco. We would have to march into Washington and sign the treaty in the White House. I wonder if our politicians (who speak so lightly of a Japanese - American war) have confidence as to the outcome and are prepared to make the necessary sacrifices? ''
There are some revisionists in Japan who claim that the Attack on Pearl Harbor was a legitimate attack. These historical perspectives are often claimed by Japanese Shintoist and nationalists and have been criticized from both inside and outside Japan.
While not specifically directed at revisionism, but more as a likely result of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe 's controversial visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, where some 1,600 war criminals were enshrined after their executions, by February 2015 some concern within the Imperial House of Japan -- which normally does not issue such statements -- over the issue was voiced by Crown Prince Naruhito. Naruhito stated on his 55th birthday (February 23, 2015) that it was "important to look back on the past humbly and correctly '', in reference to Japan 's role in World War II - era war crimes, and that he was concerned about the ongoing need to "correctly pass down tragic experiences and the history behind Japan to the generations who have no direct knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war are about to fade ''.
The attack was notable for its considerable destruction, as putting most of the U.S. battleships out of commission was regarded -- in both navies and by most military observers worldwide -- as a tremendous success for Japan. Influenced by the earlier Battle of Taranto, which pioneered the all - aircraft naval attack but resulted in far less damage and casualties, the Japanese struck against Pearl Harbor on a much larger scale than did the British at Taranto.
The attack was a great shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater, and it was initially believed Pearl Harbor changed the balance of power, similar to how Taranto did the Mediterranean, both in the attackers ' favor. Three days later, with the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse off the coast of Malaya, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill exclaimed, "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked. ''
However, Pearl Harbor did not have as crippling an effect on American operations as initially thought. Unlike the close confines of the Mediterranean, the vast expanses of the Pacific limited the tactical value of battleships as a fleet in being. Furthermore, unlike new fast battleships such as the Iowa class, the slow battleships were incapable of operating with carrier task forces, so once repaired they were relegated to delivering pre-invasion bombardments during the island hopping offensive against Japanese - held islands. These Pearl Harbor veterans were later part of a force that defeated IJN battleships at the Battle of Surigao Strait, an engagement very lopsided in the USN 's favor in any case. A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be between battleships of both sides, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Mahan. Seeing the decimation of battleships at the hands of aircraft, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded his battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened, only committing a handful to the forefront of the Battles of Midway and Guadalcanal.
One of the main Japanese objectives was to destroy the three American aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific, but they were not present: Enterprise was returning from Wake, Lexington from Midway, and Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. Had Japan sunk the American carriers, the U.S. would have sustained significant damage to the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations for a year or so (given no further diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to place its faith in aircraft carriers and submarines -- particularly the large numbers under construction of the U.S. Navy 's Essex - class aircraft carriers, eleven of which had been ordered before the attack -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance.
Despite the perception of this battle as a devastating blow to America, only three ships were permanently lost to the U.S. Navy. These were the battleships Arizona, Oklahoma, and the old battleship Utah (then used as a target ship); nevertheless, much usable material was salvaged from them, including the two aft main turrets from Arizona. The majority of each battleship 's crews survived; there were exceptions as heavy casualties resulted from Arizona 's magazine exploding and the Oklahoma capsizing. Four ships sunk during the attack were later raised and returned to duty, including the battleships California, West Virginia and Nevada. California and West Virginia had an effective torpedo - defense system which held up remarkably well, despite the weight of fire they had to endure, resulting in most of their crews being saved. Maryland and Tennessee suffered relatively light damage, as did Pennsylvania, which was in drydock at the time.
Chester Nimitz said later, "It was God 's mercy that our fleet was in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. '' Nimitz believed if Kimmel had discovered the Japanese approach to Pearl Harbor, he would have sortied to meet them. With the American carriers absent and Kimmel 's battleships at a severe disadvantage to the Japanese carriers, the likely result would have been the sinking of the American battleships at sea in deep water, where they would have been lost forever with tremendous casualties (up to twenty thousand dead), instead of in Pearl Harbor, where the crews could easily be rescued, and six battleships ultimately restored to duty. This was also the reaction of Joseph Rochefort, head of HYPO, when he remarked the attack was cheap at the price.
Many of the surviving battleships were extensively refitted, including the replacement of their outdated secondary battery of anti-surface 5 "/ 51 caliber guns with more useful turreted dual - purpose 5 '' / 38 caliber guns, allowing them to better cope with the new tactical reality. Addition of modern radar to the salvaged vessels would give them a marked qualitative advantage over those of the IJN.
The repaired U.S. battleships primarily provided fire support for amphibious landings. Their low speed was a liability to their deployment in the vast expanses of the Pacific, for instance they could not accompany the fleet carriers that had become the dominant combatants. Six of the Standard Type vessels participated in the last battleship versus battleship engagement in naval history, the Battle of Surigao Strait, where none of them were hit. During active duty, being well protected by escorts and air cover, none of the Pearl Harbor battleships suffered serious damage save for Pennsylvania which was permanently crippled by a torpedo in the closing stages of the war; on September 2, 1945, West Virginia was among the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay when the Japanese officially surrendered.
The attack on Pearl Harbor failed to sight, or destroy, any of the Pacific Fleet 's three aircraft carriers; they had been designated as primary targets along with the battleships. The carriers Lexington and Enterprise were ferrying additional fighters to American bases on the islands of Wake and Midway while Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. At the time of the Japanese attack, the US was expecting imminent war with Japan, beginning in any of several places, such as the Philippines or Allied bases in Borneo. Nagumo 's hesitation, and failure to find and destroy the American carriers, may have been a product of his lack of faith in the attack plan, and of the fact he was a gunnery officer, not an aviator. In addition, Yamamoto 's targeting priorities, placing battleships first in importance, reflected an out - of - date Mahanian doctrine, and an inability to extrapolate from history, given the damage German submarines did to British trade in World War I. In the end, Japan achieved surprisingly little for all her daring and apparent success.
Tank farms, containing 140 million U.S. gallons (530 million liters) of bunker oil, were unscathed, providing a ready source of fuel for American fleets at the submarine base. About this missed opportunity, Admiral Chester Nimitz would later say, "Had the Japanese destroyed the oil, it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' These were vital to the initial phase of the war, and to commerce raiding throughout, and illustrate the deficiencies of Japanese planning for the attack. The Navy Yard, critical to ship maintenance, and repair of ships damaged in the attack was untouched. The engineering and initial repair shops, as well as the torpedo store, were intact. Other items of base infrastructure and operation, such as power generation, continued to operate normally. Also critical to the way the Pacific War was actually fought was the cryptanalysis unit, Station HYPO, located in the basement of the old Administration Building. It was undamaged and even benefited by gaining staff from unemployed ship 's bands.
The Army Air Force 's loss of aircraft must be balanced against the fact that many of them were obsolete, such as the P - 40 's predecessor, the P - 36. Japan might have achieved a good deal more with not much additional effort or loss.
California, West Virginia, Nevada US ships lost: Lexington, Yorktown, Wasp, Hornet US ships gained: Essex, North Carolina, Washington, South Dakota, Indiana, Massachusetts, Alabama Japanese ships lost: Shoho, Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, Hiryu, Hiei, Kirishima Japanese ships gained: Yamato, Musashi, Junyo, Hiyo.
Of the 22 Japanese ships that took part in the attack, only one survived the war. As of 2006, the only U.S. ships in Pearl Harbor during the attack still remaining afloat are the Coast Guard Cutter Taney and the yard tug Hoga. Both remained active over 50 years after the attack and have been designated museum ships.
A common view is that the Japanese fell victim to victory disease because of the perceived ease of their first victories. It has also been stated by the Japanese military commanders and politicians who visited and lived in the United States, that their leadership (mostly military personnel) took the war with the United States relatively lightly, compared to them. For instance, Admiral Yamamoto and General Tadamichi Kuribayashi expressed concerns about the greater industrial power of the United States.
The politics of a "Europe First '' strategy, loss of air cover over Pearl Harbor, and subsequent loss of the Philippines, meant the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces were unable to play a significant role in the Pacific War for several months. Japan was temporarily free of worries about the major rival Pacific naval power, which was at least part of the intention for the attack. Because Australian, New Zealand, Dutch and most British forces were already in Europe, Japan conquered nearly all of Southeast Asia and the Southwest Pacific, and extended her reach far into the Indian Ocean, without significant interference. The various Japanese advances were a nearly complete tactical success.
In the long term, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a grand strategic blunder for Japan. Indeed, Admiral Yamamoto, who conceived it, predicted even success here could not win a war with the United States, because American productive capacity was too large. It spurred the United States into a determination to fight to complete victory. The war resulted in the destruction of the Japanese armed forces, the occupation of the home islands (a state never before achieved in Japan 's history), and the occupation of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands by the United States until 1972, while the Soviet Russian re-annexation of the Kurile Islands and Sakhalin Island 's southern part, and the restoration of Formosa (Taiwan) to China, and the loss of Korea have not been reversed to this day.
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where did jack in the box originate from | Jack in the Box - wikipedia
Jack in the Box is an American fast - food restaurant chain founded February 21, 1951, by Robert O. Peterson in San Diego, California, where it is headquartered. The chain has 2,200 locations, primarily serving the West Coast of the United States. Restaurants are also found in selected large urban areas outside the West Coast, including Indianapolis, Cincinnati and Charlotte. The company also formerly operated the Qdoba Mexican Grill chain until Apollo Global Management bought the chain in December 2017.
Food items include a variety of chicken tenders and french fries along with hamburger and cheeseburger sandwiches along with selections of internationally themed foods such as tacos (Mexico) and egg rolls (China).
Jovanni Vazquez already owned several successful restaurants when he opened Topsy 's Drive - In at 6270 El Cajon Boulevard in San Diego in 1941. Several more Topsy 's were opened and eventually renamed Vazquez (after Jovanni 's last name). By the late 1940s, Jovanni 's locations had developed a circus - like décor featuring drawings of a starry - eyed clown. In 1947, Peterson obtained rights for the intercom ordering concept from George Manos who owned one location named Chatterbox in Anchorage, Alaska, the first known location to use the intercom concept for drive - up windows. In 1951, Peterson converted the El Cajon Boulevard location into Jack in the Box, a hamburger stand focused on drive - through service. While the drive - through concept was not new, Jack in the Box innovated a two - way intercom system, the first major chain to use an intercom and the first to focus on drive - through. The intercom allowed much faster service than a traditional drive - up window; while one customer was being served at the window, a second and even a third customer 's order could be taken and prepared. A giant clown projected from the roof, and a smaller clown head sat atop the intercom, where a sign said, "Pull forward, Jack will speak to you. '' The Jack in the Box restaurant was conceived as a "modern food machine, '' designed by La Jolla, California master architect Russell Forester. Quick service made the new location very popular, and soon all of Oscar 's locations were redesigned with intercoms and rechristened Jack in the Box restaurants.
Peterson formed Foodmaker, Inc. as a holding company for Jack in the Box in 1960. At this time, all Jack in the Box locations -- over 180, mainly in California and the Southwest -- were company - owned. Location sites, food preparation, quality control, and the hiring and training of on - site managers and staff in each location were subject to rigorous screening and strict performance standards.
In 1968, Peterson sold Foodmaker to Ralston Purina Company. In the 1970s, Foodmaker led the Jack in the Box chain toward its most prolific growth (television commercials in the early 1970s featured child actor Rodney Allen Rippy) and began to franchise locations. The chain began to increasingly resemble its larger competitors, particularly industry giant McDonald 's. Jack in the Box began to struggle in the latter part of the decade; its expansion into East Coast markets was cut back, then halted. By the end of the decade, Jack in the Box restaurants was sold in increasing numbers.
Around 1980, Foodmaker dramatically altered Jack in the Box 's marketing strategy by literally blowing up the chain 's symbol, the jack in the box, in television commercials with the tagline, "The food is better at the Box ''. Jack in the Box announced that it would no longer compete for McDonald 's target customer base of families with young children. Instead, Foodmaker targeted older, more affluent "yuppie '' customers with a higher - quality, more upscale menu and a series of whimsical television commercials featuring Dan Gilvezan, who attempted to compare the new menu items to that of McDonald 's and other fast - food chains, to no avail; hence "There 's No Comparison '', their slogan at the time. Jack in the Box restaurants were remodeled and redecorated with decorator pastel colors and hanging plants; the logo, containing a clown 's head in a red box with the company name in red text to or below the box (signs in front of the restaurant displayed the clown 's head only), was modified, stacking the words in a red diagonal box while still retaining the clown 's head; by about 1981 or 1982, the clown 's head was removed from the logo, which would remain until 2009.
Television advertising from about 1985 onward featured minimalistic music by a small chamber - like ensemble (specifically a distinctive seven - note plucked musical signature). The menu, previously focused on hamburgers led by the flagship Jumbo Jack, became much more diverse, including salads, chicken sandwiches, finger foods, and Seasoned Curly Fries (at least two new menu items were introduced per year), at a time when few fast - food operations offered more than standard hamburgers. Annual sales increased through the 1980s. Ralston Purina tried further to mature the restaurant 's image, renaming it "Monterey Jack 's '' in late 1985. The name change proved to be a disaster, and the Jack in the Box name was restored in early 1986.
After 18 years, Ralston Purina decided in 1985 that Foodmaker was a non-core asset and sold it to management. By 1987, sales reached $655 million, the chain boasted 897 restaurants, and Foodmaker became a publicly traded company.
JBX Grill was a line of fast casual restaurants introduced in 2004 by Jack in the Box Inc. They featured high - quality, cafe - style food, avoiding most of the cheaper fast - food items typically served at Jack in the Box. The architecture and decor maintained an upbeat, positive atmosphere, and the customer service was comparable to most dine - in restaurants. Two of the Jack in the Box restaurants in San Diego, California (where Jack in the Box is headquartered) were converted to JBX Grill restaurants to test the concept. (The locations in Hillcrest and Pacific Beach still retain many of the JBX elements, including an indoor / outdoor fireplace and modern architecture.) There were also restaurants in Bakersfield, California, Boise, Idaho, and Nampa, Idaho. However, the concept later proved unsuccessful, and the last stores were reconverted to Jack in the Box in 2006.
Although best known for its hamburgers, Jack in the Box 's most popular product is its taco, which it has sold since the first restaurant in the 1950s. As of 2017, the company sells 554 million a year manufactured in three factories in Texas and Kansas to "a legion of fans who swear by the greasy vessels even as they sometimes struggle to understand their appeal '', The Wall Street Journal reported. The newspaper quoted one fan who compared it to "' a wet envelope of cat food ' '' and observed that "there are two kinds of people: those who think they 're disgusting and those who agree they 're disgusting but are powerless to resist them ''. A Los Angeles restaurateur praised it, however, as "the most underrated taco of all time ''; celebrity fans include Tom Hanks, Chelsea Handler, Selena Gomez, and Chrissy Teigen. What makes the taco unusual is that it is created with the meat and hard taco shell in the Texas and Kansas facilities, then frozen for transport and storage. At the restaurant, it is then deep fried, then prepared with lettuce, cheese and mild taco sauce before serving.
Besides tacos, other Americanized foods from ethnic cuisines that Jack in the Box offers include egg rolls, breakfast burritos, and poppers. New items come in on a rotation every three to four months, including the Philly cheesesteak and the deli style pannidos (deli trio, ham & turkey, zesty turkey) which were replaced by Jack 's ciabatta burger and included the original ciabatta burger and the bacon ' n ' cheese ciabatta. Jack in the Box also carries seasonal items such as pumpkin pie shakes, Oreo mint shakes, and eggnog shakes during the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. In some locations, local delicacies are a regular part of the menu. Locations in Hawaii, for example, include the Paniolo Breakfast (Portuguese sausage, eggs, and rice platter) and teriyaki chicken and rice bowl. In the Southern United States, the company offers biscuits and sweet tea. In Imperial County, California, some locations sell date shakes, reflecting the crop 's ubiquity in the region 's farms. In the spring of 2007, Jack in the Box also introduced its sirloin burger and followed this up recently with the sirloin steak melt. Its more recent foray into the deli market was the less - popular Ultimate Club Sandwich which was initially removed in Arizona due to poor sales and has since been phased out at all locations.
The Bonus Jack was first released in 1970 and has been reintroduced to Jack in the Box menus at times throughout the years. In November 2009, the company discontinued their popular ciabatta sandwiches / burgers. In 2012, Jack in the Box introduced a bacon milkshake as part of its "Marry Bacon '' campaign.
The Sourdough Jack, which uses two slices of sourdough bread with a hamburger patty, has been around since at least 2002.
In October 2016, the "Brunchfast '' items were introduced. Those are Bacon & Egg Chicken Sandwich, Blood Orange Fruit Cooler, Brunch Burger, Cranberry Orange Muffins, Homestyle Potatoes, and Southwest Scrambler Plate.
In January 2018, the "Food Truck Series '' sandwiches were introduced, which are: Asian Fried Chicken, Pork Belly BLT, and Prime Rib Cheesesteak.
The restaurant rebounded in popularity in 1994 after a highly successful marketing campaign that featured the fictitious Jack in the Box chairman Jack character (formerly voiced by the campaign 's creator Dick Sittig), who has a ping pong ball - like head, a yellow clown cap, two blue eyes, a pointy black nose, and a linear red smile that changes with his emotions, and is dressed in a business suit.
Jack was reintroduced specifically to signal the new direction the company was taking to refocus and regroup after the E. coli disaster. In the original spot that debuted in Fall 1994, Jack ("through the miracle of plastic surgery '', he says as he confidently strides into the office building) reclaims his rightful role as founder and CEO, and, apparently as revenge for being blown up in 1980, approaches the closed doors of the Jack in the Box boardroom (a fictionalized version, shown while the aforementioned minimalist theme music from the 1980s Jack in the Box commercials plays), activates a detonation device, and the boardroom explodes in a shower of smoke, wood, and paper. The spot ends with a close - up shot of a small white paper bag, presumably filled with Jack in the Box food, dropping forcefully onto a table; the bag is printed with the words "Jack 's Back '' in bold red print, then another bag drops down with the Jack in the Box logo from that period. Later ads feature the first bag showing the text of the food item or offer the commercial is promoting.
A commercial was released where Jack goes to the house of a man who has records of calling Jack in the Box "Junk in the Box ''. When the man shoves Jack yelling "Beat it clown! '', Jack chases him outside, tackles him to the ground, and forces him to try Jack 's food and confess his deed. The commercial ends with Jack saying "I 'm sorry for the grass stains. '' "Really? '' "No ''.
The commercials in the "Jack 's Back '' campaign (which has won several advertising industry awards) tend to be lightly humorous and often involve Jack making business decisions about the restaurant chain 's food products, or out in the field getting ideas for new menu items. While a series of ads claiming to ask when Burger King and McDonald 's will change their ways about making their hamburgers featured a phone number, it is unknown whether the caller would actually be connected to Jack himself. In addition, many commercials have advertised free car antenna balls with every meal, thus increasing brand awareness. Often different types of antenna balls were available during a holiday or major event or themed toward a sports team local to the restaurant. The antenna balls have since been discontinued due to the demise of the mast - type car antenna.
During the height of the now - defunct XFL, one of the continuing ad series involved a fictitious professional American football team owned by Jack. The team, called the Carnivores, played against teams such as the Tofu Eaters and the Vegans.
In 1997, a successful advertising campaign was launched using a fictional musical group called the Spicy Crispy Girls (a take off of the Spice Girls, a British pop music girl group - at the time one of the most popular groups in the world), in comedic national television commercials. The commercials were used to promote the new Jack in the Box Spicy Crispy Chicken Sandwich (now known as Jack 's Spicy Chicken), with the girls dancing in "the Jack groove. '' The Spicy Crispy Girls concept was used as a model for another successful advertising campaign called the ' Meaty Cheesy Boys ' to promote the Ultimate Cheeseburger (see below). At the 1998 Association of Independent Commercial Producers (AICP) Show, one of the Spicy Crispy Girls commercials won the top award for humor.
The Meaty Cheesy Boys, a mock boy band to promote the Ultimate Cheeseburger, were created during an ad campaign featuring an out - of - control advertising executive previously fired by Jack. The same ad exec featured in a spot where a medical doctor made exaggerated claims of the benefits of fast food that it would cure baldness, help trim extra pounds, and remove wrinkles. Jack asks the ad exec incredulously, "Where did you find this guy? '' The ad exec responds proudly, "Tobacco company. ''
In 2000, an ad involved a man washed up on a remote island with only a Jack in the Box antenna ball as company. Later that year, director Robert Zemeckis, claiming the agency had appropriated elements of his Oscar - nominated film Cast Away for the ad, had his lawsuit against the ad agency thrown out.
In April 2006, Jack in the Box launched an ad campaign called Bread is Back, taking a stab at the low carbohydrate diets of recent years.
In 2006, Jack in the Box took use of this perception creating a commercial featuring a typical stoner who is indecisive about ordering. When faced with a decision, the Jack in the Box figurine in his car tells him to "stick to the classics '' and order 30 tacos implying that he has the "munchies ''. This ad later stirred up controversy among a San Diego teen group who claimed that the ad was irresponsible showing a teenager who was under the influence of drugs. To protest, they presented the company with 2000 postcards protesting the ad, despite the fact that it had not aired since the beginning of the previous month. This commercial was redone in 2009 to feature the new logo and the new Campaign.
Another ad touting the chain 's milkshakes aired circa 2003 and was shot in the stilted style of a 1970s - era anti-drug spot, urging kids to "say no to fake shakes '' and featured "Larry The Crime Donkey, '' a parody of McGruff the Crime Dog.
In 2007, Jack in the Box began a commercial campaign for their new 100 % sirloin beef hamburgers, implying that they were of higher quality than the Angus beef used by Carl 's Jr., Hardee 's, Wendy 's, and Burger King. That May, CKE Restaurants, Inc., the parent company of Carl 's Jr. and Hardee 's, filed a lawsuit against Jack in the Box, Inc. CKE claimed, among other things, that the commercials tried to give the impression that Carl 's Jr. / Hardee 's Angus beef hamburgers contained cow anuses by having an actor swirl his finger in the air in a circle while saying "Angus '' in one commercial and having other people in the second commercial laugh when the word "Angus '' was mentioned. They also attacked Jack in the Box 's claim that sirloin, a cut found on all cattle, was of higher quality than Angus beef, which is a breed of cattle.
During Super Bowl XLIII on February 1, 2009, a commercial depicted Jack in a Full Body Cast after getting hit by a bus. In October 2009, Jack in the Box debuted a popular commercial to market their "Teriyaki Bowl '' meals. The commercial features employees getting "bowl cut '' haircuts. At the end of the commercial, Jack reveals that his "bowl cut '' is a wig, to the dismay of the employees.
The One variation has a miniature clown hat (dating back to 1978) with three dots in the upper left - hand corner; the clown head was removed in 1980. In the 1970s, the clown head was in a red box all by itself, with the company name either below or next to the box; signs in front of the restaurants had the clown head only. The ' clown head ' can be seen on several YouTube videos depicting Jack in the Box commercials from the 1970s and 1980s. Most Jack in the Box locations opened before late 2008 had this logo, although the company is slowly replacing them with the newer logo, along with general updating of the locations ' decor. Some locations continue to use this logo as their "Open / Closed '' sign.
In 1981, horse meat labeled as beef was discovered at a Foodmaker plant that supplied hamburger and taco meat to Jack in the Box. The meat was originally from Profreeze of Australia, and during their checks on location, the food inspectors discovered other shipments destined for the United States which included kangaroo meat.
In 1993, Jack in the Box suffered a major corporate crisis involving E. coli O157: H7 bacteria. Four children died of hemolytic uremic syndrome and 600 others were reported sick after eating undercooked patties contaminated with fecal material containing the bacteria at a location in Tacoma, Washington and other parts of the Pacific Northwest. The chain was faced with several lawsuits, each of which was quickly settled (but left the chain nearly bankrupt and losing customers). At the time, Washington state law required that hamburgers be cooked to an internal temperature of at least 155 ° F (68 ° C), the temperature necessary to kill E. coli bacteria, although the FDA requirement at that time was only 140 ° F (60 ° C), which was the temperature Jack in the Box cooked. After the incident, Jack in the Box mandated that in all nationwide locations, their hamburgers be cooked to at least 155 ° F (68 ° C). Additionally, all meat products produced in the United States are required to comply with HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) regulations. Every company that produces meat products is required to have a HACCP plan that is followed continuously. Jack in the Box also worked with food safety experts from manufacturing companies and created a comprehensive program to test for bacteria in every food product.
In 2005, Jack in the Box announced plans for nationwide expansion by 2010.
In support of this objective, the chain began airing ads in states several hundred miles from the nearest location.
The expansion strategy at that time was targeted at Colorado, Delaware, Florida and Texas. In 2007, the first new Colorado store opened in Golden, Colorado, marking an end to Jack in the Box 's 11 - year - long absence from the state.
In Albuquerque, New Mexico, several locations opened in June 2009. Jack in the Box restaurants last made an appearance in the Albuquerque market approximately two decades ago.
In September 2010, it was announced that 40 under - performing company - owned Jack in the Box restaurants located mostly in Texas and the Southeast would close.
In March 2011, Jack in the Box launched the Munchie Mobile in San Diego, a food truck that will serve Jack 's burgers and fries. In June 2012, Jack in the Box launched their second food truck in the southeast region of the United States. Another truck was launched for the Northern Texas area in April 2013.
In January 2012, Jack in the Box opened its first of three locations in the Indianapolis area. A few months later, the first Ohio location opened in September 2012 in West Chester.
On December 16, 2004, the company restated three years of results due to an accounting change that prompted the company to cut first - quarter and 2005 earnings expectations.
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how many episodes of game of thrones total | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first seven seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and is set to air in 2019. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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sikh is a word with its root originated from | Sikh - wikipedia
A Sikh (/ sɪk /; Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ sikkh (sɪkkh)) is a person associated with Sikhism, a monotheistic religion that originated in the 15th century based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term "Sikh '' has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya), meaning a disciple, or a student. A Sikh, according to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru ''.
The greater Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent has been the historic homeland of the Sikhs, and was ruled by the Sikhs for significant parts of the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, the Punjab state in northwest India has a majority Sikh population, and sizable communities of Sikhs exist around the world. Many countries, such as the United Kingdom, recognize Sikhs as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has sought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self - identify as an ' ethnic minority ' '' and believe "that they are more than just a religion ''.
Male Sikhs generally have "Singh '' (Lion) as their middle or last name (not all Singhs are Sikhs), and female Sikhs have "Kaur '' (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the Khanḍe - kī - Pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: Kesh, uncut hair which is kept covered, usually by a turban; Kara, an iron or steel bracelet; Kirpan, a sword tucked into a gatra strap or a kamal kasar belt; Kachehra, a cotton undergarment; and Kanga, a small wooden comb. Initiated male and female Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban.
Guru Nanak (1469 -- 1539), founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Gobind Singh initiated five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. During the period of Mughal rule in India (1556 -- 1707) several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule.
After defeating the Afghan and Mughal, sovereign states called Misls were formed, under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The Confederacy was unified and transformed into the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh Bahadur, which was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander - in - chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms.
After the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the Sikhs and Punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British. This resulted in heavy recruiting from Punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the British Raj. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army. According to Mahmud, the British did not discover the Martial race of the Sikh, it was rather created by the British
The British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India including Punjab. This included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the First and Second Singh Sabha respectively. The Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice.
The later part of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, which placed all the historical Sikh shrines in India under the control of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC).
The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab. The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi - speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.
Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu - dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi 's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government, '' and her increasing "paranoia '' about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage. '' Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister 's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi 's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right - wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus '' disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.
During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.
From the Guru Granth Sahib,
One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord 's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, he is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, he is to meditate on the Lord 's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food - that GurSikh becomes pleasing to the Guru 's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate - upon that GurSikh, the Guru 's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that GurSikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.
The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on Waheguru and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:
The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged by Guru Hargobind. The rebab was played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were introduced to Sikh devotional music by Guru Arjan. The taus was designed by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was designed by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabad in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as raags. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.
When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.
Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two - thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs live in the Indian states or union territories of Chandigarh where they form 13.11 % of the population, Haryana (more than 1.2 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.
Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia, Singapore and Thailand. Due to this, Canada is the country that has the highest number of Sikhs in proportion to the population in the world at 1.4 % of Canada 's total population.
Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English - speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom (ing) virtually impossible since the late 1970s '', migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.
Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions. Primarily for socio - economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). The Sikh population has the lowest gender balance in India, with only 903 women per 1,000 men according to the 2011 Indian census.
Guru Nanak in Sri Granth Sahib calls for treating everyone equally. Other Sikh Gurus also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system. However they all came from just one caste, the Khatris. Despite that social stratification exists in the Sikh community.
Over 60 % of Sikhs belong to the Jat caste, Tohar caste is sub caste of jutt, which is an agrarian caste. Despite being very small in numbers, the mercantile Khatri and Arora castes wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include Sainis (kshatriyas), Rajputs, Ramgarhias (artisans), Ahluwalias (formerly brewers), Kambojs (rural caste), Labanas (merchants), Kumhars and the two Dalit castes, known in Sikh terminology as the Mazhabis (the Chuhras) and the Ravidasias (the Chamars).
According to Surinder Singh Jodhka, the Sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalit castes. While Dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurdwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (Communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Sikh Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurdwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy. In 1953, Sikh leader, Master Tara Singh, succeeded in persuading the Indian Government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low - caste Sikhs.,
According to a 1994 estimate, Punjabis (Sikhs and non-Sikhs) comprised 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army, although the state contained less than 3 % of the country 's population. The Indian government does not release religious or ethnic origins of the military personnel, but a 1991 report by Tim McGirk estimated that 20 percent of Indian Army officers were Sikhs. Together with the Gurkhas recruited from Nepal, the Maratha Light Infantry from Maharashtra and the Jat Regiment, the Sikhs are one of the few communities to have exclusive regiments in the Indian Army. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most - decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first - class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest - ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.
Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India 's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity '', was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India ''). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj - developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial ''. However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science (i.e. the green revolution) on nature and society '' invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.
Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre - optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.
In business, the UK - based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai - based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India 's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second - wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £ 229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family 's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore 's 25th - richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo - Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America. Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include poet and Bollywood lyricist Rajkavi Inderjeet Singh Tulsi, writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India 's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Navjot Singh Sidhu (former Indian cricketer turned politician). Bollywood actresses include Neetu Singh, Simran Judge, Poonam Dhillon, Mahi Gill, Esha Deol, Parminder Nagra, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral and director Gurinder Chadha, Parminder Gill.
Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Mohyal, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sansi, Sudh, Tarkhan, Kashyap Rajput.
An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh 's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.
Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per - capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.
During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.
In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded fighting for the British Empire. During shell fire, they had no other head protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.
British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice (in two world wars) and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.
Since Sikhs (like many Middle Eastern men) wear turbans and keep beards, some people in Western countries have mistaken Sikh men for Muslim or Arabic and Afghan men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9 / 11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al - Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9 / 11 attacks.
Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The 3HO organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ' gora ' (ਗੋਰਾ) or ' white ' Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.
In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations exist. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public - speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada. There are a number of Sikh office holders in Canada. In the United States, the current U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations and former governor of South Carolina, Nikki Haley, was born and raised as a Sikh, but converted to Christianity after her marriage. She still actively attends both Sikh and Christian services.
The Khalistan movement is a Sikh nationalist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān (Punjabi: ਖਾਲਿਸਤਾਨ, "The Land of the Pure '') in the Punjab region of South Asia. The territorial definition of the proposed country ranges from the Punjab state of India to the greater Punjab region, including the neighbouring Indian states.
The Punjab region has been the traditional homeland for the Sikhs. Before its conquest by the British it had been ruled by the Sikhs for 82 years; the Sikh Misls ruled over the entire Punjab sporadically from early 1700s and from 1767 to 1799, until their confederacy was unified into the Sikh Empire by Maharajah Ranjit Singh. However, the region also has a substantial number of Hindus and Muslims who were always well represented in the governance and military under Sikh rule. Before 1947, the Sikhs formed the largest religious group only in the Ludhiana district of the British province. When the Muslim League demanded a separate country for Muslims via the Lahore Resolution of 1940, a section of Sikh leaders grew concerned that their community would be left without any homeland following the partition of India between the Hindus and the Muslims. They put forward the idea of Khalistan, envisaging it as a theocratic state covering a small part of the greater Punjab region.
After the partition was announced, the majority of the Sikhs migrated from the Pakistani province of Punjab to the Indian province of Punjab, which then included the parts of the present - day Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. Following India 's independence in 1947, the Punjabi Suba Movement led by the Akali Dal aimed at creation of a Punjabi linguistic state (Suba) in the Punjab region of India in the 1950s, consistent with the policy of linguistic states (States Reorganisation Act, 1956) applied elsewhere in India. Concerned that creating a Punjabi - majority state would effectively mean creating a Sikh - majority state, the Indian government initially rejected the demand. After a series of protests, violent clampdowns on the Sikhs, and the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965, the Government finally agreed to partition the state, creating a new Punjabi speaking Punjab state and splitting the rest of the region to the states of Himachal Pradesh, the new state Haryana. Subsequently, the Sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, alleging that the Central government was discriminating against Punjab (such as denying the state control over its waters, disproportionate extraction of its water resources to benefit other Indian regions, leaving significant Punjabi speaking regions outside of Punjab etc). Although the Akali Dal explicitly opposed the demand for an independent Sikh country, the issues raised by it and the Indian state 's discrimination against the Sikhs (and Punjab) were used as a premise for the creation of a separate country by the proponents of Khalistan. The allegation of "secessionism '' could have been overplayed by the Indian state to legitimise its brutal crushing of Sikh campaigns for rights or their dissent (such as their disproportionate role in opposing the Indira dictatorship (The Emergency (India))
In 1971, the Khalistan proponent Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to the United States. He placed an advertisement in The New York Times proclaiming the formation of Khalistan and was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora. On 12 April 1980, he held a meeting with the Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi before declaring the formation of "National Council of Khalistan '', at Anandpur Sahib. He declared himself as the President of the Council and Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan. A similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu, in Amritsar, who released stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried by Akali Dal headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal as a political stunt by the Congress (I) party of Indira Gandhi.
The Khalistan movement reached its zenith in the 1970s and 1980s, flourishing in the Indian state of Punjab, which has a Sikh - majority population and has been the traditional homeland of the Sikh religion. Various pro-Khalistan outfits have been involved in a separatist movement against the government of India ever since. There are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into these pro-Khalistan militant groups.
In the 1980s, some of the Khalistan proponents turned to militancy as a consequence of state violence and heavy handedness, resulting in counter-militancy operations by the Indian security forces. In one such operation, Operation Blue Star (June 1984), the Indian Army led by the Indian army General Kuldip Singh Brar and supervised by General Arun Shridhar Vaidya forcibly entered the Harimandir Sahib (the Golden Temple) on the pretext of overpowering armed militants and the alleged militant leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale. The handling of the operation, damage to the Akal Takht (which is one of the five seats of temporal physical religious authority of the Sikhs), destruction of the Sikh Reference Library and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the Indian Government. Many Sikhs strongly maintain that the attack resulted in the desecration of the holiest Sikh shrine. The Sikh Reference Library was also destroyed by the Indian forces during this attack. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards in retaliation. Although the accused of the assassination were tried, found guilty and punished by the legal system, following her death, thousands of Sikhs were massacred in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots in Delhi and multiple places in India in an orchestrated attempt at genocide.
In January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal. On 26 January 1986, a gathering known as the Sarbat Khalsa (a de-facto parliament) passed a resolution (gurmattā) favouring the creation of Khalistan. Subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but Sikh political groups such as the Khalsa Raj Party and SAD (A) continued to pursue an independent Khalistan through non-violent means. Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa (International) are also active outside India, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora.
In November 2015, a Sarbat Khalsa, or congregation of the Sikh community was called in response to recent unrest in the Punjab region. The Sarbat Khalsa adopted 13 resolutions to strengthen Sikh institutions and traditions. The 12th resolution reaffirmed the resolutions adopted by the Sarbat Khalsa in 1986, including the declaration of the sovereign state of Khalistan.
Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India 's melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S.S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak 's creative mysticism '' and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality ''.
During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.
The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts -- except for the relics of the Gurus -- have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.
Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo - immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian '', "Indo - Canadian '' and "Desi - Culture '', a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh '' has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins '') is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.
Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one '').
Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780 -- 1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.
The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak 's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.
"Architectural Heritage of a Sikh State: Faridkot '' by Subhash Parihar, Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2009, ISBN 978 - 81 - 7305 - 386 - 3
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how many species on earth have been named | Global biodiversity - wikipedia
Global biodiversity is the measure of biodiversity on planet Earth and is defined as the total variability of life forms. More than 99 percent of all species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 2 million to 10, of which about 1.6 million have been databased thus far and over 80 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described. The total amount of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is estimated at 5.0 x 10, and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).
In other related studies, around 1.9 million extant species are believed to have been described currently, but some scientists believe 20 % are synonyms, reducing the total valid described species to 1.5 million. In 2013, a study published in Science estimated there to be 5 ± 3 million extant species on Earth. Another study, published in 2011 by PLoS Biology, estimated there to be 8.7 million ± 1.3 million eukaryotic species on Earth. Some 250,000 valid fossil species have been described, but this is believed to be a small proportion of all species that have ever lived.
Global biodiversity is affected by extinction and speciation. The background extinction rate varies among taxa but it is estimated that there is approximately one extinction per million species years. Mammal species, for example, typically persist for 1 million years. Biodiversity has grown and shrunk in earth 's past due to (presumably) abiotic factors such as extinction events caused by geologically rapid changes in climate. Climate change 299 million years ago was one such event. A cooling and drying resulted in catastrophic rainforest collapse and subsequently a great loss of diversity, especially of amphibians. However, the current rate and magnitude of extinctions are much higher than background estimates. This, considered by some to be leading to the sixth mass extinction, is a result of human impacts on the environment.
Habitat change (see: habitat fragmentation or habitat destruction) is the most important driver currently affecting biodiversity, as some 40 % of forests and ice - free habitats have been converted to cropland or pasture. Other drivers are: overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, and climate change.
Biodiversity is usually plotted as the richness of a geographic area, with some reference to a temporal scale. Types of biodiversity include taxonomic or species, ecological, morphological, and genetic diversity. Taxonomic diversity, that is the number of species, genera, family is the most commonly assessed type. A few studies have attempted to quantitatively clarify the relationship between different types of diversity. For example, the biologist Sarda Sahney has found a close link between vertebrate taxonomic and ecological diversity.
Chapman, 2005 and 2009 has attempted to compile perhaps the most comprehensive recent statistics on numbers of extant species, drawing on a range of published and unpublished sources, and has come up with a figure of approximately 1.9 million estimated described taxa, as against possibly a total of between 11 and 12 million anticipated species overall (described plus undescribed), though other reported values for the latter vary widely. It is important to note that in many cases, the values given for "Described '' species are an estimate only (sometimes a mean of reported figures in the literature) since for many of the larger groups in particular, comprehensive lists of valid species names do not currently exist. For fossil species, exact or even approximate numbers are harder to find; Raup, 1986 includes data based on a compilation of 250,000 fossil species so the true number is undoubtedly somewhat higher than this. It should also be noted that the number of described species is increasing by around 18,000 - 19,000 extant, and approaching 2,000 fossil species each year at the present time, The number of published species names is higher than the number of described species, sometimes considerably so, on account of the publication, through time, of multiple names (synonyms) for the same accepted taxon in many cases.
Based on Chapman 's (2009) report, the estimated numbers of described extant species as of 2009 can be broken down as follows:
However the total number of species for some taxa may be much higher.
In 1982, Terry Erwin published an estimate of global species richness of 30 million, by extrapolating from the numbers of beetles found in a species of tropical tree. In one species of tree, Erwin identified 1200 beetle species, of which he estimated 163 were found only in that type of tree. Given the 50,000 described tropical tree species, Erwin suggested that there are almost 10 million beetle species in the tropics. In 2011 a study published in PLoS Biology estimated there to be 8.7 million ± 1.3 million eukaryotic species on Earth. A 2016 study concludes that Earth is home to 1 trillion species.
After the Convention on Biological Diversity was signed in 1992, biological conservation became a priority for the international community. There are several indicators used that describe trends in global biodiversity. However, there is no single indicator for all extant species as not all have been described and measured over time. There are different ways to measure changes in biodiversity. The Living Planet Index (LPI) is a population - based indicator that combines data from individual populations of many vertebrate species to create a single index. The Global LPI for 2012 decreased by 28 %. There are also indices that separate temperate and tropical species for marine and terrestrial species. The Red List Index is based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and measures changes in conservation status over time and currently includes taxa that have been completely categorized: mammals, birds, amphibians and corals. The Global Wild Bird Index is another indicator that shows trends in population of wild bird groups on a regional scale from data collected in formal surveys. Challenges to these indices due to data availability are taxonomic gaps and the length of time of each index. The Biodiversity Indicators Partnership was established in 2006 to assist biodiversity indicator development, advancement and to increase the availability of indicators.
Biodiversity is important for humans through ecosystem services and goods. Ecosystem services are broken down into: regulating services such as air and water purification, provisioning services (goods), such as fuel and food, cultural services and supporting services such as pollination and nutrient cycling.
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when does the winter olympics start ice skating | Figure Skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea. The five events took place between 9 and 23 February 2018.
A total of 148 quota spots were available to athletes to compete at the games. Each NOC could enter a maximum of 18 athletes, with a maximum of nine men or nine women. An additional six quota spots were made available for the team event. A further ten team trophy quotas (two in each discipline) were distributed to countries who qualified for the team event but not the discipline itself. This meant up to a maximum of 158 athletes could participate.
The following was the competition schedule for all five events. Sessions that included the event finals are shown in bold.
All times are (UTC + 9).
Skaters who only competed in the short program / dance. Skaters who only competed in the free program / dance.
Countries began announcing their entries in 2017. The International Skating Union published the complete list on 30 January 2018.
The following new ISU best scores were set during this competition.
The following National Olympic Committees earned spots to compete. 153 athletes from 32 nations were expected to participate, with number of athletes in parentheses. Malaysia made their Olympic debuts in the sport.
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when all the contents of a file are truncated this means that | File system fragmentation - wikipedia
In computing, file system fragmentation, sometimes called file system aging, is the tendency of a file system to lay out the contents of files non-continuously to allow in - place modification of their contents. It is a special case of data fragmentation. File system fragmentation increases disk head movement or seek time (where it applies), which are known to hinder throughput. In addition, file systems can not sustain unlimited fragmentation. The correction to existing fragmentation is to reorganize files and free space back into contiguous areas, a process called defragmentation.
In modern computers, with SSD "disks '', that are not really discs, nor rotating, file system fragmentation is n't a problem (that should be "fixed ''), as there 's no movement of heads or discs. In fact, defragmenting such drives can slowly shorten their life - span.
When a file system is first initialized on a partition, it contains only a few small internal structures and is otherwise one contiguous block of empty space. This means that the file system is able to place newly created files anywhere on the partition. For some time after creation, files can be laid out near - optimally. When the operating system and applications are installed or archives are unpacked, separate files end up occurring sequentially so related files are positioned close to each other.
As existing files are deleted or truncated, new regions of free space are created. When existing files are appended to, it is often impossible to resume the write exactly where the file used to end, as another file may already be allocated there; thus, a new fragment has to be allocated. As time goes on, and the same factors are continuously present, free space as well as frequently appended files tend to fragment more. Shorter regions of free space also mean that the file system is no longer able to allocate new files contiguously, and has to break them into fragments. This is especially true when the file system becomes full and large contiguous regions of free space are unavailable.
The following example is a simplification of an otherwise complicated subject. Consider the following scenario: A new disk has had five files, named A, B, C, D and E, saved continuously and sequentially in that order. Each file is using 10 blocks of space. (Here, the block size is unimportant.) The remainder of the disk space is one free block. Thus, additional files can be created and saved after the file E.
If the file B is deleted, a second region of ten blocks of free space is created, and the disk becomes fragmented. The empty space is simply left there, marked as and available for later use, then used again as needed. The file system could defragment the disk immediately after a deletion, but doing so would incur a severe performance penalty at unpredictable times.
Now, a new file called F, which requires seven blocks of space, can be placed into the first seven blocks of the newly freed space formerly holding the file B, and the three blocks following it will remain available. If another new file called G, which needs only three blocks, is added, it could then occupy the space after F and before C.
If subsequently F needs to be expanded, since the space immediately following it is occupied, there are three options for the file system:
The second option is probably impractical for performance reasons, as is the third when the file is very large. The third option is impossible when there is no single contiguous free space large enough to hold the new file. Thus the usual practice is simply to create an extent somewhere else and chain the new extent onto the old one.
Material added to the end of file F would be part of the same extent. But if there is so much material that no room is available after the last extent, then another extent would have to be created, and so on. Eventually the file system has free segments in many places and some files may be spread over many extents. Access time for those files (or for all files) may become excessively long.
Some early file systems were unable to fragment files. One such example was the Acorn DFS file system used on the BBC Micro. Due to its inability to fragment files, the error message ca n't extend would at times appear, and the user would often be unable to save a file even if the disk had adequate space for it.
DFS used a very simple disk structure and files on disk were located only by their length and starting sector. This meant that all files had to exist as a continuous block of sectors and fragmentation was not possible. Using the example in the table above, the attempt to expand file F in step five would have failed on such a system with the ca n't extend error message. Regardless of how much free space might remain on the disk in total, it was not available to extend the data file.
Standards of error handling at the time were primitive and in any case programs squeezed into the limited memory of the BBC Micro could rarely afford to waste space attempting to handle errors gracefully. Instead, the user would find themselves dumped back at the command prompt with the Ca n't extend message and all the data which had yet to be appended to the file would be lost. The resulting frustration would be greater if the user had taken the trouble to check the free space on the disk beforehand and found free space. While free space on the disk may exist, the fact that it was not in the place where it was needed was not apparent without analyzing the numbers presented by the disk catalog and so would escape the user 's notice. In addition, DFS users had almost without exception previously been accustomed to cassette file storage, which does not suffer from this error. The upgrade to a floppy disk system was expensive performance upgrade, and it was a shock to make the sudden and unpleasant discovery that the upgrade might without warning cause data loss.
File system fragmentation may occur on several levels:
Individual file fragmentation occurs when a single file has been broken into multiple pieces (called extents on extent - based file systems). While disk file systems attempt to keep individual files contiguous, this is not often possible without significant performance penalties. File system check and defragmentation tools typically only account for file fragmentation in their "fragmentation percentage '' statistic.
Free (unallocated) space fragmentation occurs when there are several unused areas of the file system where new files or metadata can be written to. Unwanted free space fragmentation is generally caused by deletion or truncation of files, but file systems may also intentionally insert fragments ("bubbles '') of free space in order to facilitate extending nearby files (see preventing fragmentation below).
File segmentation, also called related - file fragmentation, or application - level (file) fragmentation, refers to the lack of locality of reference (within the storing medium) between related files (see file sequence for more detail). Unlike the previous two types of fragmentation, file scattering is a much more vague concept, as it heavily depends on the access pattern of specific applications. This also makes objectively measuring or estimating it very difficult. However, arguably, it is the most critical type of fragmentation, as studies have found that the most frequently accessed files tend to be small compared to available disk throughput per second.
To avoid related file fragmentation and improve locality of reference (in this case called file contiguity), assumptions or active observations about the operation of applications have to be made. A very frequent assumption made is that it is worthwhile to keep smaller files within a single directory together, and lay them out in the natural file system order. While it is often a reasonable assumption, it does not always hold. For example, an application might read several different files, perhaps in different directories, in exactly the same order they were written. Thus, a file system that simply orders all writes successively, might work faster for the given application.
File system fragmentation is more problematic with consumer - grade hard disk drives because of the increasing disparity between sequential access speed and rotational latency (and to a lesser extent seek time) on which file systems are usually placed. Thus, fragmentation is an important problem in file system research and design. The containment of fragmentation not only depends on the on - disk format of the file system, but also heavily on its implementation. File system fragmentation has less performance impact upon solid - state drives, as there is no mechanical seek time involved. However, the file system needs to store one additional piece of metadata for the corresponding file. Each piece of metadata itself occupies space and requires processing power and processor time. If the maximum fragmentation limit is reached, write requests fail.
In simple file system benchmarks, the fragmentation factor is often omitted, as realistic aging and fragmentation is difficult to model. Rather, for simplicity of comparison, file system benchmarks are often run on empty file systems. Thus, the results may vary heavily from real - life access patterns.
Several techniques have been developed to fight fragmentation. They can usually be classified into two categories: preemptive and retroactive. Due to the difficulty of predicting access patterns these techniques are most often heuristic in nature and may degrade performance under unexpected workloads.
Preemptive techniques attempt to keep fragmentation at a minimum at the time data is being written on the disk. The simplest is appending data to an existing fragment in place where possible, instead of allocating new blocks to a new fragment.
Many of today 's file systems attempt to preallocate longer chunks, or chunks from different free space fragments, called extents to files that are actively appended to. This largely avoids file fragmentation when several files are concurrently being appended to, thus avoiding their becoming excessively intertwined.
If the final size of a file subject to modification is known, storage for the entire file may be preallocated. For example, the Microsoft Windows swap file (page file) can be resized dynamically under normal operation, and therefore can become highly fragmented. This can be prevented by specifying a page file with the same minimum and maximum sizes, effectively preallocating the entire file.
BitTorrent and other peer - to - peer filesharing applications limit fragmentation by preallocating the full space needed for a file when initiating downloads.
A relatively recent technique is delayed allocation in XFS, HFS+ and ZFS; the same technique is also called allocate - on - flush in reiser4 and ext4. When the file system is being written to, file system blocks are reserved, but the locations of specific files are not laid down yet. Later, when the file system is forced to flush changes as a result of memory pressure or a transaction commit, the allocator will have much better knowledge of the files ' characteristics. Most file systems with this approach try to flush files in a single directory contiguously. Assuming that multiple reads from a single directory are common, locality of reference is improved. Reiser4 also orders the layout of files according to the directory hash table, so that when files are being accessed in the natural file system order (as dictated by readdir), they are always read sequentially.
Retroactive techniques attempt to reduce fragmentation, or the negative effects of fragmentation, after it has occurred. Many file systems provide defragmentation tools, which attempt to reorder fragments of files, and sometimes also decrease their scattering (i.e. improve their contiguity, or locality of reference) by keeping either smaller files in directories, or directory trees, or even file sequences close to each other on the disk.
The HFS Plus file system transparently defragments files that are less than 20 MiB in size and are broken into 8 or more fragments, when the file is being opened.
The now obsolete Commodore Amiga Smart File System (SFS) defragmented itself while the filesystem was in use. The defragmentation process is almost completely stateless (apart from the location it is working on), so that it can be stopped and started instantly. During defragmentation data integrity is ensured for both metadata and normal data.
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who played tom thornton in when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season, which premiered with a two - hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
A spin off of the show named When Hope Calls was announced at Hallmark 's Television Critics Association summer press tour on July 26, 2018. When Hope Calls is expected to debut in 2019 on Hallmark Movies Now streaming service.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 1, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired all five seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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when was the resolution of purna swaraj passed by the congress | Purna Swaraj - Wikipedia
The Purna Swaraj declaration, or Declaration of the Independence of India, was promulgated by the Indian National Congress under the influence of Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries on 19 December 1929, resolving the Congress and Indian nationalists to fight for Purna Swaraj, or complete self - rule independent of the British Empire (literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete, '' swa, "self, '' raj, "rule, '' thus "complete self - rule '').
The flag of India had been hoisted by Gandhi on 31 December 1929, in Lahore, modern - day Pakistan. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Republic Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public.
Before 1930, few Indian political parties had openly embraced the goal of political independence from the United Kingdom. The All India Home Rule League had been advocating Home Rule for India: dominion status within the British Empire, as granted to Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. The All India Muslim League favoured dominion status as well, and opposed calls for outright Indian independence. The Indian Liberal Party, by far the most pro-British party, explicitly opposed India 's independence and even dominion status if it weakened India 's links with the British Empire. The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian political party of the time, was at the head of the national debate. Congress leader and famous poet Hasrat Mohani was the first activist to demand complete independence (Poorna Swaraj) from the British in 1921 from an All - India Congress Forum. Veteran Congress leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal had also advocated explicit Indian independence from the Empire.
Following the 1919 Amritsar Massacre, there was considerable public outrage against British rule. Europeans, (civilians and officials) were targets and victims of violence across India. In 1920, Gandhi and the Congress committed themselves to Swaraj, described as political and spiritual independence. At the time, Gandhi described this as the basic demand of all Indians; he specifically said that the question of whether India would remain within the Empire or leave it completely would be answered by the behaviour and response of the British. Between 1920 and 1922, Mahatma Gandhi led the Non-Cooperation movement: nationwide civil disobedience to oppose the Rowlatt Acts and the exclusion of Indians from the government, and the denial of political and civil freedoms.
In 1928, the British government further outraged people across India by appointing a seven - man committee led by Sir John Simon, it was an all - European commission Simon Commission to deliberate on constitutional and political reforms for India. Indian political parties were neither consulted nor asked to involve themselves in the process. Upon arrival in India, Chairman Sir John Simon and other commission members were met with angry public demonstrations, which followed them everywhere. The death of a prominent Indian leader, Lala Lajpat Rai, from severe beatings by British police officials further outraged the Indian public.
The Congress appointed an all - Indian commission to propose constitutional reforms for India. Members of other Indian political parties joined the commission led by Congress President Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Report demanded that India be granted self - government under the dominion status within the Empire. While most other Indian political parties supported the Nehru commission 's work, it was opposed by the Indian Liberal Party and the All India Muslim League. The British ignored the commission, its report and refused to introduce political reform.
But the Nehru Report was also controversial within the Congress. Younger nationalist leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that the Congress resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British. Jawaharlal Nehru had been influenced by the idea of Bhagat Singh ("total independence ''), which Singh had introduced a resolution demanding in 1927, which was rejected because of Gandhi 's opposition. Now Bose and Nehru opposed dominion status, which would retain the Monarch of the United Kingdom as the constitutional head of state of India (although in the separate capacity as King of India), and preserve political powers for the British Parliament in Indian constitutional affairs. They were supported in their stand by a large number of rank - and - file Congressmen.
In December 1928, Congress session was held in Kolkata and Mohandas Gandhi proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. After Some time Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one. Jawaharlal Nehru voted for the new resolution, while Subhash Bose told his supporters that he would not oppose the resolution, and abstained from voting himself. The All India Congress Committee voted 118 to 45 in its favor (the 45 votes came from supporters of a complete break from the British). However, when Bose introduced an amendment during the open session of Congress that sought a complete break with the British, Gandhi admonished the move:
You may take the name of independence on your lips but all your muttering will be an empty formula if there is no honor behind it. If you are not prepared to stand by your words, where will independence be?
The amendment was rejected, by 1350 to 973, and the resolution was fully adopted.
On 31 October 1929, the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin announced that the government would meet with Indian representatives in London for a Round Table Conference. To facilitate Indian participation, Irwin met with Mohandas Gandhi, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and out - going Congress President Motilal Nehru to discuss the meeting. Gandhi asked Irwin if the conference would proceed on the basis of dominion status and Irwin said he could not assure that, resulting in the end of the meeting.
As a result of the denial of reforms and political rights, and the persistent ignorance of Indian political parties, the Indian National Congress grew increasingly cohesive -- unified in the desire to oust the British from India completely. A very large number of Congress volunteers and delegates, members of other political parties and an especially large public gathering attended the session convened in Lahore. Despite the bitterly cold weather, Pattabhi Sitaramayya records that:
The heat of passion and excitement, the resentment at the failure of negotiation, the flushing of faces on hearing the war drums -- oh, it was all in marked contrast to the weather.
Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President and veteran leaders like Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel returned to the Congress Working Committee. They approved a declaration of independence, which stated:
The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually... Therefore... India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence.
At midnight on New Year 's Eve, President Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore, which later became part of Pakistan. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony were asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. One hundred seventy two Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment.
The Declaration of Independence was officially promulgated on 26 January 1930. Gandhi and other Indian leaders would immediately begin the planning of a massive national non-violence would encourage the common people not to attack Britishers even if they attcked them. The Salt Satyagraha was initiated by.
There is some dispute as to who drafted the text of the declaration. Gandhi directly claimed authorship in 1940, while other sources either cite Nehru as a major editor or attribute it to Nehru outright.
The Congress regularly observed 26 January as the Independence Day of India -- commemorating those who campaigned for Indian independence. In 1947, the British agreed to transfer power and political finesse to India, and 15 August became the official Independence Day. However, the new Constitution of India, as drafted and approved by the Constituent Assembly, was mandated to take effect on 26 January 1950, to commemorate the 1930 declaration. On that day in 1950, India became a republic. 26 January is now celebrated as Republic Day of India every year.
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expanded model of the power and control wheel | Duluth Model - wikipedia
The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project is a program developed to reduce domestic violence against women. It is named after Duluth, Minnesota, the city where it was developed. The program was largely founded by Ellen Pence and Michael Paymar.
As of 2006, the Duluth Model is the most common batterer intervention program used in the United States. Critics argue that the method can be ineffective as it was developed without minority communities in mind and can fail to address root psychological or emotional causes of abuse, in addition to completely neglecting male victims of abuse.
The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. This experimental program, conducted in Duluth in 1981, coordinated the actions of a variety of agencies dealing with domestic conflict. The Duluth model curriculum was developed by a "small group of activists in the battered women 's movement '' with 5 battered women and 4 men as subjects. The program has become a model for programs in other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence.
The feminist theory underlying the Duluth Model is that men use violence within relationships to exercise power and control. This is illustrated by the "Power and Control Wheel, '' a graphic typically displayed as a poster in participating locations. According to the Duluth Model, "women and children are vulnerable to violence because of their unequal social, economic, and political status in society. '' Treatment of abusive men is focused on re-education, as "we do not see men 's violence against women as stemming from individual pathology, but rather from a socially reinforced sense of entitlement. '' The program 's philosophy is intended to help batterers work to change their attitudes and personal behavior so they would learn to be nonviolent in any relationship.
A U.S. study published in 2002 sponsored by the federal government found that batterers who complete programs based on the Duluth model are less likely to repeat acts of domestic violence than those who do not complete any batterers ' intervention program.
A 2003 study conducted by the U.S. National Institute of Justice found the Duluth Model to have "little or no effect. '' However, this study had considerable shortfalls. The National Institute of Justice said in its introduction, "... response rates were low, many people dropped out of the program, and victims could not be found for subsequent interviews. The tests used to measure batterers ' attitudes toward domestic violence and their likelihood to engage in future abuse were of questionable validity. ''
A 2003 longitudinal, four - year evaluation by EW Gondolf, covering four cities, shows clear deescalation of reassault and other abuse, with 80 % of men reaching sustained non-violence.
A 2005 study led by Larry Bennett, a professor of social work at the University of Illinois at Chicago and an expert on batterer intervention programs, found that of the 30 batterer intervention programs in Cook County, Illinois, 15 percent of batterers who completed the programs were rearrested for domestic violence, compared with 37 percent of those who dropped out of the programs. However, Bennett said the studies are largely meaningless because they lacked a proper control group. He added that participants who complete domestic violence programs are likely to be more motivated than others to improve behavior and would be less inclined to offend again.
A 2011 review of the effectiveness of batterers intervention programs (BIP) (primarily Duluth Model) found that "there is no solid empirical evidence for either the effectiveness or relative superiority of any of the current group interventions, '' and that "the more rigorous the methodology of evaluation studies, the less encouraging their findings. '' That is, as BIPs in general, and Duluth Model programs in particular are subject to increasingly rigorous review, their success rate approaches zero.
A 2014 news report reported zero percent recidivism within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on Nonviolent Communication, and contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on the Duluth Model as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project.
Criticism of the Duluth Model has centered on the program 's insistence that men are perpetrators who are violent because they have been socialized in a patriarchy that condones male violence, and that women are victims who are violent only in self - defense. Some critics argue that "programs based on the Duluth Model may ignore research linking domestic violence to substance abuse and psychological problems, such as attachment disorders, traced to childhood abuse or neglect, or the absence of a history of adequate socialization and training. '' Others criticize the Duluth model as being overly confrontational rather than therapeutic, focusing solely on changing the abuser 's actions and attitudes rather than dealing with underlying emotional and psychological issues. Donald Dutton, a psychology professor at the University of British Columbia who has studied abusive personalities, states: "The Duluth Model was developed by people who did n't understand anything about therapy, '' and also points out that "lesbian battering is more frequent than heterosexual battering. '' Philip W. Cook points out that in the case of homosexual domestic violence, the patriarchy is absent: there is no male dominance of women in same - sex relationships, and in fact, female on female abuse is reported more than twice as frequently as male on male abuse.
Its proponents counter that the Duluth model is effective and makes best use of scarce resources. However, Ellen Pence herself has written,
"By determining that the need or desire for power was the motivating force behind battering, we created a conceptual framework that, in fact, did not fit the lived experience of many of the men and women we were working with. The DAIP staff (...) remained undaunted by the difference in our theory and the actual experiences of those we were working with (...) It was the cases themselves that created the chink in each of our theoretical suits of armor. Speaking for myself, I found that many of the men I interviewed did not seem to articulate a desire for power over their partner. Although I relentlessly took every opportunity to point out to men in the groups that they were so motivated and merely in denial, the fact that few men ever articulated such a desire went unnoticed by me and many of my coworkers. Eventually, we realized that we were finding what we had already predetermined to find. ''
The Duluth Model is featured in the documentary Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America with commentary from its authors as well as its main critics, such as Dutton.
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who was the 39th president of the united states of america | Jimmy Carter - wikipedia
James Earl Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. He previously was the 76th Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975, after two terms in the Georgia State Senate from 1963 to 1967. Carter has remained active in public life during his post-presidency, and in 2002 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in co-founding the Carter Center.
Raised in a wealthy family of peanut farmers in the southern town of Plains in Georgia, Carter graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1946 with a Bachelor of Science degree and joined the United States Navy, where he served on submarines. After the death of his father in 1953, Carter left his Naval career and returned home in Georgia to take on the reins of his family 's peanut - growing business. Despite his father 's wealth, Carter inherited comparatively little due to his father 's forgiveness of debts and the division of wealth amongst his younger siblings. Nevertheless, his ambitions to expand and grow the Carters ' peanut business was successfully fulfilled. During this period, Carter was fueled by the political climate of racial segregation and the growing civil rights movement. He became a motivated activist within the Democratic Party. From 1963 to 1967, Carter served in the Georgia State Senate, and in 1970, he was elected as Governor of Georgia, defeating former Governor Carl Sanders in the Democratic primary on an anti-segregationist platform advocating affirmative action for ethnic minorities. Carter remained in his position as Governor until 1975. Despite being little - known outside of Georgia at the start of the campaign, Carter won the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination and entered the presidential race as the dark horse candidate. In the presidential election, Carter defeated incumbent Republican President Gerald Ford in a close election.
On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts. During Carter 's term as president, two new cabinet - level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), and the return of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of high inflation, high unemployment and slow growth. The end of his presidential tenure was marked by the 1979 -- 1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In response to the invasion, Carter escalated the Cold War by ending détente, imposing a grain embargo against the Soviets, enunciating the Carter doctrine, and leading an international boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. In 1980, Carter faced a primary challenge from Senator Ted Kennedy, but Carter won re-nomination at the 1980 Democratic National Convention. Carter lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan. Polls of historians and political scientists usually rank Carter as a below - average president.
In 2012, Carter surpassed Herbert Hoover as the longest - retired president in U.S. history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his inauguration. He set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has traveled extensively to conduct peace negotiations, observe elections, and advance disease prevention and eradication in developing nations. In addition, Carter is considered a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project and has written several books about various topics. In reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israel 's actions and policies in regards to the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two - state solution. He has vigorously opposed the Supreme Court 's decision in Citizens United v. FEC to strike down limits on campaign spending by corporations and unions, saying that the U.S. is "no longer a functioning democracy '' and now has a system of "unlimited political bribery ''.
James Earl Carter Jr. was born on October 1, 1924, at the Wise Sanitarium (now the Lillian G. Carter Nursing Center) in Plains, Georgia, a hospital where his mother was employed as a registered nurse. Carter was the first U.S. president to be born in a hospital. He was the eldest son of Bessie Lillian (née Gordy) and James Earl Carter Sr... Carter Sr. was a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as cotton farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell University 's founder and distantly related to Richard Nixon and Bill Gates.
Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carter 's birth. Carter 's father was a successful local businessman, who ran a general store, and an investor in farmland. He previously served as a reserve second lieutenant in the U.S. Army 's Quartermaster Corps during World War I.
The family moved several times during Carter Jr. 's infancy. The Carters settled on a dirt road in nearby Archery, which was almost entirely populated by impoverished African American families. They eventually had three more children: Gloria, Ruth, and Billy. Carter got along well with his parents, although his mother worked long hours and was often absent in his childhood. Although Earl was staunchly pro-segregation, he allowed his son to befriend the black farmhands ' children. Carter was an enterprising teenager who was given his own acre of Earl 's farmland where he grew, packaged, and sold peanuts. He also rented out a section of tenant housing that he had purchased.
Carter attended the Plains High School from 1937 to 1941. By that time, the Great Depression had impoverished Archery and Plains, but the family benefited from New Deal farming subsidies, and Earl took a position as a community leader. Young Jimmy was a diligent student with a fondness for reading. A popular anecdote holds that he was passed over for valedictorian after he and his friends skipped school to venture downtown in a hot rod. Carter 's truancy was mentioned in a local newspaper, although it is not clear he would have been valedictorian anyway. Carter 's teacher, Julia Coleman, was an especially strong influence. As an adolescent, Carter played on the Plains High School basketball team; he also joined the Future Farmers of America and developed a lifelong interest in woodworking.
Carter had long dreamed of attending the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis. In 1941, he started undergraduate coursework in engineering at Georgia Southwestern College in nearby Americus. The following year, he transferred to the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, and he achieved admission to the Naval Academy in 1943. He was a good student but was seen as reserved and quiet, in contrast to the academy 's culture of aggressive hazing of freshmen. While at the academy, Carter fell in love with his sister Ruth 's friend Rosalynn Smith, whom he would marry shortly after his graduation in 1946. He was a sprint football player for the Navy Midshipmen. Carter graduated 60th out of 820 midshipmen in the class of 1946 with a Bachelor of Science degree and was commissioned as an ensign. From 1946 to 1953, Carter and Rosalynn lived in Virginia, Hawaii, Connecticut, New York and California, during his deployments in the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. In 1948, he began officers ' training for submarine duty and served aboard USS Pomfret. He was promoted to lieutenant junior grade in 1949. In 1951 he became attached to the diesel / electric USS K - 1, (a.k.a. USS Barracuda), qualified for command, and served in several duties including Executive Officer.
In 1952, Carter began an association with the US Navy 's fledgling nuclear submarine program, then - led by Captain Hyman G. Rickover. Rickover 's demands on his men and machines were legendary, and Carter later said that, next to his parents, Rickover was the greatest influence on his life. He was sent to the Naval Reactors Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission in Washington, D.C. for three month temporary duty, while Rosalynn moved with their children to Schenectady, New York. On December 12, 1952, an accident with the experimental NRX reactor at Atomic Energy of Canada 's Chalk River Laboratories caused a partial meltdown resulting in millions of liters of radioactive water flooding the reactor building 's basement and leaving the reactor 's core ruined. Carter was ordered to Chalk River to lead a U.S. maintenance crew that joined other American and Canadian service personnel to assist in the shutdown of the reactor. The painstaking process required each team member to don protective gear and be lowered individually into the reactor for a few minutes at a time, limiting their exposure to radioactivity while they disassembled the crippled reactor. During and after his presidency, Carter said that his experience at Chalk River had shaped his views on atomic energy and led him to cease development of a neutron bomb.
In March 1953 he began nuclear power school, a six - month non-credit course covering nuclear power plant operation at Union College in Schenectady, with the intent to eventually work aboard USS Seawolf, which was planned to be one of the first two U.S. nuclear submarines. However, Carter 's father died two months before construction of Seawolf began, and Carter sought and obtained a release from active duty to enable him to take over the family peanut business. Deciding to leave Schenectady proved difficult. Settling after moving so much Rosalynn had grown comfortable with their life. Returning to small - town life in Plains seemed "a monumental step backward, '' she said later. On the other hand, Carter felt restricted by the rigidity of the military and yearned to assume a path more like his father 's. Carter left active duty on October 9, 1953. He served in the inactive Navy Reserve until 1961, and left the service with the rank of lieutenant.
His awards included: the American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; China Service Medal; and National Defense Service Medal.
Earl Carter died a relatively wealthy man, having also recently been elected to the Georgia House of Representatives. However, between his forgiveness of debts and the division of his wealth among heirs, his son Jimmy inherited comparatively little. For a year, Jimmy, Rosalynn, and their three sons lived in public housing in Plains; Carter is the only U.S. president to have lived in subsidized housing before he took office. Carter was knowledgeable in scientific and technological subjects, and he set out to expand the family 's peanut - growing business. The transition from Navy to agribusinessman was difficult because his first - year harvest failed due to drought; Carter was compelled to open several bank lines of credit to keep the farm afloat. Meanwhile, he also took classes and read up on agriculture while Rosalynn learned accounting to manage the business 's books. Though they barely broke even the first year, the Carters grew the business and became quite successful.
Racial tension was inflamed in Plains by the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court 's anti-segregation ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. Carter was in favor of racial tolerance and integration -- at one point, the local White Citizens ' Council boycotted his peanut warehouse when he refused to join them -- but he often kept those feelings to himself to avoid making enemies. By 1961 he was a prominent member of the community and the Baptist Church as well as chairman of the Sumter County school board, where he began to speak more loudly in favor of school integration. A state Senate seat was opened by the dissolution of Georgia 's County Unit System in 1962; Carter announced his run for the seat 15 days before the election. Rosalynn, who had an instinct for politics and organization, was instrumental to his campaign. The initial results showed Carter losing, but this was the result of fraudulent voting orchestrated by Joe Hurst, the Democratic Party chairman in Quitman County, with the aid of the Quitman County sheriff. Carter challenged the results; when fraud was confirmed, a new election was held, which he won.
The civil rights movement was well underway when Carter took office. He and his family had become staunch John F. Kennedy supporters. Beginning in 1962, the town of Americus was the site of mass beatings and incarcerations of black protesters, echoing similar unrest throughout the country. Carter remained relatively quiet on the issue at first, even as it polarized much of the county, to avoid alienating his segregationist colleagues. He did speak up on a few divisive issues, giving speeches against literacy tests and against a change to the Georgia Constitution which, he felt, implied a compulsion to practice religion. At the time of President Kennedy 's assassination, Carter was informed by a customer of his peanut business of the killing, prompting Carter to remove himself from work and sit alone. Carter later called the assassination "the greatest blow that I had suffered since my father died. ''
Carter was a diligent legislator who took speed - reading courses to keep up with the workload. Within two years his connections landed him on the state Democratic Executive Committee, where he helped rewrite the state party 's rules. He became chairman of the West Central Georgia Planning and Development Commission, which oversaw the disbursement of federal and state grants for projects such as historic site restoration.
When Bo Callaway was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in November 1964, Carter immediately began planning to unseat him. The two had previously clashed over which two - year college would be expanded to a four - year college program by the state; Carter wanted it to go to Georgia Southwestern College in Americus, but Callaway wanted the funding to go to downtown Columbus. Carter saw Callaway, a Republican, as a rival who represented the inherited wealth and selfishness he despised in politics.
Carter was re-elected in 1964 to serve a second two - year term. For a time in the State Senate, he chaired its Education Committee; he also sat on the Appropriations Committee toward the end of his second term. Before his term ended he contributed to a bill expanding statewide education funding and getting Georgia Southwestern a four - year program. He leveraged his regional planning work, giving speeches around the district to make himself more visible to potential voters. The last day of the term, he announced his run for Congress.
The congressional race of 1966 was shaken up in mid-May when the Republican incumbent, Bo Callaway, dropped out and decided to run for Governor of Georgia instead. Callaway was a very strong candidate, and state Democrats panicked over the prospect of losing the governorship they had held since Reconstruction. Carter soon decided to follow Callaway and run for governor himself. In the Democratic primary he ran as a moderate alternative to both the liberal former governor Ellis Arnall and the conservative Lester Maddox. In a press conference he described his ideology as "Conservative, moderate, liberal and middle - of - the - road... I believe I am a more complicated person than that. '' He lost the Democratic primary, but drew enough votes as a third - place candidate to force Arnall into a runoff election with Maddox. A chain of events then resulted in Maddox, the dark horse candidate, being elected governor. The result was a sharp blow to Carter, who was left deeply in debt. His attempt to rescue the race from Callaway had resulted in the unlikely election of the segregationist Maddox, which he considered an even worse outcome.
Carter returned to his agriculture business and, during the next four years, carefully planned his next campaign for governor in 1970. This period was a spiritual turning point for Carter; he grew increasingly evangelical, undertaking several religious missions in other states. Inspired by his sister Ruth and liberal theologians such as Reinhold Niebuhr, he declared himself born again, a growing movement in 1960s America. His last child Amy was born during this time, on October 19, 1967.
The liberal former governor, Carl Sanders, was Carter 's main opponent in the 1970 Democratic primary. Carter ran a more modern campaign this time around, employing printed graphics and statistical analysis. Responding to poll data, Carter leaned more conservative than before. He positioned himself as a populist, quickly going negative against Sanders for his wealth (labeling him "Cufflinks Carl '') and associating him with the national Democratic Party. He accused Sanders of corruption, but when pressed by the media, could come up with no evidence. Throughout the campaign Carter sought both the black vote and the "Wallace vote, '' after the prominent segregationist George Wallace of Alabama. While he met with black figures such as Martin Luther King Sr. and Andrew Young, and visited many black - owned businesses, he also praised Wallace and promised to invite him to give a speech in Georgia. He implied support or dislike of private schools, depending on the audience. The appeal to racism became more blatant over time; Carter 's senior campaign aides handed out a photograph of his opponent Sanders celebrating with black basketball players.
That September, Carter came ahead of Sanders in the first ballot by 49 to 38 percent, leading to a runoff. The subsequent campaign grew even more bitter; despite his early support for civil rights, Carter 's campaign criticized Sanders for supporting Martin Luther King Jr. Carter won the runoff election with 60 percent of the vote -- winning 7 percent of the black vote -- and went on to win the general election easily over the Republican Hal Suit, a local news anchor. Once he was elected, Carter changed his tone, and began to speak against Georgia 's racist politics. Leroy Johnson, a black state Senator, voiced his support for Carter, saying, "I understand why he ran that kind of ultra-conservative campaign... I do n't believe you can win this state without being a racist. ''
Carter was sworn in as the 76th Governor of Georgia on January 12, 1971. He declared in his inaugural speech that "the time of racial discrimination is over... No poor, rural, weak, or black person should ever have to bear the additional burden of being deprived of the opportunity for an education, a job or simple justice. '' The crowd was reportedly shocked by this message, contrasting starkly with Georgia 's political culture and particularly Carter 's campaign. The many segregationists who had supported Carter during the race felt betrayed. Time magazine ran a story on the progressive "New South '' governors elected that year in a May 1971 issue, featuring a cover illustration of Carter.
Lester Maddox, Carter 's predecessor as governor, became lieutenant governor. Carter had endorsed Maddox, although the two did not campaign as a ticket. The two found little common ground during their four years of service, often publicly feuding with each other. Richard Russell Jr., then President pro tempore of the United States Senate, died in office during Carter 's second week in office; the newly inaugurated governor appointed David H. Gambrell, state Democratic Party chair, to fill Russell 's unexpired term in the Senate a week after Russell 's death on February 1.
With Carter 's reluctance to engage in back - slapping and political favors, the legislature found him frustrating to work with. He looked to aggressively expand the governor 's authority while reducing the complexity of the state government. Therefore, he negotiated a bill allowing him to propose executive restructuring and to force a vote on it. He implemented zero - based budgeting within state departments and added a Judicial Selection Commission to verify the credentials of judges appointed by the governor. The reorganization plan was submitted in January 1972, but had a cool reception in the legislature. But after two weeks of negotiations, it was passed at midnight on the last day of the session. Ultimately he merged about 300 state agencies into 22 -- a fact he would emphasize in his presidential run -- although it is disputed that there were any overall cost savings from doing so.
In an April 3, 1971 televised appearance, when asked if he was in favor of a requirement that candidates for Governor and Lieutenant Governor of Georgia would have to run on the same ticket, Carter said, "I 've never really thought we needed a lieutenant governor in Georgia. The lieutenant governor is part of the executive branch of government and I 've always felt - ever since I was in the state Senate - that the executive branches should be separate. '' Carter later clarified he would not introduce an amendment to put such a restriction in place.
On July 8, 1971, during an appearance in Columbus, Georgia, Carter stated his intent to establish a Georgia Human Rights Council that would work toward solving issues within the state ahead of any potential violence.
In a July 13, 1971 news conference, Carter announced his ordering of department heads to reduce spending for the aid of preventing a 57 million deficit by the end of the 1972 fiscal year, specifying that each state department would be impacted and estimating that 5 % more than revenue being taken in by the government would be lost if state departments continued full using allocated funds.
On January 13, 1972, Carter requested the state legislature provide funding for an Early Childhood Development Program along with prison reform programs and 48 million in pay taxes for nearly all state employees.
On March 1, 1972, Carter stated a possible usage of a special session of the General Assembly could take place in the event that the Justice Department opted to turn down any reapportionment plans by either the House or Senate. On April 20, Carter issued the call for a special session for consideration of advisement for the usage of a three person judge federal panel for performance on four judicial reform measures.
In April 1972, Carter traveled to Latin and South America for a potential trade deal with Georgia. Carter stated that he had met with President of Brazil Emílio Garrastazu Médici and been compared by some to the late President Kennedy.
Civil rights were a heartfelt priority for Carter. He expanded the number of black state employees, judges, and board members. He hired Rita Jackson Samuels, a black woman, to advise him on potential appointments. He placed portraits of Martin Luther King Jr. and two other prominent black Georgians in the capitol building, even as the Ku Klux Klan picketed the unveiling ceremony. During a January 31, 1973 televised joint appearance with Governor of Florida Reubin Askew, Carter stated he favored a constitutional amendment to ban busing for the purpose of expediting integration in schools. Still, Carter tried to keep his conservative allies comfortable. He co-sponsored an anti-busing resolution with George Wallace at the 1971 National Governors Conference, which Carter also hosted. After the U.S. Supreme Court threw out Georgia 's death penalty statute in Furman v. Georgia (1972), Carter signed a revised death penalty statute which addressed the court 's objections, thus re-introducing the practice in the state. Carter later regretted endorsing the death penalty, saying, "I did n't see the injustice of it as I do now. ''
Carter pushed reforms through the legislature to provide equal state aid to schools in the wealthy and poor areas of Georgia, set up community centers for mentally handicapped children, and increased educational programs for convicts. He took pride in his program for the appointment of judges and state government officials. Under this program, all such appointments were based on merit, rather than political influence.
In one of his more controversial decisions, he vetoed a plan to build a dam on Georgia 's Flint River. After surveying the river and the literature himself, he argued that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was underestimating both the project 's cost and its impact on the region. The veto won the attention of environmentalists nationwide. When Lieutenant William Calley was convicted in a military trial and sentenced to life for his role in the My Lai Massacre in South Vietnam, a politically polarizing issue, Carter avoided paying direct tribute to Calley. He instead instituted "American Fighting Man 's Day '' and asked Georgians to drive for a week with their lights on in support of the military.
Looking toward a potential presidential run, Carter engaged himself in national politics and public appearances. He was named to several southern planning commissions and was a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention, where the liberal U.S. Senator George McGovern was the likely presidential nominee. Carter tried to ingratiate himself with the conservative, anti-McGovern voters, so that the convention would consider him for McGovern 's running mate on a compromise ticket. He endorsed Senator Henry "Scoop '' Jackson, in part to distance himself from George Wallace. Carter was still fairly obscure at the time, and his attempt at triangulation failed; the 1972 Democratic ticket went to McGovern and Senator Thomas Eagleton. On August 3, Carter met with Wallace in Birmingham, Alabama to discuss preventing the Democratic Party from losing in a landslide during the November elections.
After McGovern 's loss in November 1972, Carter began meeting regularly with his fledgling campaign staff. He had quietly decided to begin putting a presidential bid together. He tried unsuccessfully to become chairman of the National Governors Association to boost his visibility. On David Rockefeller 's endorsement he was named to the Trilateral Commission in April 1973. The following year he was named chairman of the Democratic National Committee 's congressional, as well as gubernatorial, campaigns. In 1973 he appeared on the game show What 's My Line, where a group of celebrity panelists would try to guess his occupation. None recognized him and it took several rounds of question - and - answer before movie critic Gene Shalit correctly guessed he was a governor. In May 1973, Carter warned the Democratic Party against politicizing the Watergate scandal, the occurrence of which he attributed to President Richard Nixon exercising isolation from Americans and secrecy in his decision making.
On December 12, 1974, Carter announced his candidacy for President of the United States at National Press Club in Washington, D.C. His speech contained themes of domestic inequality, optimism, and change.
When Carter entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries, he was considered to have little chance against nationally better - known politicians; his name recognition was two percent. As late as January 26, 1976, Carter was the first choice of only four percent of Democratic voters, according to a Gallup poll. Yet "by mid-March 1976 Carter was not only far ahead of the active contenders for the Democratic presidential nomination, he also led President Ford by a few percentage points, '' according to Shoup. As the Watergate scandal of President Nixon was still fresh in the voters ' minds, Carter 's position as an outsider, distant from Washington, D.C., became an asset. He promoted government reorganization. Carter published Why Not the Best? in June 1976 to help introduce himself to the American public.
Carter became the front - runner early on by winning the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary. He used a two - prong strategy: in the South, which most had tacitly conceded to Alabama 's George Wallace, Carter ran as a moderate favorite son. When Wallace proved to be a spent force, Carter swept the region. In the North, Carter appealed largely to conservative Christian and rural voters; he had little chance of winning a majority in most states. He won several Northern states by building the largest single bloc. Carter 's strategy involved reaching a region before another candidate could extend influence there. He had traveled over 50,000 miles, visited 37 states, and delivered over 200 speeches before any other candidate announced that he was in the race. Initially dismissed as a regional candidate, Carter proved to be the Democrat with the most effective national strategy, and he clinched the nomination.
The national news media discovered and promoted Carter, as Lawrence Shoup noted in his 1980 book The Carter Presidency and Beyond:
What Carter had that his opponents did not was the acceptance and support of elite sectors of the mass communications media. It was their favorable coverage of Carter and his campaign that gave him an edge, propelling him rocket - like to the top of the opinion polls. This helped Carter win key primary election victories, enabling him to rise from an obscure public figure to President - elect in the short space of 9 months.
Carter, responding to an interviewer in April 1976 during his presidential campaign, said "I have nothing against a community that is... trying to maintain the ethnic purity of their neighborhoods. '' His remark was intended as supportive of open - housing laws, but specifying opposition to government efforts to "inject black families into a white neighborhood just to create some sort of integration. ''
Carter 's stated positions during his campaign include public financing of congressional campaigns, his support for the creation of a federal consumer protection agency, creating a separate department for education, signing a peace treaty with the Soviet Union against the usage of nuclear weapon, reducing the defense budget, a tax proposal implementing "a substantial increase toward those who have the higher incomes '' alongside a levy reduction on taxpayers with lower and middle incomes, making multiple amendments to the Social Security Act, and having a balanced budget by the end of his tenure.
On July 15, 1976, Carter announced that he had chosen Minnesota Senator Walter F. Mondale as his running mate. He attacked Washington in his speeches, and offered a religious salve for the nation 's wounds.
Carter and Gerald Ford faced off in three televised debates during the 1976 election. The debates were the first presidential debates since 1960.
Carter was interviewed by Robert Scheer of Playboy for the November 1976 issue, which hit the newsstands a couple of weeks before the election. While discussing his religion 's view of pride, Carter said: "I 've looked on a lot of women with lust. I 've committed adultery in my heart many times. '' This and his admission in another interview that he did n't mind if people uttered the word "fuck '' led to a media feeding frenzy and critics lamenting the erosion of boundary between politicians and their private intimate lives.
Carter began the race with a sizable lead over Ford, who narrowed the gap during the campaign, but lost to Carter in a narrow defeat on November 2, 1976. Carter won the popular vote by 50.1 percent to 48.0 percent for Ford, and received 297 electoral votes to Ford 's 240. Carter carried fewer states than Ford -- 23 states to the defeated Ford 's 27 -- yet Carter won with the largest percentage of the popular vote (50.1 percent) of any non-incumbent since Dwight Eisenhower.
Carter 's tenure was a time of continuing inflation and recession, as well as an energy crisis. Among his first acts was the fulfillment of a campaign promise by issuing an executive order declaring unconditional amnesty for Vietnam War - era draft evaders. On January 7, 1980, Carter signed Law H.R. 5860 aka Public Law 96 - 185 known as The Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979, bailing out Chrysler Corporation with $3.5 billion in aid.
Carter attempted to calm various conflicts around the world, most visibly in the Middle East with the signing of the Camp David Accords; giving back the Panama Canal to Panama; and signing the SALT II nuclear arms reduction treaty with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. His final year was marred by the Iran hostage crisis, which contributed to him losing the 1980 election to Ronald Reagan.
On November 22, 1976, Carter conducted his first visit to Washington after being elected, meeting with Director of the Office of Management James Lynn and United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld at the Blair House, and holding an afternoon meeting with President Ford at the White House. The following day, Carter conferred with congressional leaders, expressing that his meetings with cabinet members had been "very helpful '' and saying Ford had requested he seek out his assistance if needing anything.
On December 3, 1976, during a news conference, Carter announced his choice of Cyrus R. Vance for United States Secretary of State and Thomas Bertram Lance as his budget director. On December 9, Carter was presented plans for reform on housing, transportation, and urban development during a meeting with transition advisors at the Blair House. On December 13, Carter 's election was confirmed by the Electoral College. On December 20, Carter announced his choice of Juanita M. Kreps for United States Secretary of Commerce, Griffin Bell for United States Attorney General, and Robert Bergland for United States Secretary of Agriculture.
On January 4, 1977, Carter told reporters that he would free himself from potential conflicts of interest by leaving his peanut business in the hands of trustees. On January 6, Carter requested former Governor of Maine Kenneth M. Curtis as Chairman of the Democratic National Committee. On January 13, Carter set up an economic summit meeting for non-Communist countries in a call with foreign leaders from Japan, France, Germany, and Great Britain. The conference was set for April. On January 18, Carter named John F. O'Leary for Administrator of the Federal Energy Administration, William Nordhaus and Lyle E. Gramley for membership on the Council of Economic Advisors, Anthony M. Solomon for Undersecretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs, C. Fred Bergsten for Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Monetary Affairs, and Kenneth S. Axelson for Deputy Secretary of the Treasury.
On April 18, 1977, Carter delivered a televised speech declaring that the U.S. energy crisis during the 1970s was the moral equivalent of war. He encouraged energy conservation by all U.S. citizens and installed solar water heating panels on the White House. He wore sweaters to offset turning up the heat in the White House. On August 4, 1977, Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, forming the Department of Energy, the first new cabinet position in eleven years. During the signing ceremony, Carter cited the "impending crisis of energy shortages '' with causing the necessity of the legislation. At the start of a September 29, 1977 news conference, under the impression he had not come across well in addressing energy during his prior press session, Carter stated that the House of Representatives had "adopted almost all '' of the energy proposal he had made five months prior and called the compromise "a turning point in establishing a comprehensive energy program. '' The following month, on October 13, Carter stated he believed in the Senate 's ability to pass the energy reform bill and identified energy as "the most important domestic issue that we will face while I am in office. ''
On January 12, 1978, during a press conference, Carter said the continued discussions about his energy reform proposal had "been long and divisive and arduous '' as well as hindering to national issues that needed to be addressed with the implementation of the law. In an April 11, 1978 news conference, Carter said his biggest surprise "in the nature of a disappointment '' since becoming president was the difficulty Congress had in passing legislation, citing the energy reform bill in particular: "I never dreamed a year ago in April when I proposed this matter to the Congress that a year later it still would not be resolved. ''
On March 1, 1979, Carter submitted a standby gasoline rationing plan per the request of Congress. Carter delivered an address stressing the urgency of energy conservation on April 5. During an April 30 news conference, Carter said it was "imperative '' that the House commerce committee approve the standby gasoline rationing plan and called on Congress to pass the several other standby energy conservation plans he had proposed. On July 15, 1979, Carter delivered a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a "crisis of confidence '' among the American people, under the advisement of pollster Pat Caddell who believed Americans faced a crisis in confidence from events of the 1960s and 1970s prior to Carter taking office. The address would be cited as Carter 's "malaise '' speech, memorable for mixed reactions and his use of rhetoric. The speech 's negative reception came from a view that Carter did not state efforts on his own part to address the energy crisis and was too reliant on Americans.
In 1978, Carter declared a federal emergency in the neighborhood of Love Canal in the city of Niagara Falls, New York. More than 800 families were evacuated from the neighborhood, which was built on top of a toxic waste landfill. The Superfund law was created in response to the situation. Federal disaster money was appropriated to demolish the approximately 500 houses, the 99th Street School, and the 93rd Street School, which were built on top of the dump; and to remediate the dump and construct a containment area for the hazardous wastes. This was the first time that such a process had been undertaken. Carter acknowledged that several more "Love Canals '' existed across the country, and that discovering such hazardous dumpsites was "one of the grimmest discoveries of our modern era ''.
Carter refused to play by Washington 's rules. He missed and never returned phone calls on his part. He used verbal insults and had an unwillingness to return political favors, which contributed to his lack of ability to pass legislation through Congress. During a February 23, 1977 press conference, Carter stated that it was "inevitable '' that he would come into conflict with Congress and added that he had found "a growing sense of cooperation '' with Congress and met in the past with congressional members of both parties. Carter developed a bitter feeling following an unsuccessful attempt at having Congress enact the scrapping of several water projects, which he had requested during his first 100 days in office and received opposition from members of his party. As a rift ensued between the White House and Congress afterward, Carter noted the liberal wing of the Democratic Party was the most ardently against his policies, attributing this to Ted Kennedy wanting the presidency. Carter, thinking he had support from 74 Congressmen, issued a "hit list '' of 19 projects that he claimed were "pork barrel '' spending that he claimed would result in a veto on his part if included in any legislation. He found himself at odds with Congressional Democrats once more, Speaker of the House of Representatives Tip O'Neill finding it inappropriate for a president to pursue what had traditionally been the role of Congress. Carter was also weakened by a signing a bill that contained many of the "hit list '' projects. In a June 23, 1977 address to a fundraising dinner for the Democratic National Committee, Carter said, "I think it 's good to point out tonight, too, that we have evolved a good working relationship with the Congress. For 8 years we had government by partisanship. Now we have government by partnership. '' At a July 28 news conference, assessing the first six months of his presidency, Carter spoke of his improved understanding of Congress: "I have learned to respect the Congress more in an individual basis. I 've been favorably impressed at the high degree of concentrated experience and knowledge that individual Members of Congress can bring on a specific subject, where they 've been the chairman of a subcommittee or committee for many years and have focused their attention on this particular aspect of government life which I will never be able to do. ''
On May 10, 1979, the House voted against giving Carter authority to produce a standby gas rationing plan. The following day, Carter delivered remarks in the Oval Office describing himself as shocked and embarrassed for the American government due to the vote and concluding "the majority of the House Members are unwilling to take the responsibility, the political responsibility for dealing with a potential, serious threat to our Nation. '' He furthered that a majority of House members were placing higher importance on "local or parochial interests '' and challenged the lower chamber of Congress with composing their own rationing plan in the next 90 days. Carter 's remarks were met with criticism by House Republicans who accused his comments of not befitting the formality a president should have in their public remarks. Others pointed to 106 Democrats voting against his proposal and the bipartisan criticism potentially coming back to haunt him. At the start of a July 25, 1979 news conference, Carter called on believers in the future of the US and his proposed energy program to speak with Congress as it bore the responsibility to impose his proposals. Amid the energy proposal opposition, The New York Times commented that "as the comments flying up and down Pennsylvania Avenue illustrate, there is also a crisis of confidence between Congress and the President, sense of doubt and distrust that threatens to undermine the President 's legislative program and become an important issue in next year 's campaign. ''
Carter 's presidency had an economic history of two roughly equal periods, the first two years being a time of continuing recovery from the severe 1973 -- 75 recession, which had left fixed investment at its lowest level since the 1970 recession and unemployment at 9 %, and the last two years marked by double - digit inflation, coupled with very high interest rates, oil shortages, and slow economic growth. Following a period of growth in 1977 and 1978 that saw the creation of million net new jobs and real median household income growth by 5 %, the 1979 energy crisis ended this period of growth, however, and as both inflation and interest rates rose, economic growth, job creation, and consumer confidence declined sharply. The relatively loose monetary policy adopted by Federal Reserve Board Chairman G. William Miller, had already contributed to somewhat higher inflation, rising from 5.8 % in 1976 to 7.7 % in 1978. The sudden doubling of crude oil prices by OPEC, the world 's leading oil exporting cartel, forced inflation to double - digit levels, averaging 11.3 % in 1979 and 13.5 % in 1980. The sudden shortage of gasoline as the 1979 summer vacation season began exacerbated the problem, and would come to symbolize the crisis among the public in general; the acute shortage, originating in the shutdown of Amerada Hess refining facilities, led to a lawsuit against the company that year by the Federal Government.
In 1977, Carter appointed Alfred E. Kahn, a professor of economics at Cornell University, to be chair of the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). He was part of a push for deregulation of the industry, supported by leading economists, leading ' think tanks ' in Washington, a civil society coalition advocating the reform (patterned on a coalition earlier developed for the truck - and - rail - reform efforts), the head of the regulatory agency, Senate leadership, the Carter administration, and even some in the airline industry. This coalition swiftly gained legislative results in 1978.
The Airline Deregulation Act (Pub. L. 95 -- 504) was signed into law by President Carter on October 24, 1978. The main purpose of the act was to remove government control over fares, routes and market entry (of new airlines) from commercial aviation. The Civil Aeronautics Board 's powers of regulation were to be phased out, eventually allowing market forces to determine routes and fares. The Act did not remove or diminish the FAA 's regulatory powers over all aspects of airline safety.
In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the effective 1920 beginning of Prohibition in the United States. This Carter deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s had developed into a strong craft microbrew culture in the United States, with 3,418 micro breweries, brewpubs, and regional craft breweries in the United States by the end of 2014.
During his presidential campaign, Carter embraced healthcare reform akin to the Ted Kennedy - sponsored bipartisan universal national health insurance.
Carter 's proposals on healthcare while in office included an April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal, and a June 1979 proposal that provided private health insurance coverage. Carter saw the June 1979 proposal as a continuation of progress in American health coverage made by President Harry Truman in the latter 's proposed access to quality health care being a basic right to Americans and Medicare and Medicaid being introduced under President Lyndon B. Johnson. The April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal was passed in the Senate, and later defeated in the House.
During 1978, Carter also conducted meetings with Kennedy for a compromise healthcare law that proved unsuccessful. Carter would later cite Kennedy 's disagreements as having thwarted Carter 's efforts to provide a comprehensive health - care system for the country.
Early into his term, Carter collaborated with Congress to assist in fulfilling a campaign promise to create a cabinet level education department. In a February 28, 1978 address at the White House, Carter argued, "Education is far too important a matter to be scattered piecemeal among various Government departments and agencies, which are often busy with sometimes dominant concerns. '' On February 8, 1979, the Carter administration released an outline of its plan to establish an education department and asserted enough support for the enactment to occur by June. On October 17, 1979, Carter signed the Department of Education Organization Act into law, establishing the United States Department of Education.
Carter expanded the Head Start program with the addition of 43,000 children and families, while the percentage of nondefense dollars spent on education was doubled. Carter was complimentary of the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson and the 89th United States Congress for having initiated Head Start. In a November 1, 1980 speech, Carter stated his administration had extended Head Start to migrant children and was "working hard right now with Senator Bentsen and with Kika de la Garza to make as much as $45 million available in Federal money in the border districts to help with the increase in school construction for the number of Mexican school children who reside here legally ''.
In an October 4, 1977 address to African officials at the United Nations, Carter stated the U.S. 's interest to "see a strong, vigorous, free, and prosperous Africa with as much of the control of government as possible in the hands of the residents of your countries '' and pointed to their unified efforts on "the problem of how to resolve the Rhodesian, Zimbabwe question. '' At a news conference later that month, Carter outlined the US wanting "to work harmoniously with South Africa in dealing with the threats to peace in Namibia and in Zimbabwe in particular '' and to do away with racial issues such as apartheid and for equal opportunities in other facets of society in the region.
Carter visited Nigeria from March 31 -- April 3, 1978, the trip being an attempt by the Carter administration to improve relations with the country. He was the first U.S. president to visit Nigeria. Carter reiterated interests in convening a peace conference on the subject of Rhodesia that would involve all parties and reported that the US was moving as it could.
The elections of Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Abel Muzorewa for Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, South Africa turning down a plan for African independence in the southwest, and domestic opposition in Congress were seen as crippling to the Carter administration 's policy toward South Africa. On May 16, 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter lifting economic sanctions against Rhodesia, the vote being seen by both Rhodesia and South Africa "as a potentially fatal blow to the joint diplomacy that the United States and Britain have pursued in the region for three years and to the effort to reach a compromise between the Salisbury leaders and the guerrillas. '' On December 3, Secretary of State Vance promised Senator Jesse Helms that when "the British governor arrives in Salisbury to implement an agreed Lancaster House settlement and the electoral process begins, the President will take prompt action to lift sanctions '' against Zimbabwe Rhodesia.
On November 15, 1977, Carter pledged his administration would continue positive relations between the US and Iran, calling its contemporary status "strong, stable and progressive ''.
On November 4, 1979 a group of Iranian students, belonging to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam 's Line, who were supporting the Iranian Revolution, took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. Fifty - two American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for the next 444 days until January 20, 1981. During the crisis, Carter remained in isolation in the White House for more than 100 days, until he left to participate in the lighting of the National Menorah on the Ellipse. A month into the affair, President Carter stated his commitment to resolving the dispute without "any military action that would cause bloodshed or arouse the unstable captors of our hostages to attack them or to punish them ''. On April 7, 1980, Carter issued Executive Order 12205, imposing economic sanctions against Iran and announced further measures being taken by members of his cabinet and the American government that he deemed necessary to ensure a safe release. On April 24, 1980, Carter ordered Operation Eagle Claw to try free the hostages. The mission failed, leaving eight American servicemen dead and causing the destruction of two aircraft.
On February 8, 1977, Carter stated he had urged the Soviet Union to align with the US in forming "a comprehensive test ban to stop all nuclear testing for at least an extended period of time '' and that he was in favor of the Soviet Union ceasing deployment of the RSD - 10 Pioneer. During a June 13 conference, Carter reported that the US would "beginning this week to work closely with the Soviet Union on a comprehensive test ban treaty to prohibit all testing of nuclear devices underground or in the atmosphere '' and Paul Warnke would negotiate demilitarization of the Indian Ocean with the Soviet Union beginning the following week. At a news conference on December 30, Carter said throughout the period of "the last few months, the United States and the Soviet Union have made great progress in dealing with a long list of important issues, the most important of which is to control the deployment of strategic nuclear weapons '' and that the two countries sought to conclude SALT II talks by the spring of the following year. The talk of a comprehensive test ban treaty materialized with the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II by Carter and Leonid Brezhnev on June 18, 1979.
In the 1980 State of the Union Address, Carter emphasized the significance of relations between the two regions: "Now, as during the last 3 1 / 2 decades, the relationship between our country, the United States of America, and the Soviet Union is the most critical factor in determining whether the world will live at peace or be engulfed in global conflict. ''
Communists under the leadership of Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power in Afghanistan on April 27, 1978. The new regime -- which was divided between Taraki 's extremist Khalq faction and the more moderate Parcham -- signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in December of that year. Taraki 's efforts to improve secular education and redistribute land were accompanied by mass executions (including of many conservative religious leaders) and political oppression unprecedented in Afghan history, igniting a revolt by mujahideen rebels. Following a general uprising in April 1979, Taraki was deposed by Khalq rival Hafizullah Amin in September. Amin was considered a "brutal psychopath '' by foreign observers; even the Soviets were alarmed by the brutality of the Afghan communists, and suspected Amin of being an agent of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), although that was not the case. By December, Amin 's government had lost control of much of the country, prompting the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan, execute Amin, and install Parcham leader Babrak Karmal as president.
Carter was surprised by the invasion, as the consensus of the U.S. intelligence community during 1978 and 1979 -- reiterated as late as September 29, 1979 -- was that "Moscow would not intervene in force even if it appeared likely that the Khalq government was about to collapse. '' Indeed, Carter 's diary entries from November 1979 until the Soviet invasion in late December contain only two short references to Afghanistan, and are instead preoccupied with the ongoing hostage crisis in Iran. In the West, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was considered a threat to global security and the oil supplies of the Persian Gulf. Moreover, the failure to accurately predict Soviet intentions caused American officials to reappraise the Soviet threat to both Iran and Pakistan, although it is now known that those fears were overblown. For example, U.S. intelligence closely followed Soviet exercises for an invasion of Iran throughout 1980, while an earlier warning from Carter 's national security adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski that "if the Soviets came to dominate Afghanistan, they could promote a separate Baluchistan... (thus) dismembering Pakistan and Iran '' took on new urgency. These concerns were a major factor in the unrequited efforts of both the Carter and Reagan administrations to improve relations with Iran, and resulted in massive aid to Pakistan 's Muhammad Zia - ul - Haq. Zia 's ties with the U.S. had been strained during Carter 's presidency due to Pakistan 's nuclear program and the execution of Ali Bhutto in April 1979, but Carter told Brzezinski and secretary of state Cyrus Vance as early as January 1979 that it was vital to "repair our relationships with Pakistan '' in light of the unrest in Iran. One initiative Carter authorized to achieve this goal was a collaboration between the CIA and Pakistan 's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI); through the ISI, the CIA began providing some $500,000 worth of non-lethal assistance to the mujahideen on July 3, 1979 -- several months prior to the Soviet invasion. The modest scope of this early collaboration was likely influenced by the understanding, later recounted by CIA official Robert Gates, "that a substantial U.S. covert aid program '' might have "raise (d) the stakes '' thereby causing "the Soviets to intervene more directly and vigorously than otherwise intended. ''
In the aftermath of the invasion, Carter was determined to respond vigorously to what he considered a dangerous provocation. In a televised speech, he announced sanctions on the Soviet Union, promised renewed aid to Pakistan, initiated renewed registration for the Selective Service System, and committed the U.S. to the Persian Gulf 's defense. He imposed an embargo on grain shipments to the USSR, tabled consideration of SALT II, and requested a 5 % annual increase in defense spending. Carter also called for a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, which raised a bitter controversy. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher enthusiastically backed Carter 's tough stance, although British intelligence believed "the CIA was being too alarmist about the Soviet threat to Pakistan. '' The thrust of U.S. policy for the duration of the war was determined by Carter in early 1980: Carter initiated a program to arm the mujahideen through Pakistan 's ISI and secured a pledge from Saudi Arabia to match U.S. funding for this purpose. U.S. support for the mujahideen accelerated under Carter 's successor, Ronald Reagan, at a final cost to U.S. taxpayers of some $3 billion. The Soviets were unable to quell the insurgency and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, precipitating the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself. However, the decision to route U.S. aid through Pakistan led to massive fraud, as weapons sent to Karachi were frequently sold on the local market rather than delivered to the Afghan rebels; Karachi soon "became one of the most violent cities in the world. '' Pakistan also controlled which rebels received assistance: Of the seven mujahideen groups supported by Zia 's government, four espoused Islamic fundamentalist beliefs -- and these fundamentalists received most of the funding. Despite this, Carter has expressed no regrets over his decision to support what he still considers the "freedom fighters '' in Afghanistan.
During a March 9, 1977 news conference, Carter reaffirmed his interest in having a gradual withdrawal of American troops from South Korea and stated he wanted South Korea to eventually have "adequate ground forces owned by and controlled by the South Korean Government to protect themselves against any intrusion from North Korea. '' On May 19, The Washington Post quoted Chief of Staff of U.S. forces in South Korea John K. Singlaub as criticizing Carter 's withdrawal of troops from the Korean peninsula. Later that day, Press Secretary Rex Granum announced Singlaub had been summoned to the White House by Carter, who he also confirmed had seen the article in The Washington Post. Carter relieved Singlaub of his duties two days later on May 21 following a meeting between the two. On May 26, during a news conference, Carter said he believed South Korea would be able to defend themselves despite reduced American troops in the event of conflict. From June 30 to July 1, 1977, Carter held meetings with President of South Korea Park Chung - hee at the Blue House for a discussion on relations between the US and Korea as well as Carter 's interest in preserving his policy of worldwide tension reduction.
On April 21, 1978, Carter announced a reduction in American troops in South Korea scheduled to be released by the end of the year by two - thirds, citing a lack of action by Congress in regards to a compensatory aid package for the Seoul Government.
Carter made twelve international trips to twenty - five countries during his presidency. Carter was the first president to make a state visit to Sub-Saharan Africa when he went to Nigeria in 1978. His travel also included trips to Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He made several trips to the Middle East to broker peace negotiations. His December 31, 1977 -- January 1, 1978 visit to Iran took place less than a year before the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
The September 21, 1977 resignation of Bert Lance, who served as Director of the Office of Management and Budget in the Carter administration, came amid allegations of improper banking activities prior to his tenure and was an embarrassment to Carter.
Carter became the first sitting president to testify under oath as part of an investigation into that president, as a result of United States Attorney General Griffin Bell appointing Paul J. Curran as a special counsel to investigate loans made to the peanut business owned by Carter by a bank controlled by Bert Lance and Curran 's position as special counsel not allowing him to file charges on his own. Curran announced in October 1979 that no evidence had been found to support allegations that funds loaned from the National Bank of Georgia had been diverted to Carter 's 1976 presidential campaign, ending the investigation.
Carter later wrote that the most intense and mounting opposition to his policies came from the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which he attributed to Ted Kennedy 's ambition to replace him as president. After Kennedy announced his candidacy in November 1979, questions regarding the latter 's activities during his presidential bid were a frequency of Carter 's press conferences held during the Democratic presidential primary. Kennedy surprised his supporters by running a weak campaign, and Carter won most of the primaries and secured renomination. However, Kennedy had mobilized the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which gave Carter weak support in the fall election. Carter and Vice President Mondale were formally nominated at the Democratic National Convention in New York City, delivering a speech notable for its tribute to the late Hubert Humphrey, who he initially called "Hubert Horatio Hornblower. ''
Carter 's campaign for re-election in 1980 was one of the most difficult, and least successful, in history. He faced strong challenges from the right (Republican Ronald Reagan), the center (independent John B. Anderson), and the left (Democrat Ted Kennedy). He had to run against his own "stagflation '' - ridden economy, while the hostage crisis in Iran dominated the news every week. He alienated liberal college students, who were expected to be his base, by re-instating registration for the military draft. His campaign manager and former appointments secretary, Timothy Kraft, stepped down some five weeks before the general election amid what turned out to have been an uncorroborated allegation of cocaine use. On October 28, Carter and Reagan participated in the sole presidential debate of the election cycle. Though initially trailing Carter by several points, Reagan experienced a surge in polling following the debate. Carter was defeated by Ronald Reagan in a landslide, and the Senate went Republican for the first time since 1952. In his concession speech, Carter admitted that he was hurt by the outcome of the election but pledged "a very fine transition period '' with President - elect Reagan.
Shortly after losing his re-election bid, Carter told the White House press corps of his intent to emulate the retirement of Harry S. Truman and not use his subsequent public life to enrich himself.
In 1982, Carter founded the Carter Center, a non-governmental and non-profit organization with the purpose of advancing human rights and alleviating human suffering, including helping improve the quality of life for people in more than 80 countries.
In 1994, President Bill Clinton sought Carter 's assistance in a North Korea peace mission, during which Carter negotiated an understanding with Kim Il - sung, who he went on to outline a treaty with that he announced to CNN without the consent of the Clinton administration to spur American action. Carter traveled to North Korea to secure the release of Aijalon Gomes in August 2010, successfully negotiating his release. Throughout the latter part of 2017, as tensions between the US and North Korea persisted, Carter recommended a peace treaty between the two nations, and confirmed he had offered himself to the Trump administration as a willing candidate to serve as diplomatic envoy to North Korea.
In October 1984, Carter was named an honorary citizen of Peru by Mayor of Cusco Daniel Estrada after traveling to Machu Picchu, Carter endorsing the country 's elections in 2001, and offering support to the Peruvian government following a meeting with President of Peru Alan Garcia at Government Palace in Lima in April 2009.
In his February 1986 talks with Tomás Borge, Carter secured the release of journalist Luis Mora and labor leader Jose Altamirano, while touring Nicaragua for three days.
Carter conducted a tour of Cuba in May 2002 that included meeting with Fidel Castro and meeting political dissidents such as the AIDS sanitarium, a medical school, a biotech facility, an agricultural production cooperative, and a school for disabled children. Carter toured Cuba again for three days in March 2011.
Carter 's diplomatic efforts in the Middle East included a September 1981 meeting with Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin, a March 1983 tour of Egypt that included meeting with members of the Palestine Liberation Organization, a December 2008 meeting with Syrian President Bashar al - Assad, and a June 2012 call with Jeffery Brown in which Carter stressed Egyptian military generals could be granted full power executively and legislatively in addition to being able to form a new constitution in favor of themselves in the event their announced intentions went through. In 2006, Carter stated his disagreements with the domestic and foreign policies of Israel while saying he was in favor of the country, extending his criticisms to Israel 's policies in Lebanon, the West Bank, and Gaza. Carter traveled to Syria in April 2008, laying a wreath at the grave of Yasser Arafat in Ramallah and denying he had been contacted by the Bush administration in relation to meeting with Hamas leaders.
In July 2007, Carter joined Nelson Mandela in Johannesburg, South Africa, to announce his participation in The Elders, a group of independent global leaders who work together on peace and human rights issues. Following the announcement, Carter participated in visits to Darfur, Sudan, Cyprus, the Korean Peninsula, and the Middle East, among others. Carter attempted traveling to Zimbabwe in November 2008, but was stopped by President Robert Mugabe 's government.
Carter held summits in Egypt and Tunisia in 1995 -- 1996 to address violence in the Great Lakes region of Africa, and played a key role in negotiation of the Nairobi Agreement in 1999 between Sudan and Uganda.
Carter began his first year out of office with a pledge not to critique the new Reagan administration. He spoke out after the assassination attempt on Reagan, and voiced his agreement with Reagan on building neutron arms in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. He later disagreed with Reagan 's handing of the Middle East. The following year, Carter called for bipartisanship to fix American economic issues, and criticized the Reagan administration 's handling of the Sabra and Shatila massacre. Carter responded favorably to Reagan choosing to remain within the Camp David agreement, with distaste toward what he felt was Reagan blaming his tenure for continued difficulties in policy. In 1983, Carter judged the Reagan campaign with having falsified simplicity in solving issues, and criticized Reagan for a lack of attention to human rights violations. In 1984, Carter stated he had been wrongly presented as weak by Reagan due to a commitment to human rights during the previous presidential election, and condemned Reagan for not making rescue efforts to retrieve four American businessmen from West Beirut. In 1985, Carter rebuked Reagan over his handling of peace within the Middle East, his support of the Strategic Defense Initiative, and Reagan 's claim of an international conspiracy on terrorism. Carter 's insistence that Reagan was not preserving peace in the Middle East continued in 1987, Carter during the year also criticizing Reagan for adhering to terrorist demands, nomination of Robert Bork for the Supreme Court, and handling of the Persian Gulf.
During the presidency of George W. Bush, Carter stated his opposition to the Iraq War, and what he considered an attempt on the part of Bush and Tony Blair to oust Saddam Hussein through the usage of "lies and misinterpretations ''. In May 2007, Carter stated the Bush administration "has been the worst in history '' in terms of its impact in foreign affairs, and later stated he was just comparing Bush 's tenure to that of Richard Nixon. Carter 's comments received a response from the Bush administration in the form of Tony Fratto saying Carter was increasing his irrelevance with his commentary. By the end of Bush 's second term, Carter considered Bush 's tenure disappointing, which he disclosed in comments to Forward Magazine of Syria.
Though he praised President Obama in the early part of his tenure, Carter stated his disagreements with the use of drone strikes against suspected terrorists, Obama 's choice to keep Guantánamo Bay detention camp open, and the current federal surveillance programs as disclosed by Edward Snowden indicating that "America has no functioning democracy at this moment. ''
During the Trump presidency, Carter spoke favorably of the chance for immigration reform through Congress, and criticized Trump for his handling of the U.S. national anthem protests.
Carter was considered a potential candidate in the 1984 presidential election, but did not run and instead endorsed Walter Mondale for the Democratic nomination. After Mondale secured the nomination, Carter critiqued the Reagan campaign, spoke at the 1984 Democratic National Convention, and advised Mondale. Following the election, in which President Reagan defeated Mondale, Carter stated the loss was predictable due to the latter 's platform that included raising taxes.
In the 1988 presidential election cycle, Carter ruled himself out as a candidate once more and predicted Vice President George H.W. Bush as the Republican nominee in the general election. Carter foresaw unity at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, where he delivered an address. Following the election, a failed attempt by the Democrats in regaining the White House, Carter said Bush would have a more difficult presidency than Reagan due to not having the same level of popularity.
During the 1992 presidential election, Carter met with Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas who sought out his advice. Carter spoke favorably of former Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton, and criticized Ross Perot. As the primary concluded, Carter spoke of the need for the 1992 Democratic National Convention to address certain issues not focused on in the past, and campaigned for Clinton after he became the Democratic nominee in the general election, publicly stating his expectation to be consulted during the latter 's presidency.
Carter endorsed Vice President Al Gore days before the 2000 presidential election, and in the years following voiced his opinion that the election was won by Gore, despite the Supreme Court handing the election to Bush in the controversial Bush v. Gore ruling.
In the 2004 election cycle, Carter endorsed John Kerry and spoke at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. Carter also voiced concerns of another voting mishap in the state of Florida.
Amid the Democratic presidential primary in 2008, Carter was speculated to endorse Senator Barack Obama over his main primary rival Hillary Clinton amid his speaking favorably of the candidate, as well as remarks from the Carter family that showed their support for Obama. Carter also commented on Clinton ending her bid when superdelegates voted after the June 3 primary. Leading up to the general election, Carter criticized John McCain, who responded to Carter 's comments, and warned Obama against selecting Clinton as his running mate.
Carter endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination during the primary season of the 2012 election cycle, though he clarified his backing of Romney was due to him considering the former Massachusetts governor the candidate that could best assure a victory for President Obama. Carter delivered a videotape address at the 2012 Democratic National Convention.
Carter was critical of Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump shortly after the latter entered the primary and predicted he would lose, noting the differing circumstances of the political climate from when he was still an active politician. As the primary continued, Carter stated he would prefer Trump over his main rival Ted Cruz, though rebuked the Trump campaign in remarks during the primary, and in his address to the 2016 Democratic National Convention. In the Democratic primary, Carter voted for Senator Bernie Sanders, and in the general election, voted for Hillary Clinton.
In October 2017, however, Carter defended President Trump in an interview with The New York Times, criticizing the media 's coverage of him. "I think the media have been harder on Trump than any other president certainly that I 've known about, '' Carter stated. "I think they feel free to claim that Trump is mentally deranged and everything else without hesitation. '' He further stated that he did not believe that Russia was involved in changing votes during the presidential election or primaries. "I do n't think there 's any evidence that what the Russians did changed enough votes, or any votes, '' he told the Times. He also praised Trump for reaching out to Saudi Arabia and stated that the President has been under a stricter spotlight than his predecessors. After the interview, Trump himself praised Carter 's comments and thanked him over Twitter, writing "Just read the nice remarks by President Jimmy Carter about me and how badly I am treated by the press (Fake News). Thank you Mr. President! ''
Carter criticized the Bush administration 's handling of Hurricane Katrina, built homes in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, and partnered with former presidents to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities, in addition to writing op - eds about the goodness seen in Americans who assist each other during natural disasters.
Carter attended the dedication of his presidential library and those of Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush.
Carter delivered eulogies at the funerals of Coretta Scott King and Gerald Ford.
Carter serves as an Honorary Chair for the World Justice Project, and formerly served as one on the Continuity of Government Commission from 2003 to 2011.
Although Carter was "personally opposed '' to abortion, he supported legalized abortion after the landmark US Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, 410 US 113 (1973). As president, he did not support increased federal funding for abortion services. He was criticized by the American Civil Liberties Union for not doing enough to find alternatives.
In a March 29, 2012 interview with Laura Ingraham, Carter expressed his current view of abortion and his wish to see the Democratic Party becoming more pro-life:
I never have believed that Jesus Christ would approve of abortions and that was one of the problems I had when I was president having to uphold Roe v. Wade and I did everything I could to minimize the need for abortions. I made it easy to adopt children for instance who were unwanted and also initiated the program called Women and Infant Children or WIC program that 's still in existence now. But except for the times when a mother 's life is in danger or when a pregnancy is caused by rape or incest I would certainly not or never have approved of any abortions. I 've signed a public letter calling for the Democratic Party at the next convention to espouse my position on abortion which is to minimize the need, requirement for abortion and limit it only to women whose life (sic) are in danger or who are pregnant as a result of rape or incest. I think if the Democratic Party would adopt that policy that would be acceptable to a lot of people who are now estranged from our party because of the abortion issue.
Carter is known for his strong opposition to the death penalty, which he expressed during his presidential campaigns, as had George McGovern. Two successive nominees, Walter Mondale and Michael Dukakis, also opposed the death penalty. In his Nobel Prize lecture, Carter urged "prohibition of the death penalty ''. He has continued to speak out against the death penalty in the US and abroad.
In a letter to the Governor of New Mexico, Bill Richardson, Carter urged the governor to sign a bill to eliminate the death penalty and institute life in prison without parole instead. New Mexico abolished the death penalty in 2009. Carter wrote: "As you know, the United States is one of the few countries, along with nations such as Saudi Arabia, China, and Cuba, which still carry out the death penalty despite the ongoing tragedy of wrongful conviction and gross racial and class - based disparities that make impossible the fair implementation of this ultimate punishment. '' In 2012, Carter wrote an op - ed in the LA Times supporting passage of a state referendum which would have ended the death penalty. He opened the article: "The process for administering the death penalty in the United States is broken beyond repair, and it is time to choose a more effective and moral alternative. California voters will have the opportunity to do this on election day. ''
Carter has also called for commutations of death sentences for many death - row inmates, including Brian K. Baldwin (executed in 1999 in Alabama), Kenneth Foster (sentence in Texas commuted in 2007) and Troy Anthony Davis (executed in Georgia in 2011).
In October 2000, Carter, a third - generation Southern Baptist, announced that he was severing connections to the Southern Baptist Convention over its opposition to women as pastors. What led Carter to take this action was a doctrinal statement by the Convention, adopted in June 2000, advocating a literal interpretation of the Bible. This statement followed a position of the Convention two years previously advocating the submission of wives to their husbands. Carter described the reason for his decision as due to: "an increasing inclination on the part of Southern Baptist Convention leaders to be more rigid on what is a Southern Baptist and exclusionary of accommodating those who differ from them. '' The New York Times called Carter 's action "the highest - profile defection yet from the Southern Baptist Convention. ''
In subsequent years, Carter has joined with other world leaders who have spoken out about the subjugation of women by religious and other institutions. On July 15, 2009, Carter wrote an opinion piece about equality for women in which he stated that he chooses equality for women over the dictates of the leadership of what has been a lifetime religious commitment. He said that the view that women are inferior is not confined to one faith, "nor, tragically does its influence stop at the walls of the church, mosque, synagogue or temple. '' Carter stated:
The truth is that male religious leaders have had -- and still have -- an option to interpret holy teachings either to exalt or subjugate women. They have, for their own selfish ends, overwhelmingly chosen the latter. Their continuing choice provides the foundation or justification for much of the pervasive persecution and abuse of women throughout the world. This is in clear violation not just of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but also the teachings of Jesus Christ, the Apostle Paul, Moses and the prophets, Muhammad, and founders of other great religions -- all of whom have called for proper and equitable treatment of all the children of God. It is time we had the courage to challenge these views.
In 2014, he published A Call to Action: Women, Religion, Violence, and Power.
Carter has publicly expressed support for a ban on assault weapons and background checks of gun buyers. In May 1994, Carter and former presidents Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns. '' In a February 2013 appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight, Carter agreed that if the assault weapons ban did not pass it would be mainly due to lobbying by the National Rifle Association and its pressure on "weak - kneed '' politicians.
Carter has stated that he supports same - sex marriage in civil ceremonies. He has also stated that he believes Jesus would also support it, saying "I believe Jesus would. I do n't have any verse in scripture... I believe Jesus would approve gay marriage, but that 's just my own personal belief. I think Jesus would encourage any love affair if it was honest and sincere and was not damaging to anyone else, and I do n't see that gay marriage damages anyone else. '' In October 2014, Carter argued ahead of a Supreme Court ruling that legalization of same - sex marriage should be left up to the states and not mandated by federal law.
Carter ignited debate in September 2009 when he stated, "I think an overwhelming portion of the intensely demonstrated animosity toward President Barack Obama is based on the fact that he is a black man, that he is African - American. '' Obama disagreed with Carter 's assessment. On CNN Obama stated, "Are there people out there who do n't like me because of race? I 'm sure there are... that 's not the overriding issue here. ''
In a 2008 interview with Amnesty International, Carter criticized the use of torture at Guantanamo Bay, saying that it "contravenes the basic principles on which this nation was founded. '' He stated that the next president should make the promise that the United States will "never again torture a prisoner. ''
In an October 2013 interview, Carter labeled the Affordable Care Act President Obama 's major accomplishment and said "the implementation of it now is questionable at best ''. In July 2017, Carter concluded the US would eventually see the implementation of a single - payer healthcare system.
Carter and his wife Rosalynn are well known for their work as volunteers with Habitat for Humanity, a Georgia - based philanthropy that helps low - income working people around the world to build and buy their own homes and access clean water.
Carter 's hobbies include painting, fly - fishing, woodworking, cycling, tennis, and skiing. He also has an interest in poetry, particularly the works of Dylan Thomas. During a state visit to the UK in 1977, Carter suggested that Thomas should have a memorial in Poets ' Corner at Westminster Abbey; this was an idea that came to fruition in 1982.
Carter was also a personal friend of Elvis Presley. Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, met him on June 30, 1973, before Presley was to perform onstage in Atlanta. They remained in contact by telephone two months before Presley 's sudden death in August 1977. Carter later recalled an abrupt phone call received by Presley in June 1977, who sought a presidential pardon from Carter, in order to help George Klein 's criminal case; Klein had only been indicted at the time for fraud. According to Carter, he was almost incoherent and cited barbiturate abuse as the cause of this; although Presley phoned the White House several times again, this would be the last time Carter would speak to Elvis Presley. The day after Presley 's death, Carter issued a statement and explained how he had "changed the face of American popular culture. ''
From a young age, Carter showed a deep commitment to Christianity. He teaches Sunday school and is a deacon at the Maranatha Baptist Church in his hometown of Plains. As president, Carter prayed several times a day, and professed that Jesus Christ was the driving force in his life. Carter had been greatly influenced by a sermon he had heard as a young man. It asked, "If you were arrested for being a Christian, would there be enough evidence to convict you? '' The New York Times noted that Carter had been instrumental in moving evangelical Christianity closer to the American mainstream during and after his presidency.
In 2000, Carter severed his membership with the Southern Baptist Convention, saying the group 's doctrines did not align with his Christian beliefs. In April 2006, Carter, former President Bill Clinton, and Mercer University President Bill Underwood initiated the New Baptist Covenant. The broadly inclusive movement seeks to unite Baptists of all races, cultures and convention affiliations. Eighteen Baptist leaders representing more than 20 million Baptists across North America backed the group as an alternative to the Southern Baptist Convention. The group held its first meeting in Atlanta, January 30 through February 1, 2008.
Carter had three younger siblings, all of whom died of pancreatic cancer: sisters Gloria Spann (1926 -- 1990) and Ruth Stapleton (1929 -- 1983), and brother Billy Carter (1937 -- 1988). He was first cousin to politician Hugh Carter and a distant cousin to the Carter family of musicians.
Carter and Rosalynn Smith were married in July 1946. They have three sons, one daughter, eight grandsons, three granddaughters, and two great - grandsons. They celebrated their 70th wedding anniversary in July 2016, making them the second - longest wed presidential couple after George and Barbara Bush. Their eldest son Jack Carter was the 2006 Democratic candidate for U.S. Senate in Nevada before losing to the Republican incumbent, John Ensign. Carter 's grandson Jason Carter is a former Georgia State Senator and in 2014 was the Democratic candidate for governor of Georgia, losing to the Republican incumbent, Nathan Deal. On December 20, 2015, while teaching a Sunday school class, Carter announced that his 28 - year - old grandson Jeremy Carter had died from an unspecified illness.
On August 3, 2015, Carter underwent elective surgery to remove "a small mass '' on his liver, and his prognosis for a full recovery was initially said to be "excellent ''. On August 12, however, Carter announced he had been diagnosed with cancer that had metastasized, without specifying where the cancer had originated. On August 20, he disclosed that melanoma had been found in his brain and liver, and that he had begun treatment with the immunotherapy drug pembrolizumab and was about to start radiation therapy. His healthcare is being managed by Emory Healthcare of Atlanta. The former president has an extensive family history of cancer, including both of his parents and all three of his siblings. On December 6, 2015, Carter issued a statement that his medical scans no longer showed any cancer. On January 20, 2017, at age 92, Carter became the oldest president to attend a presidential inauguration.
Carter has made arrangements to be buried in front of his home in Plains, Georgia. Carter noted in 2006 that a funeral in Washington, D.C., with visitation at the Carter Center was planned as well.
In the wake of Nixon 's Watergate Scandal, exit polls from the 1976 presidential election suggested that many still held Gerald Ford 's pardon of Nixon against him. By comparison Carter was a sincere, honest, and well - meaning Southerner. Carter began his term with a 66 percent approval rating which had dropped to 34 percent approval by the time he left office, with 55 percent disapproving.
In the 1980 campaign, former California Governor Ronald Reagan projected an easy self - confidence, in contrast to Carter 's serious and introspective temperament. What many people believed to be Carter 's personal attention to detail, his pessimistic attitude, his seeming indecisiveness and weakness with people were accentuated in contrast to what many people believed, Reagan 's charismatic charm and delegation of tasks to subordinates. Reagan used the economic problems, Iran hostage crisis, and lack of Washington cooperation to portray Carter as a weak and ineffectual leader. Like his immediate predecessor, Gerald Ford, Carter did not serve a second term as president. Among those who were elected as president, Carter was the first since Hoover in 1932 to lose a reelection bid.
Carter 's post-presidency activities have been favorably received. The Independent wrote, "Carter is widely considered a better man than he was a president. '' His presidential approval rating was just 31 percent immediately before the 1980 election, but 64 percent approved of his performance as president in a 2009 poll.
Carter 's presidency was initially viewed by some as a failure. In historical rankings of U.S. presidents, the Carter presidency has ranged from No. 19 to No. 34. Although his presidency received mixed reception, his peacekeeping and humanitarian efforts since he left office have made Carter renowned as one of the most successful ex-presidents in American history.
The documentary Back Door Channels: The Price of Peace (2009) credits Carter 's efforts at Camp David, which brought peace between Israel and Egypt, with bringing the only meaningful peace to the Middle East. The film opened the 2009 Monte - Carlo Television Festival in an invitation - only royal screening on June 7, 2009 at the Grimaldi Forum in the presence of Albert II, Prince of Monaco.
Carter has received numerous awards and accolades since his presidency, and several institutions and locations have been named in his honor. His presidential library, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum was opened in 1986. In 1998, the U.S. Navy named the third and last Seawolf - class submarine honoring former President Carter and his service as a submariner officer. It became one of the few Navy vessels to be named for a person living at the time of naming. That year he also received the United Nations Human Rights Prize, given in honor of human rights achievements, and the Hoover Medal, recognizing engineers who have contributed to global causes. He won the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, which was partially a response to President George W. Bush 's threats of war against Iraq and Carter 's criticism of the Bush administration.
Carter has been nominated seven times for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for audio recordings of his books, and has won twice -- for Our Endangered Values: America 's Moral Crisis (2007) and A Full Life: Reflections at 90 (2016).
The Souther Field Airport in Americus, Georgia was renamed Jimmy Carter Regional Airport in 2009.
Carter (right), walks with, from left, George H.W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton during the dedication of the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas on November 18, 2004
Carter during a Google Hangout session held during the LBJ Presidential Library Civil Rights Summit in 2014
Carter (right) with President Barack Obama (center) and Bill Clinton (left) on August 28, 2013, the 50th anniversary of the March on Washington
Carter (left) with a replica of the USS Jimmy Carter with Secretary of the Navy John H. Dalton (right) at a naming ceremony, April 28, 1998
Jimmy Carter Library and Museum located in Atlanta, Georgia
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who hit a homerun in the all star game | Home run - wikipedia
In baseball, a home run (abbreviated HR) is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to circle the bases and reach home safely in one play without any errors being committed by the defensive team in the process. In modern baseball, the feat is typically achieved by hitting the ball over the outfield fence between the foul poles (or making contact with either foul pole) without first touching the ground, resulting in an automatic home run. There is also the "inside - the - park '' home run where the batter reaches home safely while the baseball is in play on the field.
When a home run is scored, the batter is also credited with a hit and a run scored, and an RBI for each runner that scores, including himself. Likewise, the pitcher is recorded as having given up a hit, and a run for each runner that scores including the batter.
Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball and, as a result, prolific home run hitters are usually the most popular among fans and consequently the highest paid by teams -- hence the old saying, variously attributed to slugger Ralph Kiner, or to a teammate talking about Kiner, "Home run hitters drive Cadillacs, and singles hitters drive Fords. ''
In modern times a home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder. A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory. Additionally, many major - league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for an umpire to judge.
A batted ball that goes over the outfield wall after touching the ground is not a home run, but an automatic double for the batter (often colloquially called a "ground rule double '').
A fielder is allowed to reach over the wall to attempt to catch the ball as long as his feet are on or over the field during the attempt, and if the fielder successfully catches the ball while it is in flight the batter is out, even if the ball had already passed the vertical plane of the wall. However, since the fielder is not part of the field, a ball that bounces off a fielder (including his glove) and over the wall without touching the ground is still a home run. A fielder may not deliberately throw his glove, cap, or any other equipment or apparel to stop or deflect a fair ball, and an umpire may award a home run to the batter if a fielder does so on a ball that, in the umpire 's judgment, would have otherwise been a home run (this is rare in modern professional baseball).
A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run. The ball is dead, even if it rebounds back onto the field (e.g., from striking a foul pole), and the batter and any preceding runners can not be put out at any time while running the bases. However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal, though in the case of not touching a base a runner can go back and touch it if doing so wo n't cause them to be passed by another preceding runner and they have not yet touched the next base (or home plate in the case of missing third base). This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10 (b).
An inside - the - park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside - the - park home run, the batter - runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield.
In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the - fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside - the - park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down.
Modern outfields are much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game 's early days, therefore inside - the - park home runs are now a rarity. They usually occur when a fast runner hits the ball deep into the outfield and the ball bounces in an unexpected direction away from the nearest outfielder (e.g., off a divot in the grass or off the outfield wall), or an outfielder misjudges the flight of the ball in a way that he can not quickly recover from the mistake (e.g., by diving and missing). The speed of the runner is crucial as even triples are relatively rare in most modern ballparks.
If any defensive play on an inside - the - park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored; instead, it is scored as a single, double, or triple, and the batter - runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error. All runs scored on such a play, however, still count.
An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All - Star Game at AT&T Park in San Francisco on July 10, 2007. Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball that caromed off the right - center field wall in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey, Jr. was expecting it to go. By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up. This was the first inside - the - park home run in All - Star Game history, and led to Suzuki being named the game 's Most Valuable Player.
Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a "one - run homer '', but rather a solo home run, solo homer, or "solo shot ''. With one runner on base, two runs are scored (the baserunner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a two - run homer or two - run shot. Similarly, a home runs with two runners on base is a three - run homer or three - run shot.
The term "four - run homer '' is seldom used; instead, it is nearly always called a "grand slam ''. Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter 's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.
A grand slam occurs when the bases are "loaded '' (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside - the - park grand slam is a grand slam that is also an inside - the - park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside - the - park home runs.
On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk - off inside - the - park grand slam in a 9 -- 8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field.
On April 23, 1999, Fernando Tatís made history by hitting two grand slams in one inning, both against Chan Ho Park of the Los Angeles Dodgers. With this feat, Tatís also set a Major League record with 8 RBI in one inning.
On July 29, 2003 against the Texas Rangers, Bill Mueller of the Boston Red Sox became the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in one game from opposite sides of the plate. In fact, he hit three home runs in that game, and his two grand slams were in consecutive at - bats.
On August 25, 2011 the New York Yankees became the first team to hit three grand slams in one game vs the Oakland A 's. The Yankees eventually went on to win the game 22 -- 9, after trailing 7 -- 1.
These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside - the - park or inside - the - park home run.
A walk - off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley, so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to "walk off '' the field.
Two World Series have ended via the "walk - off '' home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3 - run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to help the Toronto Blue Jays capture their second World Series Championship in a row.
Such a home run can also be called a "sudden death '' or "sudden victory '' home run. That usage has lessened as "walk - off home run '' has gained favor. Along with Mazeroski 's 1960 shot, the most famous walk - off or sudden - death homer would probably be the "Shot Heard ' Round the World '' hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants, along with many other game - ending home runs that famously ended some of the most important and suspenseful baseball games.
A walk - off home run over the fence is an exception to baseball 's one - run rule. Normally if the home team is tied or behind in the ninth or extra innings the game ends as soon as the home team scores enough runs to achieve a lead. If the home team has two outs in the inning, and the game is tied, the game will officially end either the moment the batter successfully reaches 1st base or the moment the runner touches home plate -- whichever happens last. However, this is superseded by the "ground rule '', which provides automatic doubles (when a ball - in - play hits the ground first then leaves the playing field) and home runs (when a ball - in - play leaves the playing field without ever touching the ground). In the latter case, all base runners including the batter are allowed to cross the plate.
A lead - off home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of the game. In MLB, Rickey Henderson holds the record with 81 lead - off home runs. Craig Biggio holds the National League record with 53, third overall to Henderson, and Soriano with 54.
In 1996, Brady Anderson set a Major League record by hitting a lead - off home run in four consecutive games.
When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back - to - back home runs. It is still considered back - to - back even if both batters hit their home runs off different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back - to - back - to - back.
Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred eight times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back - to - back - to - back - to - back. The most recent occurrence was on July 27, 2017, when the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the Milwaukee Brewers in Nationals Park as Brian Goodwin, Wilmer Difo, Bryce Harper and Ryan Zimmerman homered off pitcher Michael Blazek. Blazek became the fourth pitcher to surrender back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, and Dave Bush.
On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals 9 - 2. In this game, Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramírez, and Juan Uribe hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs in that order. Thome, Konerko, and Ramirez blasted their homers off of Joel Peralta, while Uribe did it off of Rob Tejeda. The next batter, veteran backstop Toby Hall, tried aimlessly to hit the ball as far as possible, but his effort resulted in a strike out.
On April 22, 2007 the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3 -- 0 when Manny Ramirez, J.D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs to put them up 4 -- 3. They eventually went on to win the game 7 -- 6 after a three - run home run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the 7th inning. On September 18, 2006 trailing 9 -- 5 to the San Diego Padres in the 9th inning, Jeff Kent, J.D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs to tie the game. After giving up a run in the top of the 10th, the Dodgers won the game in the bottom of the 10th, on a walk - off two run home run by Nomar Garciaparra. J.D. Drew has been part of two different sets of back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs. In both occurrences, his homer was the second of the four.
On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back - to - back - to - back home runs for the Yankees. Raines ' home run tied the game. New York went on to win 8 -- 6. This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play. The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians.
Twice in MLB history have two brothers hit back - to - back home runs. On April 23, 2013, brothers Melvin Upton, Jr. (formerly B.J. Upton) and Justin Upton hit back - to - back home runs. The first time was on September 15, 1938, when Lloyd Waner and Paul Waner performed the feat.
Simple back - to - back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence. If a pitcher gives up a homer, he might have his concentration broken and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to "make up for it '' by striking out the next batter with some fastballs. Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that and will capitalize on it. A notable back - to - back home run of that type in World Series play involved "Babe Ruth 's called shot '' in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game. He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back - to - back shot, after which Root was removed from the game.
In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back - to - back homers in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game. The Series - winning run was scored later in the inning.
Another notable pair of back - to - back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey, Sr. and Ken Griffey, Jr. hit back - to - back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father - and - son duo to do so in Major League history.
On May 2, 2002, Bret Boone and Mike Cameron of the Seattle Mariners hit back - to - back home runs off of starter Jon Rauch in the first inning of a game against the Chicago White Sox. The Mariners batted around in the inning, and Boone and Cameron came up to bat against reliever Jim Parque with two outs, again hitting back - to - back home runs and becoming the only pair of teammates to hit back - to - back home runs twice in the same inning.
On June 19, 2012, José Bautista and Colby Rasmus hit back - to - back home runs and back - to - back - to - back home runs with Edwin Encarnación for a lead change in each instance.
On July 23, 2017 Whit Merrifield, Jorge Bonifacio, and Eric Hosmer of the Kansas City Royals hit back to back to back home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox. The Royals went on to win the game 5 - 4.
On June 20, 2018 George Springer, Alex Bregman, and José Altuve of the Houston Astros hit back to back to back home runs in the sixth inning against the Tampa Bay Rays. The Astros went on to win the game 5 - 1.
On April 3, 2018, the St. Louis Cardinals began the game against the Milwaukee Brewers with back - to - back homers from Dexter Fowler and Tommy Pham. Then in the bottom of the ninth, with two outs and the Cardinals leading 4 - 3, Christian Yelich homered to tie the game; and Ryan Braun hit the next pitch for a walk - off homer. This is the only major league game to begin and end with back - to - back homers.
The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is four. Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit four in one game, six have hit them consecutively. Twenty - eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games.
Bases on balls do not count as at - bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, four in four games played, during September 17 -- 22, 1957, for the Red Sox. Williams hit a pinch - hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch - hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch - homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch - runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had four walks interspersed among his four homers.
In World Series play, Reggie Jackson hit a record three in one Series game, the final game (Game 6) in 1977. But those three were a part of a much more impressive feat. He walked on four pitches in the second inning of game 6. Then he hit his three home runs on the first pitch of his next three at bats, off of three different pitchers (4th inning - Hooten, 5th inning - Sosa, 8th inning - Hough). He had also hit one in his last at bat of the previous game, giving him four home runs on four consecutive swings. (His home run in game 5 was also hit on the first pitch, although this did not add to any significant streak.) The four in a row set the record for consecutive homers across two Series games.
In Game 3 of the World Series in 2011, Albert Pujols hit three home runs to tie the record with Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson. The St. Louis Cardinals went on to win the World Series in Game 7 at Busch Stadium. In Game 1 of the World Series in 2012, Pablo Sandoval of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs on his first three at - bats of the Series, also tying the record with Pujols, Jackson, and Ruth.
Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: three homers in two innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox.
An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a "home run cycle '' is where a player hits a solo, 2 - run, 3 - run, and grand slam all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter to not only hit four home runs in a game (which itself has only occurred 18 times in the Major Leagues), but also to hit those home runs with the specific number of runners already on base. Although it is a rare accomplishment, it is largely dependent on circumstances outside the player 's control, such as his preceding teammates ' ability to get on base, as well as the order in which he comes to bat in any particular inning.
Another variant of the home run cycle would be the "natural home run cycle '', which would require a batter to hit a solo, 2 - run, 3 - run, and grand slam in that order.
Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball, the only home run cycle in a professional baseball game belongs to Tyrone Horne, who stroked four long balls for the minor league, Double - A Arkansas Travelers in a game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998.
A major league player has come close to hitting for the home run cycle several times. Recent examples include:
In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside - the - park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home "run '' was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball 's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place - hitting and what is now called "manufacturing runs '' or "small ball ''.
The home run 's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live - ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now - mass - produced, cork - centered ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park. Meanwhile, as the game 's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the "inside game '' to the "power game '' in order to keep up.
Before 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became ground rule doubles in most parks. A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence without it touching the ground, it is a home run.
Also, until approximately that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence in fair territory, but to land in the bleachers in fair territory or to still be visibly fair when disappearing behind a wall. The rule stipulated "fair when last seen '' by the umpires. Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second "foul pole '' at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire. Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes. As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal "touch down '' of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the "breaking of the (vertical) plane '' of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only "break the plane '' of the fence in fair territory (unless the ball is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out).
Babe Ruth 's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line. Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when - last - seen rule. Bill Jenkinson, in The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs, estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule.
Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the - fence home run in a sudden - victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to "force '' the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game - winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth 's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.
Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all - time home runs by team, including teams no longer active (prior to 1900) as well as by individual players. Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000 th home run in MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008. Sheffield had hit MLB 's 249,999 th home run against Gio González in his previous at - bat.
The all - time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U.S. Negro Leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh. Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan 's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team. Oh holds the all - time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career.
In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron 's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik. Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714), Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Albert Pujols (633), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630), and Jim Thome (612), Sammy Sosa (609).
The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001. Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, and Mark McGwire, who hit 70 in 1998.
Negro League slugger Josh Gibson 's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit "almost 800 '' home runs in his career. The Guinness Book of World Records lists Gibson 's lifetime home run total at 800. Ken Burns ' award - winning series, Baseball, states that his actual total may have been as high as 950. Gibson 's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro Leagues. The 1993 edition of the MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia attempted to compile a set of Negro League records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort. Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power. The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 "official '' Negro League games they were able to account for in his 17 - year career, about 1 homer every 3.4 games. Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead - ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or 1 homer every 3.5 games. The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro League clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more "barnstorming '' or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era.
Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit "the longest home run ever '' at an estimated distance of 643 feet (196 m), although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa (who hit 60 or more home runs in a season 3 times), Ken Griffey, Jr. and Eddie Mathews. In 1987, Joey Meyer of the Denver Zephyrs hit the longest verifiable home run in professional baseball history. The home run was measured at a distance of 582 feet (177 m) and was hit inside Denver 's Mile High Stadium. Major League Baseball 's longest verifiable home run distance is about 575 feet (175 m), by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and before the double - deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry.
The location of where Hank Aaron 's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee. The spot sits outside Miller Park, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play. Similarly, the point where Aaron 's 715th homer landed, upon breaking Ruth 's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot. A red - painted seat in Fenway Park marks the landing place of the 502 - ft home run Ted Williams hit in 1946, the longest measured homer in Fenway 's history; a red stadium seat mounted on the wall of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, marks the landing spot of Harmon Killebrew 's record 520 - foot shot in old Metropolitan Stadium.
Replays "to get the call right '' have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine "boundary calls '' -- home runs and foul balls -- was not officially allowed until 2008.
In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play. The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood.
In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls. The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary / home run call is:
On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole. It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play. After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run.
About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time. In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field. The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run.
Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco. The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual. Bengie Molina, the Giants ' catcher, hit what was first called a single. Molina then was replaced in the game by Emmanuel Burriss, a pinch - runner, before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run. In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced. Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to Burriss instead.
On October 31, 2009, in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a long fly ball that appeared to hit a camera protruding over the wall and into the field of play in deep left field. The ball ricocheted off the camera and re-entered the field, initially ruled a double. However, after the umpires consulted with each other after watching the instant replay, the hit was ruled a home run, marking the first time an instant replay home run was hit in a playoff game.
Career achievements
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how many sessions are there in a term of congress | Procedures of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Procedures of the United States Congress are established ways of doing legislative business. Congress has two - year terms with one session each year. There are rules and procedures, often complex, which guide how it converts ideas for legislation into laws.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally also been called into an extra, (or special) session (the Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year). A new session commences on January 3 (or another date, if Congress so chooses) each year. Before the Twentieth Amendment, Congress met from the first Monday in December to April or May in the first session of their term (the "long session ''); and from December to March 4 in the second "short session ''. (The new Congress would then meet for some days, for the inauguration, swearing in new members, and organization.)
The Constitution forbids either house from meeting any place outside the Capital, or from adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The consent of both bodies is required for Congress 's final adjournment, or adjournment sine die, at the end of each congressional session. If the two houses can not agree on a date, the Constitution permits the President to settle the dispute.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the President 's State of the Union address. Other meetings of both House and Senate are called Joint Meetings of Congress, held after unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations may also be Joint Sessions, if both House and Senate are in session at the time, otherwise they are formal joint gatherings.
At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines his legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States -- though it is not necessarily required to be delivered each year or in the customary manner. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since.
Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except for the joint session to count electoral votes for President, when the Constitution requires the President of the Senate (the Vice President of the United States) to preside.
Ideas for legislation can come from many areas, including members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, an executive agency such as the president or cabinet officer or executive agency, and the usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal has usually one of four principal forms: the bill, the joint resolution, the concurrent resolution, and the simple resolution.
Any member of Congress may introduce a bill at any time while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. A sponsor 's signature is required, and there can be many co-sponsors. It 's assigned a number by the Clerk. Then it 's referred to a committee. Committees study each bill intensely at this stage.
The most important executive communication is usually the president 's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal. Drafting statutes is an art that requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience. '' Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more. A proposal may be introduced in Congress as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Most legislative proposals are introduced as bills, but some are introduced as joint resolutions. There is little practical difference between the two, except that joint resolutions may include preambles but bills may not. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment or to declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of Congress, or to regulate procedure. In many cases, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Congressional lobbyists are legally required to be registered in a central database.
Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, whenever the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. Nevertheless, while the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it does retain the power to amend or reject them. A congressional act in 1974 established procedures to try to establish appropriate annual spending levels.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a committee which often seeks input from relevant departments as well as requests feedback from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. Open committee meetings may be covered by the media. In some cases, bills may be sent to select committees, which tend to have more narrow jurisdictions than standing committees. If a bill is important, the committee may set a date for public hearings announced by the committee 's chairman. Each standing and select committee is led by a chair (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Sometimes transcripts of these meetings are made public. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. Not reporting a bill or tabling it means it has been rejected. If amendments to a bill are extensive, then sometimes a new bill with all the amendments built in will be written, sometimes known as a clean bill with a new number.
Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but they are rarely used. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house which considers it. This can be simple or complex. Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution hammering out the particulars of debate -- -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.
The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives. One mechanism Congress uses to work within revenue constraints is called the reconciliation process which is a multiple step way to keep new budgets within the bounds of existing ones. In addition, both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.
In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added unrequested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions. President Ronald Reagan once quipped, "If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear. '' If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes; otherwise, it fails.
There are a variety of means for members to vote on bills, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Most votes, including quorum votes, are done electronically, and allow members to vote yea or nay or present. They light up when the vote is in process. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions (yea indicated by the color green, nay by red.) To conduct a voice vote the chairman asks As many as are in favor say Aye, as many as are opposed, say No. Rules permit live media coverage of voting, although prohibit use of these broadcasts for political purposes or political advertisements. House rules require a three - fifths vote to pass a ruling that contains a specified federal income tax rate increase. One member ca n't cast a vote for another member. It 's possible for citizens to learn how congresspersons voted by consulting an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval. The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Every Act of Congress or joint resolution begins with an enacting formula or resolving formula stipulated by law. These are:
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Representatives and senators rarely force the presence of a quorum by demanding quorum calls; thus, in most cases, debates continue even if a majority is not present.
Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye '' or "no, '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one - fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll - call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll - call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Senate, the Vice President may (if present) cast the tiebreaking vote.
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who sang it's a wonderful life song | Wonderful Life (Black song) - wikipedia
"Wonderful Life '' is a song by the English singer Black from his 1986 album of the same name. It was released twice as a single and was successful the second time, becoming a top ten hit in Switzerland, Germany, the UK, France, Austria, the Netherlands and Italy. Black, who wrote the song while broke, commented: "I was really being ironic... Most people took it at face value. ''
First released in 1986 by Ugly Man Records, it initially peaked at no. 72 on the UK Singles Chart. The band then decided to re-release the song with a new record company, A&M Records after the success of "Sweetest Smile ''. The single then reached a higher peak of no. 8 on the UK Singles Chart in August 1987.
The song was described by AllMusic as a "seductive, bittersweet ballad ''. The Daily Telegraph said, "Its oddly uplifting lyrics... combined with Black 's melancholy croon created, as one critic observed, ' luxuriantly melodic pop that sounds something like a male version of Sade '. ''
The music video was shot in black and white around the English seaside resort of Southport, Merseyside, as well as Wallasey near Black 's hometown of Liverpool, and features New Brighton Lighthouse and promenade. The video includes the Looping Star rollercoaster, a ride at Pleasureland at the time, as well as The Galleon fairground ride, the shrimping boat, local shops and residents. It was directed by Gerard De Thame, husband of television presenter Rachel De Thame, and won an award at the New York Film Festival in 1988.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Dutch singer Mathilde Santing recorded her own cover version of "Wonderful Life '' on her 1999 album To Others to One. It was released as a maxi single and was used in a television advertisement for Interpolis, a Dutch insurance company. In addition to the album To Others to One, it is also on the albums 20 jaar hits 1981 -- 2001 (Muziek 20 Daagse 2001) and 100 Love Songs (2008).
British singer Tina Cousins recorded a cover version of the song for her second studio album Mastermind. This version had moderate success, peaking at number 17 on the Australian Singles Chart and at number 58 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2005, a dance and a ballad of this cover version were used in the Australian miniseries "The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant '' on Channel 10. Since 2007, both the dance and ballad versions of Tina Cousins ' cover of the song have been used at the Hoyts cinemas in Australia directly prior to the start of a movie. Now only the ballad version is used. In 2008, this song featured in an UN TV spot ad raising awareness of Human Trafficking.
Macedonian alternative rock band Arhangel recorded a version of the song for their 1993 album Arhangel 2. Serbian punk rock band KBO! recorded a version of the song on their 2001 cover album (Ne) Menjajte Stanicu ((Do Not) Change the Station). Spanish singer Rosa López recorded a Spanish cover of the song entitled "Bella Vida '' on her 2008 album Promesas. It was also released as the second single from the album. In 2009, German techno group Scooter sampled the song on their single "The Sound Above My Hair ''. In 2011, Kim Wilde covered the song in the album Snapshots. The same year, the song featured on the Christmas album Funny Looking Angels by Smith & Burrows, a collaboration between Tom Smith (Editors) and Andy Burrows (We Are Scientists and ex-Razorlight). Slow Moving Millie covered the song on her album Renditions.
Various other cover versions have been produced, by artists including Seeed, TJ Davis, Tony Hadley, Giuliano Palma & the Bluebeaters, Ace of Base, Lara Fabian (2004 A Wonderful Life album), Myslovitz, Zucchero, Csézy, The Hoosiers, Julio Iglesias, Jr., Perturbazione, Rob de Nijs, Kirka, Saule, Perry Rose, Kate Ryan, and Stefan Gruenwald, Lokee & Pearl Andersson in 2016, after Colin 's death.
A version by Katie Melua was originally included on the BBC Radio 2 's Sounds of the 80s compilation album, and was subsequently released as a single in aid of Great Ormond Street Hospital and The Children 's Hospital Charity.
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what are possible reasons for the ratification of the twenty-first amendment | Twenty - first Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Twenty - first Amendment (Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which had mandated nationwide Prohibition on alcohol on January 16, 1919. The Twenty - first Amendment was ratified on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a prior amendment and to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions.
Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.
Section 2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.
Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
The Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution had ushered in a period known as Prohibition, during which the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages was illegal. Passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 was the crowning achievement of the temperance movement, but it soon proved highly unpopular. Crime rates soared under Prohibition as gangsters, such as Chicago 's Al Capone, became rich from a profitable, often violent black market for alcohol. The federal government was incapable of stemming the tide: enforcement of the Volstead Act proved to be a nearly impossible task and corruption was rife among law enforcement agencies. In 1932, wealthy industrialist John D. Rockefeller, Jr. stated in a letter:
When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened; and crime has increased to a level never seen before.
As more and more Americans opposed the Eighteenth Amendment, a political movement grew for its repeal. However, repeal was complicated by grassroots politics. Although the U.S. Constitution provides two methods for ratifying constitutional amendments, only one method had been used up until that time; and that was for ratification by the state legislatures of three - fourths of the states. However, the wisdom of the day was that the lawmakers of many states were either beholden to or simply fearful of the temperance lobby. For that reason, when Congress formally proposed the repeal of Prohibition on February 20, 1933 (with the requisite two - thirds having voted in favor in each house; 63 to 21 in the United States Senate and 289 to 121 in the United States House of Representatives), it chose the second ratification method established by Article V, that being via state conventions. The Twenty - first Amendment is the only constitutional amendment ratified by state conventions rather than by the state legislatures.
The Congress proposed the Twenty - first Amendment on February 20, 1933.
The proposed amendment was adopted on December 5, 1933. It is the only amendment to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions, specially selected for the purpose. All other amendments have been ratified by state legislatures. It is also the only amendment that was approved for the explicit purpose of repealing a previously existing amendment to the Constitution. The Twenty - first Amendment ending national prohibition became officially effective on December 15, though people started drinking openly before that date.
The various responses of the 48 states is as follows:
The following states ratified the amendment:
Ratification was completed on December 5, 1933.
The amendment was subsequently ratified by conventions in the following states:
The amendment was rejected by the following state:
Voters in the following state rejected holding a convention to consider the amendment:
The following states took no action to consider the amendment:
After more than ten years of the country going dry, on December 6, 1932, Senator John Blaine of Wisconsin submitted a resolution onto the floor of the Senate to submit the amendment to the states for ratification, which followed in February 1933. The Amendment was quickly ratified, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Utah ratifying the amendment on December 5, 1933.
The second section bans the importation of alcohol in violation of state or territorial law. This has been interpreted to give states essentially absolute control over alcoholic beverages, and many U.S. states still remained "dry '' (with state prohibition of alcohol) long after its ratification. Mississippi was the last, remaining dry until 1966; Kansas continued to prohibit public bars until 1987. Many states now delegate the authority over alcohol granted to them by this Amendment to their municipalities or counties (or both), which has led to many lawsuits over First Amendment rights when local governments have tried to revoke liquor licenses.
Section 2 has been the source of every Supreme Court ruling directly addressing Twenty - first Amendment issues.
Early rulings suggested that Section 2 enabled states to legislate with exceptionally broad constitutional powers. In State Board of Equalization v. Young 's Market Co., the Supreme Court recognized that "Prior to the Twenty - first Amendment it would obviously have been unconstitutional '' for a state to require a license and fee to import beer anywhere within its borders. First, the Court held that Section 2 abrogated the right to import intoxicating liquors free of a direct burden on interstate commerce, which otherwise would have been unconstitutional under the Commerce Clause before passage of the Twenty - first Amendment. In its second holding, the Court rejected an equal protection claim because "A classification recognized by the Twenty - first Amendment can not be deemed forbidden by the Fourteenth. '' Over time, the Court has significantly curtailed this initial interpretation.
In Craig v. Boren (1976), the Supreme Court found that analysis under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment had not been affected by the passage of the Twenty - first Amendment. Although the Court did not specify whether the Twenty - first Amendment could provide an exception to any other constitutional protections outside of the Commerce Clause, it acknowledged "the relevance of the Twenty - first Amendment to other constitutional provisions becomes increasingly doubtful ''. Likewise, it has been held that Section 2 of the Twenty - first Amendment does not affect the Supremacy Clause or the Establishment Clause. Larkin v. Grendel 's Den, Inc., 459 U.S. 116, 122, n. 5 (1982) However, the Craig v. Boren Court did distinguish two characteristics of state laws permitted by the Amendment, which otherwise might have run afoul of the Constitution. The constitutional issues in each centered or touched upon: (1) "importation of intoxicants, a regulatory area where the State 's authority under the Twenty - first Amendment is transparently clear ''; and (2) "purely economic matters that traditionally merit only the mildest review under the Fourteenth Amendment ''. As to the Dormant Commerce Clause in particular, the Court clarified that, while not a pro tanto repeal, the Twenty - First Amendment nonetheless "primarily created an exception to the normal operation of the Commerce Clause ''.
In South Dakota v. Dole (1987), the Supreme Court upheld the withholding of some federal highway funds to South Dakota, because beer with an alcohol content below a specified percentage could be lawfully sold to adults under the age of 21 within the state. In a 7 -- 2 majority opinion by Chief Justice Rehnquist, the Court held that the offer of benefits is not coercion that inappropriately invades state sovereignty. The Twenty - first Amendment could not constitute an "independent constitutional bar '' to the spending power granted to Congress under Article I, section 8, clause 1 of the Constitution. Justice Brennan, author of the majority opinion in Craig v. Boren, provided a brief but notable dissent based solely on Section 2. Justice O'Connor also dissented, arguing that "the regulation of the age of the purchasers of liquor, just as the regulation of the price at which liquor may be sold, falls squarely within the scope of those powers reserved to the States by the Twenty - first Amendment. ''
In 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), the Court held states can not use the Twenty - first Amendment to abridge freedom of speech protections under the First Amendment. Rhode Island imposed a law that prohibited advertisements that disclosed the retail prices of alcoholic beverages sold to the public. In declaring the law unconstitutional, the Court reiterated that "although the Twenty - first Amendment limits the effect of the Dormant Commerce Clause on a State 's regulatory power over the delivery or use of intoxicating beverages within its borders, the Amendment does not license the States to ignore their obligations under other provisions of the Constitution ''.
Most recently, however, Granholm v. Heald (2005) held that the Twenty - first Amendment does not overrule the Dormant Commerce Clause with respect to alcohol sales, and therefore states must treat in - state and out - of - state wineries equally. The Court criticized its earliest rulings on the issue, (including State Board of Equalization v. Young 's Market Co.) and promulgated its most limited interpretation to date:
The aim of the Twenty - first Amendment was to allow States to maintain an effective and uniform system for controlling liquor by regulating its transportation, importation, and use. The Amendment did not give States the authority to pass nonuniform laws in order to discriminate against out - of - state goods, a privilege they had not enjoyed at any earlier time.
In a lengthy dissent, Justice Thomas argued that the plain meaning of Section 2 removed "any doubt regarding its broad scope, the Amendment simplified the language of the Webb - Kenyon Act and made it clear that States could regulate importation destined for in - state delivery free of negative Commerce Clause restraints ''. In his historical account, Justice Thomas argued the early precedent provided by State Board of Equalization v. Young 's Market Co. was indeed correct, and furthered the original intent of the Twenty - first Amendment to provide a constitutional guarantee authorizing state regulation that might conflict with the Dormant Commerce Clause (similar to the Webb -- Kenyon Act).
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write a short note on narmada bachao andolan on save narmada movement | Narmada Bachao Andolan - Wikipedia
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is a social movement consisting of adivasis, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the number of large dams being built across the Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on the river and was one of the first focal points of the movement. It is one of the many dams under the Narmada Dam Project. The main aim of the project is to provide irrigation and electricity to people in these states.
Their mode of campaign includes court actions, hunger strikes, rallies and gathering support from notable film and art personalities. Narmada Bachao Andolan, with its leading spokespersons Medha Patkar and Baba Amte, have received the Right Livelihood Award in 1991.
Right after independence under the newly formed government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, investigations were carried out to evaluate mechanisms for using water from the Narmada River, which flows into the Arabian Sea after passing through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat. The formation of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal was triggered by interstate differences in implementing schemes and sharing of water by the Government of India on 6 October 1969 to adjudicate over the disputes. The tribunal investigated the matters referred to it and responded after more than 10 years. The Narmada Tribunal aimed to set out conditions regarding the resettlement and rehabilitation of those displaced by the dams. On 12 December 1979, after ten years of investigation, the decision as given by the tribunal, with all the parties at dispute binding to it, was released by the Indian government.
As per the tribunal 's decision, 30 major, 135 medium, and 3000 small dams, were granted approval for construction, including raising the height of the Sardar Sarovar dam. This decision was motivated by the assumption that it would provide water to around forty million people, irrigation, and electricity to people in the region. Thus, the construction began.
In 1985, after hearing about the Sardar Sarovar dam, Medha Patkar and her colleagues visited the project site and noticed that project work being checked due to an order by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The reasons for this was cited as "non-fulfillment of basic environmental conditions and the lack of completion of crucial studies and plans ''. The people who were going to be affected by the construction of the dam were given no information but the offer for rehabilitation. Villagers were n't consulted and were n't asked for a feedback on the assessment that had taken place. Furthermore, the officials related to the project had not even checked the land records and updated them. While World Bank, the financing agency for this project, came into the picture, Patkar approached the Ministry of Environment to seek clarifications. She realized, after seeking answers from the ministry, that the project was not sanctioned at all and wondered as to how funds were even sanctioned by the World Bank. After several studies, they realized that the officials had overlooked the post project problems.
Through Patkar 's channel of communication between the government and the residents, she provided critiques to the project authorities and the governments involved. At the same time, her group realized that all those displaced were given compensation only for the immediate standing crop and not for displacement and rehabilitation.
As Patkar remained immersed in the Narmada struggle, she chose to quit her Ph. D. studies and focus entirely on the Narmada activity. Thereafter, she organized a 36 - day solidarity march among the neighboring states of the Narmada valley from Madhya Pradesh to the Sardar Sarovar dam site. She said that the march was "a path symbolizing the long path of struggle (both immediate and long - term) that (they) really had ''. The march was resisted by the police, who according to Patkar were "caning the marchers and arresting them and tearing the clothes off women activists ''.
Within the focus of the NBA towards the stoppage of the Sardar Sarovar Dam, Patkar advised adding the World Bank to its propaganda. Using the right to fasting, she undertook a 22 - day fast that almost took her life. Patkar 's actions did force the World Bank to set up The Morse Commission, an independent review of the project. Their report clearly stated that the Bank 's policies on environment and resettlement were being violated by the project. The World Bank 's participation in these projects was canceled in 1993. Before the World Bank could pull out, the Indian Government did.
She undertook a similar fast in 1993 and resisted evacuation from the dam site. In 1994, the Narmada Bachao Andolan office was attacked reportedly by a couple of political parties, and Patkar and other activists were physically assaulted and verbally abused. In protest, a few NBA activists and she began a fast; 20 days later, they were arrested and forcibly fed intravenously.
The Sardar Sarovar Dam 's construction began again in 1999 after the construction was allowed and was declared finished in 2006. It was inaugurated in 2017 by Prime Minister Narendra Damodardas Modi. Since construction in 2017, the height has been increased from 138 meters to 163 meters.
There were many groups such as Gujarat - based Narmada Asargrastha Samiti, Madhya Pradesh - based Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti (Committee for a New Life in the Narmada Valley) and Maharashtra - Based Narmada Dharangrastha Samiti (Committee for Narmada Dam - Affected People) who either believed in the need for fair rehabilitation plans for the people or who vehemently opposed dam construction despite a resettlement policy.
Narmada Bachao Andolan was also joined by several NGOs with local people, professionals, and activists as the founders with a non-violent approach. It was led by Medha Patkar. Nationally, they wanted an alternative structure of development and internationally, they wanted to build pressure on the World Bank to take accountability.
NBA 's slogans include - Vikas Chahiye, Vinash Nahin! (Development wanted, not destruction) and "koi nahi hatega, bandh nahi banega! '' (we wo n't move, the dam wo n't be constructed).
The World Bank began working on the Narmada Project after it got clearance from the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. The bank sent a team for the assessment of the project in economic and technical terms. < / > This team did n't focus on the social or environmental issues. What Jawaharlal Nehru thought of as temples of the independent India, i.e. the dams, have already displaced 11 million Indians.
However, the Bank realised the harm that it had done by sanctioning the loan for the project and thus announced that the new projects should "ensure that, after a reasonable transition period, the displaced people regain at least their previous standard of living. '' < / > World Bank Operational Manual Statement No. 2.33: Social Issues Associated with Involuntary Settlement in Bank - Financed Projects. < / ref > Despite this, the relocation process was flawed. Several tribal people have been harmed by the project. The Bank then adopted certain policies to ensure proper relocation of the tribal people and protect them from the forced relocation. The Indian government, however, did not adopt these policies.
In 1985, irrespective of the harm done by the Sardar Sarovar project, the World bank sanctioned a loan to the state governments for construction purposes. The Bank did ask for a proper resettlement design but also said, "The argument in favour of the Sardar Sarovar Project is that the benefits are so large that they substantially outweigh the costs of the immediate human and environmental disruption. ''
Medha Patkar and other protesters testified on the Bank 's role in Washington D.C in 1989. This led to a build - up of pressure on the Bank to set an independent review to assess the situation at hand. A lot of support was withdrawn from the project after this.
The Morse Commission was established to look into the construction of the dam, and the environmental cost and human displacement in 1991. For the first time, a Bank commissioned panel had complete access to the documents to form a report. The 357 pages ' report mentioned the lack of any environmental assessment undertaken either by the Indian Government or the World Bank. In an internal referendum held, the Bank very closely voted for the continuation of the Narmada Dam Project.
The Indian Government canceled the loan sanctioned by the World Bank on March 31, 1993.
Medha Patkar has been the guiding light of the movement. She has organized several fasts and satyagrahas. Patkar has also been to jail because of her desire to achieve right to life and livelihood for the suppressed people.
Another popular figure was Baba Amte, known for his work against leprosy. He published a booklet called Cry O Beloved Narmada in 1989 to protest against the construction of the dams.
Amongst the major celebrities who have shown their support for Narmada Bachao Andolan are Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy and Aamir Khan. It was also supported by music composer and bass guitarist in the band Indian Ocean, Rahul Ram, who was actively involved in the movement from 1990 to 1995.
In 1994 was the launch of Narmada: A Valley Rises, by filmmaker Ali Kazimi. It documents the five - week Sangharsh Yatra of 1991. The film went on to win several awards and is considered by many to be a classic on the issue. In 1996, veteran documentary filmmaker, Anand Patwardhan, made an award - winning documentary: A Narmada Diary. Alok Agarwal, current member of the Aam Aadmi Party, is an active figure in the movement.
Bihar CM Nitish Kumar participated in rally organised by NBA on the bank of Narmada at Rajghat on 16th Sep 2016. Expressing solidarity with the Andolan Mr. Nitish Kumar said "I have come from Patna to extend support to the agitation on the side of river Narmada here ''.
Supporting the NBA 's main demand CM Nitish Kumar appealed to PM Mr Modi at Rajghat saying "Pradhan Mantri ji, do n't close the gates of Sardar Sarovar Dam. Rehabilitate people not by giving cash, but giving them alternative land / employment. Do n't make plans to drown 2.5 lakh people by closing the gates, '' he said in a statement released in Barwani.
The court ruled for Andolan, effecting an immediate stoppage of work at the dam and directing the concerned states to complete the rehabilitation and replacement process.
It deliberated on this issue further for several years and finally upheld the Tribunal Award and allowed the construction to proceed, subject to conditions. The court introduced a mechanism to monitor the progress of resettlement pari passu with the raising height of the dam through the Grievance Redressal Authorities (GRA) in each party state. The decision referred in this document, given in 2000 after 7 years of deliberations, has paved the way for completing the project to attain full envisaged benefits. The court 's final line of the order states, "Every endeavour shall be made to see that the project is completed as expeditiously as possible ''.
Subsequent to the verdict, Press Information Bureau (PIB) featured an article:
"The Narmada Bachao Andolaan (NBA) has rendered a yeoman 's service to the country by creating a high - level of awareness about the environmental and rehabilitation and relief aspects of Sardar Sarovar and other projects on the Narmada. But, after the court verdict it is incumbent on it to adopt a new role. Instead of ' damning the dam ' any longer, it could assume the role of vigilant observer to see that the resettlement work is as humane and painless as possible and that the environmental aspects are taken due care of. ''
Medha Patkar continues to fight for proper rehabilitation of the displaced people in Madhya Pradesh as well as the reception of the promised compensation by the Narmada Tribunal. This movement has brought forth the different notions of development. The Indian government has often argued that the cost of displacements are outweighed by the benefit derived from the Narmada Project, and thus, justified its construction. NBA, on the other hand has argued no matter how large the benefits, the cost to the society can not be fulfilled.
Critics argue that dam 's benefits include provision of drinking water, power generation and irrigation facilities. However, it is believed that the campaign, led by the NBA activists, has held up the project 's completion, and NBA supporters have attacked on local people who accepted compensation for moving. Others have argued that the Narmada Dam protesters are little more than environmental extremists, who use pseudoscientific agitprop to scuttle the development of the region and that the dam will provide agricultural benefits to millions of poor in India. There had also been instances of the NBA activists turning violent and attacking rehabilitation officer from Narmada Valley Development Authority (NVDA), which caused damage to the contractor 's machinery.
The NBA has been accused of lying under oath in court about land ownership in areas affected by the dam. The Supreme Court has mulled perjury charges against the group.
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what is the difference between atlantic ocean and caribbean sea | Caribbean Sea - wikipedia
The Caribbean Sea (Spanish: Mar Caribe; French: Mer des Caraïbes Dutch: Caraïbische Zee) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and south west, to the north by the Greater Antilles starting with Cuba, to the east by the Lesser Antilles, and to the south by the north coast of South America.
The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the numerous islands of the West Indies, and adjacent coasts, are collectively known as the Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km (1,063,000 sq mi). The sea 's deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m (25,220 ft) below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays: the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria and Gulf of Honduras.
The Caribbean Sea has the world 's second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km (620 mi) along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras.
The name "Caribbean '' derives from the Caribs, one of the region 's dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. After the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Spanish term Antillas applied to the lands; stemming from this, "Sea of the Antilles '' became a common alternative name for "Caribbean Sea '' in various European languages. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed.
From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the "South Sea '' (the Pacific Ocean, to the south of the isthmus of Panama) as opposed to the "North Sea '' (the Caribbean Sea, to the north of the same isthmus).
The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters on a quest to find a sea route to Asia. At that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans. Following the discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was quickly colonised by several Western cultures (initially Spain, then later England, the Dutch Republic, France, Courland and Denmark). Following the colonisation of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European - based marine trading and transport, and this commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard. (See Piracy in the Caribbean)
Due to the abundance of sunshine, year - round tropical temperatures moderated by the almost constant trade winds and the great variety of scenic destinations to visit, during the second half of the 20th century and on into the 21st the Caribbean Sea became a popular place for tourism.
As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows:
Note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea.
The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate. The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad and Tobago off the coast of Venezuela. This arc was formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate and includes active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee, the Quill (volcano) on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica. The larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc.
The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto - caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period. In the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea 's formation began in the Triassic. Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool. The emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic. During the Cretaceous the Caribbean acquired the shape close to that seen today. In the early Paleogene due to Marine regression the Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the land of Cuba and Haiti. The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.
The Caribbean 's floor is composed of sub-oceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges calcareous silts are found. Clay minerals likely having been deposited by the mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River. Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico have a thickness of about 1 km (0.62 mi). Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago to present) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic.
The Caribbean sea floor is divided into five basins separated from each other by underwater ridges and mountain ranges. Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through the Anegada Passage lying between the Lesser Antilles and Virgin Islands and the Windward Passage located between Cuba and Haiti. The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough with depths reaching approximately 7,686 m (25,220 ft). Despite this, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea in comparison to other bodies of water.
The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity. There was a very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 which caused many casualties.
The Caribbean sea floor is also home to two oceanic trenches: the Cayman Trench and Puerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk of earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis which could have a devastating effect on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that over the last 500 years the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude. Most recently, a 7.1 earthquake struck Haiti on January 12, 2010.
The hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed 3 ° C (5.4 ° F). Over the past fifty years the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974; a cold phase with peaks during 1974 -- 1976 and 1984 -- 1986 then; a warming phase with an increase in temperature of 0.6 ° C (1.1 ° F) per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña. The salinity of seawater is about 3.6 % and its density is 1,023.5 -- 1,024.0 kg / m (63.90 -- 63.93 lb / cu ft). The surface water colour is blue - green to green.
The Caribbean 's depth in its wider basins and deep water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic. Atlantic deep water is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deep water of its sea. The surface water (30 feet; 100 m) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea the trade winds influence a northerly current which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán.
The Caribbean is home to about 9 % of the world 's coral reefs covering about 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi), most of which are located off the Caribbean Islands and the Central American coast. Among them stands out the Belize Barrier Reef with an area of 963 km (372 sq mi) which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef also known as the MBRS and being over 1,000 km (600 mi) in length is the world 's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras.
During the past ten years, unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening Caribbean coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals, and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is called coral bleaching, and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. Over 42 % of corals are completely bleached and 95 % are experiencing some type of whitening.
The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and diving, and provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US $ 3.1 -- 4.6 billion. Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region 's economy. A Protocol of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came in effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean through forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently this protocol has been ratified by 15 countries. Also, several charitable organisations have been formed to preserve the Caribbean marine life, such as Caribbean Conservation Corporation which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating others about them.
In connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, conducted a regional study, funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela plus Jamaica) participated. The findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on the investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the last hundred and fifty years. The project results were presented in Vienna in the forum "Water Matters '', and the 2011 General Conference of said multilateral organization.
The Caribbean weather is influenced by the Gulf Stream and Humboldt Current ocean currents. The tropical location of the sea helps the water to maintain a warm temperature ranging from the low of 21 -- 26 ° C (70 -- 79 ° F) by the season.
The Caribbean is a focal area for many hurricanes within the Western Hemisphere. A series of low pressure systems develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic Ocean. While most of these systems do not become tropical storms, some do. The tropical storms can develop into Atlantic hurricanes, often in the low pressure areas of the eastern Caribbean. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around 9 tropical storms form each year, with 5 reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.
Every year hurricanes represent a potential threat to the islands of the Caribbean, due to the extremely destructive nature of these powerful weather systems. Coral reefs can easily be damaged by violent wave action, and can be destroyed when a hurricane dumps sand or mud onto a reef. When this happens, the coral organisms are smothered and the reef dies and ultimately breaks apart.
The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to the Caribbean.
The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity. Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic. For example, guaiac wood (Guaiacum officinale), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (Pereskia quisqueyana) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala. The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) grows throughout the Caribbean. In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle).
In shallow water flora and fauna is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward side of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to 20 m (66 ft). Another type shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to 5 m (16 ft). In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) grows. Representatives of three species belonging to the genus Halophila, (Halophila baillonii, Halophila engelmannii and Halophila decipiens) are found at depths of up to 30 m (98 ft) except for Halophila engelmani which does not grow below 5 m (16 ft) and is confined to the Bahamas, Florida, the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean. Halophila baillonii has been found only in the Lesser Antilles.
Marine biota in the region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago. In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks (bull shark, tiger shark, silky shark and Caribbean reef shark), flying fish, giant oceanic manta ray, angel fish, spotfin butterflyfish, parrotfish, Atlantic Goliath grouper, tarpon and moray eels. Throughout the Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula).
There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales, humpback whales and dolphins. The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees. The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct. The solenodon is endangered.
There are 500 species of reptiles (94 % of which are endemic). Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile. The blue iguana, endemic to the island of Grand Cayman, is endangered. The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman. The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico, is endangered. The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered. The region has several types of sea turtle (loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, leatherback turtle, Atlantic ridley and olive ridley). Some species are threatened with extinction. Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century -- the number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006.
All 170 species of amphibians that live in the region are endemic. The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs, tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island. The Golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction.
In the Caribbean 600 species of birds have been recorded of which 163 are endemic such as the tody, Fernandina 's flicker and palmchat. The American yellow warbler is found in many areas as is the green heron. Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon, yellow - breasted crake and the Zapata wren. According to Birdlife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird are in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct. The black - fronted piping guan is endangered as is the plain pigeon. The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations. In the forests are found parrots, bananaquit and toucans. Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds.
The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonisation period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million tons per year. The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for 500,000 tonnes (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) of fish a year.
Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution, The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10 % of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea.
The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991 -- 1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies.
The Caribbean is the setting for countless literary efforts often related to piracy acts and swashbuckling. One memorable work of pulp fiction has in its title a geographic feature unique in its way to the islands: Fear Cay, the eleventh Doc Savage adventure by Lester Dent. Many James Bond adventures were set there. All of the action of the Monkey Island series videogames takes place within the Caribbean Sea area. It is also well known as the location of the Pirates of the Caribbean films, featuring Port Royal. Less swashbuckling, but not lacking in man - against - the - sea exploits, is Peter Matthiessen 's Far Tortuga (1975), which chronicles the adventures of a turtling crew in the late 1960s.
The video game series Assassin 's Creed features the Caribbean as an important place in its timeline. For example, Assassin 's Creed IV: Black Flag, along with its Freedom Cry DLC, entirely takes place in the Caribbean Sea, while some events also occur in the Caribbean in Assassin 's Creed III to stop further British expeditions during the American Revolutionary War.
Cayo de Agua in Los Roques archipelago, Venezuela
The Anguilla island.
Sunrise over the south beach of Jamaica
Roatán, Bay Islands, Honduras
Cayo Largo, Cuba
Marie Galante, Guadeloupe
Scotts Head, Dominica
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orange is the new black season 6 guide | List of Orange Is the New Black episodes - wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy - drama series created by Jenji Kohan, which premiered on July 11, 2013, on Netflix. The series, based on Piper Kerman 's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), follows Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a happily engaged New Yorker who is sent to a women 's federal prison for transporting a suitcase full of drug money across international borders, 10 years prior, for her girlfriend at the time, Alex Vause (Laura Prepon).
As of July 27, 2018, 78 episodes of Orange Is the New Black have been released, concluding the sixth season. The series has been renewed for its seventh season.
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where was the man in the moon filmed at | The Man in the Moon - wikipedia
The Man in the Moon is a 1991 American coming of age drama film directed by Robert Mulligan (in his final film) and is also Reese Witherspoon 's film debut.
In the summer of 1957, Dani Trant (Reese Witherspoon) is a 14 - year - old girl in Louisiana who, according to her father, is "too big to be running off by herself. '' Dani and her older sister Maureen (Emily Warfield), who is going off to college in the fall, are very close. Maureen helps take care of their younger sister, Missy, while their mother Abigail (Tess Harper) is pregnant. Dani however prefers to run off to the neighbor 's creek to go swimming in the nude. It is here that she meets her new neighbor, 17 - year - old Court Foster (Jason London). Court kicks Dani out of his creek. When Dani goes home, her mother tells her to wash up because an old friend is coming for dinner with her children. The Trants ' old friend turns out to be a widow, Mrs. Foster (Gail Strickland) with her three sons Court, Dennis, and Rob. When Dani realizes who Court is, the two dislike each other. Court calls Dani "a little girl ''. When Dani 's father Matthew (Sam Waterston) tells Dani to accompany Court into town for groceries, Dani and Court drive into town and start to get along. Dani finally realizes that she is in love with Court.
Maureen goes on a date to a dance with her boyfriend Billy Sanders (Bentley Mitchum). When they leave the dance, Billy wants to park his car and have sex. Maureen gets angry and breaks up with Billy because she believes "love should be beautiful ''. The next day, Dani asks Maureen for advice on how to kiss a boy. Maureen demonstrates by practicing on her hand. Dani and Court continue to go swimming during the hot sunny days and become very close friends. The two agree to meet to go swimming at night, since Court has too much work to do during the day. Dani sneaks off and swims with Court until they reach the point where they are about to kiss. Court pushes Dani away and says she is a little girl that does n't know what she 's doing, and runs off home. Dani leaves too just as a thunderstorm is breaking out. Abigail wakes up, knowing Dani is n't home, and runs outside looking for her. Just as Dani gets home, and runs to her mother, her mother also runs and trips on a root, landing on her stomach. Dani 's father races her to the hospital, where she is kept for treatment. When her father returns home from the hospital, he spanks Dani with his belt. The next day, Court brings food to the Trant house and apologizes to Dani for the other night. Dani, still hurt, just ignores him at first, until Court says he would still like to be friends. The next time they go swimming the two share Dani 's first kiss. Dani is still hurt and angry at her father for hitting her. When he tries to talk to her the next day feeling remorseful for using his belt on her, she only replies with "Yes Sir '' or "No Sir '' to his questions.
Once Dani has made up with her father, he tells Dani to invite Court over once in a while so he can get to know him better. When Court comes over for dinner, he finally meets Maureen. Dani can tell it is love at first sight for the two of them. While Dani visits her mother in the hospital, Court comes over to the Trant house and kisses Maureen. Over the next few days, Dani is getting pushed away by Court. While the rest of the family goes to pick up Abigail and the new baby from the hospital, Court and Maureen claim their love for each other, consummating their love in a field. When Maureen leaves for home, Court goes back to plowing the fields and falls off the tractor, and is badly injured. Dani sees this, and races home to tell her father. When Matthew returns home, he has some of Court 's blood on his clothes and the family realizes that Court has died. Maureen hides her pain at first, while Dani bursts into tears. After Court 's funeral, Dani continues to be angry at Maureen for stealing Court away from her. Matthew tells Dani that although she has a right to be hurt, being mad wo n't bring Court back, and Maureen will be her sister for life. Dani comforts Maureen as she weeps on Court 's fresh grave, and the film ends with Maureen and Dani talking outside on the porch at night as the summer draws to a close, looking up at the moon becoming close again.
The Man in the Moon marked the film debut of Reese Witherspoon at the age of 14 years. Director Mulligan commented that casting her in the role of Dani was "risky business, to say the least. We had a casting team that went out and saw several thousand kids and tested them on video. When I saw Reese 's test, she just jumped off the screen, simply as a personality. I could n't tell whether she could act or not, but she 's got a wonderful face and there 's a brightness and intelligence there. Then, when I tested her in Santa Monica, a strange breakthrough took place. Early in the movie, Dani is a bit of a tomboy. Reese was trying to project this in a scene where she had to get angry with the boy, but it had a false ring to it. Because in real life she is n't a tomboy. She 's a real ' girl ' girl. Just before we did another rehearsal, I told her I wanted her to chew gum. Well, she started chewing gum and all of a sudden the performance happened. She was tough. Strong. Direct. And the scene worked. Like that. In an instant, it was there. What was marvelous was, at the end of the scene, Reese knew that something happened. Her compass, her sense of what 's real, kicked in. The motor was running and she knew it. It was funny because she said: ' Can I always chew gum? ' And I said: ' Yeah. ' '' The photography was by Academy Award - winning cinematographer Freddie Francis.
The film was highly praised by Roger Ebert, who included it at No. 8 in his Top 10 list of the best films of 1991, declaring, "Nothing else (Mulligan) has done... approaches the purity and perfection of The Man in the Moon. As the film approached its conclusion without having stepped wrong once, I wondered whether he could do it - whether he could maintain the poetic, bittersweet tone, and avoid the sentimentalism and cheap emotion that could have destroyed this story. Would he maintain the integrity of this material? He would, and he does. ''
Later, Mulligan became disenchanted with how the film was edited and cut by airlines, particularly American and Delta Air Lines, for in - flight showings. He became so disturbed by these airline edits to the picture that he insisted that his name be removed from the credits of the film.
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when does the dance academy movie come out | Dance Academy - Wikipedia
Dance Academy is an Australian teen - oriented television drama produced by Werner Film Productions in association with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and ZDF. Series one premiered on 31 May 2010, and series two began airing on 12 March 2012. Series three premiered on ABC3 on 8 July 2013 in Australia.
A film sequel to the television series, Dance Academy: The Movie, was released by StudioCanal in Australian cinemas on 6 April 2017.
Dance Academy is narrated mainly from the perspective of Tara Webster (Xenia Goodwin), a newly accepted first year student at the National Academy of Dance in Sydney, which also doubles as a Year 10 - 12 high school for the dancers. Throughout the series, she learns to better her ballet technique, as well as learn contemporary ballet and hip - hop dance; while creating lifelong friendships and experiencing many hardships. In the first series, Tara soon befriends fellow students Kat (Alicia Banit) and Ethan Karamakov (Tim Pocock), Sammy Lieberman (Tom Green), Abigail Armstrong (Dena Kaplan) and Christian Reed (Jordan Rodrigues), as well as eventually getting to know her teacher Ms. Raine (Tara Morice).
Series two saw Tara return to the Academy for her second year with the hope of representing Australia in an international ballet competition, the Prix de Fonteyn. This series introduced characters Grace Whitney (Isabel Durant), Ben Tickle (Thomas Lacey), Ollie Lloyd (Keiynan Lonsdale), and Saskia Duncan (Brooke Harman), and saw the characters ' reaction to the untimely death of Sammy.
Series three followed the characters as third years at the Academy, competing for a contract with the dance company to become principal dancers. After the temporary contracts have been established, the third years go on tour for "Romeo and Juliet ''.
Dance Academy is produced by Joanna Werner 's film company Werner Films Productions in association with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Screen Australia, Film Victoria, Film New South Wales and ZDF for Germany. As of August 2012, airing rights to Dance Academy have been sold to 180 territories, airing on every continent except Antarctica.
Casting for series one began in early 2009 in Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. All cast members had to be skilled in drama and dancing and had to cope with Australia 's best choreographers. Filming began on 13 July 2009 and wrapped up in early November. The series premiere was originally planned for a mid-2010 premiere on ABC3, however, like Dead Gorgeous, the premiere was pushed to ABC1 on 31 May 2010 and ABC3 on 6 June 2010. The first series premiered on Germany 's ZDF on 26 September 2010.
Production of series two was officially green - lit by ABC and ZDF on 2 July 2010. Casting calls were issued on 14 September 2010, and principal photography in Sydney took place between 31 January and 4 August 2011. Series two premiered on ABC3 on 12 March 2012 and ran for 26 episodes, airing each week from Monday through Thursday, ending on 24 April.
Screen Australia approved investment funding for a third series of 13 episodes on 5 December 2011. Filming began 27 August 2012, ended filming 27 November 2012. On 5 June 2013, Alicia Banit and Thomas Lacey appeared on ABC3 's Studio 3 to announce the series 3 premiere on 8 July 2013.
On 22 April 2015, a feature film adaption of Dance Academy was announced along with other feature film projects to have received funding from Screen Australia. The film is a sequel to the television series, set 18 months after the events of series three, and follows Tara 's journey as she pursues her dream to become a ballerina star. Pre-production for the film, then titled Dance Academy: The Comeback, began on 17 April 2016. Shooting for the film began on 29 May 2016, and wrapped on 22 July. The official trailer for the film was released on 25 December 2016. The film, retitled Dance Academy: The Movie, was released by StudioCanal to Australian cinemas on 6 April 2017.
The show is available on streaming sites, including Hulu.com and Netflix.com. Entire episodes of all three seasons are also available, for free, on the show 's official Youtube channel, however it is not available in Australia.
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation has released all episodes from series one through three on DVD -- with series one and two across four volumes and series three over two -- as well as series collections and a complete series one to three compilation.
ABC Books has released seven paperback novels, each based on a particular episode and from the perspective of a single character. The books are published by ABC Books and HarperCollins Australia.
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do you need to pass the bar in every state | Bar examination - wikipedia
A bar examination is a test intended to determine whether a candidate is qualified to practice law in a given jurisdiction.
The administration of bar exams is the responsibility of the bar association in the particular state or territory concerned. Those interested in pursuing a career at the bar must first be admitted as lawyers in the Supreme Court of their home state or territory. This generally requires the completion of legal studies which can take up to 8 years depending on the mode of study, the particular degree being completed and the law school. After completing a law degree, law graduates are then usually required to complete a period of practical legal training or PLT.
During the PLT period, law graduates are provided with further legal education focusing more on the practical or technical aspects of the law, such as court practice, conveyancing and drafting statements of claim. Law graduates are also required to complete a minimum number of days under the supervision of a more senior lawyer.
After the successful completion of practical legal training, law graduates must then apply to be admitted to the Supreme Court in their state or territory. This ceremony is usually held with the Chief Justice of the state or territory presiding. It is a formal ceremony which also includes taking an oath (or making an affirmation) to uphold the laws of the jurisdiction and results in the person 's name being recorded on the Roll of Practitioners in that jurisdiction.
Once admitted, those wishing to practise as barristers must contact the relevant bar association to register and sit the bar exam. The frequency and availability of these exams depends on the relevant bar association. Generally, the bar exams focus on three main areas of practice which are relevant to barristers; namely evidence, procedure and ethics. The exams are usually administered during the course of a day and comprise of a variety of question types, usually answers are given in essay form. Candidates are informed of their results within a few months and pass rates are very competitive. It should be noted that passing the bar exam in and of itself does not automatically allow one to practise as a barrister, in many jurisdictions (such as New South Wales) further requirements apply.
In New South Wales, successful bar exam candidates are required to complete the NSW Bar Association Bar Practice Course (BPC), which despite its name, is a mandatory course required to be taken after passing the bar exam. The BPC consists of lectures, assignments and a significant amount of further reading about court procedure and case law. At the conclusion of the BPC, candidates are then required to appear in a mock trial, often before real judicial officers, and argue their respective case. Once satisfied that the candidate has completed these requirements, the NSW Bar Association then provides each candidate with their practising certificate.
Newly called barristers are referred to as readers for a period of usually one year and are required to have at least one tutor who is barrister with at least seven years of call but is not Senior Counsel. The term reader and tutor are similar to the term pupil and pupil master as used in the United Kingdom Inns of Court.
The initial practising certificate often contains restrictions on what type of work readers are permitted to do. This may include restrictions such as appearing in court alone, undertaking direct access briefs or any other restriction which the bar association deems appropriate. After the 12 month period and upon completion of further requirements such as civil and criminal reading to the bar associations satisfaction, readers are then provided with an unrestricted practising certificate and are no longer readers but barristers.
Further information can be obtained from the relevant bar association in each state or territory:
New South Wales Bar Association
Victorian Bar Association
Queensland Bar Association
The Order of Attorneys of Brazil (Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil), the Brazilian Bar association, administers a bar examination nationwide two to three times a year (usually in January, March and September). The exam is divided in two stages -- the first consists of 80 multiple choice questions covering all disciplines (Ethics, Human Rights, Philosophy of Law, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Civil Law, Consumer Law, Civil Procedure Law, Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure Law, Labour Law and Labour Procedure Law). The candidate must score at least 40 questions correctly to proceed to the second part of the exam, four essay questions and a drafting project (motion, opinion or claim document) in Civil Law (including Consumer Law), Labour Law, Criminal Law, Administrative Law, Constitutional Law, Corporate Law or Tax Law, and their respective procedures. The Bar examination can be taken on the graduation year. Success in the examination allows one to practice in any court or jurisdiction of the country.
In Canada, admission to the bar is a matter of provincial or territorial jurisdiction. All provinces except for Québec follow a common law tradition. Lawyers in every common law province are qualified as both barristers and solicitors, and must pass a Barristers ' Examination and Solicitors ' Examination administered by the Law Society that governs the legal profession in their respective province or territory. The common law provinces all require prospective lawyers to complete a term of articles (usually 10 months) after graduation from law school during which they work under the supervision of a qualified lawyer. The bar exams may be taken after graduation from law school, but before the commencement of articling, or may be taken during or after articling is completed. Once the barristers ' and solicitors ' exams have been passed and the term of articles is successfully completed, students may then be called the bar and admitted to the legal profession as lawyers (barristers and solicitors).
Since the UK has a separated legal profession, Law graduates in England and Wales can take examinations to qualify as a Barrister or a Solicitor by either undertaking the BPTC or the LPC respectively. These courses are the vocational part of the training required under the Bar Association and The Law Society rules and are either undertaken on a full - time basis for one year or on a part - time basis over two years. After successfully completing these courses, which generally include various examinations and practical ability tests, graduates must secure either a Training Contract (for those who have completed the LPC) or a Pupillage (for those who have completed the BPTC). These are akin to Articling positions in other jurisdictions and are the final Practical stage before being granted full admission to practice. The general timescale therefore to become fully qualified after entering Law School can range between 6 -- 7 years (assuming no repeats are required).
However some controversy remains about the lack of Training Contracts and Pupillages available to graduates even after having completed the LPC / BPTC. These courses can vary in cost anywhere from £ 9,000 to £ 17,000 and are generally undertaken by students on a private basis making them incur additional costs. The final debt in student fees alone after having completed the academic and vocational training can range between £ 20,000 - £ 25,000. This is set to increase to £ 40,000 - £ 50,000 for students entering law school in the years 2012 due to the increased tuition fees for Law School itself.
In France, Law graduates must obtain a vocational degree called certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat (or CAPA in everyday speech) in order to practice independently. The most common way to achieve the CAPA is by training in an école d'avocats (Lawyer 's School). This training includes academical and vocational courses and mandatory internships in law firms. Entrance to Lawyer 's School is obtained by competitive examination.
To become a lawyer in Germany, one has to study law at university for four or five years. Then, one has to pass the First Juristic Examination (Erste Juristische Prüfung) in Law, which is administered in parts by the ministry of justice of the respective state and in parts by the university the person attends; the state part accounts for two thirds of the final grade, the university part for one third. This examination provides a very limited qualification, as there are no formal careers in the legal field that can be followed without further training. After the first juristic examination, candidates that wish to fully qualify must participate in a two - year practical training period (Referendariat) including practical work as judge, prosecutor, and attorney. At the end of this training, candidates must take and pass the Second State Examination (Zweites Staatsexamen). This examination, if passed, allows successful participants to enter the bar as attorney, to become judges and to become state attorneys. All careers have the same legal training (Einheitsjurist), even though some careers require additional training (namely public notaries and patent lawyers).
To become a lawyer in Ghana, you have to study law at any university that offers the Bachelor of Laws degree. After completing the four year law degree, graduands can apply to be enrolled at the Ghana School of Law. Following two years of professional training, successful students can take their bar examination. Upon passing the bar examination, an induction and calling to the bar ceremony is held for all graduating students.
In Hungary, the Bar Examination is called "Jogi Szakvizsga '', can be translated as "Legal Profession Examination ''. This exam is composed of three parts:
After passing these exams the candidate can practice law as an attorney - at - law / barrister or as a secretary / judge at the court or as a prosecutor at the public prosecutor 's office or in - house legal counsel or may operate individually at any field of law.
The bar exams in Ireland are the preserve of the Honorable Society of King 's Inns, which runs a series of fourteen exams over ten weeks, from March to June each year, for those enrolled as students in its one - year Barrister - at - Law degree course. These exams cover such skills as advocacy, research and opinion writing, consulting with clients, negotiation, drafting of legal documents and knowledge of civil and criminal procedure. For those who fail to meet the requisite 50 % pass mark, repeats are held in the following August and September.
The Bar Exam in Iran is administered by two different and completely separate bodies, one of which is the Bar Association of every province all of which are under the auspices of the country 's syndicate of the bars of the country, and the other one is administered by Judiciary System subject to article 187 of the country 's economic, social and cultural development plan. The following is the process of obtaining the license through the Bar Association 's procedures.
To receive the license to practice as a "First Degree Attorney '' in Iran, an applicant should complete a bachelor of law program. The official career path starts after passing the Bar Exam and receiving the title of "Trainee at Law ''. The exam is highly competitive and only a certain number of top applicants are admitted annually.
After admission to the bar, an eighteen - months apprenticeship program begins which is highly regulated under the auspices of Bar Syndicate Rules and supervision of an assigned First Degree Attorney. Trainees or apprentices must attend designated courts for designated weeks to hear cases and write case summaries. A logbook signed by the judge on the bench has to certify their weekly attendance. By the end of the eighteenth month, they are eligible to apply to take the Final Bar Exam by submitting their case summaries, the logbook and a research work pre-approved by the Bar. It is noteworthy, however, that during these eighteen months, Trainees are eligible to have a limited practice of law under the supervision of their supervising Attorney. This practice does not include Supreme Court eligible cases and certain criminal and civil cases. Candidates will be tested on Civil law, Civil Procedure, Criminal law, Criminal Procedure, Commercial Law, Notary (including rules pertaining Official Documents, Land & Real Estate registrations and regulations etc.). Each exam takes two days, a day on oral examination in front of a judge or an attorney, and a day of essay examination, in which they will be tested on hypothetical cases submitted to them. Successful applicants will be honoured with the title of "First Degree Attorney '', after they take the oath and can practice in all courts of the country including the Supreme Court. Those who fail must redo the apprenticeship program in full or in part before taking the Final Bar Exam again.
The bar exams in Japan yield the least number of successful candidates worldwide. The old format of the examinations, last held in 2010 saw only 6 % passing the exam. With the new format of examinations, even after extensive reforms and a new mandatory duration of graduate school education for a period of two years, the pass rate is only 22 %. Since 2014, candidates are allowed to take the examinations within five years before their right to take the exam is revoked and they either have to return to law school, take the preparatory exam or give up totally. It is administered solely by the Ministry of Justice.
Due to the colonial - era influence, Korea 's bar exam system closely follows that of Japan 's. Korea is phasing out in 2017 its old system that allows anyone to take the exam and undergo mandatory 2 - year state - sponsored training that is criticized for generating "고시 낭인 '' or "exam jobless '' referring to people who spend many years of their lives preparing for the exam. The new law school system that began in 2009 allows only the graduates of a law school to apply for the bar exam.
The Philippine Bar Examination is administered once every year on the four Sundays of November (September before 2011). It covers eight areas of law: political law, labor law and social legislation, criminal law, civil law, commercial law, taxation law, remedial law, and legal ethics and practical exercises.
In Poland, the bar examination is taken after graduating from a law faculty at a university. It allows a person to undertake practice, the duration of which varies depending on the specialization. After the practical period applicants must pass the exam held by the Professional Chambers with assistance from some members of the Ministry of Justice.
The Singapore Bar Examination (Part B) is administered once every year, usually over the course of four days. The exam is generally held on the last week of November, and is administered by the Singapore Institute of Legal Education (SILE). The eight practice areas covered in the examination include, Civil Law Practice, Criminal Law Practice, Ethics and Professional Responsibility, Family Law Practice, Real Estate Practice, Insolvency Practice, and two electives to be chosen from a list of elective subjects offered, such as, Mediation, Arbitration, and Intellectual Property.
In Singapore, the legal profession is a fused profession, granting the professional qualification of an ' Advocate and Solicitor ' to any successful candidate of the Bar Examinations and its practical requirements. To qualify as a candidate for the Bar Examinations, an aspiring candidate must first be a graduate from a law school or university that is on the approved list of schools mandated by the Ministry of Law. The three universities based in Singapore offering a Bachelor of Laws degree are, National University of Singapore, Singapore Management University, and Singapore University of Social Sciences. There are presently twenty - seven (27) foreign universities offering an approved Bachelor of Laws degree on the list, hailing from four countries, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States of America.
To be called to the Singaporean Bar, all law graduates must complete the following:
In addition, all law graduates of non-Singaporean university must complete the following additional requirements:
See Legal education: South Africa.
In Thailand, the bar examination is different from the lawyer licence. To practice law as a lawyer, i.e. to speak in the court, one must pass a lawyer licence examination and does not need to be called to the bar. People take the bar examination to become qualified to take a judge or public prosecutor examination.
To be called to the bar, one must pass the written exams consisting of four parts as follows.
Each part has 10 essay questions. The pass mark is 50. The parts 1 - 2 are usually taken in October and the rest are usually taken in March. One does not need to pass all four parts in one year. After passing all the written exams, there is an oral exam.
Around 10,000 bar students sit the exam each year. In 2013, 1,231 students were called to the bar, 111 of whom did it in only one year.
Quite confusingly with international norms, students called to the bar are referred to as netibandit (เนติบัณฑิต), which gets translated into English as Barrister - at - Law. The Thai legal profession, however, is a fused one and those with lawyer licenses are able to practice both as barristers and solicitors in the British / Commonwealth sense. Many students called to the bar choose to become judges or public prosecutors instead of lawyers. As the Thai bar examination (administered and awarded by the Thai Bar Association) is separate from the lawyers licensing scheme (administered and awarded by the Lawyers Council of Thailand), this means that judges and public prosecutors belong to a separate licensing organization from lawyers. This is unlike in the US where judges and prosecutors most often come from the ranks of senior lawyers and belong to the same bar. \
Bar exams are administered by agencies of individual states. In 1738, Delaware created the first bar exam with other American colonies soon following suit. A state bar licensing agency is invariably associated with the judicial branch of government, because American attorneys are all officers of the court of the bar (s) to which they belong.
Sometimes the agency is an office or committee of the state 's highest court or intermediate appellate court. In some states which have a unified or integrated bar association (meaning that formal membership in a public corporation controlled by the judiciary is required to practice law therein), the agency is either the state bar association or a subunit thereof. Other states split the integrated bar membership and the admissions agency into different bodies within the judiciary; in Texas, the Board of Law Examiners is appointed by the Texas Supreme Court and is independent from the integrated State Bar of Texas.
The bar examination in most U.S. states and territories is at least two days long (a few states have three - day exams) and usually consists of:
Each state controls where it administers its bar exam. Because the MBE (below) is a standardized test, it must be administered on the same day across the country. That day occurs twice a year as the last Wednesday in July and the last Wednesday in February. Two states, Delaware and North Dakota, may administer their bar exams only once, in July, if they do not have enough applicants to merit a second sitting. North Dakota requires ten applicants in order to administer the February exam. Most bar exams are administered on consecutive days. Louisiana is the exception, with the Louisiana Bar Exam being a three - day examination on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Also, Louisiana 's examination is the longest in the country in terms of examination time, with seven hours on Monday and Wednesday and seven and one half hours on Friday for a total of 21.5 hours of testing. Montana 's bar examination also occurs over a three - day period, with a total of 18 hours of testing. The bar exams in Delaware, Nevada, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas are also three days long. The California bar exam moved to a two - day format beginning with the July, 2017 exam.
The MEE and MPT, as uniform though not standardized tests, also must be administered on the same day across the country -- specifically the day before the MBE.
Most law schools teach students common law and how to analyze hypothetical fact patterns like a lawyer, but do not specifically prepare law students for any particular bar exam. Only a minority of law schools offer bar preparation courses.
To refresh their memory on "black - letter rules '' tested on the bar, most students engage in a regimen of study (called "bar review '') between graduating from law school and sitting for the bar. For bar review, most students in the United States attend a private bar review course which is provided by a third - party company and not their law school.
The National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) is a U.S. based non-profit organization that develops national ("multistate '') standardized tests for admission to the bar in individual states. The organization was founded in 1931. The best known exams developed by NCBE are the Multistate Bar Examination (1972), the Multistate Essay Examination (1988), the Multistate Performance Test (1997), and the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (1980).
NCBE has developed a Uniform Bar Examination (UBE), which consists solely of the MBE, MEE, and MPT, and offers portability of scores across state lines. Missouri became the first state to adopt the UBE; both that state and North Dakota were the first to administer the UBE, doing so in February 2011. Following Missouri 's lead, several other jurisdictions, all of which were among the 22 that already were using all three components of the UBE, are expected to adopt that examination. However, many of the largest legal markets -- California, Florida, Illinois and Texas -- have so far chosen not to adopt the UBE. Among the concerns cited with the adoption of the UBE were its absence of questions on state law and the fact that it would give the NCBE much greater power in the bar credentialing process.
As of January 2017, the Uniform Bar Examination Jurisdictions are (date of first UBE administration in parentheses):
The Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) is a standardized, multiple - choice examination created and sold to participating state bar examiners.
The examination is administered on a single day of the bar examination in 49 states and the District of Columbia, as well as in Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Republic of Palau. The only state that does not administer the MBE is Louisiana, which follows a civil law system very different from the law in other states. The MBE is also not administered in Puerto Rico, which, like Louisiana, has a civil law system. The MBE is given twice a year: on the last Wednesday of July in all jurisdictions that require that examination, and on the last Wednesday of February in the same jurisdictions, except for Delaware and North Dakota.
The 200 MBE questions test six subjects based upon principles of common law and Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (covering sales of goods) that apply throughout the United States. The questions are not broken down into sections and the six topics are distributed more or less evenly throughout the course of the exam. Exam - takers generally receive three hours during the morning session to complete the first 100 questions, and another three hours during the afternoon session to complete the second 100 questions.
In January 2009, NCBE indicated that it was considering adding a seventh topic, civil procedure, to the examination. Civil Procedure was scheduled to make its first showing on the MBE in February 2015.
The average raw score from the summer exam historically has been about 128, or about 67 % correct (only 175 of the 200 questions are scored with the remaining 25 questions being evaluated for future use), while the average scaled score in 2007 was about 140. In summer 2007, the average scaled score was 143.7 with a standard deviation of 15.9. Over 50,000 applicants took the test; less than half that number took it in the winter.
Taking the MBE in one jurisdiction may allow an applicant to use his or her MBE score to waive into another jurisdiction or to use the MBE score with another state 's bar examination.
The Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is a collection of essay questions largely concerning the common law administered as a part of the bar examination in 26 jurisdictions of the United States: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Northern Mariana Islands, Oregon, Palau (Not part of the United States), Rhode Island, South Carolina (eff. Feb. 2017), South Dakota, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
The MEE can cover any of the following areas:
MEE questions are actually drafted by the NCBE Drafting Committee, with the assistance of outside academics and practitioners who are experts in the fields being tested. After initial drafting, the questions are pretested, analyzed by outside experts and a separate NCBE committee, reviewed by boards of bar examiners in the jurisdictions that use the test, and then revised by the Drafting Committee in accordance with the results of this process. Each MEE question is accompanied by a grading guide, and the NCBE sponsors a grading workshop on the weekend following the bar exam whose results are provided to bar examiners.
The examination is always administered on a single day of the bar examination, specifically the day before the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE). Through February 2007, the MEE consisted of seven questions, with most jurisdictions selecting six of the seven questions to administer. Unlike the MBE, which is graded and scored by the NCBE, the MEE is graded exclusively by the jurisdiction that administers the bar examination. Each jurisdiction has the choice of grading MEE questions according to general U.S. common law or the jurisdiction 's own law.
The MEE is generally paired with the MPT.
The Multistate Performance Test (MPT), a written performance test designed to test an examinee 's ability to use fundamental lawyering skills in a realistic situation and complete a task that a beginning lawyer should be able to accomplish. It was developed by the NCBE and is used in many U.S. jurisdictions. The MPT is generally paired with the MEE.
In almost all jurisdictions, the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), an ethics exam, is also administered by the NCBE, which creates it and grades it. The MPRE is offered three times a year, in March, August and September, November
California and Pennsylvania draft and administer their own performance tests. California performance tests are three hours in length (as California has traditionally viewed the 90 - minute MPT as too short to meaningfully test anything, though it reverted to this format with its July 2017 sitting) and are far more difficult than the MPT.
As noted above, essay questions are the most variable component of the bar exam. States emphasize different areas of law in their essay questions depending upon their respective histories and public policy priorities. For example, unlike Texas and Alta California, Louisiana did not convert to common law when it was acquired by the United States, so its essay questions require knowledge of the state 's unique civil law system. Several states whose law descends from Spanish and Mexican civil law, like Texas and California, require all bar exam applicants to demonstrate knowledge of community property law. Pennsylvania, with a history of federal tax evasion (e.g., the Whiskey Rebellion), tests federal income tax law, while New Jersey, with a history of discriminatory zoning (resulting in the controversial Mount Laurel doctrine), tests zoning and planning law. Washington, South Dakota, and New Mexico each test Indian law, because of their relatively large populations of Native Americans and large numbers of Indian reservations. Most states test knowledge of the law of negotiable instruments and secured transactions (Articles 3 and 9 of the Uniform Commercial Code), but Alaska, California, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania do not; they have recognized that the vast majority of criminal, personal injury, and family lawyers will never draft a promissory note or litigate the validity of a security interest.
A statement by the Society of American Law Teachers (SALT) articulates many criticisms of the bar exam.. The SALT statement, however, does propose some alternative methods of bar admission that are partially test - based. A response to the SALT statement was made by Suzanne Darrow - Kleinhau in The Bar Examiner
The NCBE published an article in 2005 addressing alternatives to the bar exam, including a discussion of the Daniel Webster Scholar Honors Program, an alternate certification program introduced at the University of New Hampshire School of Law (formerly Franklin Pierce Law Center) in that year.
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electronics corporation of india limited (ecil) hyderabad | Electronics Corporation of India Limited - Wikipedia
Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) (भारत इलेक्ट्रॉनिक्स निगम लिमिटेड (ईसीआईएल)) is a Government of India Enterprise under the Department of Atomic Energy, established on April 11, 1967 by A.S. Rao at Hyderabad, to create a strong indigenous base in electronics. ECIL is a multi-product, multi disciplinary organisation with focus on indigenous Nuclear energy, space and Defence sectors. ECIL also has a strong presence in indigenous Electronic Security, Communications, Networking and e-governance domains. ECIL has committed partnerships with nuclear energy establishments of India, particularly Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). ECIL also actively supports other strategic sectors such as indigenous Defence (Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)), Space (Department of Space (India)) Civil Aviation, Information and Broadcasting, Telecommunications, Insurance, Banking, Police and Para-military Forces, Oil and Gas, Power, Space Education, Health, Agriculture, Steel and Coal.
ECIL is credited with producing the first indigenous digital computers, TDC 312 and TDC 316, solid state TV, control and instrumentation for nuclear power plants and first earth station antenna of India.
ECIL won Environment Protection Award for the year 2012 in the category "R&D and Other Units Group ''.
Present product range of ECIL includes:
The company has a human resource pool of approximately 3000 engineers and technicians.
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what is the main goal of an exploratory committee | Exploratory committee - Wikipedia
In the election politics of the United States, an exploratory committee is an organization established to help determine whether a potential candidate should run for an elected office. They are most often cited in reference to United States Presidential hopefuls, prior to the primaries.
Exploratory committees may be governed by law. For example, the District of Columbia legally defines Exploratory Committees as (in DC Official Code § 1 - 1101.01 (6) (B) (vi)):
Exploratory, draft or "testing the waters '' committees are formed solely for the purpose of determining the feasibility of an individual 's candidacy for office. The activities of exploratory committees may include polling, travel, and telephone calls to determine whether the individual should become a candidate.
Ron Elving described the use of exploratory committees in his article, Declaring for President is a Dance of Seven Veils, which aired on National Public Radio on December 5, 2006. He wrote:
The exploratory committee has been around for decades, and technically it creates a legal shell for a candidate who expects to spend more than $5,000 while contemplating an actual run. Under the rules, exploratory money may be raised without the full disclosure of sources required of true candidates. Only when the candidate drops the exploratory label does the full responsibility of transparency apply.
Candidates use an exploratory committee as not only a transitional phase for their bookkeeping but as an extra claim on media attention. Some of the most skillful handlers like to leak word that their candidate is testing the waters, then leak word that he or she is thinking about forming an exploratory committee. Additional "news '' can be made when the same candidate actually forms such a committee and registers with the Federal Election Commission. Yet a fourth round of attention may be generated when the word exploratory gets dropped from the committee filing.
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who's the defensive coordinator for the new england patriots | Matt Patricia - wikipedia
Matthew Edward Patricia (born September 13, 1974) is an American football coach who is the head coach of the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). Previously, he served 14 seasons as an assistant coach with the New England Patriots, including six seasons as the team 's defensive coordinator from 2012 to 2017. Patricia played college football at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), where he was a four - year letterman as an offensive lineman.
Patricia played at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) where he was a four - year letterman as a center and guard with the Engineers football team from 1992 to 1995. He received a Bachelor of Science in Aeronautical Engineering from RPI in 1996.
Patricia remained at RPI to begin his coaching career as a graduate assistant in 1996. He spent the next two years as an application engineer with Hoffman Air & Filtration Systems in East Syracuse, New York. After graduating, Patricia received an offer to maintain nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers with the Westinghouse Electric Company, but decided to return to football as the defensive line coach for Amherst College from 1999 to 2000. In 2001, he moved to Syracuse University as an offensive graduate assistant for the team, a position he held for three seasons.
Patricia joined the Patriots under head coach Bill Belichick as an offensive coaching assistant in 2004. In 2005, upon the departure of assistant offensive line / tight ends coach Jeff Davidson, Patricia was reassigned as the Patriots ' assistant offensive line coach. Then - linebackers coach Dean Pees was promoted to defensive coordinator after the season, prompting another reassignment for Patricia, this time to linebackers coach for the 2006 season. Patricia was named the team 's safeties coach in 2011. In 2012, he was promoted to the title of defensive coordinator, though he had been calling the plays on defense since the departure of Pees following the 2009 season. In January 2016, the Patriots gave permission for Patricia to interview for the head - coaching position of the Cleveland Browns, but Patricia would remain with the Patriots as defensive coordinator going into the 2016 season. The Patriots won three Super Bowls with Patricia: Super Bowl XXXIX at the end of the 2004 season, Super Bowl XLIX at the end of the 2014 season, and Super Bowl LI at the end of the 2016 season. On January 1, 2018 (NFL Black Monday), it was revealed that Patricia was the subject of the Detroit Lions ' and New York Giants ' head coaching searches.
On February 5, 2018, Patricia was named the head coach of the Detroit Lions. His first win as a head coach came on September 23, 2018, against his previous team, the New England Patriots, with Coach Patricia beating his old mentor, Bill Belichick, in the process.
NFL head coaches under whom Matt Patricia has served:
# denotes interim head coach
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when does the next fifty shades of grey movie come out | Fifty Shades Freed (film) - wikipedia
Fifty Shades Freed is an upcoming American erotic romantic drama film directed by James Foley and written by Niall Leonard, based on the novel of same name by E.L. James. It is the final film in the Fifty Shades trilogy, and a sequel to Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and Fifty Shades Darker (2017). The film stars Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan as Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey, respectively.
Principal photography on Fifty Shades Freed began simultaneously with Darker on February 9, 2016, in Paris and Vancouver. It is set to be released in the United States on February 9, 2018.
Following the events of Fifty Shades Darker, Christian and Ana are now married. However, Ana 's life is threatened when her former boss, Jack Hyde, swears revenge for being fired from SIP. Elena also returns to haunt Christian and makes the couple 's lives a lot more troublesome.
A film adaptation of the first book was produced by Michael De Luca Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. At a fan screening in New York City on February 6, director Sam Taylor - Johnson announced that the book sequels Fifty Shades Darker and Fifty Shades Freed would also be adapted, with the first to be released in 2016. Right after the announcement, Taylor - Johnson told Digital Spy that, "It 's not my decision (to return), and I have n't been privy to any of the discussions. '' On November 12, 2015, TheWrap confirmed that James Foley would direct both sequels which would be shot back - to - back in 2016, with Niall Leonard writing the script and Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti returning to produce along with E.L. James and Marcus Viscidi. Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan would also return for lead roles. On February 8, 2016, Arielle Kebbel was cast in the film to play Gia Matteo, a beautiful architect who is hired by Christian to build his home. On February 12, 2016, Eric Johnson was cast to play Jack Hyde, Ana 's boss at SIP and stalker. On February 20, 2016, Brant Daugherty signed on to play Sawyer, the personal body guard for Anastasia Steele.
In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that Fifty Shades Darker and this film would be shot back - to - back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. Filming began in Paris and Vancouver from February 9, 2016, to July 12, 2016, under the working title, "Further Adventures of Max and Banks 2 & 3. ''
Fifty Shades Freed is scheduled to be released on February 9, 2018, by Universal Pictures. A teaser trailer was released on September 10, 2017.
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when was the levee built in new orleans | Orleans Levee Board - wikipedia
From 1890 through 2006, the Orleans Levee Board was the body of commissioners that oversaw the Orleans Levee District (OLD) which supervised the levee and floodwall system in Orleans Parish, Louisiana. The role of the OLD has changed over time. Prior to Hurricane Betsy in 1965, the OLD developed land and sold it to raise money to build and improve levees. After 1965, Congress directed the Army Corps of Engineers to be responsible for design and construction of the hurricane flood protection system enveloping New Orleans.
Owing to the 1965 legislation, the OLB 's duties regarding hurricane surge protection were now limited to collecting the 30 % cost share for project design and construction, and to maintaining and operating completed flood protection structures. Until the end of 2006, the OLB was a major governmental entity which functioned independently of municipal government in and around Orleans Parish. (Orleans Parish is coextensive with the city of New Orleans; their boundaries are one and the same).
In the wake of the catastrophic levee failures in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, two new regional flood protection authorities were created to replace the multiple parochial levee boards, including Orleans Parish 's Levee Board. Most of the Orleans Levee District now falls under the jurisdiction of the Southeast Louisiana Flood Protection Authority - East, charged with the oversight of all flood - protection infrastructure for Greater New Orleans on the East Bank of the Mississippi River. The Southeast Louisiana Flood Protection Authority - West possesses the same metro - wide jurisdiction for the West Bank of the Mississippi, and it includes that portion of the Orleans Levee District on the West Bank (i.e., Algiers).
After Hurricana Katrina, it was widely believed that perhaps a different form of levee board governance might be more appropriate for a major marine terminal like New Orleans. Nevertheless, the issue of whether the members of the OLB Engineering Committee acted incompetently or negligently has not been conclusively demonstrated or proven.
The pre-Katrina Orleans Levee District (OLD), governed by the Orleans Levee Board (OLB), owned considerable assets, mainly real estate, a peculiarity that stems from its history. The Orleans Levee District was created by the Louisiana legislature in 1890 for the purpose of protecting the low - lying city of New Orleans from floods. At that time, communities along the Mississippi River were largely in charge of creating their own levees to protect themselves, as no unified levee system existed. Most neighboring parishes had (and some still have) similar parochial levee boards. In the early twentieth century, the OLD reclaimed a portion of Lake Pontchartrain, a 24 - mile wide lake north of New Orleans. The OLD developed the land and sold it to raise money to build and improve levees. Starting in the 1920s, the Board undertook a massive flood - protection initiative involving the construction of a stepped seawall several hundred feet north of a portion of the existing south shore of Lake Pontchartrain. The intervening area was filled to several feet above sea level and was to serve as a "super levee '' protecting the city from the Lake 's storm surge.
The Lake Vista, Lake Oaks, Lake Terrace, East and West Lakeshore subdivisions and other property between Robert E. Lee Blvd and Lake Pontchartrain are all examples of the OLB 's developed properties.
In 1924, the state legislature authorized the OLB to acquire 33,000 acres (130 km2) of land on the east bank of the Mississippi River about 50 miles (80 km) south of New Orleans in order to build the Bohemia Spillway between the River and the Gulf of Mexico. (1924 La. Acts 99). Approximately half of this land was public property transferred from the state; the other half was either expropriated, or purchased under threat of expropriation, from private owners according to a legal finding. (1928 La. Acts 246; 1942 La. Acts 311).
In the aftermath of the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the U.S. Congress gave the United States Army Corps of Engineers supervision and control over the design and construction of flood - control infrastructure throughout the Mississippi River Valley.
In 1934, New Orleans Lakefront Airport opened on land dredged from Lake Pontchartrain by the Levee Board, part of a larger "lakefill '' land - reclamation project initiated to construct a super levee for the protection of the northern perimeter of the city. The airport was originally named "Shushan Airport '' after Orleans Levee Board president Abraham Lazar Shushan; it was renamed "New Orleans Airport '' after Shushan 's indictment for corruption in the Louisiana Scandals of the late 1930s.
Governor Jimmie Davis, in his second term from 1960 to 1964, named the New Orleans attorney Gerald J. Gallinghouse as the president of the levee board. In that capacity, Gallinghouse delivered more than 300 speeches warning of the need to be prepared for weather disasters, another of which was on its way, Hurricane Betsy.
After extensive flooding during Hurricane Betsy in 1965, Congress ordered the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers henceforth to design and build flood protection in the Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Hurricane Protection Project. The OLB became the local sponsor, and its duties regarding flood protection were now limited to collecting 30 % cost - share for project design and construction and maintaining the completed structures. Despite Congress 's mandate that the Corps now had the authority to design / build flood protection, the OLB still retained extensive assets which had to be managed.
After Hurricane Katrina, in a context of shock, chaos and confusion, the Orleans Levee Board found itself at the center of the greatest crisis ever to face the city of New Orleans. Multiple levee and floodwall breaches in the Industrial Canal, the 17th Street Canal, and the London Avenue Canal resulted in the flooding of 80 % of the city. The flood is believed to have directly caused over 1,400 deaths; destroyed or severely damaged homes, businesses, and property in the majority of the city.
Investigations after the disaster revealed that the design of the levee and floodwall system, designed and built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, had profoundly inadequate design and construction specifications.
What is evident from the project record is that the Army Corps recommended raising the canal floodwalls for the 17th Street Canal, but recommended gated structures at the mouths of the Orleans and London Avenue Canals because the latter plan was less expensive. The OLB convinced Congress to pass legislation that required the Corps to raise the floodwalls for all three canals. Furthermore, the Corps, in a separate attempt to limit project costs, initiated a sheet pile load test (E-99 Study), but misinterpreted the results and wrongly concluded that sheet piles needed to be driven to depths of only 17 feet (1 foot 1⁄4 0.3048 meters) instead of between 31 and 46 feet. That decision saved approximately $100 million, but significantly reduced overall engineering reliability.
After the levee failures, the immediate assumption was that the OLD commissioners were not engaged in flood protection. This was reinforced by corps spokespersons who repeatedly told a story of local levee board officials who "forced '' the corps to build the system that failed. As revealed in an August 2015 article in the official journal of the World Water Council, the story is untrue, and responsibility for the levee failures belongs to the corps. Nonetheless, in the context of haste confusion, there were calls for the elimination of the Orleans Levee Board and other local boards.
During a special session of the Louisiana Legislature, a bill submitted by Sen. Walter Boasso (D - Arabi) was passed into law, which consolidated the levee boards of various parishes within Greater New Orleans. The new legislation was intended to (1) remove distractions, (2) replace parochial flood control with regional flood control, and (3) require commissioners to have professional expertise including hydrology, construction engineering and civil engineering.
The law created two new regional levee boards, Southeast Louisiana Flood Protection Authority - East and Southeast Louisiana Flood Protection Authority - West, separated by the Mississippi River. The Orleans Levee Board ceased to exist on January 1, 2007. The new regional flood - protection authorities assumed control of the Board 's flood - protection infrastructure. Lakefront Airport, the marinas (except for the city - owned Municipal Yacht Harbor), Lakeshore Drive, and the lakefront park system (except for West End Park, administered by New Orleans ' Parks and Parkways Department) are now operated and maintained by the Louisiana State Division of Administration Non-Flood Protection Asset Management Authority.
Investigative studies completed after the legislation 's passage revealed no causal link between the pre-Katrina levee boards and the flooding. Nonetheless, the new levee boards are very useful. To the extent legally possible and within budget, the East and West Levee Authorities are checking the corps ' general plans. They are well focused, have relevant expertise and may catch egregious planning and / or design errors. ''
The levee breach event was a pivotal moment in American history. The nation took a different path due to the flooding event. The myriad changes to national policy as a result of this lynchpin moment include, but are not limited to, the following: Nationwide assessment of levees, First - ever National Levee Safety Act, National Flood Risk Management Program, Reform of the Army Corps of Engineers and Changes in Levee Building by the Corps.
Since fifty - five percent of American people lives in counties protected by levees, this means the majority of the national population are safer.
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the princess who wanted the moon by james thurber | Many Moons - Wikipedia
Many Moons is a children 's picture book written by James Thurber and illustrated by Louis Slobodkin. It was published by Harcourt, Brace & Company in 1943 and won the Caldecott Medal in 1944. Princess Lenore becomes ill, and only one thing will make her better: the moon. Unlike much of Thurber 's other work, including The Secret Life of Walter Mitty and his fables, this story shows a crisis between males and females that ends happily for all.
Despite winning the Caldecott Medal with Slobodkin 's original illustrations, a reprint in 1990 by Harcourt featured the text accompanied by new illustrations by Marc Simont.
It was made into an opera by American composer, Celius Dougherty. It was also made into a play, adapted by Charlotte Chorpenning.
Princess Lenore suffers from "a surfeit of raspberry tarts '' -- eating too many sweets. She insists she is gravely ill, but if her father brings her the moon she 'll be well again.
Her father, the king, asks the wisest men in his court how he can give his daughter the moon, and becomes outraged when they all claim that it is too large, too far away, and composed of unstable or dangerous substances.
Despairing, the king confides in his court jester. The jester then asks the princess what she thinks the moon is made of, how big it is, and how far away. According to the princess, the moon is as big as her thumbnail and made of gold. She says it 's so close that he could climb a tree and pluck it from the sky. He promises to do just that, that very night.
Instead, the jester takes the princess 's specifications to royal goldsmith, who creates a necklace with a moon - like pendant. It is presented to the princess and she becomes well again.
The next day, the King fears she 'll see the moon in the sky and realize that the necklace is a forgery. He consults the wisest men in his court, who propose outrageous schemes to prevent her from seeing it in the sky.
Ultimately, the jester visits the princess, who is fondly gazing at the newly - risen moon. He asks her how the moon can be in two places, and she tells him the moon always grows back: like a child 's tooth, a unicorn 's horn, or flowers.
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what is caesar's sons name in planet of the apes | List of Planet of the apes characters - wikipedia
The Planet of the Apes franchise contains many characters that appear in one or more works.
Walker Edmiston (voice in Escape)
Caesar (birth name: Milo) is a fictional character in the Planet of the Apes franchise. He is the leader and later ruler of the apes in both the original and the 2011 reboot series. He does not appear in the 2001 film.
Caesar is the son of talking chimpanzees Cornelius and Zira. Originally named Milo after Dr. Milo, who travelled back in time with Cornelius and Zira to the Earth of Taylor 's era, he was reared by his human foster father Armando, a traveling circus owner who gave Cornelius and Zira sanctuary when Zira went into labor in the final act of Escape from the Planet of the Apes. Before departing, Zira switched the infant Milo with a young chimpanzee recently born to Armando 's primitive chimpanzee, Heloise. Heloise 's baby was killed, along with Zira, by the human Dr. Otto Hasslein. After Cornelius kills Hasslein, he is shot by a Marine Corps sniper. Milo speaks his first word, "Mama '', at the very end of the film. His false identity secure, Milo grew up as a mute acrobat.
Armando addresses Milo by the name Caesar in the next film. In the opening minutes of Conquest, he and Armando are visiting a large city for the first time, and Armando leads him around on a chain. In private, though, Caesar stands nearly erect, and he chats back and forth with Armando like a father and son. Armando critiques Caesar 's "act '' of behaving like a primitive chimpanzee, then gives him an idea of what to expect: In the years Caesar has been growing up in the provinces, many of the events his parents warned humanity about (before they were murdered, in an attempt to prevent their occurrence) have taken place -- the most significant being the space - borne plague that killed virtually all of Earth 's dogs and cats, leaving humanity without pets. Monkeys at first took their place, then gradually apes, who progressed from companions to household helpers, and eventually to a state of slavery.
Caesar tries to take what he sees (groups of apes being dispersed, chimps and orangutans being scolded or punished for honest mistakes or for exhibiting apelike behavior) in stride, but when he sees a chimp beaten by police, then shocked with a cattle prod, he impulsively cries out "Lousy human bastards! '' When the police turn their attention his way, Armando insists that he was the one who spoke, but nearby witnesses report differently. Caesar panics and runs away, leading them to suspect he understands what has occurred -- and perhaps is able to speak.
Armando is arrested, but is later released and rejoins Caesar momentarily. He knows now their charade (that Caesar is a mute, primitive ape) might have failed, and instructs Caesar to hide among his own and join a shipment of apes brought in by boat, if Armando can not convince the authorities that Caesar is harmless and only ran away because of the commotion. Armando goes downtown, to try to bluff his way out of trouble. When he fails to return, Caesar infiltrates a shipment of apes.
Passing his conditioning with flying colors, Caesar is next sold to Governor Breck, supervised by his assistant Mr. MacDonald, ironically an African - American descended from slaves. When Breck decides to formally name him, he takes out a reference book, turns to a page and points to a name at random, then bids Caesar to do likewise. Caesar chooses his adopted name, pretending to do so randomly, and is so registered. Next he is assigned to the city 's "command post '' -- the communications center for Ape Management, and its lockup for disobedient apes. (He is also selected to mate with Lisa, presumably resulting in the birth of their son Cornelius, who appears in the next movie.)
When Caesar learns that Armando died while in custody, he decides enough is enough, and he begins plotting an ape revolt, conspiring with other apes and driving them to turn on their masters. When Caesar is belatedly traced and discovered not to have been part of any ape shipment, he is captured and tortured by Breck, to see if he is indeed the talking offspring of two talking apes. MacDonald excuses himself from the scene and changes the breaker settings for the electroshock table Caesar is wired to. He can not prevent Caesar from being shocked to the point that he finally chokes out the words "Have pity! '', but he does prevent Caesar from being electrocuted to death.
Believed dead, Caesar kills the handler assigned to dispose of him, then throws the switch that opens all the cages in the ape lockup, and the revolt begins. Hours later, much of the city is in flames, the police and military have been beaten down, and the apes are in control, as Caesar predicts will follow around the world when word spreads. MacDonald tries to dissuade Caesar from further violence, while Lisa becomes the next ape to speak, telling Caesar "No! '' when he condemns all humanity.
In the fifth film, Battle, human and ape children gather around a statue of Caesar, now a legend who has been dead for over 600 years, as the Lawgiver tells them the story of how Caesar fought a battle that both solidified his position as ape leader and convinced him to give a joint ape - human society a chance, instead of one species dominating the other. Screenwriter Paul Dehn stated that the tear on Caesar 's statue at the end of the film was to tell the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed.
In Rise of the Planet of the Apes, Caesar (Andy Serkis) is the main protagonist. Will Rodman (James Franco) is working on a cure for Alzheimer 's by performing tests on apes for a pharmaceutical company in the San Francisco Bay Area. One of the first test subjects is Caesar 's mother, Bright Eyes, who is captured in Africa at the beginning of the film (also depicted in an online comic strip shortly before the movie 's release). Rodman 's "cure '', ALZ - 112, genetically increases Bright Eyes ' intelligence, and this is passed on to Caesar in the womb. After Bright Eyes is killed trying to protect her newborn child (an action mistaken by lab security as her having run amok), all other test apes are ordered destroyed; however, the sympathetic ape handler, Franklin, rescues Caesar and gives him to Will, who smuggles the baby chimp out of the lab and takes him to his home. Caesar spends years living with Rodman as his father and, from his time as an infant, shows intelligence that far surpasses humans at his age. After an incident where he attacks their aggressive neighbor who was being threatening to Will 's dementia - suffering father, he is eventually taken and forced into an ape "sanctuary '' where he is often tormented by one of the caretakers. Caesar eventually proves smart enough to break free from his cage, even yelling his first word of "No! '' in a confrontation with one of the caretakers; he steals Will 's new, stronger version of the intelligence - enhancing formula, ALZ - 113, and releases it among the other captive apes. Unlike the original virus, ALZ - 112, which is injected, ALZ - 113 is inhaled (therefore, airborne). They escape the sanctuary and are joined by other captive apes from the zoo and the lab, rallying to escape San Francisco, violently clashing with police. Like his appearance in the fourth and fifth films, Caesar is shown to be compassionate, forbidding his followers from killing innocent humans and those who do n't seek to harm them. This clashes with the mindset of another ape, Koba, who is shown to be somewhat maniacal in his resistance. At the film 's conclusion, the apes escape to the redwood forest outside the city, with Rodman and Caesar sharing an emotional farewell as Caesar decides to live free among his own kind, telling Rodman "Caesar is home '' before they part.
The threat of retribution by humans - mentioned by Will as he says farewell -- is put to rest in a mid-credits scene. Will 's neighbor, a pilot, nose dripping blood and apparently infected with the ALZ - 113 virus, arrives at San Francisco International Airport for his flight. While ominous music plays, a graphic traces the spread of the humanity - killing virus to Paris and around the globe via airline flight routes.
After 10 years of living in peace and safety, Caesar still reigns strongly over the apes. Now middle - aged and raising a teenage son, Caesar leads his apes on a hunting expedition. He attempts to teach his son, Blue Eyes how to hunt without getting hurt but this does n't go to plan. Blue Eyes, who continuously ignores his father 's orders, wanders off and is attacked by a bear. Caesar, seeing his son in trouble rushes to help him but he too struggles with the bear. He calls for his friend Koba who spears the bear in the back, between the shoulder blades, killing it. Caesar emerges from under the bear 's corpse and attempts to check Blue Eyes ' injuries only to be brushed off.
Arriving back in the village, Caesar is summoned home by his wife Cornelia 's midwives. Hurrying home, the Ape king joins his wife just as she gives birth to their second son. Overjoyed by the reality of having a second son, Caesar summons Blue Eyes over, telling him, "Come meet your new brother ''. Together, the family celebrates the birth.
Later, Caesar sits looking out over the village with his long - time friend Maurice. Maurice congratulates Caesar over the birth of his new son. Caesar, taking his best friend 's comments in stride, smiles. The conversation steers away from the boys and turns to the humans. Maurice asks if Caesar misses the humans in which Caesar replies that he does sometimes. Maurice then recounts everything that has happened in the last ten years as the human appearances have become less and less.
Caesar awakens in the middle of the night by the sound of gunfire. Hurrying outside, he sees that the entire colony has heard it. Rushing out into the forest with Rocket and Maurice and various others, Caesar sees that his honorary nephew, Ash, the son of Rocket has been shot. Rocket begins to panic. Caesar tells Rocket to calm down and shouts in English at the humans to leave before ordering Koba to follow them.
Back in the village, Caesar sits listening as his council argues over what is to be done about the humans. Koba and Blue Eyes argue with Ash and Rocket about Ash 's shooting while Maurice sits silently, looking through the bag one of the humans dropped in the rush. Caesar shouts to make the council go silent. Caesar tells them that he will have a decision by morning. Afterwards, Koba approaches Caesar and tells him the apes need to make a show of strength to the humans.
The next morning the apes march into the remnants of San Francisco, on horseback and armed with spears. It is there, to the shock of most humans, that Caesar speaks and states that the apes have no interest in a war, but they will fight to protect themselves. He then tells the humans to not come back into the ape 's territory and has his son give Malcolm his son 's satchel and the ape army leaves back to their homes having given the message to the humans.
The next day, a single human, Malcolm comes to Caesar to explain why they came. On the condition of surrendering their weapons, Caesar allows a small group of humans to repair a dam near the apes. While the human - hating Koba and Blue Eyes disagree, Caesar fears the humans may attack if refused. After one human smuggles a shotgun and threatens Caesar 's sons, he demands that they leave. After Malcolm 's girlfriend Ellie saves Cornelia, Caesar allows them to stay and orders the apes to help. This act pushes Koba and Caesar to a brutal fight that almost kills Koba. In revenge, Koba steals a human gun and shoots Caesar, leading the apes to war in retaliation.
Caesar survives the gunshot and is nursed back to health by Malcolm and Ellie. With Blue Eyes ' help, he gathers loyal apes to him and confronts Koba, finally killing him. But Caesar considers the damage already done, as the coming human army will not forgive the apes for their actions. Wishing Malcolm goodbye, Caesar prepares to lead the remaining apes to war against the humans.
Two years later, Caesar 's clan is at war with the human military faction known as Alpha - Omega. The apes have captured four soldiers led by Preacher, and the gorilla named Red (a follower of Koba), who have joined the humans along with the other apes, after being disillusioned with Caesar 's leadership, in fear of retaliation from Caesar due to their betrayal. Caesar 's clan hides in Muir Woods, and Caesar offers the humans peace if the apes are left alone. Learning that Alpha - Omega follows the leadership of a mysterious Colonel, Caesar makes plans to relocate the clan across the desert, not wanting to suffer any more ape casualties after Koba 's wrath on San Francisco. The night before their journey, Alpha - Omega launches an assault on the ape home and Caesar 's wife Cornelia and eldest son Blue Eyes are slaughtered by the Colonel, leaving only Caesar 's youngest son Cornelius alive.
Leaving Cornelius in the care of Lake, the mate of his deceased son, Caesar departs to confront the Colonel, accompanied only by Maurice, Luca and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. Confronting traitorous albino gorilla Winter, they learn that the Colonel has departed for a location called the "border ''. During their journey, they are forced to kill a human living alone in an abandoned village, but when they discover his young daughter, apparently unable to speak, Maurice insists that they take her with them. Further along, they discover that some Alpha - Omega soldiers that have been shot and abandoned. They examine a survivor reveals that he, like the girl, can not speak. In an abandoned souvenir shop, the group meets Bad Ape, an ape hermit who lived in a zoo before he was exposed to the Simian Flu virus. Bad Ape is able to direct them to the border, a former weapons depot that was turned into a containment facility when the virus began to spread.
When the group arrives at the border facility, they were ambushed by an Alpha - Omega patrol, in which Luca was fatally stabbed, prompting Caesar to enter the facility alone. However, he is captured shortly after learning that the rest of his ape family have been caught by the Colonel. Witnessing his fellow apes being forced to build a wall, Caesar confronts the Colonel, who reveals that the Simian Flu virus has evolved further and is now causing some surviving humans to become mute and regress back to a primitive mentality. The Colonel is barricading himself into the facility to fend off rival military forces coming to execute him, as he favors killing any infected humans -- including his own son - while others believe that a cure is still possible.
While Caesar is tortured with starvation, the mute girl, whom Maurice names Nova, sneaks into the facility to give him food and water, although Rocket is forced to allow himself to be captured to create a distraction so that Nova can escape. Together, Caesar and Rocket are able to work out a means of accessing the ape cage via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility, with Bad Ape and Maurice digging their way into the cage. After rescuing the children, Caesar sends his followers away while he confronts the Colonel, but the facility is subsequently attacked by the external military forces. When Caesar reaches the Colonel, he realizes that the Colonel has succumbed to the infection and is regressing to a primitive state. Caesar fights but ultimately spares the Colonel, who takes his own life rather than become a primitive. In a massive battle among Caesar 's apes, Alpha - Omega and the rival militants, Caesar attempts to throw the grenade to the facility 's fuel supplies, but he gets shot by Preacher. Red, a donkey - captured apes who give up freedom to work for humans against Caesar 's ape colony - redeems and sacrifices himself by killing Preacher, and saving Caesar 's life, helping to destroy the fuel tank. As the apes fall in numbers, an oncoming avalanche arrives, and wipes out the remaining Alpha - Omega soldiers, as well as the opposing militant forces, while the apes and Nova retreat to the safety of the trees.
Departing the facility, the remaining apes cross the desert and find a park that is rich in natural resources. Caesar reveals to Maurice that he is dying of his wounds. Before Caesar dies, Maurice assures Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes.
Also (portrayed by Claude Akins) emerges as the villain in Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He is the general of the Gorilla militia, which mostly guards the outskirts of Ape City, and practices with mock weapons. He is both jealous of his human advisors and of Caesar (and his son, Cornelius, who bests him in the school that all apes must attend) and would like to take his place as leader. Humans live alongside apes in the city, but as second class citizens.
Discovering a large number of (irradiated) humans still alive underground in the bomb - destroyed city they escaped, as he is discovered during a trip to the ruins, Caesar implores the apes to prepare themselves, in case those humans emerge to attack. Aldo uses the alarm as an excuse to corral all the humans of Ape City, break into the armory to seize guns and other weapons, and declare martial law. Meanwhile, Cornelius has been injured falling from a tree branch (purposely cut by Aldo), and Caesar does n't want to leave his son 's side, therefore Aldo can do as he pleases. Caesar only remembers his duty toward the other apes when an attack comes.
Caesar and Aldo fight together, but with the enemy driven back, Aldo ignores Caesar 's order to stand down, and leads his forces to catch and massacre the retreating mutant humans. Caesar discovers Aldo 's usurpation of power, his treatment of the humans, and Aldo 's role in his son 's death. Upon Aldo 's return from the slaughter, the two battle it out, from the ground to the trees, and for ultimate control of the ape / human society. According to ape lore, an ape had never killed another; the population, aghast at Aldo 's sin, mournfully chant "ape has killed ape '' while Aldo and Caesar fight in the tree. Caesar avenges Cornelius, knocking Aldo from the tree to his death.
Aldo is first referenced in the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when the chimpanzee Cornelius describes him as the first ape to acquire the power of speech -- and the first to say "No! '' to his human captors. Portrayed by David Chow, he appears in the next film, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, as a Chimpanzee whose beating at the hands of human guards is witnessed by Armando and Caesar, the son of Cornelius and Zira, who later leads the ape revolt.
Armando is a circus owner, a human friend of Cornelius and Zira, and foster - father of Caesar in the Planet of the Apes movie series. He was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán.
A believer in Saint Francis of Assisi, "who loved all animals '', the jovial, warm - hearted Armando readily comes to the aid of Cornelius and his pregnant wife Zira during Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when most of humanity has rejected them, and even the United States Government plans to prevent their ever having children, since they someday "may constitute a threat to the human race. '' Armando states that if the human race is ever dominated by another species, he 'd like most of all for it to be the chimpanzee. While Armando does his best to help the pair, and conceal their newly born son Milo (later called Caesar), he ca n't prevent their murder at the hands of Dr. Otto Hasslein. He takes responsibility for Caesar, raising him publicly as a circus chimpanzee, while privately teaching him human knowledge and introducing him to human habits.
In the fourth Apes movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Armando brings Caesar to a large city for the first time, after raising him mostly in "the provinces '' and remote areas, where Caesar has been unaware of apes ' adoption as pets (to replace the dogs and cats lost to a spaceborn plague), which has led gradually to their present enslavement. Armando keeps Caesar on a short leash in public, while coaching him on apelike mannerisms when nobody 's looking. All the same, fate gets the better of them; when Caesar sees an ape (a chimpanzee named Aldo) mistreated, he swears his frustration -- bringing himself and Armando to the attention of the police.
Slipping away, Armando and Caesar try to formulate a plan to prevent further trouble. Armando already claimed to be the one who cried out, and plans to tell the authorities that Caesar is frightened of cities, and ran away because of the public commotion. He tells Caesar to wait for him near the docks where shipments of apes arrive nightly for "conditioning '' and training as servants, and to infiltrate a shipment if Armando fails to return. Caesar does so, finding himself by degrees sold to Governor Breck, and assigned to Ape Management 's command post.
Armando undergoes a lengthy, tense interrogation at the hands of the state 's authorities, who ultimately believe his alibi, and that Caesar is mute and not the son of "the talking apes ''. They insist, though, that he pass a screening by the "Authenticator '' -- a hypnotic device which compels its subjects to tell the complete truth -- before he is released. Armando first refuses to submit on gentlemanly grounds, then when he sees no other way out, he throws himself through a window (falling to his death) rather than reveal what he knows about Caesar.
When Caesar learns of Armando 's death, it becomes the last straw for him. Wanting revenge he begins to perpetrate an Ape revolt, executed over the rest of Conquest.
Governor Breck is the main antagonist in the fourth film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Academy Award - nominated actor Don Murray.
In 1991, the United States has gone from its original form of government to a system of provinces headed by governors, who rule in an authoritarian manner, with many curfews and restrictions imposed, and surveillance an everyday event. Protests and demonstrations are discouraged, or given time limits.
After the death of Earth 's dogs and cats (caused by a plague brought back by a space probe), apes took their place as pets -- and were genetically engineered to increase their intelligence. Progressing from performing tricks to doing household chores, apes have now become humanity 's slaves. The government supports this occurrence, since ape servants seem to lessen public discontent. Nobody considers the apes ' feelings or best interests, though, and tension is brewing. Governor Breck is n't fond of apes, but he does enjoy bossing them around, even more than the humans in his charge.
Breck witnesses an ape auction one day, and on a whim bids on a young chimpanzee (through his assistant Mr. MacDonald). His bid wins, and he shows the chimp how to choose a name from a book. The name he chooses is "Caesar '', pretending to just point randomly. While he is bright, and everyone suspects he was previously "conditioned '' and not a wild ape, he makes a mistake in the chore given him (mixing a cocktail for the governor). Breck decides to assign Caesar to his command post, as a messenger.
What Breck does not know, but comes to suspect, is that Caesar is actually an evolved ape, whose parents Cornelius and Zira came from Earth 's future, when apes are the dominant species. Caesar was brought up by Armando, a human circus owner, who taught him about humanity, and how to be a leader.
Armando dies in police custody, to protect Caesar 's secret. Angry and mournful, Caesar begins to set up an ape revolt, using his job at the command post to stay one step ahead of Breck, and his attempts to control the apes. Another assistant, Kolp, double - checks on recent ape shipments to Ape Management, and discovers that Caesar was the lone chimpanzee in a shipment from Borneo -- where chimps are not native. He reports this to Breck, who now wants to know exactly what Caesar knows. He also wonders if Caesar can tell him by speaking.
Breck orders MacDonald to turn Caesar over the minute he returns from an errand, but instead MacDonald, who learns Caesar can indeed speak, gives him the chance to escape. Caesar is captured by police, taken to Ape Management, and brought to an interrogation room resembling a torture chamber. Strapped to an electroshock table, Caesar is jolted with higher and higher amounts of electricity, while Breck commands him again and again, "Talk! '' In agony, Caesar gasps "Have pity! '' and slumps back on the table, exhausted. MacDonald leaves, showing no stomach for what Breck is doing.
Satisfied, Breck departs, and Kolp orders Caesar to be electrocuted immediately. MacDonald finds the room 's breaker box, and cuts off the electrical flow to the table. Caesar pretends to die, and everyone else leaves. Killing the handler sent to dispose of his body, Caesar decides the time has come to begin the revolt.
Caesar sets the Ape Management building on fire, then seizes the intercom system and pretends to be the governor 's spokesman, ordering the guards to release all the apes in custody -- even the dangerous ones. With the apes loose, panic begins to spread, and apes around the Ape Management complex begin to riot. More and more fires begin to break out, all over the city.
From his command post, Breck declares martial law, and issues one simple order concerning the rioting apes: "Shoot to kill! '' His troops are overwhelmed by the hundreds of apes they find in the streets, though, and nobody can believe the apes have acquired weapons -- and the skills to use them, or at least try them out. The apes smash the command post as they take control of Ape Management, seizing Breck, MacDonald and others.
Several Gorillas handle Breck as Caesar was once handled by Breck 's policemen; Caesar asks him the final question: Why was Breck so hateful toward apes, and toward himself most of all? With nothing left to lose, Breck admits to Caesar that enslaving wild apes was a way of dealing with his own human impulses, and so with other humans. Breck is taken away, presumably to be imprisoned by the apes. In the fifth film, it is revealed that Breck died in the nuclear war.
Brent is an American astronaut and a main protagonist in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franciscus.
Brent is the copilot of a rescue mission, sent after George Taylor 's ship was determined to have gone awry, in its flight to another star. Brent 's ship follows the same trajectory, and runs into the same problems, crash - landing in the Forbidden Zone, only this time on land. His pilot, Maddox, is blinded, and suffers fatal injuries, dying soon after the crash.
Once Brent has finished burying Maddox near their crash site, he is wondering if Taylor underwent a similar fate. It turns out he 's closer to meeting Taylor than he could have imagined, as he comes across a woman on horseback -- Taylor 's companion Nova, alone since Taylor disappeared. Discovering Nova is mute, but wearing Taylor 's dog tags, he climbs onto the horse also, demanding she take him to Taylor.
Not knowing what else to do, and unable to explain Taylor 's absence, Nova takes Brent to Ape City, to look for Zira. Brent overhears an anti-human speech by General Ursus, and his mind reels with mounting horror at the place he 's come to: "If this place has a name, it 's the Planet Nightmare! '' Wounded by a gorilla soldier, Brent takes refuge with Nova at the home of Zira and Cornelius.
Cornelius and Zira (who tends to Brent 's wound) help Brent and Nova get out of Ape City, but gorilla soldiers follow them into the Forbidden Zone. Hiding in a cave, they discover an old subway tunnel, and follow it deep underground to the ruins of New York City, and its mutant inhabitants. Brent is tested by the mutants, through their psychic abilities, forcing him to try to kill Nova, and to go where they want him. They interrogate him telepathically.
After Brent and Nova witness a mutant religious service (where mutants both worship an unexploded doomsday bomb, and reveal themselves to be hideously disfigured, from lingering radiation inside the zone), Brent is reunited with Taylor, who was taken prisoner. Their pleasure at meeting each other is broken by the sudden realisation of the mutants ' final plans for them both; as their jailer explains: "We do n't kill our enemies. We get our enemies to kill each other. '' Taylor and Brent are then forced by the jailer 's mental powers to fight one another.
Nova, who was separated from Brent after the worship service, gets loose from her guard, and finds Taylor and Brent fighting to the death. She is so stirred by the sight that she speaks for the first time in her life, crying "Taylor! '' and bringing the fight to a sudden stop. The jailer 's concentration broken, Brent and Taylor act, killing him but inadvertently locking themselves in the cell with Nova.
The three break the cell 's lock just as the gorilla army invades the underground city. A random shot kills Nova, demoralising Taylor, but Brent urges him to join the oncoming fight. Hurrying to the cathedral, Brent and Taylor take rifles and try to stop the apes from setting off the bomb and destroying everything. After killing General Ursus and several of his soldiers, Brent runs out of ammunition, and he is killed by the gorilla troops. A moment later the bomb detonates, triggered by Taylor as he falls in death, and Earth is destroyed.
In early versions of the script the character is given the first and middle names ' John Christopher ', but the names are not in the final film or in the film 's credits.
Dr. Cornelius is a chimpanzee archaeologist and historian who appears in the original novel of Planet of the Apes (La Planète des singes), and also the first three installments of the classic movie series of the same name, from the 1960s and 1970s. He was portrayed by Roddy McDowall and, in the second movie, by David Watson.
In 1968 's Planet of the Apes, Cornelius is introduced as the fiancé of Dr. Zira, an animal psychologist and veterinarian (who specializes in working with humans), both of whom are on the scientific staff of Dr. Zaius. While supporting the status quo, Cornelius has begun to question the infallibility of the Sacred Scrolls, which give the religious and mythological history of the ape society, and is considering the validity of evolution (specifically, from human to ape) to explain the scientific gaps in the scrolls.
When Zira brings Taylor, an injured astronaut who is mistaken for a primitive human, home from the zoo for Cornelius to see, Taylor begins to communicate with them, first through gestures and then through writing on paper. While Cornelius dismisses Taylor 's story that he flew through the stars to their world (since he has no proof), he agrees that Taylor is worthy of consideration as an intelligent being. When Taylor recovers his voice, he tries to plead his own case before a council session called to arrange his "disposition ''. When the ape leaders wo n't allow Taylor to speak, Cornelius defends him.
With Taylor marked for elimination, and at risk of their own careers, Cornelius and Zira escape with Taylor to the Forbidden Zone -- the wasteland where humans are said to come from, to a site where Cornelius had been digging the year before. When Dr. Zaius pursues them, Taylor turns the tables, first capturing Dr. Zaius, and then forcing him to examine Cornelius 's evidence for a human society predating their own. Cornelius marvels at Taylor 's explanations of the artifacts found, accepts that apes did n't evolve from humans, and those humans invented the technology that apes were rediscovering. Taylor departs from the apes (after kissing Zira goodbye, to Cornelius 's consternation), who return to their city.
Between the first movie and its follow up, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira first undergo a show trial for heresy at Zaius 's instigation (who then pleads for clemency on their behalf), then are married and continue their careers. Another astronaut, Brent, appears at their doorstep in the second movie. Zira tends to a gunshot wound he suffered at a gorilla 's hands, and Cornelius first shows Brent a map leading to where they left Taylor, then gives him the best possible advice: Never speak if he 's captured, or "they will dissect you, and they will kill you -- in that order. '' Zaius also visits to announce that he 's accompanying an expedition to the Forbidden Zone, and asks for Cornelius and Zira 's promise not to cause trouble in his absence, which they give him. (In the novelization of the movie, though, they lead a chimpanzee revolt after he departs.)
In the third movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira themselves become ' astronauts ', escaping their world in Taylor 's spacecraft, found and restored by their friend Dr. Milo, and travelling back in time to a few months after Taylor 's departure. They discover a world run by humans, and deduce (correctly) that this is not only where Taylor came from, but is their own planet from the apes ' prehistory. Cornelius has learned the truth about how the apes rose, from reading secret scrolls Dr. Zaius had kept under lock and key, and is able to answer questions put to him by the human leaders -- and offer tantalizing clues to both Taylor 's fate, and the planet 's.
Discovering Zira is pregnant by Cornelius, and fearing a possible ape takeover, scientist Dr. Otto Hasslein takes it upon himself to make sure the baby is never born, and the pair 's arrival will not spark a human downfall -- inadvertently setting that downfall in motion. Milo, the son of Cornelius and Zira, is born and taken into hiding, while the two try to escape with another ape baby as a decoy. They and the baby are murdered, but their own son (played in the next two movies, again by McDowall) grows up, given the name Caesar by his human foster - father, and leads the apes as the human society destroys itself.
Cornelius and Zira have no roles in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, except in references to Caesar 's "real parents '' and their prophecies of the origins of the ape takeover coming true, but appear in video stills examined by Caesar and two companions in the final film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, as Caesar tries to learn what they knew about Earth 's future. Caesar also gives his son -- by wife Lisa -- the name Cornelius, after his father. This Cornelius was killed by Aldo when he cut the branch on which Cornelius was.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Otto Hasslein is a physicist attached to the space flight project that sends astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon, and Brent to the world of the apes. He was portrayed by German American actor Eric Braeden. He serves as the main antagonist of the third Apes film Escape from the Planet of the Apes. In the novelization of the film, his first name is Victor.
Even before appearing onscreen, Hasslein 's name is part of the series storyline, as the scientist who proposed the "Hasslein curve '' -- a form of time dilation possible with the craft used in the movies.
When he does appear in Escape, he explains to a television news presenter his theories of time, and his belief that changing the future may be possible. He analogizes time to be a highway with an infinite number of lanes, all going from the past to the future; by changing lanes, one can change destiny. The theory, known as "many - worlds interpretation, '' was first advanced in 1957 as "relative state formation '' by Hugh Everett, and was popularised in the 1960s and 70s by Bryce Seligman DeWitt who applied its lasting name. Hasslein mentions neither real - life scientist in the film.
Hasslein learns that talking chimpanzees, Doctors Cornelius, Zira and Milo (who was killed by a primitive gorilla shortly after arriving), have actually arrived in the present day (1973 in the movie) from Earth 's own future, where humanity has fallen to the level of beasts while apes rose to power and intellect. While the other members of the Presidential Commission appointed to deal with "alien visitors '' are initially skeptical of the time - travel story, Hasslein sees confirmation of his theories -- and becomes afraid that the pair 's presence may somehow set humanity 's downfall in motion. As the President 's science advisor, he expresses his concerns, resulting in Cornelius and Zira first being taken into custody, then interrogated at length.
Provoked by Zira 's drugged admissions of her experimentation on humans, and Cornelius giving details of his historical research into humanity 's decline, the Presidential Commission concludes (in a reflection of Taylor 's fate before the Ape council in the first movie, with Hasslein in the place of Dr. Zaius) that the couple 's unborn child should be "prevented '' from birth, and that Zira and Cornelius should be "humanely rendered incapable '' of conceiving again, with their ultimate fate to be decided later -- at Hasslein 's determination, though it appears likely they will be handed over either to scientists or the military for study.
When Cornelius and Zira escape military custody (at the beginnings of Zira 's labor pains), Hasslein mounts a full - scale hunt, including searches of all local circuses and zoos. Days later, a carpet bag abandoned by Zira turns up, near the derelict shipyard where they have been hiding, and the pair are spotted soon afterward, with Zira carrying a baby chimp, so Hasslein knows she has given birth.
Boarding their ship, Hasslein approaches Zira, pistol in hand, and demands she give him the baby, as the authorities approach. Before they arrive, he shoots Zira, and fires several shots into the swaddling blankets.
Cornelius had earlier asked Dr. Lewis Dixon, who had told the couple about the shipyard as a hiding place, for the means "to kill ourselves '' to avoid being captured, and was given a pistol. Heretofore a pacifist, Cornelius now uses the pistol to avenge his wife, shooting at Hasslein from a crow 's nest on the ship. As the authorities arrive, Hasslein and Cornelius trade gunfire. Cornelius kills Hasslein, but is himself killed by sharpshooters, falling to the deck.
Despite Hasslein 's intentions, the baby he killed was not the offspring of Zira and Cornelius -- and his treatment of their arrival may have just set in motion everything Hasslein hoped to prevent.
Kolp is a government official and later Governor of a band of mutants, in the Planet of the Apes movie series, and the main antagonist of the fifth film Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He was played onscreen by Severn Darden. An early draft script of Conquest gives Kolp the first name of Arthur, but the comic book miniseries Revolution on the Planet of the Apes, from Mr. Comics, calls him Vernon. However, the Revolution comic is not considered canon.
Kolp was a ruling secret police official on Governor Breck 's staff in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, displaying himself as sinister, but in a detached, matter - of - fact manner. Kolp supervised the interrogation of Armando, which Armando ended by throwing himself through a high window, rather than confess what he knew about Caesar under hypnosis. Later Kolp tracked down the originating shipment that had carried Caesar to Ape Management; he deduced that Caesar had sneaked himself into the shipment, to appear to have wild origins. Kolp was also present when Breck interrogated Caesar, strapped to an electroshock table, and he gave the order for Caesar to be electrocuted, once it was proven that Caesar could speak and reason.
Kolp survived the Night of the Fires, when the apes revolted and took over, and also the nuclear war humanity then unleashed, all but destroying themselves in doing so, while the apes escaped to the wilderness. Much of the city 's governing staff were relatively safe in underground fallout shelters and bunkers; nonetheless, lingering background radiation began to cause physical mutations in the survivors. After Breck 's death, Kolp took the few remaining reins of leadership himself.
Several years after the end of the war (in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), Caesar, Virgil and Mr. MacDonald revisit Ape Management (now called the Forbidden City by the apes), in hopes of finding old video recordings of Caesar 's parents. Kolp 's agents discover their presence, and Kolp assumes they have come scouting for things to loot or reconquer. Shots are exchanged as Caesar, MacDonald and Virgil flee, and more scouts track them back to Ape City. With the city 's location known, and jealous of the relative health and prosperity of the apes and the humans living with them, Kolp decides to marshal his forces and conquer Ape City. At this point, Kolp is not only mad, but also vengeful. When his second - in - command Méndez points out to him that attacking the Ape city would constitute a direct violation of years of ceasefire peace, Kolp answer is one of a deranged state - of - mind: "Yes, well things have gotten rather boring around here now, has n't it. ''
Kolp supervises the attack, telling his troops to leave Ape City looking "like the city we came from '' and to do their worst. When it appears Caesar is defeated, Kolp personally taunts him with a revolver, until a cry from Caesar 's wife Lisa destract him, allowing Caesar to launch a counterattack. Kolp is killed while retreating by Aldo and his Gorilla troops.
John Landon, more commonly known as Landon, was a human astronaut, who joined the NASA program some time in the 1960s. According to his colleague, George Taylor, Landon was an ambitious scientist who "wanted to live forever ''. Along with Taylor and fellow astronaut Dodge, Landon participated in a mission to journey to another star.
The crew launched out of Cape Kennedy in 1972 and spent over six months in outer space. Taylor, commander of the mission, placed the crew into a state of suspended animation, in preparation for the second leg of their journey. While they slept, the vessel was propelled two - thousand years into the future, confirming Dr. Hasslein 's theory of time in a vehicle travelling near the speed of light. The ship crash - landed back on Earth in the year 3978. Splashing down into a stagnant salt lake, the crew revived and scurried to freedom.
After crash landing on the planet, Landon and his fellow astronaut Taylor bicker as they explore the planet. Landon was an adventurer and a patriot. As such, he found it hardest of the three to come to terms with their fate and argued strongly with Taylor after their crash - landing. Taylor maintained a rigid attitude, while Dodge committed himself towards finding a means to survive on this new world. Landon meanwhile, found himself the target of Taylor 's acerbic wit. Taylor laughs as Landon plants a tiny U.S. flag on the surface of the planet near the lake where they crashed.
Later, Landon and Taylor (along with another astronaut named Dodge) are captured by a group of apes and taken to a city populated by apes. During Taylor 's subsequent trial, he discovers that Landon has been lobotomized by an ape scientist (which Dr. Zaius ordered) and left a mere shell of his former self. Landon is taken back to his cage, while Zaius later admits he knew Landon could talk, and had him operated on.
When Brent visited Zira and Cornelius in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius told him that Taylor nearly ended up a museum specimen "like his two friends '', which suggests that Landon is also dead and displayed alongside Dodge by that point. It 's possible that during a skirmish involving gorilla soldiers, Landon was shot and killed.
John Landon is a different version of the character from the original film; now Landon runs the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar was incarcerated following his attack on Hunsiker. The apes inside the facility were treated cruelly by his son, Dodge, who worked as a guard there. Landon was handed an envelope full of cash in perhaps hundreds or thousands of dollars by Will Rodman and he permitted Will to take Caesar home. However, Caesar realized that if he left the facility the other apes would continue to be abused by Dodge, so he shut the cage door and refused to come home with Will. This prompted Landon to say that Caesar perhaps preferred to stay with the other apes at the facility rather than go home. Caesar later led an escape from the shelter which resulted in Dodge 's death. Landon watched the video from a CCTV camera that recorded the death of his son.
The Lawgiver is an orangutan character in the science fiction movie series Planet of the Apes. While mentioned and quoted in the first two installments of the series, the Lawgiver only appears in the final Apes film, 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, played by actor - director John Huston.
The Lawgiver is to the ape society in Planet of the Apes and Beneath the Planet of the Apes a figure much like Moses or Confucius -- his writings and quotes form the basis of the apes ' system of laws and customs, particularly with regard to humans, whom the Lawgiver declared "the devil 's pawn '', to be shunned and driven out, if not destroyed outright. Statues of the Lawgiver are common around Ape City; when the gorilla army sees a vision of such a statue bleeding, they panic, showing their regard for this icon.
While the Lawgiver 's works were used and quoted daily by the apes, they were n't the only ape writings; secret scrolls told the details of the apes ' rise to dominance, but were kept from the masses. Dr. Zaius, the Chief Defender of the Faith in the ape world some 1200 years after the Lawgiver, kept a copy of the Lawgiver 's essential decrees in his coat pocket, but kept the secret scrolls under lock and key.
Through the course of the series, the chimpanzee Caesar becomes leader of the apes, and attempts to change the timeline that led to the world abandoned by his parents, Zira and Cornelius, who travelled to Earth 's past. By the time the Lawgiver appears in Battle, the children he addresses (as he tells them about Caesar) are a mix of both humans and apes. However, in the book Planet of the Apes Revisited, the original screenwriter, Paul Dehn, stated that the tear on the statue of Caesar at the end of the film is meant as an indication to the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed. Roddy McDowall conversely asserts (in Behind the Planet of the Apes, a 1998 documentary made for the thirtieth anniversary of the original film), that the tear was meant to be totally ambiguous, leaving it up to audience members to decide for themselves whether or not Caesar had succeeded in altering the future.
Lisa is a chimpanzee character, and the wife of Caesar, from the later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series. She was played by actress Natalie Trundy, then - wife of Planet of the Apes original film series producer Arthur P. Jacobs.
In Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Lisa and Caesar meet first in a bookstore, where she is collecting a book for her owner, and then in the City 's Command Center where both serve as slaves. Later, when Caesar launches an ape revolt, he makes a speech to the gathered apes (and a few captured humans, including Governor Breck and Mr. MacDonald), and condemns humanity. Lisa, heretofore mute, speaks for the first time, telling Caesar "No! '' Listening to her, Caesar modifies his stand, telling the apes to leave their onetime human captors to their fate, and begin a world of their own.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, Caesar and Lisa are married, and have a son, named Cornelius after Caesar 's own father Cornelius. Lisa is Caesar 's counsel, who reminds him of his duties toward the other apes, and also of the humans now in his charge. She also discourages her son Cornelius from playing "war '' with his friends.
After winning the battle when human mutants attack, Lisa supports Caesar 's decision to free the humans who live with the apes, and try to live together with them as equals.
Mr. MacDonald is the character name of two African - American brothers who appear in later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series, as companions of Caesar. While their first names are never given in the Apes movies, they are called Malcolm and Bruce in the Marvel Comics adaptations. Both men are of similar character.
The first, played by Hari Rhodes, appears in the fourth movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes as the personal assistant to Governor Breck, and a descendant of slaves who ironically commands slave apes, including Caesar, who later leads an ape revolt. MacDonald does not believe Caesar is the descendant of talking apes Cornelius and Zira, or that Caesar is capable of speech -- until Caesar admits otherwise.
First giving Caesar the chance to escape when the authorities are onto him, then sabotaging the electroshock table Caesar is placed on to force him to speak, MacDonald helps Caesar to launch his revolt -- which turns into a night of fires and carnage, as apes around the city turn on their masters. He then takes Caesar on verbally at the movie 's end, when Caesar wants to fully punish humanity for its treatment of apes.
In the novelization of the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set several years after the events of Conquest, MacDonald appears as Caesar 's human liaison and advisor. However, as Rhodes was unable to take part in the filming due to a prior commitment, his role was rewritten into MacDonald 's younger brother, played by Austin Stoker. The younger MacDonald speaks with his authority around Ape City, though he and the other humans otherwise have little authority over themselves, and mostly serve the apes. When Caesar wonders after his parents, and what they knew about right and wrong and the future, MacDonald suggests that old video recordings of Cornelius and Zira might have survived, under the wreckage of Central City (now called the Forbidden City, after it was destroyed in a nuclear war), with answers to some of his questions.
MacDonald and the orangutan Virgil journey with Caesar back to the Forbidden City, carrying a Geiger counter and small arms for protection. Discovering the intact (though dilapidated) archives, they scarcely have time to play back a short passage of the "Alien Visitors '' (namely, Zira and Cornelius) tape before realising that they have also been discovered -- by mutant human survivors of the war. The three barely escape with their lives, but Caesar now has some insight into who his parents were, and what they knew about future events.
Knowing that there are survivors under the city, who might someday want to wage war against them, Caesar prepares the apes to defend their city, but the head of the ape militia, General Aldo, does n't allow the humans of Ape City to help or to defend themselves. When an attack does come, Aldo corrals the humans to keep them from getting involved. The mutants are beaten back, and MacDonald and the other humans are released -- but they refuse to leave the corral, until their role in the city is redefined. Caesar then decrees that all apes must stop treating humans as second - class citizens, and they then work towards peaceful coexistence among the apes and the humans.
Maddox is an American astronaut in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tod Andrews.
Maddox commanded the rescue mission sent to find astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon and Stewart, who went missing in the events of the previous film, Planet of the Apes. Maddox was accompanied on this mission by John Brent.
Following a tradition practiced in both the navy and the air force, Brent sometimes addressed the commander of the craft as "Skipper '', just as Landon had sometimes addressed Taylor in the previous film.
Maddox and Brent 's spaceship passed through a "Hasslein Curve '', sending them two - thousand years into the future. The ship made a crash - landing, badly injuring and blinding Maddox in the process. Brent helped Maddox out of the ship, provided him with medical attention and made him as comfortable as possible.
Brent reported the current year to him (the year 3955 A.D., according to their clocks). Maddox was horrified to hear that they had traveled two - thousand years forward in time. He spoke of his wife and two daughters being long since dead. Maddox himself died shortly afterwards and was buried by Brent.
Although only referred to as "Skipper '' in the film and the credits, the name Maddox appears on the character 's uniform.
Mandemus is an evolved orangutan character in Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie, from 1973. He was portrayed by Lew Ayres.
Elderly and an avowed pacifist, Mandemus appears to bear no grudges toward his former human captors, and wants everyone to simply live in peace. The nuclear war that destroyed much of the planet (including the city which the apes narrowly escaped) proved the futility of weapons and fighting to Mandemus. With such an attitude, the ape leader Caesar appointed him keeper of Ape City 's small armory, "and of Caesar 's conscience '', reasoning that Mandemus would talk him out of anything impulsive or unwise.
Besides his other duties, Mandemus also became a teacher in Ape City 's first school. One of his students was the genius orangutan Virgil, who also became a teacher, and an advisor of Caesar.
While Mandemus 's appearance in Battle is brief, the Marvel Comics graphic novel adaptation of the Apes storyline provided a longer backstory to the relationship between Mandemus and Caesar.
Dr. Maximus was a character in the original Planet of the Apes film. An orangutan, the highest caste of apes portrayed in the movie, Dr. Maximus is the Commissioner for Animal Affairs ("Animal '' meaning "Human '' in the apes ' lexicon).
Dr. Zaius brings Dr. Maximus to the laboratory where the scientists Cornelius and Zira have given safe haven to human astronaut Taylor. As Commissioner of Animal Affairs, Dr. Maximus notes that the chimpanzees are breaking the leash law and orders that Taylor be removed from the area, which is restricted to apes.
Dr. Maximus appears as part of the National Academy tribunal that presides over the hearing that accuses the two scientists of surgically enabling Taylor to speak. As Dr. Maximus explains, the purpose of the hearing is "to settle custodial and jurisdictional questions concerning this beast, and determine what 's to be done with him. '' As the first seated judge, Dr. Maximus covers his eyes when the three orangutans mime the "See No Evil, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil '' adage in one of the film 's many satirical flourishes. (According to the film 's star, Charlton Heston, director Franklin Schaffner conceived the idea but was reluctant to film it, fearing it would be perceived as lowbrow and incongruous with the seriousness of the scene.)
Dr. Maximus is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who also appeared in the first episode of the TV series based on the film. Appearing in the first installments of both the film and TV series is a distinction he shares with Roddy McDowall.
Méndez is the name of a successive dynasty of mutant, human leaders in the Planet of the Apes movie universe. Paul Richards played Méndez XXVI in 1970 's Beneath the Planet of the Apes, while Paul Stevens played his predecessor in 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original movie.
In the second movie, Méndez XXVI is a figure much like a Pope or other lineal authority, with his leadership basically spiritual in nature. His people are the descendants of survivors of a nuclear war, which destroyed most of humanity and allowed the apes to rise to power. Living underground for centuries among irradiated ruins has transformed them physically; their psychic powers increased, as their appearance became disfigured through severe genetic mutation. The underground mutant people wear masks and wigs to resemble their ancestors more closely, and speak through telepathy, saving their voices for worship. They also regard their severe physical mutation as a true blessing of "the divine bomb ''. During their worship ceremonies, the mutants put down their contrived masks, revealing their "inmost selves '' unto their god, and much of their speech and daily rituals are stylized around terms used within the nuclear industry.
Their object of worship is an ancient Alpha - Omega nuclear missile left over from the 20th century and still operational, though its original controls have long been replaced by carefully crafted jewel and crystal workings. They have installed the bomb in the former St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the organ pipes, in place of the crucifix. They see their life 's purpose as to guard the Divine Bomb, and to keep watch on the apes; should the apes become a threat to their underground life, the Bomb will be used to destroy them. However, what is little understood is that the Alpha - Omega Device, which possesses a cobalt casing around its warhead, was designed to ignite the Earth 's atmosphere, and extinguish all life on the planet, not just the apes. Méndez XXVI wears a large gold rendering of the bomb as a pendant, much like a crucifix.
When Taylor and Brent are captured, Méndez XXVI oversees their interrogations, and decides what is to be done with them, and about the apes, who are planning to invade the underground city to seize its food sources. When the apes arrive, Méndez XXVI tries to reason with their leader # General Ursus, but is shot down after arming the missile. Taylor later detonates the missile 's warhead, ending the battle between human and ape once and for all by destroying the entire planet.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set almost 2,000 years earlier, Méndez is the first of the underground humans to bear the name, and is a subordinate to Kolp, who became governor after Governor Breck 's death, following the nuclear war. When Kolp goes to battle with Ape City with his mutant army, Méndez remains behind, supervising the team who safeguard their "secret weapon '', the Alpha - Omega bomb.
When Kolp loses the battle, the default order is to fire the missile at Ape City. Méndez instead rejects the order, reminding everyone that using the missile will not just destroy the apes. If they instead revere its power and preserve the missile through time, they will never lose hope or a sense of purpose. He becomes the new human leader, and his attitude toward the missile becomes the code of the underground humans, who build their society to reflect that code. His successors in turn carry his name, as a reminder of their purpose.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Milo is a genius chimpanzee scientist who spurns the intellectual and technological limits placed on the ape society. He was portrayed in Escape from the Planet of the Apes by Sal Mineo, in one of his last roles.
Dr. Milo was added to the storyline developed in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, in the interstitial period between Beneath and Escape. Whether Milo was an outcast from Ape City, or self - exiled from it, is not known. Unafraid of "the beast Man '' and of human technology (forbidden under Ape law) as he is of reading banned books or visiting the Forbidden Zone, he is a friend of Cornelius and Zira, who also hold liberal views.
In the Forbidden Zone, Dr. Milo is able to raise the spacecraft that carried the astronaut Taylor and is able to repair it well enough to relaunch. (It is never revealed how he learned of the ship -- possibly in a conversation with Zira and Cornelius -- or of electronics or any other technique used in space flight; his advanced intelligence would have provided some insight, possibly augmented by caches of old human books, or technological data found aboard the craft.)
While Milo never completely fathoms the technology or the purpose of Taylor 's ship (and of course its crew are unavailable), he does come far enough to be able to attempt a flight. Cornelius and Zira join him, the three donning spacesuits and climbing aboard, after they become convinced the latest anti-human campaign will spell disaster. Once in space, they learn how true this becomes, as the Earth is destroyed.
Whether Taylor 's ship followed a preprogrammed flight path, was affected by shock waves from the blast that destroyed Earth, or was flown by Dr. Milo is never revealed. (From the attitudes shown in Escape, it is probable the apes knew very little about flying the ship, and simply let it follow its programming.) In any case, their trip takes the apes back in time to the year 1973, nearly two years after Taylor 's ship originally departed, and makes another water landing, this time floating off the California coast.
Startling their human finders, Dr. Milo, Zira and Cornelius are taken to the local zoo while the US Government ponders what to do with them. Finding themselves in the reverse situation of what astronauts Taylor and Brent went through coming to their world, the three chimpanzees agree to make no sounds around humans, but talk furtively in private, and try to decide how to handle what has happened. (Zira spoils this by openly declaring her dislike of bananas when the apes are fed, heightening the tension.)
As Dr. Milo paces, he draws the attention of a primitive gorilla from the next cage over, who grabs Dr. Milo at a vulnerable moment and strangles him to death. Mournful over the loss, Cornelius and Zira name their son (born toward the end of Escape) Milo, after their friend. To hide his identity, Milo 's foster father Armando gives him the name Caesar. Caesar becomes the main character in the next two Apes movies, and the leader of a new ape society.
Nova is a fictional character in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. In the first two Planet of the Apes films, she is played by Linda Harrison.
In Planet of the Apes (1968), Nova is a primitive girl who is captured by the intelligent and warlike apes during one of their hunting expeditions. American astronaut George Taylor is also captured. They are taken to Ape City where they are paired up in a cell. Taylor, having been shot through the throat by a gorilla, is unable to speak, but when his speech returns he befriends the chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius. They eventually help Taylor and Nova escape to the Forbidden Zone where Taylor learns the truth about the planet.
In the sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), she and Taylor journey through the Forbidden Zone where Taylor mysteriously disappears. Meanwhile, a second astronaut, Brent, has arrived on the planet in search of Taylor. Brent is brought by Nova to Zira and Cornelius, but they are captured and held prisoner. Escaping, they head for the Forbidden Zone where they discover that beneath the surface of the planet is a forgotten city, peopled by mutants who worship a massive nuclear bomb. Under the mutants ' mind control, Brent attempts to drown Nova. Later, as Brent and Taylor stand in a cell, she watches in horror as the two men, under the control of mutant Ograna, try to kill each other. Fearing for the lives of her friend and the man she loves, she speaks for the first time, crying out Taylor 's name. The sound of her voice breaks the mutant 's mind control and frees Brent and Taylor, who kill Ograna and then leave the cell with Nova. As the three navigate around the corridors, General Ursus ' army invades the cathedral, killing any mutant they encounter; the trio are ambushed by an armed gorilla soldier, who fatally shoots Nova, before Brent and Taylor manage to kill him. A devastated Taylor holds Nova in his hands before Brent convinces him that they must continue. The film ends with a mortally wounded Taylor detonating the bomb, destroying the planet.
Variations on the character appeared in other interpretations of the Planet of the Apes mythos. Daena, from Tim Burton 's 2001 remake, was based on Harrison 's character from the earlier film series. Harrison also appeared in the film (as an unnamed woman in a cart) and a separate character named Nova (a chimp, played by Lisa Marie) also appeared in the film.
In the film War for the Planet of the Apes, Nova is a young girl, portrayed by Amiah Miller.
George Taylor, more commonly known as Taylor, is the main protagonist of the original Planet of the Apes film and a supporting character of Beneath the Planet of the Apes. Taylor is an American astronaut and the leader of a space expedition. He is played by Charlton Heston. Taylor 's first name is never spoken in dialog; the sources for it are the closing credits of the film and the 1998 documentary Behind the Planet of the Apes. While the character is never given a first name during the film, the end credits of Planet of the Apes identify him as George Taylor. Although no rank other than "Skipper '' is given to the character in the two films in which he appears, the character is referred to as Colonel Taylor in Escape from the Planet of the Apes the third film in the series.
In the opening minutes of the movie, Taylor is watching his crewmates enter a state of hibernation aboard their ship (known noncanonically as the Icarus or the Liberty 1), which is accelerating to nearly the speed of light, as he records his final report before joining them. Taylor muses about the fact that hundreds of years have already passed on Earth, in the six months the ship 's clock has recorded, and hopes that whoever is receiving his report on Earth belongs to a better breed than they left behind, when their ship launched in 1972. He then climbs into his bunk, passing into hibernation, as the ship continues on auto - pilot to a faraway star.
When Taylor and two of his crewmates awake (discovering that a fourth, a woman named Stewart, died from an air leak while they were hibernating) the ship has crash - landed in a lake, on what they take to be an Earth - like, but largely barren, planet orbiting a Sun - like star in the constellation Orion. The ship begins to take on water, then sinks rapidly, barely leaving the three astronauts time to break out survival kits and a life raft, and take an Earth - time reading; the year is 3978, leaving them just over two thousand years away from their starting point.
Rowing the raft to dry land, Taylor assumes command of what they now know will be a no - return mission, but it pulls him and his companions, Dodge and Landon, together and they begin a search for life on this new planet. They also discuss their motivations for joining the mission; Taylor 's is his quest to find someone or something wiser than humanity. As they leave their crash site behind, the astronauts first find a flowering plant, then a row of what appear to be scarecrows or a boundary line, then finally a lush valley with a waterfall and pool, where they peel off their uniforms and go swimming.
Their equipment and clothing vanishes. The astronauts follow footprints leading away from the pool and discover primitive mute humans destroying everything the astronauts brought with them. The astronauts assess the possibility of taking command of these humans, but they are interrupted by the sound of gunfire. This planet has another dominant species: evolved apes. The apes hunt the humans, capturing many in nets. Dodge is killed outright, Landon suffers a head wound, and Taylor receives a bullet wound in his throat, preventing him from speaking.
Taken to Ape City and caged, Taylor and a mute female (whom he later calls Nova) share a laboratory cell, and chimpanzee psychologist Dr. Zira hopes the two will mate. When Zira discovers that Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she has ever seen, she takes him out of the laboratory to meet her fiancé Dr. Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's assertion that he 's actually a visitor from a faraway planet, but they think he might be living proof of human intelligence -- if not a missing link between humans and their "evolved superiors '', the apes.
Learning also of Taylor 's intelligence, and of his ability to speak as his throat recovers, Dr. Zaius wants Taylor first gelded, then put to death -- but first he wants to know where Taylor "really comes from '' in the Forbidden Zone, and information about his "tribe ''. Taylor of course ca n't tell Zaius anything he wants to know, and states that he learned how to read and write in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Taylor also blames Zaius for what happened to Landon -- who is brought to Taylor in a lobotomised, animal - like state. When Zira 's nephew Lucius breaks Taylor out of the laboratory, and he joins Cornelius and Zira as they flee to the Forbidden Zone (under charges of heresy brought by Zaius), Taylor deliberately takes a rifle for himself, and declares nobody else is in charge of him, from here on. He also brings Nova, despite the apes ' objections.
Dr. Zaius tracks the fleeing party down, but Taylor captures him, forcing Zaius to promise both to let him and Nova escape, and to drop the charges he 's made against Zira and Cornelius. Zaius agrees, but nonetheless condemns Taylor and all humans as doomed to folly. After Taylor and Nova depart, Zaius destroys the cave holding the evidence that would exonerate Cornelius and Zira, and takes them back to Ape City under escort.
Finally free of the apes, Taylor discovers that he has n't been on a faraway planet at all, but has returned to Earth in its distant future, as he and Nova encounter the ruins of the Statue of Liberty along the shoreline. He was devastated to learn that humanity indeed had destroyed themselves, as Zaius asserted.
Heston returned as Taylor for a brief appearance in the second Apes movie, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, as he and Nova encounter strange sights and sounds in what should be an empty landscape. When Taylor discovers a wall where there was none before, he tries to tear into it - and disappears, leaving the horrified Nova alone on their horse.
Later in the movie, another astronaut named Brent, sent on a doomed mission to rescue Taylor and his companions, is fleeing with Nova from a squad of gorilla soldiers into the Forbidden Zone, when they come upon an entryway to the underground remains of New York City, and its mutant human inhabitants, whom as it turns out led them in deliberately -- as they earlier had Taylor, through the illusory wall. After probing both Taylor and Brent for what they know about the apes and their intentions, they force the two men to fight to the death, but Nova 's sudden reappearance breaks their jailer 's control. All three nearly escape, when Nova is shot and dies as the apes attack the underground city. Taylor loses hope, but he and Brent each grab weapons and fight against the apes.
Taylor is shot trying to reach the console that controls the Alpha - Omega (ΑΩ) missile the mutants worship. Rising, he attempts to dismantle its nuclear warhead before either the mutants can trigger it, and destroy the whole planet, or the apes can set it off by their carelessness. Desperate, he calls out to Dr. Zaius for help, who flatly refuses him on the grounds that humans are "capable of nothing but destruction ''. Taylor falls for the last time, his hand plunging the trigger mechanism with his last breath, and the Earth is destroyed.
Taylor appears in references during the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, (where he is given the rank of Colonel which was never mentioned in the two previous films) and a few times in flashbacks, but his (and Heston 's) role in the series was complete after the first two installments. Heston had n't wanted to come back, but the studio held him to his contract; he agreed to appear if his salary were donated to charity, and if the original storyline (which had Taylor and Nova surviving, to found a new human breed) were changed to keep him from having to return for another sequel.
General Ursus is a gorilla character in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes, serving as the main antagonist of the film. He was portrayed by veteran actor James Gregory.
General Ursus is very much the stereotyped "mad general '', on top of being a brutish gorilla. He sees little past the end of his own nose, and is interested mainly in his own dreams of conquest, glory and power. At a meeting of the ape council, Ursus uses the recent crop failures, drought, and raids by wild humans as the basis for a call to invade the Forbidden Zone, where no ape has trodden (with rare exception) since the beginning of their world. Suggesting that another tribe of humans lives there (a belief based on Dr. Zaius ' encounter with Taylor in the previous film), and the disappearances of gorilla scouts (save one who returned delirious) sent into the zone to investigate, Ursus stirs the apes up to invade, and claim their food source ("If they live, then they must eat! '') for themselves.
Successful in persuading the apes to declare "a holy war '' against the unknown, General Ursus assembles a gorilla army, and marches toward the Forbidden Zone, accompanied by Minister of Science Dr. Zaius -- who has his misgivings about the whole adventure, but goes along for the sake of science, and "the faith '' of the apes.
Indeed, a small group of intelligent mutant humans do dwell in the Forbidden Zone, underground among the ruins of New York City. While their physical features have been mutated by generations living in the irradiated area, they have advanced psychic powers, which are their only line of defense against "enemies '', i.e. any outsiders. Learning that the gorilla army is on its way, the mutants plant terrifying visions in their minds, of crucified and tortured apes surrounded by fire, and finally the familiar statue of the Lawgiver, prophet of the apes, beginning to crack and bleed. Ursus is frightened as are his soldiers. Having gone too far with their exposition, the mutants ' vision backfires by instilling rage in Dr. Zaius, and he rides into the heart of the vision, remaining unharmed. It grates Ursus that Zaius has shown him up, but he orders the army to advance, and they soon find the entrance to the mutant city.
With their mental powers useless against the "thick - skulled '' apes, the mutants have only one other weapon available -- their "god '' or idol, a 20th - century nuclear missile with a cobalt casing capable of igniting the atmosphere and extinguishing all life on Earth. While the weapon has been passed down through generations, and forms the basis of the mutant culture, left unsaid (but implied by the mutants calling it the "Divine Bomb '') is whether the mutants know of its true destructive power.
Leading the gorilla army into the heart of the mutant world (the former cathedral which now houses the Divine Bomb), Ursus and the other apes are taken back momentarily when first a mutant (their leader Méndez) speaks, declaring "This is the instrument of my god! '' then the bomb rises into launch position. Recovering quickly, Ursus orders his sergeant to take Méndez into custody, but the sergeant shoots Méndez instead. Ursus taunts "Your god did n't save you, did he?! '' as he falls. Thinking the missile is little more than a worshiped idol, Ursus orders a block and tackle be set up, to pull it down.
Zaius pleads with General Ursus not to touch the missile, knowing only "That weapon was built by Man! '' and "It 'll kill us all! '', but Ursus ignores him, even when the missile shell cracks open and propellant escapes, waylaying the nearby gorillas. Ursus is finally killed by a rifle shot, as humans Taylor and Brent vainly try to stop the gorilla army, only moments before Brent is killed by Ursus ' army and a mortally wounded Taylor detonates the bomb, putting an end to the gorilla 's ambitions -- along with everything else on the planet.
Virgil is a genius orangutan character from Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie from 1973. He was played onscreen by actor / musician Paul Williams.
A former student of orangutan pacifist Mandemus, Virgil went on to become Ape City 's resident scientist and theoretical thinker, and an advisor and friend of Caesar. Apes and humans are both among his students, and he feels sorry for the humans ' second - class status in Ape City.
Caesar calls Virgil away from his teaching work, to accompany him and Mr. MacDonald on a trip back to the Forbidden City, to search for recordings of his parents Cornelius and Zira, and information about Earth 's future. Carrying a Geiger counter into the Forbidden City, Virgil warns Caesar plainly about the radioactivity and accompanying dangers. (He also authorizes MacDonald to bring a pistol, in case he may "wish to shoot, cook, and eat a rabbit '' during the trip; something humans were normally not allowed to do.)
Returning from the Forbidden City (after barely escaping with their lives, from mutated human survivors who stayed underground), Caesar and Virgil reluctantly prepare Ape City for a possible attack. General Aldo, called to action, sees the chance to take power instead. When Caesar 's son Cornelius is gravely injured in a fall from a tree, MacDonald discovers the ends of the broken branch, determining they were cut, and he and Virgil deduce Aldo was the culprit.
Virgil fights and leads apes when the mutant humans do attack, calling Caesar out to take charge. After the battle, he is the one who must tell Caesar that Cornelius was murdered by Aldo. Later, he helps to rebuild Ape City, with its new status of apes and humans as equals.
Dr. Zaius is a fictional character in the Pierre Boulle novel Planet of the Apes, and the film series and television series based upon it. (In Boulle 's novel, his honorific was "Mi '', a term in the Ape language.) He is an orangutan and although given a minor role devoid of dialogue in the novel, he becomes the main antagonist of the story in the subsequent film adaptation. Zaius was portrayed in the first and second films of the series by Maurice Evans, in the later television series by Booth Colman, and voiced in the animated series by Richard Blackburn. Prior to that, acting legend Edward G. Robinson also gave life to the character in a short film used to pitch the story _́ s concept to executives at 20th Century Fox.
Zaius serves a dual role in Ape society, as Minister of Science in charge of advancing ape knowledge, and also as Chief Defender of the Faith. In the latter role, he has access to ancient scrolls and other information not given to the ape masses. Zaius knows the true origins of the ape society, how humanity fell as the dominant species, and the reasons why the Forbidden Zone is so regarded, and he blames human nature for it all. Zaius seems to prefer an imperfect, ignorant ape culture that keeps humans in check, to the open, scientific, human - curious one posed by Cornelius and Zira 's generation (this is due to his fear of a war of self - destruction). The idea of an intelligent human (such as Taylor) threatening the balance of things frightens him deeply. Knowing the destruction that humanity (with the aid of technology) caused in its downfall, he does n't want even the possibility of a human resurgence. At the end of Planet of the Apes, Zaius has Cornelius 's archaeological findings (human artifacts, predating the Ape society) destroyed, and Cornelius and Zira arrested on heresy charges.
Although cast as the antagonist in the film, Zaius 's actions are nonetheless driven by his deep belief that he is protecting the world (at whatever cost) from the "walking pestilence '' of humanity, even if his actions cause undue harm to his ape brethren. And despite his animosity towards Taylor, Zaius nevertheless demonstrates a grudging respect for his adversary, calling him by his proper name, and even advising Taylor near the end of the film against delving into the mystery as to how the apes evolved from humans because as he cryptically warns the marooned astronaut: "Do n't look for it, Taylor. You may not like what you find. '' The film 's final startling image of the corroded head of the Statue of Liberty by the sea shore can be seen as a vindication of Zaius 's views as to the destructive, genocidal nature of humanity and the means which Zaius is compelled to employ, even against his own colleagues, from the existential threat of a resurgent human race.
Only once near the end does Zaius truly make what he knows and thinks known:
"I have always known about man. From the evidence, I believe his wisdom must walk hand and hand with his idiocy. His emotions must rule his brain. He must be a warlike creature who gives battle to everything around him, even himself... The Forbidden Zone was once a paradise. (Man) made a desert of it ''
By the second movie Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius recalls how Zaius brought them to trial, but then acted on their behalf. When Zaius leaves on a military expedition with General Ursus to invade the Forbidden Zone, Zaius trusts them both to continue his work. (In the novelization of Beneath, they instead begin a revolt, once the gorilla army is gone.) Zaius meets Taylor once more, in a showdown between the gorillas and a mutant human race living underground in the Zone. Taylor was trying to keep the mutant humans from activating a doomsday bomb, and was shot several times in the process by gorilla troops. Wounded and dying, Taylor begs Zaius to help him stop the bomb; when Zaius refuses (declaring "Man is evil -- capable of nothing but destruction! ''), Taylor deliberately activates the bomb in his last moments, ironically realizing Zaius 's worst fears, as the Earth is destroyed.
During the third movie (Escape from the Planet of the Apes) Cornelius relates how he learned the truth about humans and apes from reading secret scrolls. Cornelius presumably had access to these while working for Dr. Zaius (or after his departure), or perhaps was granted access by Zaius as a consolation for the loss of his archaeological work.
In the television series, Councillor Zaius serves as a government official, with authority over all the humans in his district. The young chimpanzee Galen becomes his new assistant, but becomes a fugitive with two human astronauts Virdon and Burke, fleeing from Zaius and his enforcer, General Urko.
In the animated series, Zaius again serves as a government official, who holds influence within the Ape Senate, and has authority over both Cornelius and Zira, and their scientific enterprises, as well as General Urko and his military.
Dr. Zira is a chimpanzee psychologist and veterinarian, who specializes in the study of humans, in the novel and subsequent movie series Planet of the Apes. Zira was played in the first three Apes movies by actress Kim Hunter. Unique among the Apes characters, Zira has blue eyes.
Zira is the fiancée (later wife) of Cornelius, and both are ultimately responsible to the Minister of Science, Dr. Zaius. Zira 's character and role are essentially the same in both the novel and the movies, though some story details differ. Her work in each involves both working with humans under laboratory conditions (e.g. learning and behavioural experiments), and working on them physically (lobotomy and other brain surgeries, vivisection, physical endurance and tolerance experiments, and subsequent autopsies). Zira is an outspoken liberal by nature, deploring war and militancy (and despising the gorillas, who seem to make both a way of life), and eager to seek and develop intelligence anywhere it can be found. Zira literally stands for her principles -- or refuses to stand, as the case may be.
In the original novel, Zira discovers that her charge Ulysse Mérou (caged in the laboratory where she works) is n't a native - born, mute human of her planet, but a space traveller capable of speech, and she secretly teaches him the language of the apes, in hopes of eventually making a public demonstration, with Mérou 's consent. Cornelius also becomes involved, helping prepare Mérou to meet ape society, and vice versa.
In the first movie, Zira meets American astronaut George Taylor, who was shot in the throat when he was captured by gorillas, and can not speak, as the native humans of her world can not. She tends to his throat wound, discovers Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she 's seen, and pairs him with Nova, also intelligent, hoping the two will breed. When Taylor steals Zira 's notepad and writes his own name on it, Zira abruptly drops the nickname "Bright Eyes '' she 'd given him, and takes Taylor to meet Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's story that he 's from another planet, but suppose that he might be a missing link, to explain the similarities between ape and human behaviour and anatomy... and the strange artifacts Cornelius found at an archaeological dig the year before. She seems to be fond of the humans that she works with and gives them nicknames, such as an old one she named "Old Timer ''.
In both novel and movie, Zira ultimately helps Mérou / Taylor and Nova to escape the world of the apes, coming to appreciate each as thinking creatures like herself, as well as having a plain fondness for them. In the movie, she and Taylor kiss goodbye -- even though, as she tells him, "You 're so damned ugly. ''
Beneath the Planet of the Apes shows Zira and Cornelius married and at home (after Zira makes a political spectacle of herself at an ape gathering), when another human enters their lives; the astronaut Brent, sent to rescue Taylor but now needing help himself. Zira treats a bullet wound Brent sustained, and she and Cornelius send him and Nova (who met Brent when she sought Zira, after Taylor vanished) back out of the city, to spare them from the latest human roundup. When Dr. Zaius visits, he tells Cornelius and Zira he plans to appoint them as his proxies, while he is away on a military campaign with General Ursus (Zira left her medical gear in sight; covering part of her face, she pretends to Zaius that Cornelius hit her for upsetting the ape council). Zaius admonishes them both to maintain the status quo, and keep their more liberal values in check. Zira and Cornelius promise to do so, and Zaius departs. In the novel adaptation of the movie, they subsequently begin a chimpanzee revolt, with Zaius and the gorilla army gone.
Escape from the Planet of the Apes has the pregnant Zira (with Cornelius and their friend Dr. Milo) making a different kind of experiment -- this time space flight, in Taylor 's restored craft, the Icarus, when they realize their world is doomed. In a reverse of Taylor 's experience, the spaceship travels back in time to a few months after his mission began, splashing down off the California coast. The movie follows Zira and Cornelius (after the accidental death of Dr. Milo) through their discovery, and eventual rejection, by and of human society. A large portion of the rejection comes from Zira 's drugged confessions of the details of her human experiments, to the shock of the reactionary Presidential Commission, who declare them atrocities since they were done to humans. Zira was glad she told the truth and understands why Taylor called them savages when Taylor was treated badly. Zira 's and Cornelius 's account of their origins, and of humanity 's coming downfall, further stigmatises the couple. Their baby is born (named Milo after their friend, but later called Caesar), but Zira and Cornelius are murdered a few days afterward. Circus owner Armando took them in when the baby came; Zira switched her newborn baby with a circus chimp when she and Cornelius had to go into hiding, leaving Armando a clue in case they did n't return.
Zira makes no further appearances in the Apes movies, although she is mentioned by name in the following sequels, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and Battle for the Planet of the Apes and appears in video stills (while her recorded voice tells the story of their space flight, and of the Earth 's destruction) the adult Caesar plays back, to learn more about his parents, in Battle for the Planet of the Apes.
Veska is a character in the first episode of the TV series Planet of the Apes. He is a pragmatic chimpanzee and prefect of the ape village known as Chalo.
In the episode, titled "Escape From Tomorrow, '' in 3085, his inquisitive young son Arno discovers the downed spacecraft called the Icarus some distance away from the prefecture that has delivered the human protagonists to their planet. Veska is shaken by the realization that humans have constructed and flown the ship, which is considerably more advanced than the primitive level of invention on his own planet. Veska 's fierce reaction to his son 's declaration that the humans must have come from a superior culture introduces a core theme present throughout the franchise, that the apes fear the human astronauts will threaten their dominion over the species. "If humans could build and fly a (spaceship) like this, '' he tells Arno, "they 'd begin to think they 're as good as we are! '' Veska alerts the other ape leaders to the two surviving humans ' escape from the vehicle, which starts the hunt that drives almost all episodes of the short - lived series.
Veska is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who along with appearing in this first series episode also appeared in the first Apes movie, a distinction he shares only with Roddy McDowall. (Interestingly, their two characters in the series pilot are cousins.) Veska 's eyepatch was a last - minute wardrobe solution to mask a visible eye infection Parfrey contracted after falling asleep while wearing the dark contact lenses that all blue - eyed actors wore to help the ape makeup appear more natural. The large patch, apparently shorn from the same material used to make his costume, enhances Veska 's frightening countenance.
General Thade is the main antagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tim Roth.
Thade is an ambitious and brutal leader (along with his gorilla friend Attar) of the Ape armies, who passionately hated all things human and wanted them exterminated. His father Zaius, who had instilled this hatred in him, knew that humans were once in charge, and Thade vowed to wipe out any resistance to ape rule and being direct descendants of the ape god Semos. He schemed to be given absolute power by the Ape Senate. General Thade pursued Ari romantically but never seemed to progress. Thade branded Ari with the mark of human slaves after she was found gathering with human rebels in the forbidden area of Calima. Thade ruled with cruelty and lived by a Machiavellian outlook on life. Any means justified the ends to Thade. When news of a crashed spacecraft reached him he personally killed those who told him, to ensure the information remained a secret. While willing to get a pet human child for his niece, Thade himself believed the world would be a better place if all humans were killed. When the ape army was halted by the appearance of a spacepod piloted by a chimp, Thade alone rejected the idea of the second coming of Semos. He chased the chimp and was eventually locked into the control room of the deserted space station.
He was shown again in the closing scene, where Leo had returned to Earth in his own time only to find technologically advanced apes in charge and a large statue of Thade in place of Abraham Lincoln on the Lincoln Memorial.
Thade is the only villain in the series to be alive, rather than to have lethal ordeal, in contrast to previous and future ape and human villains in other films where they died.
Capt. Leo Davidson is the protagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Mark Wahlberg.
Leo Davidson is a United States Air Force astronaut who accidentally opens a portal to another world inhabited by talking human - like apes and is captured by them. After he escapes from slavery and freeing some humans, he plans to go back to his space station Oberon through Calima (the temple of "Semos ''), a forbidden, but holy, site for the apes. Along the way, he develops romantic feelings to Ari, a female chimpanzee who senses that there is cruelty with humans, and Daena, a female human slave. According to the computer logs, the station has been there for thousands of years. Leo deduces that when he entered the vortex, he was pushed forward in time while the Oberon, searching after him, was not, crashing on the planet long before he did. The Oberon 's log reveals that the apes on board, led by Semos, the first ape, organized a mutiny and took control of the vessel after it crashed.
The human and ape survivors of the struggle left the ship and their descendants are the people Leo has encountered since landing. Realizing that General Thade will be coming after him with an army, he leads a human rebellion against the apes. As the battle between humans and apes goes on, a familiar vehicle descends from the sky and is identified immediately by Leo as the pod piloted by Pericles, the chimp astronaut who was pushed in time as Leo does. When Pericles lands, the apes interpret his landing as the return arrival of Semos, who is their god. They bow, and hostilities between humans and apes disappear. Pericles then runs into the Oberon and Leo runs after him, while being followed by General Thade. Inside, Thade and Leo wrestle, with Pericles trying to help Leo, only to be thrown hard against a wall. Seeing that Thade is in the pilot 's deck, Leo closes the automatic door of the entrance, trapping Thade as he shoots the gun, the bullets ricocheting off the door harmlessly.
After the battle was finished, Leo decides that it is time for him to leave the Planet of the Apes, so he gives Pericles to Ari, with her promising to look after him, also saying farewell to Daena. Leo climbs aboard Pericles 's undamaged pod and uses it to travel back in time through the same electromagnetic storm. Leo ends up crashing in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. on Earth in his own time. He looks up at the Memorial, and in shock, sees it is now a monument in honor of General Thade. A swarm of police officers, firefighters, and news reporters descend on Leo, but on closer inspection, they are all apes.
Ari was the daughter of Senator Sandar, a high - ranking member of the Ape Senate. She was portrayed by Helena Bonham Carter
She had a passion for life and thrived for a world where apes and humans lived as equals. She was idealistic and despised the way the humans were treated. Ari spoke publicly about her outrageous beliefs, and used her father as a shield from the authorities. When Ari spotted astronaut Leo Davidson in a cage, she just had to have him. She bought him and the female Daena, whom he particularly liked, because she saw their rebelliousness. From there she became captivated by Leo whom she viewed as unique. Ari helped Leo and a band of others escape Ape City and followed them into the Forbidden Zone. General Thade, a suitor for her affections, explained this escape as a kidnapping of Ari and used this to justify his absolute power under martial law. Thade 's army marched on humanity, and Ari and her human friends waited in Calima for their arrival. She may have struggled to live up to her ideals but was the vital link between the human rebels and the more sympathetic members of ape society.
Attar was the commander of the Ape Armies. He was the loyal lieutenant of General Thade and enjoyed the thrill of hunting humans. He was portrayed by Michael Clarke Duncan.
Attar demanded that everyone bow their heads before dinner so a prayer to Semos could be delivered. He even went into a rage after Leo deliberately set the tent where Attar kept his personal shrine of Semos on fire. Attar learned the art of fighting under his teacher Krull, whom he had to fight and kill in the ultimate battle. When the spacepod piloted by Pericles landed on the battle field, he and the other ape soldiers dropped their weapons believing it was the return of their god. He realised that Thade, Thade 's father, and the elders of ape society had been misleading the population for centuries and he took the side of Leo, Ari and the humans.
Dreyfus is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the secondary antagonist. He is portrayed by Gary Oldman.
He is a former Army soldier and police officer who is appointed as the leader of the human resistance. Having experienced personal loss, Dreyfus sees Caesar and his colony as a threat after discovering an ape encampment at a local power station. Seeing no other solution, Dreyfus has one goal; wipe them out. His plan was foiled by Caesar in War for the Planet of the Apes.
Steven Jacobs is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by David Oyelowo. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.
He ran the Gen - Sys Laboratories where Dr. Will Rodman was researching a cure to Alzheimer 's disease. After two years in charge of the lab, Jacobs shut down research on the ' ALZ - 112 ' drug after one of Rodman 's chimps went berserk. It was only eight years later, when Rodman revealed he had used the drug on his own father with limited results, that Jacobs approved development of a refined version.
However, Jacobs ordered further testing of the "ALZ - 113 '' virus despite Rodman 's warnings, caring only for the profits to be made on the success of the virus. Later on, Caesar escaped the San Bruno Primate Shelter along with all the other apes housed there, having first infected them with the ALZ - 113. Caesar then went on to stage an attack on Gen - Sys and rescue the apes being held captive there by Jacobs and his staff. After the attack, Jacobs flagged down a San Francisco Police helicopter being commanded by Police Chief John Hamil, and directed them to attack and attempt to destroy the ape rebellion now taking place on the Golden Gate Bridge, in hopes of avoiding bad publicity for Gen - Sys and himself. Once the helicopter arrived at the bridge, Caesar and the other apes were already in the process of defeating the police force opposing them. The helicopter began firing on the apes, killing several, until Jacobs spotted Caesar and attempted to have the chopper pilot gun him down. Buck, a silverback gorilla, tossed Caesar aside and caused the helicopter to crash on to the very edge of the bridge by jumping on it and attacking Hamil and the pilot, which resulted in Buck 's death. Jacobs was the only survivor from the crash and pleaded for Caesar to help him out of the helicopter before it tipped over the side of the bridge. However, Caesar turned his back on Jacobs because of all the pain and suffering he 'd caused the apes for his own greed, as well as for Buck 's death. Just as Caesar turned away, Koba, an ape that Jacobs ordered testing on earlier, walked up to the crashed helicopter and, despite Jacobs asking for help, callously pushed it -- and a screaming Jacobs -- over the side of the bridge and into the water far below, presumably killing him.
Koba is a scar - faced bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Koba is portrayed by Christopher Gordon in Rise and Toby Kebbell in Dawn.
Koba was tested with the ALZ - 113 drug by Will Rodman. Koba has a strong hatred of humans because he only has memories of them experimenting on him. When Caesar freed all of the apes at the lab including Koba, Koba respected Caesar for freeing him. When Buck died at the Golden Gate Bridge, Caesar allowed Koba to kill Steven Jacobs. Koba killed Steven Jacobs by pushing him off the bridge into the water. While Will was looking for Caesar in the Muir Woods, Koba attacked him and was about to kill him. Instead, Caesar stopped Koba from killing Will, which left Koba very angry.
Koba returns in the Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the main antagonist. He is now a lieutenant and close friend of Caesar, who treats him like a brother. However, when surviving humans appear, Koba 's darker nature reemerges and he begins pushing for open war against the humans, considering them a threat and remembering all the torture he suffered at their hands. Caesar wants peace with the humans, putting him and Koba at odds, and eventually leading to a brutal brawl between the two which nearly kills Koba. Despite being spared and forgiven for his insults, Koba decides to overthrow Caesar and shoots him with a human rifle under cover of darkness, causing him to fall off a cliff. Framing the humans for Caesar 's "death '', Koba leads the other apes in a vicious attack against the humans. Despite heavy casualties, Koba and the apes win, killing many humans and imprisoning the rest to show them what it feels like to be in a cage. However, Caesar is revealed to have survived Koba 's assassination attempt, and the two fight for leadership of the tribe. Caesar eventually manages to overpower Koba and tackles him, leaving him clinging for dear life on the top of a pit in the centre of an unfinished tower. Koba begs for mercy, but Caesar disowns him as an ape and lets him fall to his death.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, Koba appears twice as a hallucination to Caesar, who was mentally scarred by his decision to kill him.
Dodge Landon is the secondary antagonist of Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He worked as a guard at the primate detention facility where he abused the apes. He was portrayed by Tom Felton. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts Dodge and Landon in the original Planet of the Apes.
Dodge made Caesar 's life miserable at the facility, including hosing him down in his cage to "show him who 's the boss ''. When Dodge finds Caesar in the facility 's common area alone a struggle ensues and Caesar speaks for the first time - yelling "No! '' and then cages him. Dodge escapes - and wielding his cattle - prod - threatens to "skin each and every one of you apes ''. Caesar uses the water hose on Dodge in defense, electrocuting him.
Malcolm is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jason Clarke.
He is a leader of a small group that forms a strong bond with Caesar - to the extent that Caesar compares him to Will - and is also the father of Alexander.
Nova, portrayed by Amiah Miller, is a bold and kind war orphan whom Maurice adopts as his daughter.
Nova is a victim of a mutated version of the Simian Flu virus that killed most of the human population while making the apes intelligent; this new strain of the virus robs humans of the ability to speak, and causes them to regress to a more primitive mentality. The initially unnamed Nova is discovered living in an isolated house, with only a man presumed to be her father for company; when her house is discovered by a small ape patrol consisting of Caesar, Maurice, Rocket and Luca, her father is killed when he attempts to shoot the apes, and Maurice encourages Caesar to take the girl with them as she will die on her own. The girl accompanies the apes as they travel, winning them over with her simple compassion, as well as demonstrating the ability to learn some elements of sign language. When the apes discover the facility where the ruthless Colonel is keeping the rest of their pack prisoner, Caesar is captured during an attempted raid, and learns about the Colonel 's plans to wipe out any humans infected with the new virus. While Caesar is held in a cage, deprived of food and water, the girl sneaks into the camp to give him water from a bucket and grain provided by the other apes, as well as her old doll for comfort. Rocket subsequently allows himself to be captured to give the girl a chance to escape. While helping Maurice dig a tunnel into the apes ' cage from an existing underground path, the girl asks if she can be an ape, but Maurice tells her instead that she is "Nova '', after a novelty item she received from a gift shop. After the apes escape and the Colonel 's facility is destroyed in an avalanche, Nova accompanies the apes to their new home, and is last shown playing with Caesar 's son Cornelius.
Charles Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by John Lithgow.
He was the father of scientist Dr. Will Rodman and the adoptive grandfather of Caesar. Once a talented pianist and professional music teacher who earned an honorary certificate, Charles began to suffer from Alzheimer 's disease, which his son (either through coincidence or design) researched a cure for at the Gen - Sys Laboratories. He had been cared for during his illness by a nurse named Irena, who could n't stand Charles ' behavior due to Alzheimer 's disease and wished that he would leave the house to stay at a shelter. Although trials of the ' ALZ - 112 ' were called off, Will adopted the baby chimp Caesar, who had been exposed to the drug. Three years later, noticing its effects on Caesar, he administered the drug to Charles, who immediately recovered his mental abilities and was once again able to play the piano. For five years they lived a happy life, with Charles taking care of Caesar when the chimpanzee was a newborn.
Charles was on bad terms with his neighbor Hunsiker on two occasions. The first time was when Hunsiker used a baseball bat in an attempt to strike Caesar when he entered his garage to ride a bicycle, with Charles stating, "He just wanted to play ''. The second and worst time was when Charles, having become immune to the drug and suffering once again from Alzheimer 's, got into Hunsiker 's car and tried to drive it, damaging the front and back of the car by bumping into the cars it was parked between. Hunsiker grabbed Charles out of his car and decided to get out his phone to call the police. Charles tried to grab the cell phone away from Hunsiker. Caesar saw the situation through a window and although not aware of why Hunsiker was angry at Charles, was aware that his grandfather figure was being threatened. To save him, Caesar attacked Hunsiker, refusing to let him run off to his house. After Caesar bit Hunsiker 's finger, Charles yelled at Caesar to stop. Their last moment together was when Caesar and Charles hugged each other, fearing what consequences awaited Caesar with Charles trying to comfort him.
Dr. Will Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franco.
Dr. Will Rodman is a young scientist working at Gen - Sys Industries, a pharmaceutical company in San Francisco. He has been working over five years on a cure for Alzheimer 's disease, which his father Charles Rodman (played by John Lithgow), a former music teacher, is suffering from. An ape from Africa is captured and taken to the company, and is given the drug codenamed ALZ - 112; which experiments have shown allows the brain to repair itself by recreating its cells, with the only known side - effect being a change in the eyes iris to green. He and Steven Jacobs (played by David Oyelowo), the executive overseeing the progress, decides to present it to the Board to move the testing to the next phase of clinical trials on humans. The captured ape that was given the drug, Chimp 9 a.k.a. "Bright Eyes '' is seen attacking the handlers and goes on a rampage which ends with her getting shot. Too late, Franklin the ape handler, and Will realized that it was n't the drug that made her attack, but her newborn baby chimp whom her maternal primal instincts felt she needed to protect against the humans. The project is scrapped and all the other apes tested with the drug are ordered to be put down. However, Franklin can not bring himself to kill the baby chimp and pleas with Will to take the baby chimp home instead.
Will adopts the baby chimp and names him "Caesar ''. 3 years later, Will is witnessing the severe side effects of his father 's disease, while Caesar grows more intelligent -- this convinces him to steal some of the drugs from the lab and use it on his father. His father is shown to have made an instant recovery; moving five more years forward Charles has been receiving routine doses via injection of ALZ - 112. In the five years past, Caesar is also displaying great intellectual prowess and is now an adult chimp, who yearns to explore beyond his surrounding and starts questioning his identity after he sees a German Shepherd on a collared leash like the one he has on. He signs to Will if he 's a pet, which Will adamantly states no. He then signs to Will what he is, and Will says, "I 'm your father '', which he follows with a sign, "What is Caesar? '' Will decides to tell Caesar the truth and takes him to Gen - Sys and tells him that he works there, and that Caesar was born there, and his mother was given medicine along with other chimps. He explains to him that the medicine that was given to his mother passed through to him in - vitro, and that 's why his intelligence is so high. He also tells Caesar that his mother is dead.
Will 's father (whose body is fighting the artificial virus with antibodies being naturally created by the immune system), attempts to drive the neighbor 's car in one of his states of dementia; the angered neighbor is being confrontational to Charles, and Caesar attacks the neighbor, biting off the finger that he was poking Charles repeatedly with. Caesar is taken to the San Bruno primate facility by animal control, and is kept there, when a concerned Will says that "he has n't spent any time with other chimps ''. Heartbroken, Caesar is treated violently by the staff and other ape inmates. Will has been working on a stronger viral strain since he realizes that the immune system will eventually built an immunity to ALZ - 112 (just like when someone is injected with a vaccination). After meeting with Jacobs and revealing he 's given his father the drug (there - by already having a human trial phase), Jacobs gives him the okay to test the new strain, named ALZ - 113.
The new drug is given on an ape named Koba, who in a moment of fit during the administering knocks a gas mask off of Franklin. The ALZ - 113, unlike the 112, is not injected but inhaled instead (which also means that the virus is airborne). The new drug seems to work on Koba, but Will quits after he realizes that he 's unable to change the mind of the greedy Jacobs. Will tried to test the ALZ - 113 on Charles, but he refused and died the next morning from Alzheimer 's. Franklin is later approaching the Rodman house for help realizing that he 's been infected by the virus, but sneezes blood on the neighbor.
Will tries to take Caesar home by bribing the owner of the primate facility, who takes the bribe, but is refused by Caesar himself to go, believing he belongs there more so than with Will. Caesar realizes after befriending another ape, who also knows how to sign from being in the circus, that he needs to make the apes more intelligent if they are to break from their bondage. Caesar manages to escape and return to his former home, where he knows that Will use to keep stolen tubes of the original ALZ - 112 in the refrigerator. However, he finds the new 113 instead, and upon accidentally pressing the cap, a little bit of the virus is released on to the window pane and absorbed, letting the intelligent Caesar realize that the virus can be absorbed as it 's a gas. He releases the 113 down the corridor of where the apes are held in cages, and the virus fills the air with its gas. The next day, Caesar inspects every ape passing through to see if its eyes are green, thereby knowing if that ape has the virus or not. He leads a revolution against their captors and heads towards Gen - Sys, and proceeds to break out all the lab chimps and all the apes at the zoo. After fighting their way towards the Golden Gate and towards the Redwood Grove, Will calls for Caesar, but is attacked by Koba, but stopped by Caesar. Will tries to reason with him by trying to take him home. Caesar speaks to him, "Caesar is home '', and they part as the apes are overlooking San Francisco. Caesar appears to take on more human characteristic, like walking upright, riding a horse, and now speaking.
In a post credits scene, Will 's neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker (David Hewlett) who has been unknowingly infected with the virus, later boards a plane to Paris, spreading the humanity - killing virus to France and then around the globe via airline flight routes.
Will reappears in a cameo during Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, which takes place ten years later with the virus having become a global disaster, which Will is believed to have succumbed. A wounded Caesar and the group retreat to the Rodman house, which has fallen into disarray and neglect. Caesar and the group see a framed photo of Will interacting with Caesar, who also finds a video camera showing Will teaching Caesar sign language. When asked by human ally Malcolm as to who Will was, an emotional Caesar says that Will was a good man like Malcolm.
Werner is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jocko Sims. He is an ally of Dreyfus.
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how long ago were the ancient babylonians charting positions of the planets and stars | Babylonian astronomy - wikipedia
The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descendants in direct line from the work of the late Babylonian astronomers. Modern knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age.
The history of astronomy in Mesopotamia, and the world, begins with the Sumerians who developed the earliest writing system -- known as cuneiform -- around 3500 -- 3200 BC. The Sumerians developed a form of astronomy that had an important influence on the sophisticated astronomy of the Babylonians. Astrolatry, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place - value number system, which simplified the task of recording very great and very small numbers. The modern practices of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians.
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new empirical approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science, and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. Classical Greek and Latin sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest - scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.
Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived, consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets containing astronomical diaries, ephemerides and procedure texts, hence current knowledge of Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state. Nevertheless, the surviving fragments show that Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena '' and that "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West... depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways. ''
"Old '' Babylonian astronomy was practiced during and after the First Babylonian Dynasty (ca. 1830 BC) and before the Neo-Babylonian Empire (ca. 626 BC).
The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena were recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enûma Anu Enlil -- the oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enûma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years. It is the earliest evidence that planetary phenomena were recognized as periodic.
The MUL. APIN contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and settings of the planets, and lengths of daylight as measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in ' strings ' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right - ascensions or time intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right - ascensional differences. There are dozens of cuneiform Mesopotamian texts with real observations of eclipses, mainly from Babylonia.
The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th - century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.
In contrast to the world view presented in Mesopotamian and Assyro - Babylonian literature, particularly in Mesopotamian and Babylonian mythology, very little is known about the cosmology and world view of the ancient Babylonian astrologers and astronomers. This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory, and also due to Babylonian astronomy being independent from cosmology at the time. Nevertheless, traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian literature and mythology.
In Babylonian cosmology, the Earth and the heavens were depicted as a "spatial whole, even one of round shape '' with references to "the circumference of heaven and earth '' and "the totality of heaven and earth ''. Their worldview was not exactly geocentric either. The idea of geocentrism, where the center of the Earth is the exact center of the universe, did not yet exist in Babylonian cosmology, but was established later by the Greek philosopher Aristotle 's On the Heavens. In contrast, Babylonian cosmology suggested that the cosmos revolved around circularly with the heavens and the earth being equal and joined as a whole. The Babylonians and their predecessors, the Sumerians, also believed in a plurality of heavens and earths. This idea dates back to Sumerian incantations of the 2nd millennium BC, which refers to there being seven heavens and seven earths, linked possibly chronologically to the creation by seven generations of gods.
Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by Chaldean astronomers during the Neo-Babylonian, Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods of Mesopotamian history. A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747 -- 734 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18 - year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greco - Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar 's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.
The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323 -- 60 BC). In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use "goal - year texts '' to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records.
Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory, it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with ephemerides and not with theory. It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly empirical and arithmetical, and usually did not involve geometry, cosmology, or speculative philosophy like that of the later Hellenistic models, though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe. Babylonian procedure texts describe, and ephemerides employ, arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. More recent analysis of previously unpublished cuneiform tablets in the British Museum, dated between 350 and 50 BC, demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods, prefiguring the methods of the Oxford Calculators, to describe the motion of Jupiter over time in an abstract mathematical space.
In contrast to Greek astronomy which was dependent upon cosmology, Babylonian astronomy was independent from cosmology. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion '', such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers, for whom uniform circular motion was never a requirement for planetary orbits. There is no evidence that the celestial bodies moved in uniform circular motion, or along celestial spheres, in Babylonian astronomy.
Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of eclipse cycles and saros cycles, and many accurate astronomical observations. For example, they observed that the Sun 's motion along the ecliptic was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.
Chaldean astronomers known to have followed this model include Naburimannu (fl. 6th -- 3rd century BC), Kidinnu (d. 330 BC), Berossus (3rd century BCE), and Sudines (fl. 240 BCE). They are known to have had a significant influence on the Greek astronomer Hipparchus and the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy, as well as other Hellenistic astronomers.
The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of the Hellenistic Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), who supported the Greek Aristarchus of Samos ' heliocentric model. Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch, Aetius, Strabo, and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al - Razi. The Greek geographer Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential astronomers, who came from Hellenistic Seleuceia on the Tigris, alongside Kidenas (Kidinnu), Naburianos (Naburimannu), and Sudines. Their works were originally written in the Akkadian language and later translated into Greek. Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus, where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through reasoning, though it is not known what arguments he used.
According to Lucio Russo, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of tides. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the Earth 's atmosphere. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1. 9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon 's position relative to the Sun.
According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus.
None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived, though a fragment of his work has survived only in Arabic translation, which was later referred to by the Persian philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakariya al - Razi (865 - 925).
Many of the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers (including mathematicians, astronomers, and geographers) have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by earlier ancient Near Eastern civilizations, notably those in Babylonia, were forgotten for a long time. Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century, many cuneiform writings on clay tablets have been found, some of them related to astronomy. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by Abraham Sachs and later published by Otto Neugebauer in the Astronomical Cuneiform Texts (ACT).
Since the rediscovery of the Babylonian civilization, it has been theorized that there was significant information exchange between classical and Hellenistic astronomy and Chaldean. The best documented borrowings are those of Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) and Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE).
Some scholars support that the Metonic cycle may have been learned by the Greeks from Babylonian scribes. Meton of Athens, a Greek astronomer of the 5th century BCE, developed a lunisolar calendar based on the fact that 19 solar years is about equal to 235 lunar months, a period relation that perhaps was also known to the Babylonians.
In the 4th century BCE, Eudoxus of Cnidus wrote a book on the fixed stars. His descriptions of many constellations, especially the twelve signs of the zodiac show similarities to Babylonian. The following century Aristarchus of Samos used an eclipse cycle called the Saros cycle to determine the year length. However, the position that there was an early information exchange between Greeks and Chaldeans are weak inferences; possibly, there had been a stronger information exchange between the two after Alexander the Great established his empire over Persia in the latter part of the 4th century BCE.
In 1900, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his Almagest IV. 2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon 's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers '' by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans '', and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B '' (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations. Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd - century papyrus, which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same "System B '', but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets.
It is clear that Hipparchus (and Ptolemy after him) had an essentially complete list of eclipse observations covering many centuries. Most likely these had been compiled from the "diary '' tablets: these are clay tablets recording all relevant observations that the Chaldeans routinely made. Preserved examples date from 652 BC to AD 130, but probably the records went back as far as the reign of the Babylonian king Nabonassar: Ptolemy starts his chronology with the first day in the Egyptian calendar of the first year of Nabonassar; i.e., 26 February 747 BC.
This raw material by itself must have been tough to use, and no doubt the Chaldeans themselves compiled extracts of e.g., all observed eclipses (some tablets with a list of all eclipses in a period of time covering a saros have been found). This allowed them to recognise periodic recurrences of events. Among others they used in System B (cf. Almagest IV. 2):
The Babylonians expressed all periods in synodic months, probably because they used a lunisolar calendar. Various relations with yearly phenomena led to different values for the length of the year.
Similarly various relations between the periods of the planets were known. The relations that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus in Almagest IX. 3 had all already been used in predictions found on Babylonian clay tablets.
Other traces of Babylonian practice in Hipparchus ' work are
All this knowledge was transferred to the Greeks probably shortly after the conquest by Alexander the Great (331 BC). According to the late classical philosopher Simplicius (early 6th century), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler Callisthenes of Olynthus, who sent it to his uncle Aristotle. It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the Sassanid (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning "guarding '' but also "observing ''. Anyway, Aristotle 's pupil Callippus of Cyzicus introduced his 76 - year cycle, which improved upon the 19 - year Metonic cycle, about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC (Julian proleptic date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander 's decisive battle at Gaugamela in fall 331 BC. So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as Berossus wrote around 281 BC a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the Babyloniaca, for the new ruler Antiochus I; it is said that later he founded a school of astrology on the Greek island of Kos. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy / astrology was Sudines who was at the court of Attalus I Soter late in the 3rd century BC.
In any case, the translation of the astronomical records required profound knowledge of the cuneiform script, the language, and the procedures, so it seems likely that it was done by some unidentified Chaldeans. Now, the Babylonians dated their observations in their lunisolar calendar, in which months and years have varying lengths (29 or 30 days; 12 or 13 months respectively). At the time they did not use a regular calendar (such as based on the Metonic cycle like they did later), but started a new month based on observations of the New Moon. This made it very tedious to compute the time interval between events.
What Hipparchus may have done is transform these records to the Egyptian calendar, which uses a fixed year of always 365 days (consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days): this makes computing time intervals much easier. Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar. He also writes that "All that he (= Hipparchus) did was to make a compilation of the planetary observations arranged in a more useful way '' (Almagest IX. 2). Pliny states (Naturalis Historia II. IX (53)) on eclipse predictions: "After their time (= Thales) the courses of both stars (= Sun and Moon) for 600 years were prophesied by Hipparchus,... ''. This seems to imply that Hipparchus predicted eclipses for a period of 600 years, but considering the enormous amount of computation required, this is very unlikely. Rather, Hipparchus would have made a list of all eclipses from Nabonasser 's time to his own.
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where was the movie the proposal filmed in alaska | The Proposal (film) - wikipedia
The Proposal is a 2009 American romantic comedy film directed by Anne Fletcher and written by Peter Chiarelli. The film stars Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds with Betty White, Mary Steenburgen and Craig T. Nelson. The plot centers on a Canadian executive who learns that she may face deportation from the U.S. because of her expired visa. Determined to retain her position as editor in chief of a publishing house, she convinces her assistant to temporarily act as her fiancé.
Development on the film began in 2005, when Chiarelli wrote the film 's script. Principal filming occurred over a period of two months from March to May 2008. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized its script but praised the chemistry between Bullock and Reynolds, and was box office success, grossing over $317 million worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing romantic comedy film of 2009.
Margaret Tate (Sandra Bullock) is an executive editor in chief of a book publishing company. After learning she is about to be deported to Canada because she violated the terms of her work visa, she persuades her assistant, Andrew Paxton (Ryan Reynolds), to marry her. She reminds Andrew that if she 's deported, the work he put in as her assistant will be lost, and he 'll be set back in his dream to become an editor. Mr. Gilbertson, a U.S. immigration agent, informs them that he suspects they are committing fraud to avoid Margaret 's deportation. Gilbertson tells them that they 'll be asked questions about each other separately. If their answers do n't match, Margaret will be deported to Canada permanently and Andrew will be convicted of a felony punishable by a $250,000 fine and five years in prison. Andrew insists that Margaret make him an editor after their marriage and publish the book he 's been recommending to her. Margaret agrees.
The couple travels to Sitka, Alaska, Andrew 's hometown, to meet his family. Margaret meets Andrew 's mother Grace (Mary Steenburgen) and grandmother Annie (Betty White), known as "Gammy ''. During the trip to the family home, Margaret notices that nearly every shop in town carries the name Paxton and learns that Andrew 's family is in fact very wealthy. During a welcome home party, Andrew confronts his father, Joe (Craig T. Nelson), who is angry about Andrew 's dating the boss he has so long disliked and thinks he is using her to get ahead in his career. After their argument, Andrew announces the engagement to everyone. Margaret also meets Gertrude, Andrew 's ex-girlfriend.
The next day, Grace and Annie take Margaret to a local bar as part of her bachelorette party to watch a strip dance by a locally famous but over-the - hill exotic dancer, Ramone. Stepping away from the show, Margaret learns from Gertrude that Andrew wanted to become an editor and make his own life and that Andrew had proposed to Gertrude. However, Gertrude refused because she did n't want to leave Sitka for New York. Returning home, Margaret learns of the conflict between Andrew and Joe. That night, Margaret asks Andrew about his relationship with his father, but Andrew refuses to talk. Instead, Margaret opens up to Andrew.
The next day, the family convinces them to marry while they 're in Sitka. After Margaret realizes how close Andrew 's family is, she becomes upset, gets on Andrew 's boat, and speeds away with him. She tells him she has been alone since she was sixteen years old after her parents died and had forgotten what it felt like to have a family. She lets go of the helm and stumbles to the back of the boat. Andrew makes a sharp turn to avoid hitting a buoy, and Margaret falls out of the boat. Andrew quickly turns the boat around and saves her because she ca n't swim. At the wedding ceremony, Margaret confesses the truth about the wedding to the guests, including Gilbertson, who informs her she has twenty - four hours to leave for Canada. Margaret returns to the Paxton home to pack her things. Andrew rushes to their room only to find Margaret has already left, leaving the aforementioned book manuscript with a note of praise and a promise to publish it. Gertrude attempts to comfort Andrew and asks if he is going to go after her. As he rushes out to find Margaret, another argument arises between him and Joe. Annie fakes a heart attack and convinces them to reconcile before she "passes away ''. After she succeeds in getting things moving again, she owns up to faking the heart attack as it was the only means to get their attention. Andrew 's parents realize he really loves Margaret. He goes to New York and tells Margaret he loves her in front of the entire office staff. They kiss, then go to Gilbertson and inform him they are again engaged, but for real this time. The film ends with Gilbertson asking questions (some of them irrelevant) not only to Andrew and Margaret, but also Joe, Grace, Annie and Ramone.
Peter Chiarelli initially wrote the script for the film in 2005. In May 2007, it was announced that Sandra Bullock had been given a lead role for The Proposal. Julia Roberts was originally approached by producers for a lead role in the film, but later declined. Nearly two months after the announcement, it was reported that negotiations were being finalized for Ryan Reynolds to star opposite to Bullock. In January 2008, Touchstone Pictures signed Anne Fletcher to direct the film. It premiered on June 1, 2009 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California.
Filming for The Proposal initiated in April 2008 in Rockport, Massachusetts. In the oncoming days leading to production, areas of the town were temporarily remodeled to represent Sitka, Alaska, the setting of most of the film. Principal photography officially began on April 9 at Bearskin Neck, where it continued over a period of 24 hours. Filming continued at the Motif Number One building on Bradley Wharf (April 14 -- 16), the Haskins Building (April 15 -- 18), and the central business district of Rockport (April 17). Principal photography relocated to Manchester - by - the - Sea, Massachusetts on April 22, where it resumed over an approximate period of two weeks. In response, city officials accommodated the producers by renting out all publicly owned parking lots. Filming for The Proposal was shortly delayed after Bullock and her husband were involved in a car accident. The wedding scene was filmed in a three - story twentieth century Victorian home; photography took place at the residence for three weeks. In an interview with the New York Times, the owners of the home stated that Nelson Coates knocked on their door asking for leaves. Initially, the owners directed Coates to other residences in the area; however, they eventually gave the film 's producer a tour of the house. Production occurred on the first floor of the home. Outside of the Cape Ann area, filming took place in Boston, Massachusetts at the State Street Bank Building and in Lower Manhattan in New York City. The Proposal contained 350 special effect shots, and some parts were edited using computer - generated imagery. The score to The Proposal was composed by Aaron Zigman, who recorded his score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage.
As part of an extensive advertising campaign, Reynolds discussed taking part in the production of a nude scene. The scene was filmed in a period of three days, and took approximately twelve takes to complete. Expressing that she was initially nervous, Bullock stated in an interview with Sky News that "when everyone else acts like it 's just a normal day it really helps you relax. '' Although she revealed that producers provided them with fig leaves, Bullock stated that they would continuously fall off. She added, "You could literally see everything. '' Similar sentiments were expressed by Reynolds, who in an interview with People, stated, "Filming a scene that involves being entirely naked and takes a couple days can be a little awkward. '' He continued: "Thankfully you 're there for so long and you 're doing it for so long that you dispense with the awkwardness pretty quickly and start to have mundane, normal conversations -- the difference being you 're not wearing pants. ''
The Proposal was released in the United States on June 19, 2009. On its opening day, the film grossed an estimated $12.7 million in 3,056 theaters, becoming the highest - grossing film of the day. It later went on to gross over $34 million during its opening weekend, beating out Year One, Up, and The Hangover. In an exit poll conducted by Disney, nearly 63 % of the opening audience consisted of female viewers, 78 % were eighteen or older, and 71 % were classified as couples. It marked the biggest opening weekend out of any film in Bullock 's career, nearly doubling from her previous holder, Premonition. As of October 2011, the film had grossed over $164 million in the United States and Canada.
Box office performances showed similar numbers in international markets. The film was released in Australia on June 18, 2009, grossing over $2.8 million on its opening weekend. In Russia, the film grossed over $2.6 million on its opening weekend, accounting for 34 % of all total film revenue in that country. In South Africa the film debuted at number two, losing out to the new release Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs. It managed to gross over $2.6 million as of October 2011. In the United Kingdom, estimated first opening weekend grosses stand at £ 3.2 million. The film has grossed over $317 million worldwide, with international grosses standing at $153 million. It is the twentieth highest - grossing film of 2009.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 44 % based on 182 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds exhibit plenty of chemistry, but they 're let down by The Proposal 's devotion to formula. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating, the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 30 reviews from critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave a mixed review, giving the film three out of four stars despite complaining that the film "recycles a plot that was already old when Tracy and Hepburn were trying it out ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was very critical of the film, calling it insipid. He wrote, "Anne Fletcher directs Peter Chiarelli 's script like a manufacturer of hard plastic that is guaranteed to ward off intrusion from all recognizable human emotion. '' New York Times writer Manohla Dargis felt that Bullock 's character was awkward in comparison to her previous work. She continued: "She 's always been better in fundamentally independent roles that allow her to grab the wheel (...) and take the spotlight (...), an independence that persists all the way through the last - act coupling. She can smile as brightly at a man as well as the next leading lady, though, like all genuinely big female stars, she 's really more of a solo act. '' The Telegraph 's Tim Robey expressed disappointment towards the film, giving it a two out of five stars.
The interaction between Reynolds and Bullock was well received by critics. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly opined that the chemistry between the two actors was "fresh and irresistible. '' Zorianna Kit of The Huffington Post exclaimed that "what (kept) audiences of this lite - fare comedy in their seats is the undeniable on - screen chemistry between leads Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds. '' She continued: "The two are so adept at comedy and have so much fun with one another, viewers watching The Proposal wo n't be able to resist their charms, even when some of the plot veers in to unnecessarily silliness. '' Betsey Sharkley of the Los Angeles Times felt that their relationship was a "cheeky update of The Taming of the Shrew. '' She opined, "Bullock 's deft physical comedy, one of her most endearing qualities, is given a full run. (...) Reynolds ' ability to deliver a line, or a look, with withering, surgical precision is there at every turn. '' Giving it a one out of five stars, The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw gave a negative reaction to the interaction between Reynolds and Bullock. Bradshaw stated: "Their initial sparky detestation is n't convincing, and neither is their later thawing and romance. In each scene, it looks as if they have never met before. And Margaret is n't permitted to be a convincing cow, because that would make her unsympathetic (...). Andrew ca n't be a total wimp, because that would be unsexy, so the fundamental comic premises of the film are fudged. ''
The Proposal was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu - ray on October 13, 2009. It sold over 2.4 million units within its first week, translating to an addition of $39.3 million in the box office. In its second week, sales numbers declined by 70 % to 623,744 units, ranking second among DVD sales of the week. By July 2013, The Proposal had sold over 5.6 million units and earned over $90 million in sales.
The 2012 Malayalam - language Indian film My Boss is a remake of The Proposal. Set in Mumbai and Kerala, the remade version has many differences from the original although the basic storyline remains the same. Popular actors Dileep and Mamta Mohandas played the lead roles in this version. The remake was also a hit.
A Chinese remake co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Linmon Pictures and directed by Yee Chin - yen was announced in June 2016.
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how many books in the fifty shades of gray series | Fifty Shades (novel series) - wikipedia
Fifty Shades is a series of erotic novels by E.L. James. Initially a trilogy consisting of Fifty Shades of Grey (2011), Fifty Shades Darker, and Fifty Shades Freed (2012), the series traces the deepening relationship between a college graduate, Anastasia Steele, and a young business magnate, Christian Grey.
Grey introduces Ana to the world of BDSM. James has spoken of her shock at the success of the book, "The explosion of interest has taken me completely by surprise '' she said. James has described the Fifty Shades trilogy as "my midlife crisis, writ large. All my fantasies in there, and that 's it. '' She did not start to write until January 2009, as she revealed while still active on FanFiction.Net: "I started writing in January 2009 after I finished the Twilight saga, and I have n't stopped since. I discovered Fan Fiction in August 2009. Since then I have written my two fics and plan on doing at least one more. After that... who knows? '' In August 2013, sales of the trilogy saw James top the Forbes ' list of the highest - earning authors with earnings of $95 m which included $5 m for the film rights to Fifty Shades of Grey. However, the books have also been largely panned by critics, with the first entry in particular "being ridiculed by virtually every critic who has read it. ''
Since 2015 the series has been expanded with a parallel set of novels "as told by Christian '': Grey follows the events of Fifty Shades of Grey but from the perspective of Christian Grey, while Darker (2017) does the same for the plot of Fifty Shades Darker.
Salman Rushdie said about the book: "I 've never read anything so badly written that got published. It made Twilight look like War and Peace. '' Maureen Dowd described the book in The New York Times as being written "like a Brontë devoid of talent, '' and said it was "dull and poorly written. '' Jesse Kornbluth of The Huffington Post said: "As a reading experience, Fifty Shades... is a sad joke, puny of plot ''.
Princeton professor April Alliston wrote, "Though no literary masterpiece, Fifty Shades is more than parasitic fan fiction based on the recent Twilight vampire series. '' Entertainment Weekly writer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the book a "B + '' rating and praised it for being "in a class by itself. '' British author Jenny Colgan in The Guardian wrote "It is jolly, eminently readable and as sweet and safe as BDSM (bondage, discipline, sadism and masochism) erotica can be without contravening the trade descriptions act '' and also praised the book for being "more enjoyable '' than other "literary erotic books ''. However, The Telegraph criticized the book as "treacly cliché '' but also wrote that the sexual politics in Fifty Shades of Grey will have female readers "discussing it for years to come. '' A reviewer for the Ledger - Enquirer described the book as guilty fun and escapism, but that it "also touches on one aspect of female existence (female submission). And acknowledging that fact -- maybe even appreciating it -- should n't be a cause for guilt. '' The New Zealand Herald stated that the book "will win no prizes for its prose '' and that "there are some exceedingly awful descriptions, '' but it was also an easy read; "(If you only) can suspend your disbelief and your desire to -- if you 'll pardon the expression -- slap the heroine for having so little self respect, you might enjoy it. ''
The Columbus Dispatch stated that, "Despite the clunky prose, James does cause one to turn the page. '' Metro News Canada wrote that "suffering through 500 pages of this heroine 's inner dialogue was torturous, and not in the intended, sexy kind of way ''. Jessica Reaves, of the Chicago Tribune, wrote that the "book 's source material is n't great literature '', noting that the novel is "sprinkled liberally and repeatedly with asinine phrases '', and described it as "depressing ''. The book garnered some accolades. In December 2012, it won both "Popular Fiction '' and "Book of the Year '' categories in the UK National Book Awards. In that same month, Publishers Weekly named E.L. James the ' Publishing Person of the Year ', causing an "outcry from the literary world ''. For example, "What was Publishers Weekly thinking? '' asked Los Angeles Times writer Carolyn Kellogg, while a New York Daily News headline read, "Civilization ends: E.L. James named Publishers Weekly 's ' Person of the Year '. ''
Fifty Shades trilogy has also attracted criticism due to its depictions of BDSM, with Katie Roiphe of Newsweek asking "But why, for women especially, would free will be a burden?... It may be that power is not always that comfortable, even for those of us who grew up in it; it may be that equality is something we want only sometimes and in some places and in some arenas; it may be that power and all of its imperatives can be boring. '' Zap2it 's Andrea Reiher expressed frustration at Roiphe 's depiction of the series, stating that "(b) eing submissive sexually is not tantamount to being the victim of abuse '' or that they 're "giving up their power or their equality with their partner ''. Other sites such as Jezebel have responded to the article, with Jezebel listing reasons for Fifty Shades of Grey 's popularity, stating that "the vast majority of fans fawn over the emotional relationship Anastasia and Christian have, not about the sex. ''
In an interview with Salon, several dominatrices have responded that while submission can be an escape from daily stresses, they also frequently have male clients and that trust is a big factor in dominant / submissive relationships. One interviewed former dominatrix and author, Melissa Febos, stated that even if the book 's popularity was a result of women 's "current anxieties about equality '' that it "does n't mean that it 's ' evidence of unhappiness, or an invalidation of feminism, '... it might actually be a sign of progress that millions of women are so hungrily pursuing sexual fantasies independent of men. '' Writing in The Huffington Post, critic Soraya Chemaly argued that interest in the series was not a trend, but squarely within the tradition and success of the romance category which is driven by tales of virgins, damaged men and submission / dominance themes. Instead, she wrote, the books are notable not for transgressive sex but for how women are using technology to subvert gendered shame by exploring explicit sexual content privately using e-readers. Instead of submission fantasies representing a post-feminist discomfort with power and free will, women 's open consumption, sharing and discussion of sexual content is a feminist success. At the beginning of the media hype, Dr. Drew and sexologist Logan Levkoff discussed the book on The Today Show, about whether Fifty Shades perpetuated violence against women; Levkoff said that while that is an important subject, this trilogy had nothing to do with it -- this was a book about a consensual relationship. Dr. Drew commented that the book was "horribly written '' in addition to being "disturbing '' but stated that "if the book enhances women 's real - life sex lives and intimacy, so be it. '' Amy Bonomi, a Human Development and Family Studies professor argues that the relationship portrayed is non-consensual: "Unable to bear the thought of being alone, Christian employs strategies to "trap '' Anastasia, including keeping his violent tendencies private, limiting Anastasia 's availability of help and support from her friends and family through his nondisclosure agreement and through verbal and nonverbal intimidation, and attempts to convince Anastasia that she finds his punishments pleasurable ''
In March 2012, branches of the public library in Brevard County, Florida, removed copies of Fifty Shades of Grey from their shelves, with an official stating that it did not meet the selection criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book 's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell - Stone of the American Library Association commented that "If the only reason you do n't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there 's a question of whether you 're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information. '' Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to their patrons due to public demand.
In Macaé, Brazil, Judge Raphael Queiroz Campos ruled in January 2013 that bookstores throughout the city must either remove the series entirely from their shelves or ensure that the books are wrapped and placed out of the reach of minors. The judge stated that he was prompted to make such an order after seeing children reading them, basing his decision on a law stating that "magazines and publications whose content is improper or inadequate for children and adolescents can only be sold if sealed and with warnings regarding their content ''.
A film adaptation of the book was produced by Focus Features, Michael De Luca Productions, and Trigger Street Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. Universal is also the film 's distributor. Charlie Hunnam was originally cast in the role of Christian Grey alongside Dakota Johnson in the role of Anastasia Steele, but Hunnam gave up the part in October 2013, with Jamie Dornan announced for the role on 23 October. The film was released on 13 February 2015, and became an immediate success, making it to # 1 at the box office with $558.5 million. However, critical reactions were generally negative. After the first film premiered at a special fan screening in New York City on 6 February 2015, director Sam Taylor - Johnson confirmed two sequels to be succeeded after the first film, with Fifty Shades Darker to be released February 10, 2017.
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how do you save in shadow of wat | Shadow Copy - Wikipedia
Shadow Copy (also known as Volume Snapshot Service, Volume Shadow Copy Service or VSS) is a technology included in Microsoft Windows that allows taking manual or automatic backup copies or snapshots of computer files or volumes, even when they are in use. It is implemented as a Windows service called the Volume Shadow Copy service. A software VSS provider service is also included as part of Windows to be used by Windows applications. Shadow Copy technology requires the file system to be NTFS in order to create and store shadow copies. Shadow Copies can be created on local and external (removable or network) volumes by any Windows component that uses this technology, such as when creating a scheduled Windows Backup or automatic System Restore point.
VSS operates at the block level of volumes.
A snapshot is a read - only point - in - time copy of the volume. Snapshots allow the creation of consistent backups of a volume, ensuring that the contents do not change and are not locked while the backup is being made.
The core component of shadow copy is the Volume Shadow Copy service, which initiates and oversees the snapshot creation process. The components that perform all the necessary data transfer are called providers. While Windows comes with a default System Provider, software and hardware vendors can create their own software or hardware providers and register them with Volume Shadow Copy service. Each provider has a maximum of 10 seconds ' time to complete the snapshot generation.
Other components that are involved in the snapshot creation process are writers. The aim of Shadow Copy is to create consistent reliable snapshots. But sometimes, this can not simply be achieved by completing all pending file change operations. Sometimes, it is necessary to complete a series of inter-related changes to several related files. For example, when a database application transfers a piece of data from one file to another, it needs to delete it from the source file and create it in the destination file. Hence, a snapshot must not be between the first deletion and the subsequent creation, or else it is worthless; it must either be before the deletion or after the creation. Enforcing this semantic consistency is the duty of writers. Each writer is application - specific and has 60 seconds to establish a backup - safe state before providers start snapshot creation. If the Volume Shadow Copy service does not receive acknowledgement of success from the corresponding writers with this time - frame, it fails the operation.
By default, snapshots are temporary; they do not survive a reboot. The ability to create persistent snapshots was added in Windows Server 2003 onward. However, Windows 8 removed the GUI portion necessary to browse them. (§ History)
Windows software and services that support VSS include Windows Failover Cluster, Windows Backup, Hyper - V, Virtual Server, Active Directory, SQL Server, Exchange Server and SharePoint.
The end result is similar to a versioning file system, allowing any file to be retrieved as it existed at the time any of the snapshots was made. Unlike a true versioning file system, however, users can not trigger the creation of new versions of an individual file, only the entire volume. As a side - effect, whereas the owner of a file can create new versions in a versioning file system, only a system administrator or a backup operator can create new snapshots (or control when new snapshots are taken), because this requires control of the entire volume rather than an individual file. Also, many versioning file systems (such as the one in VMS) implicitly save a version of files each time they are changed; systems using a snapshotting approach like Windows only capture the state periodically.
Volume Snapshot Service was first added to Microsoft Windows in Windows XP. It can only create temporary snapshots, used for accessing stable on - disk version of files that are opened for editing (and therefore locked). This version of VSS is used by NTBackup.
The creation of persistent snapshots (which remain available across reboots until specifically deleted) has been added in Windows Server 2003, allowing up to 512 snapshots to exist simultaneously for the same volume. In Windows Server 2003, VSS is used to create incremental periodic snapshots of data of changed files over time. A maximum of 64 snapshots are stored on the server and are accessible to clients over the network. This feature is known as Shadow Copies for Shared Folders and is designed for a client -- server model. Its client component is included with Windows XP SP2 or later, and is available for installation on Windows 2000 SP3 or later, as well as Windows XP RTM or SP1.
Windows XP and later include a command line utility called vssadmin that can list, create or delete volume shadow copies and list installed shadow copy writers and providers.
Microsoft updated a number of Windows components to make use of Shadow Copy. Backup and Restore in Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 use shadow copies of files in both file - based and sector - by - sector backup. The System Protection component uses VSS when creating and maintaining periodic copies of system and user data on the same local volume (similar to the Shadow Copies for Shared Folders feature in Windows Server); VSS allows such data to be locally accessed by System Restore.
System Restore allows reverting to an entire previous set of shadow copies called a restore point. Prior to Windows Vista, System Restore depended on a file - based filter that watched changes for a certain set of file extensions, and then copied files before they were overwritten. In addition, a part of Windows Explorer called Previous Versions allows restoring individual files or folders locally from restore points as they existed at the time of the snapshot, thus retrieving an earlier version of a file or recovering a file deleted by mistake. Finally, Windows Server 2008 introduces the diskshadow utility which exposes VSS functionality through 20 different commands.
The system creates shadow copies automatically once per day, or when triggered by the backup utility or installer applications which create a restore point. The "Previous Versions '' feature is available in the Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista and in all Windows 7 editions. The Home Editions of Vista lack the "Previous Versions '' feature, even though the Volume Snapshot Service is included and running. Using third - party tools it is still possible to restore previous versions of files on the local volume. Some of these tools also allow users to schedule snapshots at user - defined intervals, configure the storage used by volume - shadow copies and compare files or directories from different points - in - time using snapshots. Windows 7 also adds native support through a GUI to configure the storage used by volume - shadow copies.
While supporting persistent shadow copies, Windows 8 lacks the GUI portion necessary to browse them; therefore the ability to browse, search or recover older versions of files via the Previous Versions tab of the Properties dialog of files was removed for local volumes. However, using third party tools (such as ShadowExplorer) it is possible to recover that functionality. The feature is fully available in Windows Server 2012.
Windows 10 restored the Previous Versions tab that was removed in Windows 8; however, it depends on the File History feature now instead of Volume Shadow copy.
Samba on Linux is capable of providing Shadow Copy Service on an LVM - backed storage or with an underlying ZFS or btrfs.
While the different NTFS versions have a certain degree of both forward and backward compatibility, there are certain issues when mounting newer NTFS volumes containing persistent shadow copies in older versions of Windows. This affects dual - booting, and external portable hard drives. Specifically, the persistent shadow copies created by Windows Vista on an NTFS volume are deleted when Windows XP or Windows Server 2003 mount that NTFS volume. This happens because the older operating system does not understand the newer format of persistent shadow copies. Likewise, System Restore snapshots created by Windows 8 are deleted if they are exposed to a previous version of Windows.
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what channel is fox sports 1 on comcast xfinity | Fox Sports 1 - Wikipedia
Fox Sports 1 (FS1) is an American sports - oriented cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the Fox Sports Media Group, a unit of the Fox Entertainment Group division of 21st Century Fox. FS1 replaced the motorsports network Speed on August 17, 2013, at the same time that its companion channel Fox Sports 2 replaced Fuel TV. Both FS1 and FS2 absorbed most of the sports programming from its predecessors, as well as content from Fox Soccer, which was replaced by the entertainment - based channel FXX on September 2, 2013.
FS1 airs an array of live sporting events, including Major League Baseball, college sports (most notably Pac - 12 and Big 12 Conference football, and Big East Conference basketball), soccer matches (including Major League Soccer, UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, Bundesliga, and Copa Libertadores), United States Golf Association championship events, UFC mixed martial arts, and a variety of motorsports events such as NASCAR, IMSA, Formula E and the NHRA. FS1 also features daily sports news, analysis and discussion programming as well as sports - related reality and documentary programs.
The network is based primarily from the Fox Sports division 's headquarters in the Westwood section of Los Angeles, California, though the network also has significant broadcast operations in New York City, New York and Charlotte, North Carolina (the latter of which had served as Speed 's home base). As of January 2016, Fox Sports 1 is available to approximately 84,486,000 pay television households (72.583 % of households with at least one television set) in the United States.
In March 2012, reports began circulating that Fox Entertainment Group had plans to launch a national Fox Sports cable network by August 2013 known as Fox Sports 1, giving the sports division a dedicated cable presence to better compete against established networks like ESPN. Fox was already a major force in cable sports programming, having operated several niche channels such as Fox Soccer, Fox Deportes, Fuel TV and Fox College Sports. Also in its portfolio were the Fox Sports Networks, a group of regional sports networks both owned by Fox outright or by other companies through affiliation agreements with FSN; in addition to carrying play - by - play rights to several local sports teams, these regional networks also featured common national content produced and distributed by Fox Sports, including national college sports broadcasts and specialty programs such as The Best Damn Sports Show Period and Baseball 's Golden Age.
Though this local / national hybrid approach gave Fox prominence at the local sports level, it was somewhat disadvantaged as its flagship over-the - air network had the distinction of being the only major U.S. broadcast television network not to have a national general sports channel to complement its sports division, unlike ABC (whose corporate parent The Walt Disney Company owns a controlling 80 % stake in ESPN), CBS (which operates CBS Sports Network) and NBC (which runs NBCSN).
The reports indicated that Fox planned on converting one of these niche sports channels, Speed -- which focused on auto racing and other motorsports, as well as motorsports - related specialty programs, into the new Fox Sports 1 due to its established reach on U.S. pay television providers (Speed maintained a subscriber base of 81 million homes with cable, IPTV or satellite service by 2012), which would result in the reduction of the channel 's commitment to NASCAR and other motorsports coverage.
Further supporting this theory, reports surfaced in January 2013 that Fox Soccer would be relaunched as FXX, a general entertainment network that would be spun off from FX and would feature comedy series and feature films; such reports were confirmed when the channel 's planned launch was officially announced by Fox Entertainment Group on March 28, 2013. In October 2012, Speed altered its on - air logo bug to include the Fox Sports logo above its own, which was believed to indicate a step towards this replacement. Fox Sports would officially confirm the conversion of Speed into Fox Sports 1 in an announcement on March 5, 2013.
Despite being established well after ESPN (which launched in 1979), and the NBC - and CBS - owned sports networks (which respectively launched in 1996 and 2003 under different ownership and branding), Fox Sports 1, even before commencing programming, has been seen as a legitimate and serious competitor to ESPN, in part due to three factors:
Fox Sports executives see Fox Sports 1 as "an alternative to the establishment '', much as the Fox Broadcasting Company was to other broadcast networks in the 1980s and Fox News Channel was to CNN in the 1990s. In terms of growth, Fox Entertainment Group acknowledged that Fox Sports 1 would start modestly and not be competitively equal with ESPN right out of the gate; however, the company foresees the network growing incrementally, believing that the channel will be on - par with its senior competitor within a few years of its launch.
Fox Sports 1 formally launched on August 17, 2013 at 6: 00 a.m. Eastern Time, with the following introduction:
The launch day featured 161⁄2 hours of live sports coverage, including NASCAR coverage during the late morning and afternoon (highlighted by a Camping World Truck Series qualifying round and race), five hours of UFC bouts in the evening (the main event of the Fight Night card being a match between Maurício Rua and Chael Sonnen), and the premiere of the sports news and discussion show Fox Sports Live following the conclusion of the UFC event.
Although marketed as a relaunch of Speed, Fox Sports 1 was contractually considered to be a new channel; due to its change in scope from automotive and motorsports to mainstream sports, Fox was required to reach new deals with providers for them to carry the network. At first, Fox sought a higher carriage fee as well, estimated at 80 ¢ per subscriber (more than triple the subscriber fee of 23 ¢ that Speed had commanded; by comparison, ESPN pulls in fees of approximately $5.00 per subscriber, the most expensive fee of any pay television network). Concerns by providers over the increasing costs for cable and satellite services for their customers (largely believed to be partly due to the higher fees commanded by certain sports channels) resulted in Fox backing off charging the 80 ¢ per subscriber rate, instead charging the same 23 ¢ rate that those providers paid to carry Speed. For any remaining providers that had not reached a deal to carry Fox Sports 1, Fox planned to offer a version of Speed with limited programming on an interim basis until a deal was reached, in order to fulfill existing contracts that required Fox to provide a motorsports channel.
Carriage deals were made by the launch date with all major cable and satellite providers, including cable / telco providers Comcast, Charter Communications, Cox Communications, Verizon FiOS, AT&T U-verse, Cablevision, Bright House Networks, Mediacom, Suddenlink Communications, Cable One and Time Warner Cable, as well as satellite providers DirecTV and Dish Network. The deals with Time Warner, Dish and DirecTV -- which were announced just days before FS1 's launch -- were seen as crucial to the network, as those three providers had a combined reach of over 40 million households, nearly half the goal of 90 million homes that FS1 set for its launch.
International markets that previously received the U.S. version of Speed (such as Canada, the Caribbean, and the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico) did not gain access to Fox Sports 1 upon its relaunch; in Canada, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission permitted the carriage of Speed as a foreign service, but Fox did not seek carriage of FS1 in that country (some of the sports event programming that Fox Sports 1 holds the broadcast rights to carry already air in that country on domestic sports networks such as TSN and Sportsnet). A version of Speed remains operational for these markets (now known as Fox Sports Racing), airing a lineup of past Speed reality shows, and coverage of NASCAR and other motorsports events simulcast with Fox Sports 1 or Fox Sports 2. In early 2014, some major Canadian service providers began to drop the channel upon the expiration of their contractual rights to carry Speed.
In 2015, Fox Sports 1 expanded its sports portfolio further with Fox Sports Media Group 's acquisition of rights to the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, United States Golf Association championship events and Major League Soccer. In July of that year, the channel began using a new wordmark logo on a redesigned ticker; then in September 2015, the network phased out verbal references to "Fox Sports 1 '' on - air and online and through its social media platforms, and implemented the new logo for other facets of the channel 's branding. As a result, Fox Sports 1 is now referred to on - air and in marketing efforts as "FS1 ''. A representative for Fox Sports stated that this was not a re-branding, but was meant to align the logo of Fox Sports 1 with its commonly - used abbreviation, and to streamline the channel 's marketing among other Fox Sports channels; however, the original FS1 logo will remain in use as an alternate logo.
On July 14, 2015, Fox Sports reached a long - term agreement with the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) to broadcast its drag racing events beginning in 2016. Fox 's package includes coverage of Friday and Saturday qualifying, and Sunday elimination races for NHRA Mello Yello Drag Racing Series events (with a minimum of 16 elimination races presented live, and the remainder shown either on weekend afternoons or in primetime; four of the live elimination races will be aired by the main Fox network, with the rest, as well as encores, on FS1 and FS2), and coverage of select NHRA Lucas Oil Drag Racing Sportsman Series events on FS1. The contract succeeded one with ESPN.
On March 21, 2018, Fox Sports announced that it had acquired the television rights for the PBA Tour of bowling beginning in 2019 (once again replacing ESPN), with 25 events per - season on FS1, and 4 on Fox.
Sports programming on FS1 includes the following:
FS1 airs various studio shows, especially in the afternoon and early evening. In May 2015, Fox Sports hired Jamie Horowitz, formerly of ESPN, to oversee the channel as Fox Sports ' President of National Networks. Following his arrival, FS1 began to pivot its studio programming towards opinion - oriented shows similar to those he oversaw on ESPN, and also hired away several notable personalities from ESPN, such as Skip Bayless and Colin Cowherd. Horowitz likened this strategy, which has been referred to as "embrace debate '', to that of sister property Fox News Channel; he argued that fewer viewers were watching conventional sports news programs such as SportsCenter due to the ubiquity of online news and highlights, but that there were "record highs '' for opinion programs.
While its live events (such as NASCAR races) are beaten in the ratings by ESPN, the program Undisputed is behind only 613 thousand viewers to Pardon the Interruption. Live events have still provided FS1 with high ratings.
The following table shows average season viewership for certain team sports competitions on FS1:
In February 2015, Fox Sports 1 became part of a carriage dispute with AT&T U-verse, as Fox Sports Media Group pursued higher carriage fees for the network to cover the cost of sports broadcast rights that had been acquired by the group to fill FS1 's schedule since its launch. AT&T declined to accept these additional fees, with a representative for the provider stating that "while it 's important to us that we provide our customers with the content they want, we do n't believe that it is reasonable to pass on the added costs of carrying this programming to our customer. '' Rather than pull the channel outright, Fox instead began blacking out certain sporting events carried by FS1 on U-verse, including certain NASCAR, Major League Soccer and college basketball events.
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how old do you have to be in illinois to get a tattoo | Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years of age or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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where is the crater lake national park located | Crater Lake National park - wikipedia
Crater Lake National Park is a United States National Park located in southern Oregon. Established in 1902, Crater Lake National Park is the fifth - oldest national park in the U.S. and the only national park in Oregon. The park encompasses the caldera of Crater Lake, a remnant of a destroyed volcano, Mount Mazama, and the surrounding hills and forests.
The lake is 1,949 feet (594 m) deep at its deepest point, which makes it the deepest lake in the United States, the second - deepest in North America and the ninth - deepest in the world. Crater Lake is often referred to as the seventh - deepest lake in the world, but this former listing excludes the approximately 3,000 - foot (910 m) depth of subglacial Lake Vostok in Antarctica, which resides under nearly 13,000 feet (4,000 m) of ice, and the recent report of a 2,740 - foot (840 m) maximum depth for Lake O'Higgins / San Martin, located on the border of Chile and Argentina. However, when comparing its average depth of 1,148 feet (350 m) to the average depth of other deep lakes, Crater Lake becomes the deepest in the Western Hemisphere and the third - deepest in the world. The impressive average depth of this volcanic lake is due to the nearly symmetrical 4,000 - foot - deep (1,200 m) caldera formed 7,700 years ago during the violent climactic eruptions and subsequent collapse of Mount Mazama and the relatively moist climate that is typical of the crest of the Cascade Range.
The caldera rim ranges in elevation from 7,000 to 8,000 feet (2,100 to 2,400 m). The United States Geological Survey benchmarked elevation of the lake surface itself is 6,178 feet (1,883 m). This National Park encompasses 183,224 acres (74,148 ha; 286.29 sq mi). Crater Lake has no streams flowing into or out of it. All water that enters the lake is eventually lost from evaporation or subsurface seepage. The lake 's water commonly has a striking blue hue, and the lake is re-filled entirely from direct precipitation in the form of snow and rain.
Volcanic activity in this area is fed by subduction off the coast of Oregon as the Juan de Fuca Plate slips below the North American Plate (see plate tectonics). Heat and compression generated by this movement has created a mountain chain topped by a series of volcanoes, which together are called the Cascade Range. The large volcanoes in the range are called the High Cascades. However, there are many other volcanoes in the range as well, most of which are much smaller.
About 400,000 years ago, Mount Mazama began its existence in much the same way as the other mountains of the High Cascades, as overlapping shield volcanoes. Over time, alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclastic flows built Mazama 's overlapping cones until it reached about 11,000 feet (3,400 m) in height.
As the young stratovolcano grew, many smaller volcanoes and volcanic vents were built in the area of the park and just outside what are now the park 's borders. Chief among these were cinder cones. Although the early examples are gone -- cinder cones erode easily -- there are at least 13 much younger cinder cones in the park, and at least another 11 or so outside its borders, that still retain their distinctive cinder cone appearance. There continues to be debate as to whether these minor volcanoes and vents were parasitic to Mazama 's magma chamber and system or if they were related to background Oregon Cascade volcanism.
After a period of dormancy, Mazama became active again. Then, around 5700 BC, Mazama collapsed into itself during a tremendous volcanic eruption, losing 2,500 to 3,500 feet (760 to 1,070 m) in height. The eruption formed a large caldera that, depending on the prevailing climate, was filled in about 740 years, forming a beautiful lake with a deep blue hue, known today as Crater Lake.
The eruptive period that decapitated Mazama also laid waste to much of the greater Crater Lake area and deposited ash as far east as the northwest corner of what is now Yellowstone National Park, as far south as central Nevada, and as far north as southern British Columbia. It produced more than 150 times as much ash as the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
This ash has since developed a soil type called andisol. Soils in Crater Lake National Park are brown, dark brown or dark grayish - brown sandy loams or loamy sands which have plentiful cobbles, gravel and stones. They are slightly to moderately acidic and their drainage is somewhat excessive.
Snow is relatively rare at low elevations in western Oregon, but it is common at higher elevations, especially at Crater Lake. Measurements at park headquarters, 6,475 feet (1,974 m) above sea level, show that snow falls more often here than at any other long - term weather station in Oregon. Winter, which typically begins at the park in September and runs through June, includes an average of 98 days with measurable snowfall. Up to 37 inches (94 cm) of snow have fallen on the park in a single day (in 1937, 1951, and 1971), 313 inches (800 cm) in a month (January 1950), and 903 inches (2,290 cm) in a year (1950).
Snow typically accumulates in the park to depths of 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) by early spring. Most of the park 's roads remain closed through late spring, and snow lingers into the summer. In July and August, snowfall is uncommon, and "one magnificent day typically follows another ''.
January is the coldest month, when highs average about 35 ° F (2 ° C) and lows average about 18 ° F (− 8 ° C). August is the warmest month, with an average high of roughly 69 ° F (21 ° C) and an average low of about 40 ° F (4 ° C). Between 1962 and 1990, the highest recorded temperature was 90 ° F (32 ° C), and the lowest was − 21 ° F (− 29 ° C). Annual precipitation averages about 66 inches (1,700 mm) a year. December is the wettest, averaging about 11 inches (280 mm).
Although snow covers Crater Lake National Park for eight months of the year (average annual snowfall is 533 inches (1,350 cm)), the lake rarely freezes over due in part to a relatively mild onshore flow from the Pacific Ocean. The last recorded year in which the lake froze over was in 1949, a very long, cold winter. A 95 % surface freeze occurred in 1985. The immense depth of Crater Lake acts as a heat reservoir that absorbs and traps sunlight, maintaining the lake temperature at an average of 55 ° F (13 ° C) on the surface and 38 ° F (3 ° C) at the bottom throughout the year. The surface temperature fluctuates a bit, but the bottom temperature remains quite constant.
Mammals that are residents of this national park are Canadian lynxes, bobcats, beavers, chipmunks, pikas, foxes, cougars, squirrels, porcupines, black bears, coyotes, timber wolves, badgers, deer, elk, muskrats, and martens. Birds that commonly fly through this park including raptors are American dippers, Peregrine falcons, ravens, Clark 's nutcrackers, gray jays, bald eagles, hummingbirds and spotted owls while Canada geese float on its lake.
Some notable park features created by this huge eruption are:
Local Native Americans witnessed the collapse of Mount Mazama and kept the event alive in their legends. One ancient legend of the Klamath people closely parallels the geologic story which emerges from today 's scientific research. The legend tells of two Chiefs, Llao of the Below World and Skell of the Above World, pitted in a battle which ended up in the destruction of Llao 's home, Mt. Mazama. The battle was witnessed in the eruption of Mt. Mazama and the creation of Crater Lake.
A trio of gold prospectors: John Wesley Hillman, Henry Klippel, and Isaac Skeeters were the first white people to visit the lake. On June 12, 1853, they stumbled upon the long, sloping mountain while hunting for provisions. Stunned by vibrant blue color of the lake, they named the indigo body of water "Deep Blue Lake '' and the place on the southwest side of the rim where he first saw the lake later became known as Discovery Point. But gold was more on the minds of settlers at the time and the discovery was soon forgotten. The suggested name later fell out of favor by locals, who preferred the name Crater Lake.
William Gladstone Steel devoted his life and fortune to the establishment and management of a national park at Crater Lake. His preoccupation with the lake began in 1870. In his efforts to bring recognition to the park, he participated in lake surveys that provided scientific support. He named many of the lake 's landmarks, including Wizard Island, Llao Rock, and Skell Head.
With the help of geologist Clarence Dutton, Steel organized a USGS expedition to study the lake in 1886. The party carried the Cleetwood, a half - ton survey boat, up the steep slopes of the mountain then lowered it to the lake. From the stern of the Cleetwood, a piece of pipe on the end of a spool of piano wire sounded the depth of the lake at 168 different points. Their deepest sounding, 1,996 feet (608 m), was very close to the modern official depth of 1,949 feet (594 m) made in 2000 by sonar. At the same time, a topographer surveyed the area and created the first professional map of the Crater Lake area.
Partly based on data from the expedition and lobbying from Steel and others, Crater Lake National Park was established May 22, 1902 by President Theodore Roosevelt. And because of Steel 's involvement, Crater Lake Lodge was opened in 1915 and the Rim Drive was completed in 1918.
Highways were later built to the park to help facilitate tourism. The 1929 edition of O Ranger! described access and facilities available by then:
Crater Lake National Park is reached by train on the Southern Pacific Railroad lines into Medford and Klamath Falls, at which stops motor stages make the short trip to the park. A hotel on the rim of the lake offers accommodations. For the motorist, the visit to the park is a short side trip from the Pacific and Dalles - California highways. He will find, in addition to the hotel, campsites, stores, filling stations. The park is open to travel from late June or July 1 for as long as snow does not block the roads, generally until October.
The lake is described in the poetry of Joaquin Miller.
There are many hiking trails and several campgrounds inside the park. Unlicensed fishing is allowed without any limitation of size, species, or number. The lake is believed to have no indigenous fish, but several species of fish were introduced beginning in 1888 until all fish stocking ended in 1941. Kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) now thrive and reproduce here naturally. Swimming is allowed in the lake, and the boat tours, which stop at Wizard Island, a cinder cone inside the lake, operate daily during the summer. All lake access for people is from Cleetwood Trail, a steep walking trail, and there are no roads for cars, trucks, or wagons that lead to the waterfront. All of the boats in the lake were delivered by helicopter.
Numerous observation points along the caldera rim for the lake are readily accessible by automobile via the "Rim Drive '', which is 33 miles (53 km) long and has an elevation gain of 3,800 feet (1,200 m).
The highest point in Crater Lake National Park is Mount Scott at 8,929 feet (2,722 m). Getting there requires a fairly steep 2.5 - mile (4.0 km) hike from the Rim Drive trailhead. On a clear day, visibility from the summit exceeds 100 miles (160 km), and one can, in a single view, take in the entire caldera. Also visible from this point are the white - peaked Cascade Range volcanoes to the north, the Columbia River Plateau to the east, and the Western Cascades and the more - distant Klamath Mountains to the west.
The scenery of Crater Lake is fully accessible during the summer months. Heavy snowfalls in this park during the fall, winter, and spring months force many road and trail closures, including the popular "Rim Drive '', which is generally completely open from July to October and partially open in some other months, such as May, June, and November.
The Cleetwood Cove trail originates on the north side of the lake about 4.5 mi (7.2 km) east of North Junction along East Rim Drive. The trail is the only one that accesses the shoreline of the lake, descending 656 feet (200 m) from the Cleetwood Cove parking lot. First opened during the summer of 1960, the trail is 1.1 mi (1.8 km) long with an 11 % grade that rates it as a strenuous route on the return trip. Due to its steep grade, the trail is not accessible for mobility - impaired visitors. A dock with concessionaire boats facilitates tours around the lake with a stop at Wizard Island for dropping off and picking up passengers. Swimming and fishing are permitted. Snow may cover the trail from October to July with some variance depending on yearly snowfall conditions.
The Watchman Peak trail begins from the Watchman Overlook parking lot, about 3.8 mi (6.1 km) northwest of Rim Village. The trail is 0.8 mi (1.3 km) long with a 420 - foot (130 m) elevation change. It is a steady uphill trail on an isolated mountain on the west rim of the crater, with several switchbacks, providing wide views of Crater Lake and Wizard Island. Several nearby landmarks are visible from the summit, including Mount McLoughlin, Mount Thielsen, Union Peak, Mount Scott and the Klamath Basin. The trail ends next to a historic fire lookout tower built in 1932.
The Lightning Spring trail starts from the Lightning Spring picnic area. It is a ⁄ - mile (1.2 km) hike with an elevation gain of 250 feet (76 m). The trail circles around several meadows up to the Lightning Spring creek. The trail is known for the frequent sights of grazing deer.
This is considered to be the easiest trail, looping around the Castle Crest Wildflower Garden. It starts from the East Rim Road, near the park 's headquarters. It received its name because of a large stretch of meadows around which the trail circles and which is bursting with wildflowers in the springtime. The trail is about ⁄ mile (800 m) before it reaches the wildflower meadow garden, from which other improvised routes depart.
The Plaikni Falls trail is the newest trail on the Crater Lake park. It stretches 1.1 miles (1.8 km) from the trailhead located 1.2 miles (1.9 km) south from the Phantom Ship Overlook on Pinnacles Road, which spins off Rim Drive. The trail leads to Plaikni Falls. Most of the trail is wheelchair - accessible. The final stretch is fairly uphill, which may prove moderately challenging.
The Garfield Peak trail is a moderately challenging 1.7 - mile (2.7 km) hike to Garfield Peak. The trailhead is located east of the Crater Lake Lodge and gains approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) of elevation. Several spots along the trail provide viewpoints overlooking the Phantom Ship island and Dutton Cliff. A few viewpoints offer unique views of Wizard island. The trail is popular in the late afternoon on account of unique shifting colors over the lake and its surroundings.
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bank of america branches in the united states | Bank of America - Wikipedia
The Bank of America Corporation (abbreviated as BofA) is an American multinational investment bank and financial services company based in Charlotte, North Carolina with central hubs in New York City, London, Hong Kong, and Toronto. Bank of America is the second largest banking institution in the United States, after JP Morgan Chase. As a part of the Big Four, it services approximately 10.73 % of all American bank deposits, in direct competition with Citigroup, Wells Fargo, and JPMorgan Chase. Its primary financial services revolve around commercial banking, wealth management, and investment banking.
Founded as the Bank of Italy by Amadeo Pietro Giannini in 1904, it provided Italian immigrants who faced service discrimination various banking options. Originally headquartered in San Francisco, California, Giannini renamed his bank Banca d'America e d'Italia (Bank of America and Italy) in 1922, and expanded further into California. The passage of landmark federal banking legislation facilitated rapid growth in the 1950s, quickly establishing a prominent market share. After suffering a significant loss after the 1998 Russian bond default, BankAmerica, as it was then known, was acquired by the Charlotte - based NationsBank for US $ 62 billion. Following what was then the largest bank acquisition in history, the Bank of American Corporation was founded. Through a series of mergers and acquisitions, it built upon its commercial banking business by establishing Merrill Lynch for wealth management and Bank of America Merrill Lynch for investment banking in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Since both divisions carry the "Merrill Lynch '' signage, the former is often referred to as "Merrill Lynch Wealth Management '' to differentiate itself from the latter.
Both Bank of America Merrill Lynch and Merrill Lynch Wealth Management retain large market shares in their respective offerings. The investment bank is considered within the "Bulge Bracket '' as the third largest investment bank in the world, as of 2018. Its wealth management side manages US $ 1.081 trillion in assets under management (AUM) as the second largest wealth manager in the world, after UBS. In commercial banking, Bank of America operates -- but does not necessarily maintain retail branches -- in all 50 states of the United States, the District of Columbia and more than 40 other countries. Its commercial banking footprint encapsulates 46 million consumer and small business relationships at 4,600 banking centers and 15,900 automated teller machines (ATMs).
The bank 's large market share, business activities, and economic impact has led to numerous lawsuits and investigations regarding both mortgages and financial disclosures dating back to the 2008 financial crisis. Its corporate practices of servicing the middle class and wider banking community has yielded a substantial market share since the early 20th century. As of August 2018, Bank of America has a $313.5 billion market capitalization, making it the 13th largest company in the world. As the sixth largest American public company, it garnered $102.98 billion in sales as of June 2018. Bank of America was named the "World 's Best Bank '' by the Euromoney Institutional Investor in their 2018 Awards for Excellence.
The history of Bank of America dates back to October 17, 1904, when Amadeo Pietro Giannini founded the Bank of Italy in San Francisco. The Bank of Italy served the needs of many immigrants settling in the United States at that time, providing services denied to them by the existing American banks which typically discriminated against them and often denied service to all but the wealthiest. Giannini was raised by his mother and stepfather Lorenzo Scatena, as his father was fatally shot over a pay dispute with an employee. When the 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck, Giannini was able to save all deposits out of the bank building and away from the fires. Because San Francisco 's banks were in smoldering ruins and unable to open their vaults, Giannini was able to use the rescued funds to commence lending within a few days of the disaster. From a makeshift desk consisting of a few planks over two barrels, he lent money to those who wished to rebuild. In 1922, Giannini established Bank of America and Italy. In 1986, Deutsche Bank AG acquired 100 % of Banca d'America e d'Italia, a bank established in Naples in 1917 following the name - change of Banca dell'Italia Meridionale with the latter established in 1918. In 1918 another corporation, Bancitaly Corporation, was organized by A.P. Giannini, the largest stockholder of which was Stockholders Auxiliary Corporation. This company acquired the stocks of various banks located in New York City and certain foreign countries. In 1918, the Bank opened a Delegation in New York in order to follow American political, economic and financial affairs more closely; together with the London Delegation, this was the first permanent overseas office opened by the Bank, at a time when the foundations were being laid for the restructuring of the international money market. In 1928, Giannini merged his bank with Bank of America, Los Angeles, headed by Orra E. Monnette and consolidated it with other bank holdings to create what would become the largest banking institution in the country. Bank of Italy was renamed on November 3, 1930, to Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association, which was the only such designated bank in the United States of America at that time. Giannini and Monnette headed the resulting company, serving as co-chairs.
Branch banking was introduced by Giannini shortly after 1909 legislation in California that allowed for branch banking in the state. Its first branch outside San Francisco was established in 1909 in San Jose. By 1929, the bank had 453 banking offices in California with aggregate resources of over US $1.4 billion. There is a replica of the 1909 Bank of Italy branch bank in History Park in San Jose, and the 1925 Bank of Italy Building is an important downtown landmark. Giannini sought to build a national bank, expanding into most of the western states as well as into the insurance industry, under the aegis of his holding company, Transamerica Corporation. In 1953, regulators succeeded in forcing the separation of Transamerica Corporation and Bank of America under the Clayton Antitrust Act. The passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 prohibited banks from owning non-banking subsidiaries such as insurance companies. Bank of America and Transamerica were separated, with the latter company continuing in the insurance business. However, federal banking regulators prohibited Bank of America 's interstate banking activity, and Bank of America 's domestic banks outside California were forced into a separate company that eventually became First Interstate Bancorp, later acquired by Wells Fargo and Company in 1996. It was not until the 1980s, with a change in federal banking legislation and regulation, that Bank of America was again able to expand its domestic consumer banking activity outside California.
New technologies also allowed credit cards to be linked directly to individual bank accounts. In 1958, the bank introduced the BankAmericard, which changed its name to Visa in 1977. A consortium of other California banks introduced Master Charge (now MasterCard) to compete with BankAmericard.
Following the passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, BankAmerica Corporation was established for the purpose of owning and operation of Bank of America and its subsidiaries.
Bank of America expanded outside California in 1983, with its acquisition, orchestrated in part by Stephen McLin, of Seafirst Corporation of Seattle, Washington, and its wholly owned banking subsidiary, Seattle - First National Bank. Seafirst was at risk of seizure by the federal government after becoming insolvent due to a series of bad loans to the oil industry. BankAmerica continued to operate its new subsidiary as Seafirst rather than Bank of America until the 1998 merger with NationsBank.
BankAmerica experienced huge losses in 1986 and 1987 by the placement of a series of bad loans in the Third World, particularly in Latin America. The company fired its CEO, Sam Armacost. Though Armacost blamed the problems on his predecessor, A.W. (Tom) Clausen, Clausen was appointed to replace Armacost. The losses resulted in a huge decline of BankAmerica stock, making it vulnerable to a hostile takeover. First Interstate Bancorp of Los Angeles (which had originated from banks once owned by BankAmerica), launched such a bid in the fall of 1986, although BankAmerica rebuffed it, mostly by selling operations. It sold its FinanceAmerica subsidiary to Chrysler and the brokerage firm Charles Schwab and Co. back to Mr. Schwab. It also sold Bank of America and Italy to Deutsche Bank. By the time of the 1987 stock market crash, BankAmerica 's share price had fallen to $8, but by 1992 it had rebounded mightily to become one of the biggest gainers of that half - decade.
BankAmerica 's next big acquisition came in 1992. The company acquired its California rival, Security Pacific Corporation and its subsidiary Security Pacific National Bank in California and other banks in Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington (which Security Pacific had acquired in a series of acquisitions in the late 1980s). This was, at the time, the largest bank acquisition in history. Federal regulators, however, forced the sale of roughly half of Security Pacific 's Washington subsidiary, the former Rainier Bank, as the combination of Seafirst and Security Pacific Washington would have given BankAmerica too large a share of the market in that state. The Washington branches were divided and sold to West One Bancorp (now U.S. Bancorp) and KeyBank. Later that year, BankAmerica expanded into Nevada by acquiring Valley Bank of Nevada.
In 1994, BankAmerica acquired the Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Co. of Chicago, which had become federally owned as part of the same oil industry debacle emanating from Oklahoma City 's Penn Square Bank, that had brought down numerous financial institutions including Seafirst. At the time, no bank possessed the resources to bail out Continental, so the federal government operated the bank for nearly a decade. Illinois at that time regulated branch banking extremely heavily, so Bank of America Illinois was a single - unit bank until the 21st century. BankAmerica moved its national lending department to Chicago in an effort to establish a financial beachhead in the region.
These mergers helped BankAmerica Corporation to once again become the largest U.S. bank holding company in terms of deposits, but the company fell to second place in 1997 behind North Carolina 's fast - growing NationsBank Corporation, and to third in 1998 First Union Corp.
On the capital markets side, the acquisition of Continental Illinois helped BankAmerica to build a leveraged finance origination and distribution business (Continental Illinois had extensive leveraged lending relationships) which allowed the firm 's existing broker - dealer, BancAmerica Securities (originally named BA Securities), to become a full - service franchise. In addition, in 1997, BankAmerica acquired Robertson Stephens, a San Francisco -- based investment bank specializing in high technology for $540 million. Robertson Stephens was integrated into BancAmerica Securities and the combined subsidiary was renamed BancAmerica Robertson Stephens.
In 1997, Bank of America lent D.E. Shaw & Co., a large hedge fund, $1.4 billion in order to run various businesses for the bank. However, D.E. Shaw suffered significant loss after the 1998 Russia bond default. NationsBank of Charlotte acquired BankAmerica in October 1998 in what was the largest bank acquisition in history at that time.
While NationsBank was the nominal survivor, the merged bank took the better - known name of Bank of America. Hence, the holding company was renamed Bank of America Corporation, while NationsBank, N.A. merged with Bank of America NT&SA to form Bank of America, N.A. as the remaining legal bank entity. The combined bank operates under Federal Charter 13044, which was granted to Giannini 's Bank of Italy on March 1, 1927. However, the merged company was and still is headquartered in Charlotte, and retains NationsBank 's pre-1998 stock price history. Additionally, all U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings before 1998 are listed under NationsBank, not Bank of America. NationsBank president, chairman and CEO Hugh McColl, took on the same roles with the merged company.
Bank of America possessed combined assets of $570 billion, as well as 4,800 branches in 22 states. Despite the mammoth size of the two companies, federal regulators insisted only upon the divestiture of 13 branches in New Mexico, in towns that would be left with only a single bank following the combination. (Branch divestitures are only required if the combined company will have a larger than 25 % Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) deposit market share in a particular state or 10 % deposit market share overall.) In addition, the combined broker - dealer, created from the integration of BancAmerica Robertson Stephens and NationsBanc Montgomery Securities, was named Banc of America Securities in 1998.
In 2001, McColl stepped down and named Ken Lewis as his successor.
In 2004, Bank of America announced it would purchase Boston - based bank FleetBoston Financial for $47 billion in cash and stock. By merging with Bank of America, all of its banks and branches were given the Bank of America logo. At the time of merger, FleetBoston was the seventh largest bank in United States with $197 billion in assets, over 20 million customers and revenue of $12 billion. Hundreds of FleetBoston workers lost their jobs or were demoted, according to The Boston Globe.
On June 30, 2005, Bank of America announced it would purchase credit card giant MBNA for $35 billion in cash and stock. The Federal Reserve Board gave final approval to the merger on December 15, 2005, and the merger closed on January 1, 2006. The acquisition of MBNA provided Bank of America a leading domestic and foreign credit card issuer. The combined Bank of America Card Services organization, including the former MBNA, had more than 40 million U.S. accounts and nearly $140 billion in outstanding balances. Under Bank of America the operation was renamed FIA Card Services.
Bank of America operated under the name BankBoston in many other Latin American countries, including Brazil. In 2006, Bank of America sold BankBoston 's operations to Brazilian bank Banco Itaú, in exchange for Itaú shares. The BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction and, as part of the sale agreement, can not be used by Bank of America (ending the BankBoston brand).
In May 2006, Bank of America and Banco Itaú (Investimentos Itaú S.A.) entered into an acquisition agreement through which Itaú agreed to acquire BankBoston 's operations in Brazil and was granted an exclusive right to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. The deal was signed in August 2006 under which Itaú agreed to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. Prior to the transaction, BankBoston 's Brazilian operations included asset management, private banking, a credit card portfolio, and small, middle - market, and large corporate segments. It had 66 branches and 203,000 clients in Brazil. BankBoston in Chile had 44 branches and 58,000 clients and in Uruguay it had 15 branches. In addition, there was a credit card company, OCA, in Uruguay, which had 23 branches. BankBoston N.A. in Uruguay, together with OCA, jointly served 372,000 clients. While the BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction, as part of the sale agreement, they can not be used by Bank of America in Brazil, Chile or Uruguay following the transactions. Hence, the BankBoston name has disappeared from Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The Itaú stock received by Bank of America in the transactions has allowed Bank of America 's stake in Itaú to reach 11.51 %. Banco de Boston de Brazil had been founded in 1947.
On November 20, 2006, Bank of America announced the purchase of The United States Trust Company for $3.3 billion, from the Charles Schwab Corporation. US Trust had about $100 billion of assets under management and over 150 years of experience. The deal closed July 1, 2007.
On September 14, 2007, Bank of America won approval from the Federal Reserve to acquire LaSalle Bank Corporation from ABN AMRO for $21 billion. With this purchase, Bank of America possessed $1.7 trillion in assets. A Dutch court blocked the sale until it was later approved in July. The acquisition was completed on October 1, 2007. Many of LaSalle 's branches and offices had already taken over smaller regional banks within the previous decade, such as Lansing and Detroit based Michigan National Bank.
The deal increased Bank of America 's presence in Illinois, Michigan, and Indiana by 411 branches, 17,000 commercial bank clients, 1.4 million retail customers, and 1,500 ATMs. Bank of America became the largest bank in the Chicago market with 197 offices and 14 % of the deposit share, surpassing JPMorgan Chase.
LaSalle Bank and LaSalle Bank Midwest branches adopted the Bank of America name on May 5, 2008.
Ken Lewis, who had lost the title of Chairman of the Board, announced that he would retire as CEO effective December 31, 2009, in part due to controversy and legal investigations concerning the purchase of Merrill Lynch. Brian Moynihan became President and CEO effective January 1, 2010, and afterward credit card charge offs and delinquencies declined in January. Bank of America also repaid the $45 billion it had received from the Troubled Assets Relief Program.
On August 23, 2007, the company announced a $2 billion repurchase agreement for Countrywide Financial. This purchase of preferred stock was arranged to provide a return on investment of 7.25 % per annum and provided the option to purchase common stock at a price of $18 per share.
On January 11, 2008, Bank of America announced that it would buy Countrywide Financial for $4.1 billion. In March 2008, it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was investigating Countrywide for possible fraud relating to home loans and mortgages. This news did not hinder the acquisition, which was completed in July 2008, giving the bank a substantial market share of the mortgage business, and access to Countrywide 's resources for servicing mortgages. The acquisition was seen as preventing a potential bankruptcy for Countrywide. Countrywide, however, denied that it was close to bankruptcy. Countrywide provided mortgage servicing for nine million mortgages valued at $1.4 trillion as of December 31, 2007.
This purchase made Bank of America Corporation the leading mortgage originator and servicer in the U.S., controlling 20 -- 25 % of the home loan market. The deal was structured to merge Countrywide with the Red Oak Merger Corporation, which Bank of America created as an independent subsidiary. It has been suggested that the deal was structured this way to prevent a potential bankruptcy stemming from large losses in Countrywide hurting the parent organization by keeping Countrywide bankruptcy remote. Countrywide Financial has changed its name to Bank of America Home Loans.
In December 2011, the Justice Department announced a $335 million settlement with Bank of America over discriminatory lending practice at Countrywide Financial. Attorney General Eric Holder said a federal probe found discrimination against qualified African - American and Latino borrowers from 2004 to 2008. He said that minority borrowers who qualified for prime loans were steered into higher - interest - rate subprime loans.
On September 14, 2008, Bank of America announced its intention to purchase Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. in an all - stock deal worth approximately $50 billion. Merrill Lynch was at the time within days of collapse, and the acquisition effectively saved Merrill from bankruptcy. Around the same time Bank of America was reportedly also in talks to purchase Lehman Brothers, however a lack of government guarantees caused the bank to abandon talks with Lehman. Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy the same day Bank of America announced its plans to acquire Merrill Lynch. This acquisition made Bank of America the largest financial services company in the world. Temasek Holdings, the largest shareholder of Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc., briefly became one of the largest shareholders of Bank of America, with a 3 % stake. However, taking a loss Reuters estimated at $3 billion, the Singapore sovereign wealth fund sold its whole stake in Bank of America in the first quarter of 2009.
Shareholders of both companies approved the acquisition on December 5, 2008, and the deal closed January 1, 2009. Bank of America had planned to retain various members of the then Merrill Lynch 's CEO, John Thain 's management team after the merger. However, after Thain was removed from his position, most of his allies left. The departure of Nelson Chai, who had been named Asia - Pacific president, left just one of Thain 's hires in place: Tom Montag, head of sales and trading.
The bank, in its January 16, 2009 earnings release, revealed massive losses at Merrill Lynch in the fourth quarter, which necessitated an infusion of money that had previously been negotiated with the government as part of the government - persuaded deal for the bank to acquire Merrill. Merrill recorded an operating loss of $21.5 billion in the quarter, mainly in its sales and trading operations, led by Tom Montag. The bank also disclosed it tried to abandon the deal in December after the extent of Merrill 's trading losses surfaced, but was compelled to complete the merger by the U.S. government. The bank 's stock price sank to $7.18, its lowest level in 17 years, after announcing earnings and the Merrill mishap. The market capitalization of Bank of America, including Merrill Lynch, was then $45 billion, less than the $50 billion it offered for Merrill just four months earlier, and down $108 billion from the merger announcement.
Bank of America CEO Kenneth Lewis testified before Congress that he had some misgivings about the acquisition of Merrill Lynch, and that federal officials pressured him to proceed with the deal or face losing his job and endangering the bank 's relationship with federal regulators.
Lewis ' statement is backed up by internal emails subpoenaed by Republican lawmakers on the House Oversight Committee. In one of the emails, Richmond Federal Reserve President Jeffrey Lacker threatened that if the acquisition did not go through, and later Bank of America were forced to request federal assistance, the management of Bank of America would be "gone ''. Other emails, read by Congressman Dennis Kucinich during the course of Lewis ' testimony, state that Mr. Lewis had foreseen the outrage from his shareholders that the purchase of Merrill would cause, and asked government regulators to issue a letter stating that the government had ordered him to complete the deal to acquire Merrill. Lewis, for his part, states he did n't recall requesting such a letter.
The acquisition made Bank of America the number one underwriter of global high - yield debt, the third largest underwriter of global equity and the ninth largest adviser on global mergers and acquisitions. As the credit crisis eased, losses at Merrill Lynch subsided, and the subsidiary generated $3.7 billion of Bank of America 's $4.2 billion in profit by the end of quarter one in 2009, and over 25 % in quarter 3 2009.
On September 28, 2012, Bank of America settled the class action lawsuit over the Merrill Lynch acquisition and will pay $2.43 billion. This was one of the first major securities class action lawsuits stemming from the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 to settle. Many major financial institutions had a stake in this lawsuit, including Chicago Clearing Corporation, hedge funds, and bank trusts, due to the belief that Bank of America stock was a sure investment.
Bank of America received $20 billion in the federal bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) on January 16, 2009, and a guarantee of $118 billion in potential losses at the company. This was in addition to the $25 billion given to them in the fall of 2008 through TARP. The additional payment was part of a deal with the U.S. government to preserve Bank of America 's merger with the troubled investment firm Merrill Lynch. Since then, members of the U.S. Congress have expressed considerable concern about how this money has been spent, especially since some of the recipients have been accused of misusing the bailout money. Then CEO Ken Lewis was quoted as claiming "We are still lending, and we are lending far more because of the TARP program. '' Members of the U.S. House of Representatives, however, were skeptical and quoted many anecdotes about loan applicants (particularly small business owners) being denied loans and credit card holders facing stiffer terms on the debt in their card accounts.
According to a March 15, 2009, article in The New York Times, Bank of America received an additional $5.2 billion in government bailout money, channeled through American International Group.
As a result of its federal bailout and management problems, The Wall Street Journal reported that the Bank of America was operating under a secret "memorandum of understanding '' (MOU) from the U.S. government that requires it to "overhaul its board and address perceived problems with risk and liquidity management ''. With the federal action, the institution has taken several steps, including arranging for six of its directors to resign and forming a Regulatory Impact Office. Bank of America faces several deadlines in July and August and if not met, could face harsher penalties by federal regulators. Bank of America did not respond to The Wall Street Journal story.
On December 2, 2009, Bank of America announced it would repay the entire $45 billion it received in TARP and exit the program, using $26.2 billion of excess liquidity along with $18.6 billion to be gained in "common equivalent securities '' (Tier 1 capital). The bank announced it had completed the repayment on December 9. Bank of America 's Ken Lewis said during the announcement, "We appreciate the critical role that the U.S. government played last fall in helping to stabilize financial markets, and we are pleased to be able to fully repay the investment, with interest... As America 's largest bank, we have a responsibility to make good on the taxpayers ' investment, and our record shows that we have been able to fulfill that commitment while continuing to lend. ''
On August 3, 2009, Bank of America agreed to pay a $33 million fine, without admission or denial of charges, to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over the non-disclosure of an agreement to pay up to $5.8 billion of bonuses at Merrill. The bank approved the bonuses before the merger but did not disclose them to its shareholders when the shareholders were considering approving the Merrill acquisition, in December 2008. The issue was originally investigated by New York State Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, who commented after the suit and announced settlement that "the timing of the bonuses, as well as the disclosures relating to them, constituted a ' surprising fit of corporate irresponsibility ' '' and "our investigation of these and other matters pursuant to New York 's Martin Act will continue. '' Congressman Kucinich commented at the same time that "This may not be the last fine that Bank of America pays for how it handled its merger of Merrill Lynch. '' A federal judge, Jed Rakoff, in an unusual action, refused to approve the settlement on August 5. A first hearing before the judge on August 10 was at times heated, and he was "sharply critic (al) '' of the bonuses. David Rosenfeld represented the SEC, and Lewis J. Liman, son of Arthur L. Liman, represented the bank. The actual amount of bonuses paid was $3.6 billion, of which $850 million was "guaranteed '' and the rest was shared amongst 39,000 workers who received average payments of $91,000; 696 people received more than $1 million in bonuses; at least one person received a more than $33 million bonus.
On September 14, the judge rejected the settlement and told the parties to prepare for trial to begin no later than February 1, 2010. The judge focused much of his criticism on the fact that the fine in the case would be paid by the bank 's shareholders, who were the ones that were supposed to have been injured by the lack of disclosure. He wrote, "It is quite something else for the very management that is accused of having lied to its shareholders to determine how much of those victims ' money should be used to make the case against the management go away, ''... "The proposed settlement, '' the judge continued, "suggests a rather cynical relationship between the parties: the S.E.C. gets to claim that it is exposing wrongdoing on the part of the Bank of America in a high - profile merger; the bank 's management gets to claim that they have been coerced into an onerous settlement by overzealous regulators. And all this is done at the expense, not only of the shareholders, but also of the truth. ''
While ultimately deferring to the SEC, in February 2010, Judge Rakoff approved a revised settlement with a $150 million fine "reluctantly '', calling the accord "half - baked justice at best '' and "inadequate and misguided ''. Addressing one of the concerns he raised in September, the fine will be "distributed only to Bank of America shareholders harmed by the non-disclosures, or ' legacy shareholders ', an improvement on the prior $33 million while still "paltry '', according to the judge. Case: SEC v. Bank of America Corp., 09 - cv - 06829, United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
Investigations also were held on this issue in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, under chairman Edolphus Towns (D - NY) and in its investigative Domestic Policy Subcommittee under Kucinich.
In 2010, the U.S. government accused the bank of defrauding schools, hospitals, and dozens of state and local government organizations via misconduct and illegal activities involving the investment of proceeds from municipal bond sales. As a result, the bank agreed to pay $137.7 million, including $25 million to the Internal Revenue service and $4.5 million to state attorney general, to the affected organizations to settle the allegations.
Former bank official Douglas Campbell pleaded guilty to antitrust, conspiracy and wire fraud charges. As of January 2011, other bankers and brokers are under indictment or investigation.
On October 24, 2012, the top federal prosecutor in Manhattan filed a lawsuit alleging that Bank of America fraudulently cost American taxpayers more than $1 billion when Countrywide Financial sold toxic mortgages to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The scheme was called ' Hustle ', or High Speed Swim Lane. On May 23, 2016 the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the finding of fact by the jury that low quality mortgages were supplied by Countrywide to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in the "Hustle '' case supported only "intentional breach of contract, '' not fraud. The action, for civil fraud, relied on provisions of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act. The decision turned on lack of intent to defraud at the time the contract to supply mortgages was made.
During 2011, Bank of America began conducting personnel reductions of an estimated 36,000 people, contributing to intended savings of $5 billion per year by 2014.
In December 2011, Forbes ranked Bank of America 's financial health 91st out of the nation 's largest 100 banks and thrift institutions.
Bank of America cut around 16,000 jobs in a quicker fashion by the end of 2012 as revenue continued to decline because of new regulations and a slow economy. This put a plan one year ahead of time to eliminate 30,000 jobs under a cost - cutting program, called Project New BAC. In the first quarter of 2014, Berkshire bank purchased 20 Bank of America branches in Central and eastern New York for 14.4 million dollars. The branches were from Utica / Rome region and down the Mohawk Valley east to the capital region.
In April and May 2014, Bank of America sold two dozen branches in Michigan to Huntington Bancshares. The locations were converted to Huntington National Bank branches in September.
As part of its new strategy Bank of America is focused on growing its mobile banking platform. As of 2014, Bank of America has 31 million active online users and 16 million mobile users. Its retail banking branches have decreased to 4,900 as a result of increased mobile banking use and a decline in customer branch visits. By 2018, the number of mobile users has increased to 25.3 million and the number of locations fell to 4,411 at the end of June.
In 2005, Bank of America acquired a 9 % stake in China Construction Bank, one of the Big Four banks in China, for $3 billion. It represented the company 's largest foray into China 's growing banking sector. Bank of America has offices in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Guangzhou and was looking to greatly expand its Chinese business as a result of this deal. In 2008, Bank of America was awarded Project Finance Deal of the Year at the 2008 ALB Hong Kong Law Awards. In November 2011, Bank of America announced plans to divest most of its stake in the China Construction Bank.
In September 2013, Bank of America sold its remaining stake in the China Construction Bank for as much as $1.5 billion, marking the firm 's full exit from the country.
In August 2014, Bank of America agreed to a near - $17 billion deal to settle claims against it relating to the sale of toxic mortgage - linked securities including subprime home loans, in what was believed to be the largest settlement in U.S. corporate history. The bank agreed with the U.S. Justice Department to pay $9.65 billion in fines, and $7 billion in relief to the victims of the faulty loans which included homeowners, borrowers, pension funds and municipalities. Real estate economist Jed Kolko said the settlement is a "drop in the bucket '' compared to the $700 billion in damages done to 11 million homeowners. Since the settlement covered such a substantial portion of the market, he said for most consumers "you 're out of luck. ''
Much of the government 's prosecution was based on information provided by three whistleblowers -- Shareef Abdou (a senior vice president at the bank), Robert Madsen (a professional appraiser employed by a bank subsidiary) and Edward O'Donnell (a Fannie Mae official). The three men received $170 million in whistleblower awards.
Bank of America has formed a partnership with the United States Department of Defense creating a newly chartered bank DOD Community Bank ("Community Bank '') providing full banking services to military personnel at 68 branches and ATM locations on U.S. military installations in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Cuba, Diego Garcia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Kwajalein Atoll, South Korea, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It should be noted that even though Bank of America operates Community Bank customer services are not interchangeable between the two financial institutions, meaning a Community Bank customer can not go to a Bank of America branch and withdraw from their account and vice versa. Deposits made into checking and savings accounts are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation up to $250,000 despite the fact that none of Community 's operating branches are located within the jurisdictional borders of the United States.
In April 2018, Bank of America announced that it would stop providing financing to makers of military - style weapons such as the AR - 15 rifle. In announcing the decision, Bank of America referenced recent mass shootings and said that it wanted to "contribute in any way we can '' to reduce them.
At the Money 20 / 20 conference in October 2016, retail banking president Thong Nguyen introduced a digital assistant called Erica, whose name comes from the bank name. Starting in 2017, customers will be able to use voice or text to communicate with Erica and get advice, check balances and pay bills. Unlike the people who work for the bank, Erica will be available 24 / 7. Digital banking head Michelle Moore said the technology was designed to help customers do a better job of managing money.
Forrester analyst Peter Wannemacher says bank customer experiences with the technology have been "uneven or poor, '' but Bank of America intends to adapt Erica as needed.
Bank of America generates 90 % of its revenues in its domestic market. The core of Bank of America 's strategy is to be the number one bank in its domestic market. It has achieved this through key acquisitions.
Consumer Banking, the largest division in the company, provides financial services to consumers and small businesses including, banking, investments and lending products including business loans, mortgages, and credit cards. It provides for investing online through its electronic trading platform, Merrill Edge. The consumer banking division represented 38 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. The company earns revenue from interest income, service charges, and fees. The company is also a mortgage servicer. It competes primarily with the retail banking arms of America 's three other megabanks: Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo. The Consumer Banking organization includes over 4,600 retail financial centers and approximately 15,900 automated teller machines.
Bank of America is a member of the Global ATM Alliance, a joint venture of several major international banks that provides for reduced fees for consumers using their ATM card or check card at another bank within the Global ATM Alliance when traveling internationally. This feature is restricted to withdrawals using a debit card and users are still subject to foreign currency conversion fees, credit card withdrawals are still subject to cash advance fees and foreign currency conversion fees.
The Global Banking division provides banking services, including investment banking and lending products to businesses. It includes the businesses of Global Corporate Banking, Global Commercial Banking, Business Banking, and Global Investment Banking. The division represented 22 % of the company 's revenue in 2016.
Before Bank of America 's acquisition of Merrill Lynch, the Global Corporate and Investment Banking (GCIB) business operated as Banc of America Securities LLC. The bank 's investment banking activities operate under the Merrill Lynch subsidiary and provided mergers and acquisitions advisory, underwriting, capital markets, as well as sales & trading in fixed income and equities markets. Its strongest groups include Leveraged Finance, Syndicated Loans, and mortgage - backed securities. It also has one of the largest research teams on Wall Street. Bank of America Merrill Lynch is headquartered in New York City.
The Global Wealth and Investment Management (GWIM) division manages investment assets of institutions and individuals. It includes the businesses of Merrill Lynch Global Wealth Management and U.S. Trust and represented 21 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. It is among the 10 largest U.S. wealth managers. It has over $2.5 trillion in client balances. GWIM has five primary lines of business: Premier Banking & Investments (including Bank of America Investment Services, Inc.), The Private Bank, Family Wealth Advisors, and Bank of America Specialist.
The Global Markets division offers services to institutional clients, including trading in financial securities. The division provides research and other services such as market maker and risk management using derivatives. The division represented 19 % of the company 's total revenues in 2016.
The Bank of America principal executive offices are located in the Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte, North Carolina. The skyscraper is located at 100 North Tryon Street, and stands at 871 ft (265 m), having been completed in 1992.
In 2012, Bank of America cut ties to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC).
Bank of America 's Global Corporate and Investment Banking has its U.S. headquarters in New York, European headquarters in London, and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong and Singapore.
In 2007, the bank offered employees a $3,000 rebate for the purchase of hybrid vehicles. The company also provided a $1,000 rebate or a lower interest rate for customers whose homes qualified as energy efficient. In 2007, Bank of America partnered with Brighter Planet to offer an eco-friendly credit card, and later a debit card, which help build renewable energy projects with each purchase. In 2010, the bank completed construction of the 1 Bank of America Center in Charlotte center city. The tower, and accompanying hotel, is a LEED - certified building.
Bank of America has also donated money to help health centers in Massachusetts and made a $1 million donation in 2007 to help homeless shelters in Miami.
In 1998, the bank made a ten - year commitment of $350 billion to provide affordable mortgage, build affordable housing, support small business and create jobs in disadvantaged neighborhoods.
In 2004, the bank pledged $750 million over a ten - year period for community development lending and affordable housing programs.
In August 2011, Bank of America was sued for $10 billion by American International Group. Another lawsuit filed in September 2011 pertained to $57.5 billion in mortgage - backed securities Bank of America sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. That December, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that Countrywide Financial had discriminated against Hispanic and African - American homebuyers from 2004 to 2008, prior to being acquired by BofA. In September 2012, BofA settled out of court for $2.4 billion in a class action lawsuit filed by BofA shareholders who felt they were misled about the purchase of Merrill Lynch.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally / GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the states and federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
On October 24, 2012, American federal prosecutors filed a $1 billion civil lawsuit against Bank of America for mortgage fraud under the False Claims Act, which provides for possible penalties of triple the damages suffered. The government asserted that Countrywide, which was acquired by Bank of America, rubber - stamped mortgage loans to risky borrowers and forced taxpayers to guarantee billions of bad loans through Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The suit was filed by Preet Bharara, the United States attorney in Manhattan, the inspector general of FHFA and the special inspector for the Troubled Asset Relief Program. In March 2014, Bank of America settled the suit by agreeing to pay $6.3 billion to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac and to buy back around $3.2 billion worth of mortgage bonds.
In April 2014, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) ordered Bank of America to provide and estimated $727 million in relief to consumers harmed by practices related to credit card add - on products. According to the Bureau, roughly 1.4 million customers were affected by deceptive marketing of add - on products and 1.9 million customers were illegally charged for credit monitoring and reporting services they were not receiving. The deceptive marketing misconduct involved telemarketing scripts containing misstatements and off - script sales pitches made by telemarketers that were misleading and omitted pertinent information. The unfair billing practices involved billing customers for privacy related products without having the authorization necessary to perform the credit monitoring and credit report retrieval services. As a result, the company billed customers for services they did not receive, unfairly charged consumers for interest and fees, illegally charged approximately 1.9 million accounts, and failed to provide the product benefit.
A $7.5 million settlement was reached in April 2014 with former chief financial officer for Bank of America, Joe L. Price, over allegations that the bank 's management withheld material information related to its 2008 merger with Merrill Lynch. In August 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the bank agreed to a $16.65 billion agreement over the sale of risky, mortgage - backed securities before the Great Recession; the loans behind the securities were transferred to the company when it acquired banks such as Merrill Lynch and Countrywide in 2008. As a whole, the three firms provided $965 billion of mortgage - backed securities from 2004 -- 2008. The settlement was structured to give $7 billion in consumer relief and $9.65 billion in penalty payments to the federal government and state governments; California, for instance, received $300 million to recompense public pension funds. The settlement was the largest in United States history between a single company and the federal government.
A lawsuit has been filed against Bank of America by a former senior executive, Omeed Malik, who was accused of sexual harassment. Malik filed a defamation claim against the bank and is seeking damages of more than $100 million.
Parmalat SpA is a multinational Italian dairy and food corporation. Following Parmalat 's 2003 bankruptcy, the company sued Bank of America for $10 billion, alleging the bank profited from its knowledge of Parmalat 's financial difficulties. The parties announced a settlement in July 2009, resulting in Bank of America paying Parmalat $98.5 million in October 2009. In a related case, on April 18, 2011, an Italian court acquitted Bank of America and three other large banks, along with their employees, of charges they assisted Parmalat in concealing its fraud, and of lacking sufficient internal controls to prevent such frauds. Prosecutors did not immediately say whether they would appeal the rulings. In Parma, the banks were still charged with covering up the fraud.
In January 2008, Bank of America began notifying some customers without payment problems that their interest rates were more than doubled, up to 28 %. The bank was criticized for raising rates on customers in good standing, and for declining to explain why it had done so. In September 2009, a Bank of America credit card customer, Ann Minch, posted a video on YouTube criticizing the bank for raising her interest rate. After the video went viral, she was contacted by a Bank of America representative who lowered her rate. The story attracted national attention from television and internet commentators. More recently, the bank has been criticized for allegedly seizing three properties that were not under their ownership, apparently due to incorrect addresses on their legal documents.
In October 2009, Julian Assange of WikiLeaks claimed that his organization possessed a 5 gigabyte hard drive formerly used by a Bank of America executive and that Wikileaks intended to publish its contents.
In November 2010, Forbes published an interview with Assange in which he stated his intent to publish information which would turn a major U.S. bank "inside out ''. In response to this announcement, Bank of America stock dropped 3.2 %.
In December 2010, Bank of America announced that it would no longer service requests to transfer funds to WikiLeaks, stating that "Bank of America joins in the actions previously announced by MasterCard, PayPal, Visa Europe and others and will not process transactions of any type that we have reason to believe are intended for WikiLeaks... This decision is based upon our reasonable belief that WikiLeaks may be engaged in activities that are, among other things, inconsistent with our internal policies for processing payments. ''
Later in December, it was announced that Bank of America purchased more than 300 Internet domain names in an attempt to preempt bad publicity that might be forthcoming in the anticipated WikiLeaks release. The domain names included as BrianMoynihanBlows.com, BrianMoynihanSucks.com and similar names for other top executives of the bank.
Sometime before August 2011, WikiLeaks claimed that 5 GB of Bank of America leaks was part of the deletion of over 3500 communications by Daniel Domscheit - Berg, a now ex-WikiLeaks volunteer.
On March 14, 2011, members of hacker group Anonymous began releasing emails said to be from a former Bank of America employee. According to the group, the emails documented alleged "corruption and fraud ''. The source, identified publicly as Brian Penny, was a former LPI Specialist from Balboa Insurance, a firm which used to be owned by the bank, but was sold to Australian Reinsurance Company QBE.
In 2010 the state of Arizona launched an investigation into Bank of America for misleading homeowners who sought to modify their mortgage loans. According to the attorney general of Arizona, the bank "repeatedly has deceived '' such mortgagors. In response to the investigation, the bank has given some modifications on the condition that the homeowners remove some information criticizing the bank online.
On May 6, 2015, Bank of America announced it would reduce its financial exposure to coal companies. The announcement came following pressure from universities and environmental groups. The new policy was announced as part of the bank 's decision to continue to reduce credit exposure over time to the coal mining sector.
Notable buildings which Bank of America currently occupies include:
The Robert B. Atwood Building in Anchorage, Alaska was at one time named the Bank of America Center, renamed in conjunction with the bank 's acquisition of building tenant Security Pacific Bank. This particular branch was later acquired by Alaska - based Northrim Bank and moved across the street to the Linny Pacillo Parking Garage.
The Bank of America Building (Providence) opened in 1928 as the Industrial Trust Building and remains the tallest building in Rhode Island. Through a number of mergers it was later known as the Industrial National Bank building and the Fleet Bank building. The building was leased by Bank of America from 2004 to 2012 and has been vacant since March 2013. The building is commonly known as the Superman Building based on a popular belief that it was the model for the Daily Planet building in the Superman comic books.
The Miami Tower iconic in its appearance in Miami Vice was known as the Bank of America Tower for many years. It is located in Downtown Miami. On April 18, 2012, the AIA 's Florida Chapter placed it on its list of Florida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places as the Bank of America Tower.
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when was the cure for the bubonic plague discovered | Bubonic plague - wikipedia
Bubonic plague is one of three types of bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis. One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu like symptoms develop. These include fever, headaches, and vomiting. Swollen and painful lymph nodes occur in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin. Occasionally the swollen lymph nodes may break open.
The three types of plague are the result of the route of infection: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. Bubonic plague is mainly spread by infected fleas from small animals. It may also result from exposure to the body fluids from a dead plague infected animal. In the bubonic form of plague, the bacteria enter through the skin through a flea bite and travel via the lymphatic vessels to a lymph node, causing it to swell. Diagnosis is made by finding the bacteria in the blood, sputum, or fluid from lymph nodes.
Prevention is through public health measures such as not handling dead animals in areas where plague is common. Vaccines have not been found to be very useful for plague prevention. Several antibiotics are effective for treatment including streptomycin, gentamicin, and doxycycline. Without treatment it results in the death of 30 % to 90 % of those infected. Death, if it occurs, is typically within ten days. With treatment the risk of death is around 10 %. Globally there are about 650 documented cases a year which result in ~ 120 deaths. The disease is most common in Africa.
The plague is believed to be the cause of the Black Death that swept through Asia, Europe, and Africa in the 14th century and killed an estimated 50 million people. This was about 25 % to 60 % of the European population. Because the plague killed so many of the working population, wages rose due to the demand for labor. Some historians see this as a turning point in European economic development. The term bubonic plague is derived from the Greek word βουβών, meaning "groin ''. The term "buboes '' is also used to refer to the swollen lymph nodes.
The best - known symptom of bubonic plague is one or more infected, enlarged, and painful lymph nodes, known as buboes. After being transmitted via the bite of an infected flea, the Y. pestis bacteria become localized in an inflamed lymph node where they begin to colonize and reproduce. Buboes associated with the bubonic plague are commonly found in the armpits, upper femoral, groin and neck region. Acral gangrene (i.e., of the fingers, toes, lips and nose) is another common symptom.
Because of its bite - based mode of transmission, the bubonic plague is often the first of a progressive series of illnesses. Bubonic plague symptoms appear suddenly a few days after exposure to the bacterium. Symptoms include:
Other symptoms include heavy breathing, continuous vomiting of blood (hematemesis), aching limbs, coughing, and extreme pain caused by the decay or decomposition of the skin while the person is still alive. Additional symptoms include extreme fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, lenticulae (black dots scattered throughout the body), delirium, and coma.
Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (the rat flea). In very rare circumstances, as in the septicemic plague, the disease can be transmitted by direct contact with infected tissue or exposure to the cough of another human. The flea is parasitic on house and field rats, and seeks out other prey when its rodent hosts die. The bacteria remained harmless to the flea, allowing the new host to spread the bacteria. The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. Once established, bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply.
Y. pestis bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them. As the disease progresses, the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic. Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases. The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague.
Laboratory testing is required in order to diagnose and confirm plague. Ideally, confirmation is through the identification of Y. pestis culture from a patient sample. Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during the early and late stages of infection. To quickly screen for the Y. pestis antigen in patients, rapid dipstick tests have been developed for field use.
Several classes of antibiotics are effective in treating bubonic plague. These include aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin, tetracyclines (especially doxycycline), and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin. Mortality associated with treated cases of bubonic plague is about 1 -- 15 %, compared to a mortality of 40 -- 60 % in untreated cases.
People potentially infected with the plague need immediate treatment and should be given antibiotics within 24 hours of the first symptoms to prevent death. Other treatments include oxygen, intravenous fluids, and respiratory support. People who have had contact with anyone infected by pneumonic plague are given prophylactic antibiotics. Using the broad - based antibiotic streptomycin has proven to be dramatically successful against the bubonic plague within 12 hours of infection.
The first recorded epidemic affected the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and was named the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence). The historian Procopius wrote, in Volume II of History of the Wars, of his personal encounter with the plague and the effect it had on the rising empire. In the spring of 542, the plague arrived in Constantinople, working its way from port city to port city and spreading around the Mediterranean Sea, later migrating inland eastward into Asia Minor and west into Greece and Italy. Because the infectious disease spread inland by the transferring of merchandise through Justinian 's efforts in acquiring luxurious goods of the time and exporting supplies, his capital became the leading exporter of the bubonic plague. Procopius, in his work Secret History, declared that Justinian was a demon of an emperor who either created the plague himself or was being punished for his sinfulness.
In the Late Middle Ages (1340 -- 1400) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in 1347, killing a third of the human population. Some historians believe that society subsequently became more violent as the mass mortality rate cheapened life and thus increased warfare, crime, popular revolt, waves of flagellants, and persecution. The Black Death originated in or near China and spread from Italy and then throughout other European countries. Arab historians Ibn Al - Wardni and Almaqrizi believed the Black Death originated in Mongolia. Chinese records also showed a huge outbreak in Mongolia in the early 1330s. Research published in 2002 suggests that it began in early 1346 in the steppe region, where a plague reservoir stretches from the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea into southern Russia. The Mongols had cut off the trade route, the Silk Road, between China and Europe which halted the spread of the Black Death from eastern Russia to Western Europe. The epidemic began with an attack that Mongols launched on the Italian merchants ' last trading station in the region, Caffa in the Crimea. In late 1346, plague broke out among the besiegers and from them penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italian merchants fled on their ships, unknowingly carrying the Black Death. Carried by the fleas on rats, the plague initially spread to humans near the Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to another.
There were many ethno - medical beliefs for avoiding the Black Death. One of the most famous was that by walking around with flowers in or around their nose people would be able to "ward off the stench and perhaps the evil that afflicted them ''. People believed the plague to be a punishment from God, and that the only way to be rid of the plague was to be forgiven by God. One such method used was to carve the symbol of the cross onto the front door of a house with the words "Lord have mercy on us ''.
Pistoia, a city in Italy, went as far as enacting rules and regulations on the city and its inhabitants to keep it safe from the Black Death. The rules stated that no one was allowed to visit any plague - infected area and if they did they were not allowed back into the city. Some other rules were that no linen or woollen goods were to be imported into the city and no corpses were to be buried in the city. Despite strict enforcement of the rules, the city eventually became infected. People who were not infected with the plague gathered in groups and stayed away from the sick. They ate and drank with limited food and water and were not even allowed oral communication because it was believed that merely talking with one another increased the chance of passing on the disease.
While Europe was devastated by the disease, the rest of the world fared much better. In India, population rose from a population of 91 million in 1300, to 97 million in 1400, to 105 million in 1500. Sub-Saharan Africa remained largely unaffected by the plagues.
The next few centuries were marked by several localized or regional outbreaks of lesser severity. The Great Plague of Milan (1629 -- 1631), the Great Plague of Seville (1647), the Great Plague of London (1665 -- 1666), the Great Plague of Vienna (1679), Great Baltic plague (1708 -- 1712), the Great Plague of Marseille (1720), the Great Plague of 1738, and Caragea 's Plague (1813 -- 1814) were the last major outbreaks of the bubonic plague in Europe.
Medieval doctors thought the plague was created by air corrupted by humid weather, decaying unburied bodies, and fumes produced by poor sanitation. The recommended treatment of the plague was a good diet, rest, and relocating to a non-infected environment so the individual could get access to clean air. This did help, but not for the reasons the doctors of the time thought. In actuality, because they recommended moving away from unsanitary conditions, people were, in effect, getting away from the rodents that harbored the fleas carrying the infection. However, this also helped to spread the infection to new areas previously non-infected.
The plague resurfaced for a third time in the mid-19th century. Like the two previous outbreaks, this one also originated in Eastern Asia. The initial outbreak occurred in China 's Yunnan province in 1855. The disease remained localized in Southwest China for several years before spreading. In the city of Canton, beginning in January 1894, the disease killed 80,000 people by June. Daily water - traffic with the nearby city of Hong Kong rapidly spread the plague there, killing over 2,400 within two months.
From China, the plague spread to the Indian subcontinent around 1896. Over the next thirty years, India would lose 12.5 million people to the bubonic plague. The disease was initially seen in port cities, beginning with Bombay (now Mumbai), but later emerged in Poona (now Pune), Kolkata, and Karachi (now in Pakistan). By 1899, the outbreak spread to smaller communities and rural areas in many regions of India. Overall, the impact of plague epidemics was greatest in western and northern India -- in the provinces then designated as Bombay, Punjab, and the United Provinces -- while eastern and southern India were not as badly affected. Ultimately, more than 12 million people died from the plague in India (including present day Pakistan and Bangladesh) and China alone.
In 1899, the plague reached the islands of Hawaii. The first evidence of the disease was found in Honolulu 's Chinatown on Oahu. It was located very close to the island 's piers, and rats in cargo ships from China were able to land on the Hawaiian islands unseen. As the rats, hosts for disease - carrying fleas, made their way deeper into the city, people started to fall ill. On December 12, 1899, the first case was confirmed. The Board of Health then quickly thought of ways to prevent the disease from spreading even further inland. Their solution was to burn down any buildings in Chinatown suspected of containing a source of the disease. On December 31, 1899, the board set the first fire. They had originally planned to burn only a few targeted buildings, and thought they could control the flames as each building was finished, but the fire got out of control, burning down untargeted neighboring buildings. The resulting fire caused many of Chinatown 's homes to be destroyed and an estimated 4,000 people were left homeless.
Australia suffered 12 major plague outbreaks between 1900 and 1925 originating from shipping. Research by Australian medical officers Thompson, Armstrong and Tidswell contributed to understanding the spread of Yersinia pestis to humans by fleas from infected rats.
According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1959, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. In 1994, a plague outbreak in five Indian states caused an estimated 700 infections (including 52 deaths) and triggered a large migration of Indians within India as they tried to avoid the plague.
The scale of death and social upheaval associated with plague outbreaks has made the topic prominent in a number of historical and fictional accounts since the disease was first recognized. The Black Death in particular is described and referenced in numerous contemporary sources, some of which, including works by Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, are considered part of the Western canon. The Decameron, by Boccaccio, is notable for its use of a frame story involving individuals who have fled Florence for a secluded villa to escape the Black Death. First person, sometimes sensationalized or fictionalized, accounts of living through plague years have also been popular across centuries and cultures.
Later works, such as Albert Camus 's novel The Plague or Ingmar Bergman 's film The Seventh Seal have used bubonic plague in settings, such quarantined cities in either medieval or modern times, as a backdrop to explore a variety of concepts. Common themes include the breakdown of society, institutions, and individuals during the plague, the cultural and psychological existential confrontation with mortality, and the allegorical use of the plague in reference to contemporary moral or spiritual questions.
Some of the earliest instances of biological warfare were said to have been products of the plague, as armies of the 14th century were recorded catapulting diseased corpses over the walls of towns and villages to spread the pestilence.
Later, plague was used during the Second Sino - Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army. These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii 's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks.
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why was there a tree of life in the garden of eden | Tree of life (biblical) - wikipedia
The tree of life (Hebrew: עֵץ הַחַיִּים , Standard: Etz haChayim) is a term used in the Hebrew Bible that is a component of the world tree motif.
In the Book of Genesis, the tree of life is first described in chapter 2, verse 9 as being "in the midst of the Garden of Eden '' with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Hebrew: עֵץ הַדַּעַת ). After the fall of man, "lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever '', cherubim are placed at the east end of the Garden to guard the way to the tree of life. The tree of life has become the subject of some debate as to whether or not the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is the same tree.
In the Bible outside of Genesis, the term "tree of life '' appears in Proverbs (3: 18; 11: 30; 13: 12; 15: 4) and Revelation (2: 7; 22: 2, 14, 19). It also appears in 2 Esdras (2: 12; 8: 52) and 4 Maccabees (18: 16), which are included among the Jewish apocrypha.
Karl Budde, in his critical research of 1883, outlined that there was only one tree in the body of the Genesis narrative and it qualified in two ways: one as the tree in the middle of the Garden, and two as the forbidden tree. Claus Westermann gave recognition to Budde 's theory in 1976.
Ellen van Wolde noted in her 1994 survey that among Bible scholars "the trees are almost always dealt with separately and not related to each other '' and that "attention is almost exclusively directed to the tree of knowledge of good and evil, whereas the tree of life is paid hardly any attention. ''
The Eastern Orthodox Church has traditionally understood the tree of life in Genesis as a prefiguration of the Cross, which humanity could not partake of until after the incarnation, death and resurrection of Jesus.
In The City of God (xiii. 20 - 21), Augustine of Hippo offers great allowance for "spiritual '' interpretations of the events in the garden, so long as such allegories do not rob the narrative of its historical reality. Enlightenment theologians (culminating perhaps in Brunner and Niebuhr in the twentieth century) sought for figurative interpretations because they had already dismissed the historical possibility of the story.
Others sought very pragmatic understandings of the tree. In the Summa Theologica (Q97), Thomas Aquinas argued that the tree served to maintain Adam 's biological processes for an extended earthly animal life. It did not provide immortality as such, for the tree, being finite, could not grant infinite life. Hence after a period of time, the man and woman would need to eat again from the tree or else be "transported to the spiritual life. '' The common fruit trees of the garden were given to offset the effects of "loss of moisture '' (note the doctrine of the humors at work), while the tree of life was intended to offset the inefficiencies of the body. Following Augustine in the City of God (xiv. 26), "man was furnished with food against hunger, with drink against thirst, and with the tree of life against the ravages of old age. ''
John Calvin (Commentary on Genesis 2: 8), following a different thread in Augustine (City of God, xiii. 20), understood the tree in sacramental language. Given that humanity can not exist except within a covenantal relationship with God, and all covenants use symbols to give us "the attestation of his grace '', he gives the tree, "not because it could confer on man that life with which he had been previously endued, but in order that it might be a symbol and memorial of the life which he had received from God. '' God often uses symbols - He does n't transfer his power into these outward signs, but "by them He stretches out His hand to us, because, without assistance, we can not ascend to Him. '' Thus he intends man, as often as he eats the fruit, to remember the source of his life, and acknowledge that he lives not by his own power, but by God 's kindness. Calvin denies (contra Aquinas and without mentioning his name) that the tree served as a biological defense against physical aging. This is the standing interpretation in modern Reformed theology as well.
The tree of life is represented in several examples of sacred geometry and is central in particular to the Kabbalah, where it is represented as a diagram of ten points.
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how many years of pe do you have to take in high school | Education in South Korea - wikipedia
Education in South Korea is provided by both public schools and private schools. Both types of schools receive funding from the government, although the amount that the private schools receive is less than the amount of the state schools. In recent years, Incheon Global Campus (with start - up support) has kick - started, and Yonsei University opened an international college to embrace the full English teaching environment scheme.
South Korea is one of the top - performing OECD countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring 542. The country has one of the worlds highest - educated labour forces among OECD countries. The country is well known for its obsession with education, which has come to be called "education fever ''. The resource - poor nation is consistently ranked amongst the top for global education. In the 2014 national rankings of students ' math and science scores by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), South Korea ranked second place worldwide, after Singapore.
Higher education is an overwhelmingly serious issue in South Korea society, where it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean families as success in education is necessary for improving one 's socioeconomic position in South Korean society. Academic success is often a source of pride for families and within South Korean society at large. South Koreans view education as the main propeller of social mobility for themselves and their family as a gateway to the South Korean middle class. Graduating from a top university is the ultimate marker of prestige, high socioeconomic status, promising marriage prospects, and a respectable career path. An average South Korean child 's life revolves around education as pressure to succeed academically is deeply ingrained in South Korean children from an early age. Those who lack a formal university education often face social prejudice.
In 2015, the country spent 4.7 % of its GDP on all levels of education -- roughly equal to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average. A strong investment in education, a militant drive for success as well as the passion for excellence has helped the resource poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war torn wasteland. South Korea 's zeal for education and its students ' desires to get into a prestigious university is one of the highest in the world, as the entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a prestigious, secure and well - paid white collar job with the government, banks, a major South Korean conglomerate such as Samsung, Hyundai or LG Electronics. With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at the nation 's best universities, its institutional reputation and alumni networks are strong predictors of future career prospects. The top three universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY '', are Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. Intense competition and pressure to earn the highest grades is deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Korean students at a young age. Yet with only so many places at universities and even fewer places at top - tier companies, many young people remain disappointed and are often unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling as underachievers. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society attached to those who have not achieved formal university education where those who do n't hold university degrees face social prejudice and are often looked down by others as second - class citizens resulting fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one 's socioeconomic position and prospects for marriage.
International reception on the South Korean education system has been divided. It has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and its major role in ushering South Korea 's economic development creating one of the world 's most educated workforces. South Korea 's highly enviable academic performance has gotten British education ministers actively remodeling their own curriculum 's and exams to try to emulate Korea 's militant drive and passion for excellence and high educational achievement. U.S. President Barack Obama has also praised the country 's rigorous school system, where over 80 percent of South Korean high school graduates go on to university. The nation 's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries in the world with the one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. Bachelor 's degrees are held by 68 percent of South Koreans aged 25 -- 34, the most in the OECD.
The system 's rigid and hierarchical structure has been criticized for stifling creativity and innovation; described as intensely and "brutally '' competitive, The system is often blamed for the high suicide rate in South Korea, particularly the growing rates among those aged 10 -- 19. Various media outlets attribute the nations high suicide rate on the nationwide anxiety around the country 's college entrance exams, which determine the trajectory of students entire lives and careers. Former South Korean hagwon teacher Se - Woong Koo wrote that the South Korean education system amounts to child abuse and that it should be "reformed and restructured without delay. '' The system has also been criticized for producing an excess supply of university graduates creating an overeducated and underemployed labor force; in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South Korean university graduates were jobless, leading many graduates overqualified for jobs requiring less education. Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in various skilled blue collar labor and vocational occupations, where many go unfilled as the negative social stigma associated with vocational careers and not having a university degree continues to remain deep - rooted in South Korean society.
Education has been present throughout the history of Korea (1945 -- present). Public schools and private schools have been both present. Modern reforms to education began in the late 19th century.
After Gwangbokjeol and the liberation from Japan, the Korean government began to study and discuss for a new philosophy of education. The new educational philosophy was created under the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) with a focus on democratic education. The new system attempted to make education available to all students equally and promote the educational administration to be more self - governing. Specific policies included: re-educating teachers, lowering functional illiteracy by educating adults, restoration of the Korean language for technical terminology, and expansion of various educational institutions.
Following the Korean War, the government of Syngman Rhee reversed many of these reforms after 1948, when only primary schools remained in most cases coeducational and, because of a lack of resources, education was compulsory only up to the sixth grade.
During the years when Rhee and Park Chung Hee were in power, the control of education was gradually taken out of the hands of local school boards and concentrated in a centralized Ministry of Education. In the late 1980s, the ministry was responsible for administration of schools, allocation of resources, setting of enrollment quotas, certification of schools and teachers, curriculum development (including the issuance of textbook guidelines), and other basic policy decisions. Provincial and special city boards of education still existed. Although each board was composed of seven members who were supposed to be selected by popularly elected legislative bodies, this arrangement ceased to function after 1973. Subsequently, school board members were approved by the minister of education.
Most observers agree that South Korea 's spectacular progress in modernization and economic growth since the Korean War is largely attributable to the willingness of individuals to invest a large amount of resources in education: the improvement of "human capital. '' The traditional esteem for the educated man, now extend to scientists, technicians, and others working with specialized knowledge. Highly educated technocrats and economic planners could claim much of the credit for their country 's economic successes since the 1960s. Scientific professions were generally regarded as the most prestigious by South Koreans in the 1980s.
Statistics demonstrate the success of South Korea 's national education programs. In 1945 the adult literacy rate was estimated at 22 percent; by 1970 adult literacy was 87.6 percent and, by the late 1980s, sources estimated it at around 93 percent. Although only primary school (grades one through six) was compulsory, percentages of age - groups of children and young people enrolled in secondary level schools were equivalent to those found in industrialized countries, including Japan. Approximately 4.8 million students in the eligible age - group were attending primary school in 1985. The percentage of students going on to optional middle school the same year was more than 99 percent. Approximately 34 percent, one of the world 's highest rates of secondary - school graduates attended institutions of higher education in 1987, a rate similar to Japan 's (about 30 percent) and exceeding Britain 's (20 percent).
Government expenditure on education has been generous. In 1975, it was 220 billion won, the equivalent of 2.2 percent of the gross national product, or 13.9 percent of total government expenditure. By 1986, education expenditure had reached 3.76 trillion won, or 4.5 percent of the GNP, and 27.3 percent of government budget allocations.
Student activism has a long and honorable history in Korea. Students in Joseon secondary schools often became involved in the intense factional struggles of the scholar - official class. Students played a major role in Korea 's independence movement, particularly the March 1, 1919. Students protested against the regimes of Syngman Rhee and Park Chung - hee during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Observers noted, however, that while student activists in the past generally embraced liberal and democratic values, the new generation of militants in the 1980s were far more radical. Most participants adopted some version of the minjung ideology but was also animated by strong feelings of popular nationalism and xenophobia.
The most militant university students, perhaps about 5 percent of the total enrollment at Seoul National University and comparable figures at other institutions in the capital during the late 1980s, were organized into small circles or cells rarely containing more than fifty members. Police estimated that there were 72 such organizations of varying orientation, having the change of curriculum and education system of South Korea people have been enriched in an imaginary way that makes them to propel in all their studies.
Following the assumption of power by General Chun Doo - hwan in 1980, the Ministry of Education implemented a number of reforms designed to make the system more fair and to increase higher education opportunities for the population at large. In a very popular move, the ministry dramatically increased enrollment at large.
Social emphasis on education was not without its problems, as it tended to accentuate class differences. In the late 1980s, a college degree was considered necessary for entering the middle class; there were no alternative pathways of social advancement, with the possible exception of a military career, outside higher education. People without a college education, including skilled workers with vocational school backgrounds, often were treated as second - class citizens by their white - collar, college - educated managers, despite the importance of their skills for economic development. Intense competition for places at the most prestigious universities -- the sole gateway into elite circles -- promoted, like the old Confucian system, a sterile emphasis on rote memorization in order to pass secondary school and college entrance examinations. Particularly after a dramatic expansion of college enrollments in the early 1980s, South Korea faced the problem of what to do about a large number of young people staying in school for a long time, usually at great sacrifice to themselves and their families, and then faced with limited job opportunities because their skills were not marketable.
With a slowing economy, a rigid and fast changing job market as a result of the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 and the demise of the Industrial Age, many young South Korean high school graduates are now realizing that high entrance examination and test scores for the promise of future career success did not carry the same weight as it once did. In 2013, 43,000 South Koreans in their twenties, and 21,000 in their thirties lost their jobs. According to a 2013 survey conducted by the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, nearly four out of every 10 young workers in their 20s and 30s said they were overeducated. In 2013, fewer young South Koreans chose go on to university after finishing high school as the unemployment rate for university graduates continues to soar, falling income for college graduates continues to decline and the value of a college degree has now becoming increasingly in doubt. Educational reforms initiated by the South Korean government have become more dynamic and that university is no longer the only guarantee of a career. Government measures have also been prompted to encourage young unemployed college graduates to look at other employment possibilities such starting a business or seeking employment opportunities at smaller and medium size businesses. Former President Lee Myung - Bak urged young unemployed job seekers to start looking at other employment possibilities with small and medium - sized businesses beyond large conglomerates.
An oversaturated and overqualified labor market has resulted shortages of skilled blue - collar labor and a lack of qualified vocational employees for small and medium - sized businesses, young South Koreans now realize that a college degree no longer guarantees a job as it once did. With the nation 's high university entrance rate, South Korea has produced an overeducated and underemployed labor force with many being unable find employment at the level of their education qualifications. In addition, a subsequent skills surplus has led to an overall decline in labour underutilization in vocational occupations. In the country, 70.9 percent of high school graduates went on to university in 2014, the highest college attendance rate among the Organization for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries. In the third quarter of 2016, one out of three unemployed people in South Korea were university graduates largely attributed to the combination of a protracted South Korean economic slowdown and so - called academic inflation. Many young unemployed South Korean university graduates are now turning to vocational education such as skilled trade and technical schools and have simply opted out the national college entrance examination test in favor of entering straight into the workforce. With dire employment prospects for university graduates, enthusiasm for tertiary education has also been waning, as less than 72 % of South Korean high - school students went on to university in 2012, a sharp drop from a high of 84.6 % in 2008. Other factors that attribute to this include demographic change and the current economic climate as well as financial burdens -- particularly the cost of education has gone up dramatically with income growth for college graduates stagnating. According to 2012 employment trend research conducted by Statistics Korea reveals that college graduates earnings are lower than those of high school graduates. Many traditional Korean families still continue to believe that a university education is the only route to a good well paying job in spite mounting evidence to the contrary according to a McKinsey report, noting that the net present value of a university education now trails the value of a high school diploma, due to huge private education costs. The cultural norms of South Korean parents continue to pressure their children to enter university and have even disregarded the phenomenon for declining income of college graduates where the income for university graduates has fallen that below of high school graduates as well as the fact that the unemployment rate for college graduates is higher than that of high - school graduates. The country has also produced an oversupply of university graduates in South Korea where in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South Korean university graduates were jobless, leading many graduates overqualified for jobs requiring less education. Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in various skilled blue - collar labor vocational occupations, where many of which go unfilled. With labor shortages in many skilled labor and vocational occupations, South Korean small and medium - sized businesses complain that they struggle to find enough skilled blue - collar workers to fill potential vocational job vacancies. Despite strong criticism and research statistics pointing alternative career options such as vocational school often with good pay and greater employment prospects that rival the income and prospects of many professional jobs requiring a university degree, a number of South Korean parents still continue to pressure their children regardless of their aptitude to enter university rather than go to a vocational school. In 2012, 93 % of South Korean parents expected their children to attend university, but as societal attitudes change and reforms in the South Korean education system reform underway, more young South Koreans are starting to believe that they have to do what they like and what they enjoy in order to be happy to achieve success.
With South Korea 's bleak economic and employment prospects for its youth, President Park Geun - hye went out internationally to countries such as Germany, Switzerland, and Austria to address South Korea 's more glaring employment needs including tackling the country 's high youth employment rate and as well as reforming South Korea 's education system. In early 2015, Park Geun - Hye traveled to Switzerland to study the European apprenticeship system. By summer, the South Korean government mandated that all students in vocational high schools must also have an opportunity to be an apprentice. The government has also mandated an "employment first, university later '' policy to encourage vocational graduates to work in industry and put off higher education until later. Drawing inspiration from the vocational schools and apprenticeship models of Germany and Switzerland, many Meister schools have been established in South Korea to prepare students for careers earlier. The schools offer to teach students specialized industrial skills and job training to tailor the needs of respective South Korean industries such as automobile and mechanical manufacturing and shipbuilding. Dual apprentice schools have also been introduced where students can work and study at the same time. High school students can go to school for a couple of days a week or a set period of the year or study at school for the rest with a stronger emphasis gaining employment skills than rather going to college. Many young South Koreans are now choosing their jobs tailored to their interests rather than blindly accepting career choices imposed by their parents and choosing jobs outside the conventional classroom. With the changing dynamics in the global economy in the 21st century as well as the implementation of vocational education in the South Korean education system as an alternative to the traditional path of going to university, a good education from a prestigious university no longer guarantees a comfortable life, and one 's status in society is no longer necessarily guaranteed by educational background. Since the rise of Meister schools and modern reforms in the South Korean education system, many young South Koreans are now realizing that one does n't necessarily need a college degree to be successful in the workforce and enter the middle class, but instead the right skills. The establishment of Meister schools now shows South Koreans that there can be multiple pathways to socioeconomic and career success and that vocational school graduates can still be professionally and financially successful in South Korean society. Educational reform modeled from Switzerland and Germany offers career alternatives besides the traditional university route allowing South Koreans to express occupational diversity and as well as redefine what is real achievement in South Korean society is.
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The number of private kindergartens have increased as a result of more women entering the workforce, growth in the number of nuclear families where a grandparent was often unavailable to take care of children, and the feeling that kindergarten might give children an "edge '' in later educational competition. Many students in Korea start kindergarten at the Western age of three and will therefore continue to study in kindergarten for three or four years, before starting their ' formal education ' in ' grade one ' of primary school. Many private kindergartens offer their classes in English to give students a ' head - start ' in the mandatory English education they would receive later in public school. Kindergartens often pay homage to the expectations of parents with impressive courses, graduation ceremonies, complete with diplomas and gowns. Korean kindergartens are expected to start teaching basic maths, reading and writing to children, including education on how to count, add, subtract, and read and write in Korean, and often in English and Chinese. Children in Korean kindergartens are also taught using games focused on education and coordination, such as "playing doctor '' to teach body parts, food and nutrition, and work positions for adults. Songs, dances, and memorization are a big part of Korean kindergarten education.
Elementary schools (Korean: 초등학교, chodeung hakgyo) consists of grades one to six (age 8 to age 13 in Korean years -- 6 to 12 in western years). The South Korean government changed its name to the current form from Citizens ' school (Korean: 국민학교, Gungmin hakgyo) in 1996. The former name was shortened from 황국 신민 학교 (Hwangguk sinmin hakgyo), which means school of the people who are subjects of the Empire (of Japan).
In elementary school, students learn the following subjects. The curriculum differs from grades 1 - 2 to grades 3 - 6.
Grades 1 - 2:
Grades 3 - 6:
Usually, the class teacher covers most of the subjects; however, there are some specialised teachers in professions such as physical education and foreign languages, including English.
Those who wish to become a primary school teacher must major in primary education, which is specially designed to cultivate primary school teachers. In Korea, most of the primary teachers are working for public primary schools.
Because corporal punishment has been officially prohibited in every classroom since 2011, many teachers and some parents raised with corporal punishment are becoming more concerned about what they see as worsening discipline problems. However, some teachers infringe the law and raise their students with corporal punishment.
In 1987, there were approximately 4,895,354 students enrolled in middle schools and high schools, with approximately 150,873 teachers. About 69 percent of these teachers were male. About 98 % of Korean students finish secondary education. The secondary - school enrollment figure also reflected changing population trends -- there were 3,959,975 students in secondary schools in 1979. Given the importance of entry into higher education, the majority of students attended general or academic high schools in 1987: 1,397,359 students, or 60 percent of the total, attended general or academic high schools, as compared with 840,265 students in vocational secondary schools. Vocational schools specialized in a number of fields: primarily agriculture, fishery, commerce, trades, merchant marine, engineering, and the arts.
Competitive entrance examinations at the middle - school level were abolished in 1968. Although as of the late 1980s, students still had to pass noncompetitive qualifying examinations, they were assigned to secondary institutions by lottery, or else by location within the boundary of the school district. Secondary schools, formerly ranked according to the quality of their students, have been equalized, with a portion of good, mediocre, and poor students being assigned to each one. The reform, however, did not equalize secondary schools completely. In Seoul, students who performed well in qualifying examinations were allowed to attend better quality schools in a "common '' district, while other students attended schools in one of five geographical districts. The reforms applied equally to public and private schools whose enrollments were strictly controlled by the Ministry of Education.
In South Korea, the grade of a student is reset as the student progresses through elementary, middle and high school. To differentiate the grades between students, one would often state the grade based on the level of education he / she is in. For example, a student in a first year of middle school would be referred to as "First grade in Middle School (중학교 1 학년) ''.
Middle schools are called Jung hakgyo (중학교) in Korean, which literally means middle school. High schools are called Godeung hakgyo (고등학교) in Korean, literally meaning "high school ''.
Middle schools in South Korea consist of three grades. Most students enter at age 12 or 13 and graduate at age 15 or 16 (western years). These three grades correspond roughly to grades 7 - 9 in the North American system and Years 8 - 10 in the English and Welsh system.
Middle school in South Korea marks a considerable shift from primary school, with students expected to take studies and school much more seriously. At most middle schools regulation uniforms and haircuts are enforced fairly strictly, and some aspects of students ' lives are highly controlled. Like in primary school, students spend most of the day in the same homeroom classroom with the same classmates; however, students have different teachers for each subject. Teachers move around from classroom to classroom, and few teachers apart from those who teach special subjects have their own rooms to which students come. Homeroom teachers (담임 교사, RR: damim gyosa) play a very important role in students ' lives.
Most middle school students take seven lessons a day, and in addition to this usually have an early morning block that precedes regular lessons and an eighth lesson specializing in an extra subject to finish the day. Unlike with high school, middle school curricula do not vary much from school to school. Korean, Algebra, Geometry, English, social studies, and science form the core subjects, with students also receiving instruction in music, art, PE, korean history, ethics, home economics, secondary language, technology, and Hanja. What subjects students study and in what amount may vary from year to year. All regular lessons are 45 minutes long. Before school, students have an extra block, 30 - or - more minutes long, that may be used for self - study, watching Educational Broadcast System (EBS) broadcasts, or for personal or class administration. Beginning in 2008, students attended school from Monday to Friday, and had a half - day every 1st, 3rd, and 5th (calendar permitting) Saturday of the month. Saturday lessons usually included Club Activity (CA) lessons, where students could participate in extracurricular activities. However these classes were also not used well either. Many schools have regular classes except having extracurricular activities because schools and parents want students to study more. However, from 2012 onwards, primary and secondary schools, including middle schools, will no longer hold Saturday classes. However, still many schools have Saturday classes illegally because the parents want their children to go to school and study.
In 1969, the government abolished entrance examinations for middle school students, replacing it with a system whereby primary school students within the same district are selected for middle schools by a lottery system. This has the effect of equalizing the quality of students from school to school, though schools in areas where students come from more privileged backgrounds still tend to outperform schools in poorer areas. Until recently most middle schools have been same - sex, though in the past decade most new middle schools have been mixed, and some previously same - sex schools have converted to mixed as well. Some schools have converted to same - sex due to pressure from parents who thought that their children would study better in single - sex education.
As with primary schools, students pass from grade to grade regardless of knowledge or academic achievement, the result being that classes often have students of vastly differing abilities learning the same subject material together. In the final year of middle school examination scores become very important for the top students hoping to gain entrance into the top high schools, and for those in the middle hoping to get into an academic rather than a technical or vocational high school. Otherwise, examinations and marks only matter insofar as living up to a self - enforced concept of position in the school ranking system. There are some standardized examinations for certain subjects, and teachers of academic subjects are expected to follow approved textbooks, but generally middle school teachers have more flexibility over curricula and methods than teachers at high school.
More than 95 % of the middle school students also attend independent owned, after - school tutoring agencies known as hagwon, and many receive extra instruction from private tutors. The core subjects, especially the cumulative subjects of Korean, English and math, receive the most emphasis. Some hagwon specializing in just one subject, and others offer all core subjects, constituting a second round of schooling every day for their pupils. Indeed, some parents place more stress on their children 's hagwon studies than their public school studies. Additionally, many students attend academies for things such as martial arts or music. The result of all this is that many middle school students, like their high school counterparts, return from a day of schooling well after sunset. The average South Korean family spends 20 % percent of its income on after - hours cram schools, more spending per capita on private tutoring than any other country.
High schools in South Korea teach students for three years, from first grade (age 15 - 17) to third grade (age 17 - 19), and students commonly graduate at age 18 or 19. High school students are commonly expected to study increasingly long hours each year moving toward graduation, to become competitive and be able to enter attractive universities, such as the top SKY (Seoul National, Korea, and Yonsei Universities). Many high school students wake and leave home in the morning at 5 am and return home after studying well after 10 pm, then return to specialty study schools often to 2 am, from Monday to Friday and also they often study on weekends.
It is a commonly known saying in Korea that ' If you sleep three hours a night, you may get into a top ' SKY university; ' If you sleep four hours each night, you may get into another university; if you sleep five or more hours each night, especially in your last year of high school, forget about getting into any university. ' Accordingly, many high school students in their final year do not have any free time for holidays, birthdays or vacations before the CATs (National College Scholastic Aptitude Test, Korean: 수능), which are university entrance exams held by the Ministry of Education. Surprisingly, some high school students are offered chances to travel with family to enjoy fun and relaxing vacations, but these offers are often refused on the first suggestion by the students themselves, and increasingly on later additional trips if any, due to peer influences and a fear of ' falling behind ' in classes. Many high school students seem to prefer staying with friends and studying, rather than taking a break. The idea of ' skipping classes ' for fun is extremely rare in Korea. Rebellious students will often stay in class and use smart phones connected to the internet to chat with friends behind the teacher 's back during classes.
High schools in Korea can be divided into specialty tracks that accord with a student 's interest and career path. For example, there are science (Science high school), foreign language and art specialty high schools to which students can attend by passing entrance examinations which are generally highly competitive. Other types of high schools include public high schools and private high schools, both with or without entrance examinations. These high schools do not report to specialise in a field, but are more focused on sending their students to college. For students who do not wish a college education, vocational schools specialising in fields such as technology, agriculture or finance are available, such that students are employable right after graduation. Around 20 % of high school students are in vocational high schools.
On noting the schedule of many high school students, it is not unusual for them to arrive home from school at midnight or even as late as 3 am after intensive "self - study '' sessions supported by the school or parents. The Korean government has tried to crack down on such serious study habits in order to allow a more balanced system, and fined many privately run specialty study institutes (' hagwons ') for running classes as late (or as early) as 2 am. Some such institutes (' hagwons ') also offer early morning classes for students to attend before going to school in the morning.
The normal government school curriculum is often noted as rigorous, with as many as 16 or so subjects. Most students choose to also attend privately run profit - making institutes known as hagwon (學院, Korean: 학원) to boost their academic performance. Core subjects include Korean, English and mathematics, with adequate emphasis on social and physical science subjects. Students do not typically ask questions in the classroom, but prefer to memorise details. It is critical to note that the type and level of subjects may differ from school to school, depending on the degree of selectivity and specialisation of the school. Specialty, optional, expensive, study schools help students memorise questions and answers from previous years ' CAT tests (since August 1993) and universities ' interview questions.
High school is not mandatory, unlike middle school education in Korea. However, according to a 2005 study of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries, some 97 % of South Korea 's young adults do complete high school. This was the highest percentage recorded in any country. However, this is mainly due to the fact that there is no such thing as a failing grade in Korea, and most graduate as long as they attend school a certain number of days.
As it stands, the Korean secondary system of education is highly successful in preparing students for teacher - centered education such as that often used to teach mathematics since the transfer of information is mostly one way, from teacher to student. However, this does not hold true for classroom environments where students are expected to take on self - reliant roles wherein, for the most part, active and creative personalities seem to lead to success.
It is becoming ever more evident that active student use of the English language in Korean high schools is increasingly necessary for the purposes of helping the students enter top universities in Korea as well as abroad.
South Korea once had a strong vocational education system that it rebuilt its shattered economy after the Korean war. As the university degree grew in prominence to employers during the 1970s and 1980s, the shift to a more knowledge - based rather than an industrial economy resulted vocational education shifting in favor towards university degree for many young South Koreans and their parents. In the 1970s and 1980s, vocational education in South Korea was less than socially acceptable, yet it was the another pathway to succeed in obtaining a steady job with a decent income as well as elevate their socioeconomic status yet many vocational graduates were scorned and stigmatized by their college educated managers despite the importance of their skills for economic development.
With South Korea 's high university entrance rate, the perception of vocational educational still remains in doubt in the minds of many South Koreans. In 2013, only 18 percent of students were enrolled in vocational education programs as it was due to the prestige of university -- affluent families that were able to afford the tutoring that is now required for students to pass the notorious difficult college entrance exam and be able to attend university. With the pervasive bias against vocational education, vocational students are labeled as "underachievers '', lack a formal higher educational background, and are often looked down upon as vocational jobs are known in Korea as the "3Ds '' dirty, demeaning, and dangerous. In response, the South Korean government increased the number of spots in universities and the rate of university enrollment was 68.2 percent, an increase of 15 percent over 2014. As a result, to boost the positive image of vocational training, the South Korean government has been collaborating with countries such as Germany, Switzerland, and Austria to examine the innovative solutions that are being implemented to improve vocational education, training, and career options for young South Koreans as alternative to the traditional path of going to university.
According to a 2012 research report from The McKinsey Global Institute reckons that the lifetime value of a college graduate 's improved earnings no longer justifies the expense required to obtain the degree and have called on the need for more vocational education to counteract the human cost of performance pressure and the high unemployment rate among the country 's university - educated youth. The South Korean government, schools, and industry with assistance from the Swiss government and industry are now revamping and modernizing the country 's once strong vocational education sector with a network of vocational schools called "Meister Schools ''. The purpose of the Meister schools is to reduce the country 's shortage of vocational occupations such as auto mechanics, plumbers, welders, boilermakers, electricians, carpenters, millwrights, machinists and machine operators as many of the positions go unfilled. In spite of the country 's high unemployment rate during the Great Recession, secondary vocational school graduates have been successful in navigating the workforce as they possess relevant skill sets that are in high demand in the South Korean economy.
Negative perception and stigmatization of vocational education continues to be the largest challenge in South Korea. The government is encouraging younger students to visit and see the programs for themselves firsthand to change their perception. Those in doubt on the quality of vocational education are encouraged to spend time working in industry during school vacations so they are up - to - date on current industry practices. Meister schools are continuing to be proving to be a good influence in changing the opinion of vocational education yet only 15,213 (5 percent) of high school students are enrolled in Meister schools with a lack of places unable to meet the demand despite a 100 percent employment rate. Meister students are now using these schools as an alternative path besides going to university; if a student works in industry for three years after graduating from a Meister, they are exempt from the extremely difficult university entrance exam. Nonetheless, the perception of vocational education is changing and slowly increasing in popularity as participating students are working in adult jobs and learning real skills that are highly valued in the current marketplace as vocational school graduates have been swamped with job offers in an otherwise slow economy. The initiative of Meister schools has even helped youth secure jobs at conglomerates such as Samsung over their peers who graduated from elite universities. South Korea has also streamlined its small and medium - sized business sector along German lines to ease dependence on the large conglomerates ever since it began introducing Meister schools into its education system.
Some form of higher education has existed continuously in South Korea since the 4th century.
The development of higher education was influenced since ancient times. During the era of King So - Su - Rim in the kingdom of Goguryeo, Tae - Hak, the national university, taught the study of Confucianism, literature and martial arts. In 551, Silla which was one of three kingdoms including Goguryeo founded Guk - Hak and taught cheirospasm. It also founded vocational education that taught astronomy and medicine. Goryeo continued Silla 's program of study. Seong - gyun - gwan in the Chosun Dynasty period was a higher education institute of Confucianism and for government officials.
Today there are colleges and universities whose courses of study extend from 4 to 6 years. In addition, there are vocational colleges, industrial universities, open universities and universities of technology. There are day and evening classes, classes during vacation and remote education classes. The number of institutes of higher education varied consistently from 419 in 2005, to 405 in 2008, to 411 in 2010.
Private universities account for 87.3 % of total higher educational institutions. Industrial universities account for 63.6 % and vocational universities account for 93.8 %. These are much higher than the percentage of public institutes.
Students have the option of participating in either 수시 (su - shi, early decision plans for college) or 정시 (jeong - shi, regular admissions). Students will have to take the College Scholastic Ability Test (colloquially known as 수능 Su - neung). The Korean College Scholastic Ability Test has five sections: Language Ability, Mathematical Ability, First Foreign Language Ability (English), various "elective '' subjects in the social and physical sciences, and ' Second Foreign Languages or Chinese Characters and Classics '. Unlike the American SAT, this test can only be taken once a year and requires intensive studying. Students who perform below their expectations on the test and choose to defer college entrance for one year in order to try and achieve a higher score on another attempt are called jaesuseng.
For Korean university admissions, college scholastic ability tests, student 's grade books and university regulated examinations are evaluated. The student 's grade book contains an overall record of their high school activity, including voluntary work. College scholastic ability tests include language, mathematics, English, social and natural sciences, job research and a second foreign language. The job research section applies only to students of vocational schools. The second foreign language requirement applies only to students who pursued a liberal arts curriculum as opposed to natural sciences.
Because college entrance depends upon ranking high in objectively graded examinations, high school students face an "examination hell '', a harsh regimen of endless cramming and rote memorization of facts that is incomparably severe. Korean students study 16 hours more each week than the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) average. Unlike the Confucian civil service examinations of the Choson Dynasty, their modern reincarnation is a matter of importance not for an elite, but for the substantial portion of the population with middle - class aspirations. In the late 1980s, over one - third of college - age men and women (35.2 percent in 1989) succeeded in entering and attending institutions of higher education; those who failed faced dramatically reduced prospects for social and economic advancement.
Tests given in high school (twice in each semester) were almost as important in determining college entrance as the final entrance examinations. Students had no opportunity to relax from the study routine. The emphasis on memorization has been criticized. Much of the family 's social life concerns their student 's education.
Examinations are very serious times of the year and they change the whole pattern of society. Businesses often open at 10 AM to accommodate parents who have helped their children study late into the night. On the evenings before exams, recreational facilities such as tennis clubs close early to facilitate study for these exams.
The costs of the "examination hell '' have been evident not only in a grim and joyless adolescence for many, if not most, young South Koreans, but also in the number of suicides caused by the constant pressure of tests. Often, those who committed suicide have been top achievers who suffered from despair after experiencing a slump in test performance. Roughly 53.4 % of South Korean youths who consider suicide cite excessive competition as the reason. The multiple choice format of periodic high school tests and university entrance examinations has left students little opportunity to develop their creative talents. A "facts only '' orientation has promoted a cramped view of the world that has tended to spill over into other areas of life.
The prospects for basic change in the system -- a de-emphasis on tests -- were unlikely in the late 1980s. The great virtue of facts - based testing is its objectivity. Though harsh, the system is believed to be fair and impartial. The use of nonobjective criteria such as essays, personal recommendations, and the recognition of success in extracurricular activities or personal recommendations from teachers and others could open up many opportunities for corruption. In a society where social connections are extremely important, connections rather than merit might determine entry into a good university. Students who survive the numbing regimen of examinations under the modern system are at least universally acknowledged to have deserved their educational success. Top graduates who have assumed positions of responsibility in government and business have lent, through their talents, legitimacy to the whole system. Though there have been reforms on promoting individuality and creativity, yet many Korean students still face an incredible amount of pressure from school as well as their parents who enforce long hours of study to ensure strong results on the national university examinations which can determine their chances of future career success.
The ' examination by university ' is an assessment test that the university carries out autonomously; most universities implement an essay exam. Some implement an oral exam, interview and aptitude test. Recently, the ' admission officer system ' is on the increase.
Most students enrolled in high school apply to colleges at the end of the year. College entrance depends upon ranking high in objectively graded examinations.
In the late 1980s, over one - third of college - age men and women (35.2 percent in 1989) succeeded in entering and attending institutions of higher education; those who failed faced dramatically reduced prospects for social and economic advancement. The number of students in higher education had risen from 100,000 in 1960 to 1.3 million in 1987, and the proportion of college - age students in higher - education institutions was second only to the United States.
The institutions of higher education included regular four - year colleges and universities, two - year junior vocational colleges, four - year teachers ' colleges, and graduate schools. The main drawback was that college graduates wanted careers that would bring them positions of leadership in society, but there simply were not enough positions to accommodate all graduates each year and many graduates were forced to accept lesser positions. Ambitious women especially were frustrated by traditional barriers of sex discrimination as well as the lack of positions.
The curriculum of most schools is structured around the content of the entrance examination.
With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at the country 's best universities, its institutional reputation and alumni networks are strong predictors of future job and career prospects. The top three universities in South Korea often referred to as ' SKY '' -- include Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. According to the influential Joongang Ilbo University Rankings, the top 10 universities in 2012 in South Korea were Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Yonsei University, Seoul National University, Sungkyunkwan University, Korea University, Sogang University, Kyung Hee University, Hanyang University, and Chung - Ang University.
The South Korean Ministry of Education also recognizes seven different types of institution at the higher education level of which include:
The South Korean government and universities desire to improve the international rankings of the domestic universities. Attempts by the South Korean government are being made to improve the situation. Another solution may be as simple as making it fundamentally more attractive for highly qualified foreign professors and researchers to come to work and more importantly to stay in South Korea. All in all, the South Korean Ministry of Education hopes to remedy the problem via the ' National Project Toward Building World Class Universities '. The project is designed to attract highly qualified foreign professors and researchers to South Korean universities to improve their international rankings.
South Korean university education often continues traditions remaining from the medieval Korean civil service examinations which entitled ambitious young men to join a clerical aristocracy. Until fairly recently many South Korean university students perceived the difficult and unpleasant entrance examination to be an end in itself, with the four years after treated as a reward. Thus South Korean universities were largely lacking in rigor with many students spending their time socializing, drinking, and dating after years of such activities being discouraged. In the past decade, however, due to South Korea 's increasing globalization and inflows of foreign faculty, work expectations are more closely resembling western universities and plagiarism, once openly tolerated, is becoming stigmatized. Rural and lower - tier universities, however, still in many cases function as degree factories.
A network of Meister Schools has been developed to revamp South Korea 's vocational education system that is specifically designed to prepare youths to work in high - skilled manufacturing jobs and other fields. The schools are based on the German - style Meister schools, to teach bright youngsters to become masters of a technical trade. Meister schools were set up to tackle the nations high youth unemployment rate as millions of young South Korean university graduates remain idle instead of taking up a trade while managers of small and medium businesses complain of skilled trade shortages. Many of these Meister schools offer a wide range of trades and technical disciplines that offer near guarantee of employment to graduates with an industry - supported curriculum design, with focus on developing skills required by various trades. The government of South Korea has taken initiatives to improve the perception of vocational training and combat the negative stigma attached to manual and technical work. In addition, vocational streams have been integrated with academic streams to allow a seamless transition to universities in order to allow further advancement if a young South Korean chooses to pursue higher education. Meister schools offer apprenticeship based training as an alternative beyond the traditional university takes place at vocational high schools, community and polytechnic colleges. Meister schools also offer employment supportive systems for specialized Meister high school students. The South Korean government has established an "Employment First, College Later '' philosophy whereas after graduation students are encouraged to seek employment first before making plans for university. With changing demands in the Information Age workforce, global forecasts show that by 2030, the demand for vocational skills will increase in contrast to the declining demand for unskilled labor largely due to technological advances. In 2010, the Meister schools chose a total of 3,600 students for technical education and apprenticeships so that they can develop expertise in fields such as shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, semiconductor manufacturing and medical equipment. Graduates of Meister high schools have been successful in the job market and are flooded with full salary job offers from companies. Boosting employment for young people through high quality vocational education has become a top priority for the Park administration, since youth unemployment is roughly three times higher than the national average.
Graduates from vocational high schools have been successful in navigating through South Korea 's highly competitive and sluggish job market. Many graduates both quantitatively and qualitatively found more employment opportunities in a number of industry sectors across the South Korean economy. Despite promising employment prospects and good pay offered by vocational education that rival the income of many university graduates, negative social attitudes and prejudice towards technicians and vocational high school students are stigmatized, treated unfairly and are still looked down upon. There were also concerns about discrimination against people with lower educational backgrounds, a long - standing tendency of South Korean employers. The negative social stigma associated with vocational careers and not having a university degree also continues to remain deep rooted in South Korean society.
The Ministry of Education has been responsible for South Korean education since 25 February 2013. Its name was The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (often abbreviated into "the Ministry of Education '') since 25 February 2008 to 24 February 2013. The former body, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, was named by the former Minister of Education, who enhanced its function in 2001 because the administration of Kim Dae - jung considered education and human resources development as a matter of the highest priority. As a result of the reform, it began to cover the whole field of human resource development and the minister of education was appointed to the Vice Prime Minister. In 2008, the name was changed into the present one after the Lee Myeong Bak administration annexed the former Ministry of Science and Technology to the Education ministry. Like other ministers, the Minister of Education, Science and Technology is appointed by the president. They are mainly chosen from candidates who have an academic background and often resign in a fairly short term (around one year). (Ministry of Education has no more work on science and technology because President Park restorated the Ministry works for science and technology)
Although primary - and secondary - school teachers traditionally enjoyed high status, they often were overworked and underpaid during the late 1980s. Salaries were less than those for many other white - collar professions and even some blue - collar jobs. High school teachers, particularly those in the cities, however, received sizable gifts from parents seeking attention for their children, but teaching hours were long and classes crowded (the average class contained around fifty to sixty students).
In May 1989, teachers established an independent union, the Korean Teachers Union (KTU -- 전국 교원 노동 조합 (전교조), Jeongyojo). Their aims included improving working conditions and reforming a school system that they regarded as overly controlled by the Ministry of Education. Although the government promised large increases in allocations for teachers ' salaries and facilities, it refused to give the union legal status. Because teachers were civil servants, the government claimed they did not have the right to strike and, even if they did have the right to strike, unionization would undermine the status of teachers as "role models '' for young Koreans. The government also accused the union of spreading subversive, leftist propaganda that was sympathetic to the communist regime in North Korea.
According to a report in The Wall Street Journal Asia, the union claimed support from 82 percent of all teachers. The controversy was viewed as representing a major crisis for South Korean education because a large number of teachers (1,500 by November 1989) had been dismissed, violence among union supporters, opponents, and police had occurred at several locations, and class disruptions had caused anxieties for families of students preparing for the college entrance examinations. The union 's challenge to the Ministry of Education 's control of the system and the charges of subversion had made compromise seem a very remote possibility at the start 1990.
South Korea still has issues with North Korea after the Korean War. This has contributed to South Korea 's confrontational stance against North Korea in the education field. For instance, on July 7, 2011, the National Intelligence Service was criticized for the search and seizure of a civilian think tank, Korea Higher Education Research Institution (한국 대학 교육 연구소). This incident was carried out through a warrant to investigate an alleged South Korean spy who followed an instruction from North Korea with a purpose of instigating university student rallies to stop the ongoing tuition hike in South Korea.
English is taught as a required subject from the third year of elementary school up to high school, as well as in most universities, with the goal of performing well on the TOEIC and TOEFL, which are tests of reading, listening and grammar - based English. For students who achieve high scores, there is also a speaking evaluation.
Because of large class sizes and other factors in public schools, many parents pay to send their children to private English - language schools in the afternoon or evening. Usually different private English - language schools specialize in teaching elementary school students or in middle and high school students. The most ambitious parents send their children to kindergartens that utilize English exclusively in the classroom. Many children also live abroad for anywhere from a few months to several years to learn English. Sometimes, a Korean mother and her children will move to an English - speaking country for an extended period of time to enhance the children 's English ability. In these cases, the father left in Korea is known as a gireogi appa (Korean: 기러기 아빠), literally a "goose dad '' who must migrate to see his family.
There are more than 100,000 Korean students in the U.S. The increase of 10 percent every year helped Korea remain the top student - sending country in the U.S. for a second year, ahead of India and China. Korean students at Harvard University are the third most after Canadian and Chinese. In 2012, 154,000 South Korean students were pursuing degrees at overseas universities, with countries such as Japan, Canada, the United States, and Australia as top destinations.
Korean English classes focus on vocabulary, grammar, and reading. Academies tend to include conversation, and some offer debate and presentation.
Due to recent curriculum changes, the education system in Korea is now placing a greater emphasis on English verbal abilities rather than grammatical skills. Universities require all first year students to take an English conversation class in their first year and some universities require students to take conversational English classes throughout the entirety of their university life. According to a 2003 survey conducted by the Hong Kong - based Political and Economic Risk Consultancy, despite being one of the countries in Asia that spends the most money on English - language education, South Korea ranks the lowest among 12 Asian countries in English ability.
English as a subject discipline, that is, the study of linguistics, literature, composition / rhetoric, or pedagogy is uncommon except in top - tier or graduate programs in Korea. As a result, despite efforts to recruit foreign faculty in Korean universities, opportunities for tenure are fewer and professorial privileges and salaries are lower than for foreigners contracted to teach major disciplinary courses in English (content - based instruction).
South Korea 's scarcity of natural resources is often cited as a reason for the rigorousness and fierce competition of its school systems; the academic pressure on its students is arguably the largest in the world. In an article entitled "An Assault Upon Our Children, '' Se - Woong Koo wrote that "the system 's dark side casts a long shadow. Dominated by tiger moms, cram schools and highly authoritarian teachers, South Korean education produces ranks of overachieving students who pay a stiff price in health and happiness. The entire program amounts to child abuse. It should be reformed and restructured without delay. '' In a response to the article, educator Diane Ravitch warned against modeling an educational system in which children "exist either to glorify the family or to build the national economy. '' She argued furthermore that the happiness of South Korean children has been sacrificed, and likened the country 's students to "cogs in a national economic machine ''. A 2014 poll found that over half of South Korean teenagers have suicidal thoughts, with over 40 % of respondents reporting that school pressure and future uncertainty dismayed them the most. Furthermore, suicide is currently the leading cause of death among South Korean youth.
The South Korean political system has a strong academic elitism. Conservative politician Jeon Yeo - ok openly opposed the nomination of the former president Roh Moo - hyun who did not graduate from a higher level institution, but passed the state - run judicial examinations.
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what is the difference between magnetite and lodestone | Lodestone - wikipedia
A lodestone is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite. They are naturally occurring magnets, which can attract iron. The property of magnetism was first discovered in antiquity through lodestones. Pieces of lodestone, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses, and their importance to early navigation is indicated by the name lodestone, which in Middle English means ' course stone ' or ' leading stone ', from the now - obsolete meaning of lode as ' journey, way '.
Lodestone is one of only a very few minerals that is found naturally magnetized. Magnetite is black or brownish - black, with a metallic luster, a Mohs hardness of 5.5 -- 6.5 and a black streak.
The process by which lodestone is created has long been an open question in geology. Only a small amount of the magnetite on the Earth is found magnetized as lodestone. Ordinary magnetite is attracted to a magnetic field like iron and steel is, but does not tend to become magnetized itself; it has too low a magnetic coercivity (resistance to demagnetization) to stay magnetized for long. Microscopic examination of lodestones has found them to be made of magnetite (Fe O) with inclusions of maghemite (cubic Fe O), often with impurity metal ions of titanium, aluminium, and manganese. This inhomogeneous crystalline structure gives this variety of magnetite sufficient coercivity to remain magnetized and thus be a permanent magnet.
The other question is how lodestones get magnetized. The Earth 's magnetic field at 0.5 gauss is too weak to magnetize a lodestone by itself. The leading theory is that lodestones are magnetized by the strong magnetic fields surrounding lightning bolts. This is supported by the observation that they are mostly found near the surface of the Earth, rather than buried at great depth.
One of the earliest known references to lodestone 's magnetic properties was made by 6th century BC Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, whom the ancient Greeks credited with discovering lodestone 's attraction to iron and other lodestones. The name magnet may come from lodestones found in Magnesia, Anatolia.
The earliest Chinese literary reference to magnetism occurs in the 4th - century BC Book of the Devil Valley Master (Guiguzi). In the chronicle Lüshi Chunqiu, from the 2nd century BC, it is explicitly stated that "the lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it. '' The earliest mention of a needle 's attraction appears in a work composed between 20 and 100 AD, the Lunheng (Balanced Inquiries): "A lodestone attracts a needle. '' In the 2nd century BC, Chinese geomancers were experimenting with the magnetic properties of lodestone to make a "south - pointing spoon '' for divination. When it is placed on a smooth bronze plate, the spoon would invariably rotate to a north - south axis.
Based on his discovery of an Olmec artifact (a shaped and grooved magnetic bar) in North America, astronomer John Carlson suggests that lodestone may have been used by the Olmec more than a thousand years prior to the Chinese discovery. Carlson speculates that the Olmecs, for astrological or geomantic purposes, used similar artifacts as a directional device, or to orient their temples, the dwellings of the living, or the interments of the dead. Detailed analysis of the Olmec artifact revealed that the "bar '' was composed of hematite with titanium lamellae of Fe Ti O that accounted for the anomalous remanent magnetism of the artifact.
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what is the prize of uefa champions league | UEFA Champions League - wikipedia
The UEFA Champions League is an annual continental club football competition organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and contested by top - division European clubs. It is one of the most prestigious tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in European football, played by the national league champions (and, for some nations, one or more runners - up) of the strongest UEFA national associations. The UEFA Champions League final is the most watched annual sporting event worldwide. The final of the 2012 -- 13 tournament had the highest TV ratings to date, drawing 360 million television viewers.
Introduced in 1992, the competition replaced the European Champion Clubs ' Cup, or simply European Cup, which had run since 1955, adding a group stage to the competition and allowing multiple entrants from certain countries. The pre-1992 competition was initially a straight knockout tournament open only to the champion club of each country. During the 1990s, the format was expanded, incorporating a round - robin group stage to include clubs that finished runner - up of some nations ' top - level league. While most of Europe 's national leagues can still only enter their national league champion, Europe 's strongest national leagues now provide up to five teams for the competition. Clubs that finish next - in - line in each nation 's top level league, having not qualified for the UEFA Champions League competition, are eligible for the next - level UEFA Europa League competition.
In its present format, the UEFA Champions League begins in late June with four knockout qualifying rounds and a play - off round. The 6 surviving teams enter the group stage, joining 26 teams qualified in advance. The 32 teams are drawn into eight groups of four teams and play each other in a double round - robin system. The eight group winners and eight runners - up proceed to the knockout phase that culminates with the final match in May. The winner of the UEFA Champions League qualifies for the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup.
Real Madrid is the most successful club in the competition 's history, having won the tournament 13 times, including its first five seasons. Spanish clubs have accumulated the highest number of victories (18 wins), followed by England and Italy (12 wins apiece). England has the largest number of winning teams, with five clubs having won the title. The competition has been won by 22 clubs, 12 of which have won it more than once. The reigning champions are Real Madrid, who secured their 13th title in the competition after defeating Liverpool 3 -- 1 in the 2018 final. Thus, they became the first team in the UEFA Champions League era to win the title for three years in a row.
The first pan-European tournament was the Challenge Cup, a competition between clubs in the Austro - Hungarian Empire. The Mitropa Cup, a competition modelled after the Challenge Cup, was created in 1927, an idea of Austrian Hugo Meisl, and played between Central European clubs. In 1930, the Coupe des Nations (French: Nations Cup), the first attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe, was played and organised by Swiss club Servette. Held in Geneva, it brought together ten champions from across the continent. The tournament was won by Újpest of Hungary. Latin European nations came together to form the Latin Cup in 1949. After receiving reports from his journalists over the highly successful Campeonato Sudamericano de Campeones of 1948, Gabriel Hanot, editor of L'Équipe, began proposing the creation of a continent - wide tournament. After Stan Cullis declared Wolverhampton Wanderers "Champions of the World '' following a successful run of friendlies in the 1950s, in particular a 3 -- 2 friendly victory against Budapest Honvéd, Hanot finally managed to convince UEFA to put into practice such a tournament. It was conceived in Paris in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs ' Cup.
The first edition of the European Cup took place during the 1955 -- 56 season. Sixteen teams participated: Milan (Italy), AGF Aarhus (Denmark), Anderlecht (Belgium), Djurgården (Sweden), Gwardia Warszawa (Poland), Hibernian (Scotland), Partizan (Yugoslavia), PSV Eindhoven (Netherlands), Rapid Wien (Austria), Real Madrid (Spain), Rot - Weiss Essen (West Germany), Saarbrücken (Saar), Servette (Switzerland), Sporting CP (Portugal), Stade de Reims (France), and Vörös Lobogó (Hungary). The first European Cup match took place on 4 September 1955, and ended in a 3 -- 3 draw between Sporting CP and Partizan. The first goal in European Cup history was scored by João Baptista Martins of Sporting CP. The inaugural final took place at the Parc des Princes between Stade de Reims and Real Madrid. The Spanish squad came back from behind to win 4 -- 3 thanks to goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Marquitos, as well as two goals from Héctor Rial.
Real Madrid successfully defended the trophy next season in their home stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, against Fiorentina. After a scoreless first half, Real Madrid scored twice in six minutes to defeat the Italians. In 1958, Milan failed to capitalise after going ahead on the scoreline twice, only for Real Madrid to equalise. The final held in Heysel Stadium went to extra time where Francisco Gento scored the game - winning goal to allow Real Madrid to retain the title for the third consecutive season. In a rematch of the first final, Real Madrid faced Stade Reims at the Neckarstadion for the 1958 -- 59 season final, easily winning 2 -- 0. West German side Eintracht Frankfurt became the first non-Latin team to reach the European Cup final. The 1959 -- 60 season finale still holds the record for the most goals scored, but the record is overshadowed by the 7 -- 3 thrashing Eintracht Frankfurt received in Hampden Park, courtesy of four goals by Ferenc Puskás and a hat - trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano. This was Real Madrid 's fifth consecutive title, a record that still stands today.
Real Madrid 's reign ended in the 1960 -- 61 season when bitter rivals Barcelona dethroned them in the first round. Barcelona themselves, however, would be defeated in the final by Portuguese side Benfica 3 -- 2 at Wankdorf Stadium. Reinforced by Eusébio, Benfica defeated Real Madrid 5 -- 3 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam and kept the title for a second, consecutive season. Benfica wanted to repeat Real Madrid 's successful run of the 1950s after reaching the showpiece event of the 1962 -- 63 European Cup, but a brace from Brazilian - Italian José Altafini at the Wembley Stadium gave the spoils to Milan, making the trophy leave the Iberian Peninsula for the first time ever. Internazionale beat an ageing - Real Madrid 3 -- 1 in the Ernst - Happel - Stadion to win the 1963 -- 64 season and replicate their local - rival 's success. The title stayed in the city of Milan for the third year in a row after Inter beat Benfica 1 -- 0 at their home ground, the San Siro.
-- Zinedine Zidane.
The UEFA Champions League anthem, officially titled simply as "Champions League '', was written by Tony Britten, and is an adaptation of George Frideric Handel 's Zadok the Priest (one of his Coronation Anthems). UEFA commissioned Britten in 1992 to arrange an anthem, and the piece was performed by London 's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and sung by the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. UEFA 's official website states, "the anthem is now almost as iconic as the trophy. ''
The chorus contains the three official languages used by UEFA: English, German, and French. The climactic moment is set to the exclamations ' Die Meister! Die Besten! Les Grandes Équipes! The Champions! '. The anthem 's chorus is played before each UEFA Champions League game as the two teams are lined up, as well as at the beginning and end of television broadcasts of the matches. In addition to the anthem, there is also entrance music, which contains parts of the anthem itself, which is played as teams enter the field. The complete anthem is about three minutes long, and has two short verses and the chorus.
Special vocal versions have been performed live at the Champions League Final with lyrics in other languages, changing over to the host country 's language for the chorus. These versions were performed by Andrea Bocelli (Italian) (Rome 2009, Milan 2016 and Cardiff 2017), Juan Diego Flores (Spanish) (Madrid 2010), All Angels (Wembley 2011), Jonas Kaufmann and David Garrett (Munich 2012), and Mariza (Lisbon 2014). In the 2013 final at Wembley Stadium, the chorus was played twice. In Kiev 2018, the instrumental version of the chorus was played by 2Cellos. The anthem has been released commercially in its original version on iTunes and Spotify with the title of Champions League Theme. In 2018, composer Hans Zimmer remixed the anthem with rapper Vince Staples for EA Sports ' FIFA video game FIFA 19, with it also featuring in the game 's reveal trailer.
In 1991, UEFA asked its commercial partner, Television Event and Media Marketing (TEAM), to help "brand '' the Champions League. This resulted in the anthem, "house colours '' of black and white or silver and a logo, and the "starball ''. The starball was created by Design Bridge, a London - based firm selected by TEAM after a competition. TEAM gives particular attention to detail in how the colours and starball are depicted at matches. According to TEAM, "Irrespective of whether you are a spectator in Moscow or Milan, you will always see the same stadium dressing materials, the same opening ceremony featuring the ' starball ' centre circle ceremony, and hear the same UEFA Champions League Anthem ''. Based on research it conducted, TEAM concluded that by 1999, "the starball logo had achieved a recognition rate of 94 percent among fans ''.
Since 2009 -- 10 season, the UEFA Champions League begins with a double round - robin group stage of 32 teams, which is preceded by two qualification ' streams ' for teams that do not receive direct entry to the tournament proper. The two streams are divided between teams qualified by virtue of being league champions, and those qualified by virtue of finishing 2nd -- 4th in their national championship.
The number of teams that each association enters into the UEFA Champions League is based upon the UEFA coefficients of the member associations. These coefficients are generated by the results of clubs representing each association during the previous five Champions League and UEFA Europa League / UEFA Cup seasons. The higher an association 's coefficient, the more teams represent the association in the Champions League, and the fewer qualification rounds the association 's teams must compete in.
Five of the remaining ten qualifying places are granted to the winners of a four - round qualifying tournament between the remaining 40 or 39 national champions, within which those champions from associations with higher coefficients receive byes to later rounds. The other five are granted to the winners of a two - round qualifying tournament between the 15 clubs from the associations ranked 1 through 15, which have qualified based upon finishing second, third, or fourth in their respective national league.
In addition to sporting criteria, any club must be licensed by its national association to participate in the Champions League. To obtain a license, the club must meet certain stadium, infrastructure, and finance requirements.
In 2005 -- 06 season, Liverpool and Artmedia Bratislava became the first teams to reach the Champions League group stage after playing in all three qualifying rounds. In 2008 -- 09 season, both BATE Borisov and Anorthosis Famagusta achieved the same feat. Real Madrid holds the record for the most consecutive appearances in the group stage, having qualified 21 times in a row (1997 -- present). They are followed by Arsenal on 19 (1998 -- 2016) and Manchester United on 18 (1996 -- 2013).
Between 2003 and 2008, no differentiation was made between champions and non-champions in qualification. The 16 top ranked teams spread across the biggest domestic leagues qualified directly for the tournament group stage. Prior to this, three preliminary knockout qualifying rounds whittled down the remaining teams, with teams starting in different rounds.
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that, if the Champions League winner fell outside of its domestic league 's top four, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth - placed team in the league. Until 2015 -- 16, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. In May 2012, Tottenham Hotspur finished fourth in the 2011 -- 12 Premier League, two places ahead of Chelsea, but failed to qualify for the 2012 -- 13 Champions League, after Chelsea won the 2012 final. Tottenham were demoted to the 2012 -- 13 UEFA Europa League.
In May 2013, it was decided that, starting from the 2015 -- 16 season (and continuing at least for the three - year cycle until the 2017 -- 18 season), the winners of the previous season 's UEFA Europa League would qualify for the UEFA Champions League, entering at least the play - off round, and entering the group stage if the berth reserved for the Champions League title holders was not used. The previous limit of a maximum of four teams per association was increased from four to five, meaning that a fourth - placed team from one of the top three ranked associations would only have to be moved to the Europa League if both the Champions League and Europa League winners came from that association and both finished outside the top four of their domestic league.
The top three leagues in Europe are allowed to enter four teams into the Champions League. Michel Platini, the UEFA president, had proposed taking one place from the top three leagues and allocating it to that nation 's cup winners. This proposal was rejected in a vote at a UEFA Strategy Council meeting. In the same meeting, however, it was agreed that the third - placed team in the top three leagues would receive automatic qualification for the group stage, rather than entry into the third qualifying round, while the fourth - placed team would enter the play - off round for non-champions, guaranteeing an opponent from one of the top 15 leagues in Europe. This was part of Platini 's plan to increase the number of teams qualifying directly into the group stage, while simultaneously increasing the number of teams from lower - ranked nations in the group stage.
In 2012, Arsène Wenger referred to qualifying for the Champion 's League by finishing in the top four places in the English Premier League as the "4th Place Trophy ''. The phrase was coined after a pre-match conference when he was questioned about Arsenal 's lack of a trophy after exiting the FA Cup. He said "The first trophy is to finish in the top four ''. At Arsenal 's 2012 AGM, Wenger was also quoted as saying: "For me there are five trophies every season: Premier League, Champions League, the third is to qualify for the Champions League... ''
The tournament proper begins with a group stage of 32 teams, divided into eight groups. Seeding is used whilst making the draw for this stage, whilst teams from the same country may not be drawn into groups together. Each team meets the others in its group home and away in a round - robin format. The winning team and the runners - up from each group then progress to the next round. The third - placed team enters the UEFA Europa League.
For this stage, the winning team from one group plays against the runners - up from another group, and teams from the same association may not be drawn against each other. From the quarter - finals onwards, the draw is entirely random, without association protection. The tournament uses the away goals rule: if the aggregate score of the two games is tied, then the team who scored more goals at their opponent 's stadium advances.
The group stage is played from September to December, whilst the knock - out stage starts in February. The knock - out ties are played in a two - legged format, with the exception of the final. This is typically held in the final two weeks of May.
Starting with the 2015 -- 16 edition, the holders of the UEFA Europa League enter the Champions League, initially at the playoff round. The maximum number of teams that an association can field in the tournament has also been increased from four to five.
In August 2016, UEFA announced changes in the access list of the tournament, driven to avoid the creation of a European Super League. The top four clubs from the four top - ranked national associations will receive guaranteed qualification automatically for the group stage. The Europa League holders also will automatically qualify for the group stage. However, the plan passed by UEFA caused outrage among smaller associations. After his election as the new UEFA president, Aleksander Čeferin said that he would review the new system. In December 2016, UEFA confirmed the plan will go on.
The UEFA Refereeing Unit is broken down into five experience - based categories. A referee is initially placed into Category 4 with the exception of referees from France, Germany, England, Italy, or Spain. Referees from these five countries are typically comfortable with top professional matches and are therefore directly placed into Category 3. Each referee 's performance is observed and evaluated after every match; his category may be revised twice per season, but a referee can not be promoted directly from Category 3 to the Elite Category.
In co-operation with the UEFA Refereeing Unit, the UEFA Referee Committee is responsible for appointing referees to matches. Referees are appointed based on previous matches, marks, performances, and fitness levels. To discourage bias, the Champions League takes nationality into account. No referee may be of the same origins as any club in his or her respecting groups. Referee appointments, suggested by the UEFA Refereeing Unit, are sent to the UEFA Referee Committee to be discussed and / or revised. After a consensus is made, the name of the appointed referee remains confidential up to two days before the match for the purpose of minimising public influence.
Since 1990, a UEFA international referee can not exceed the age of 45 years. After turning 45, a referee must step down at the end of his season. The age limit was established to ensure an elite level of fitness. Today, UEFA Champions League referees are required to pass a fitness test even to be considered at the international level.
Each year, the winning team is presented with the European Champion Clubs ' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since 1967. Any team that wins the Champions League three years in a row or five times overall wins the right to retain a full - sized replica of the trophy (UEFA retains the original at all times). Six clubs have earned this honour: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan, Liverpool and Barcelona. Since then instead the club which wins three years in a row or five overall receives a conmemorative badge to wear permanently on their uniform.
The current trophy is 74 cm (29 in) tall and made of silver, weighing 11 kg (24 lb). It was designed by Jörg Stadelmann, a jeweller from Bern, Switzerland, after the original was given to Real Madrid in 1966 in recognition of their six titles to date, and cost 10,000 Swiss francs.
As of the 2012 -- 13 season, 40 gold medals are presented to the Champions League winners, and 40 silver medals to the runners - up.
As of 2018 -- 19, the fixed amount of prize money paid to the clubs is as follows:
This means that at best, a club can earn € 82,450,000 of prize money under this structure, not counting shares of the qualifying rounds, play - off round and / or the market pool.
A large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to the "market pool '', the distribution of which is determined by the value of the television market in each country. For the 2014 -- 15 season, Juventus, who were the runners - up, earned nearly € 89.1 million in total, of which € 30.9 million was prize money, compared with the € 61.0 million earned by Barcelona, who won the tournament and were awarded € 36.4 million in prize money.
Like the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations, in contrast to the single main sponsor typically found in national top - flight leagues. When the Champions League was created in 1992, it was decided that a maximum of eight companies should be allowed to sponsor the event, with each corporation being allocated four advertising boards around the perimeter of the pitch, as well as logo placement at pre - and post-match interviews and a certain number of tickets to each match. This, combined with a deal to ensure tournament sponsors were given priority on television advertisements during matches, ensured that each of the tournament 's main sponsors was given maximum exposure.
From the 2012 -- 13 knockout phase, UEFA used LED advertising hoardings installed in knock - out participant stadiums, including the final stage. From the 2015 -- 16 season onwards, UEFA has used such hoardings from the play - off round until the final.
The tournament 's current main sponsors are:
Adidas is a secondary sponsor and supplies the official match ball, the Adidas Finale, and referee uniform. Hublot is also a secondary sponsor as the official fourth official board of the competition.
Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising. However, only one sponsorship is permitted per jersey in addition to that of the kit manufacturer. Exceptions are made for non-profit organisations, which can feature on the front of the shirt, incorporated with the main sponsor or in place of it; or on the back, either below the squad number or on the collar area.
If clubs play a match in a country where the relevant sponsorship category is restricted (such as France 's alcohol advertising restriction), then they must remove that logo from their jerseys. For example, when Rangers played French sides Auxerre and Strasbourg in the 1996 -- 97 Champions League and the UEFA Cup, respectively, Rangers players wore the logo of Center Parcs instead of McEwan 's Lager (both companies at the time were subsidiaries of Scottish & Newcastle).
The competition attracts an extensive television audience, not just in Europe, but throughout the world. The final of the tournament has been, in recent years, the most - watched annual sporting event in the world. The 2013 final was the most watched final to date, drawing 360 million television viewers.
The table below does not include goals scored in the qualification stage of the competition.
The table below does not include appearances made in the qualification stage of the competition. The table below does include appearances made in the European Champion Clubs ' Cup.
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explain why the cyclone hit australia from the east | Australian east coast low - Wikipedia
Australian east coast lows (known locally as east coast lows and sometimes as east coast cyclones) are extratropical cyclones. The most intense of these systems have many of the characteristics of subtropical cyclones. They develop between 25 _̊ south and 40 _̊ south and within 5 _̊ of the Australian coastline, typically during the winter months. Each year there are about ten "significant impact '' maritime lows.
Prior to the introduction of satellite imagery in the early 1960s, many east coast lows were classified as tropical cyclones. These storms which mostly affect the south east coast should not be confused with Australian region tropical cyclones which typically affect the northern half of the continent.
Explosive cyclogenesis is seen on average just once per year, but these storms cause significant wind and flood damage when they occur. Australian east coast cyclones vary in size from mesoscale (approximately 10 -- 100 km (6 -- 62 mi)) to synoptic scale (approximately 100 -- 1,000 km (62 -- 621 mi)).
Australian east coast cyclones, although variable in size and intensity, are typically characterised by widespread heavy rainfall. These storms usually occur along the subtropical east coast of Australia from Gladstone in Queensland to the Victoria / New South Wales border, and often affect large populated cities such as Sydney and Brisbane, between which over one - third of the Australian population resides. Rain associated damages attributed to east coast cyclones are estimated in millions to tens of million dollars annually and are a major contributor to the total weather - associated insurance losses for all of Australia. Seven per cent of all major Australian disasters since 1967 can be directly attributed to east coast cyclones. Australian east coast lows often intensify rapidly overnight making them one of the more dangerous weather systems to affect the New South Wales coast.
The incidence of these types of storms can be seen to fluctuate quite widely from one year to the next, with none in some years and the highest incidence being twelve in 1978 / 79. Another feature of east coast low development is the tendency for clustering of events when conditions remain favourable. For example, near Brisbane, almost one third of events occur within 20 days of a preceding event.
Correlations of east coast cyclones with the interannual differences of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) indicate a strong preference for these storms to form just after a large swing from negative to positive Southern Oscillation index values and especially between swings from negative SOI the year before and positive SOI the year after. This suggests a preference for formation of east coast cyclones between extreme events of the Southern Oscillation Index.
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akagami no shirayuki hime season 2 ep 1 | Snow White with the Red hair - wikipedia
Snow White with the Red Hair (赤 髪 の 白雪姫, Akagami no Shirayukihime) is a Japanese shōjo manga written by Sorata Akizuki. It was serialized in Hakusensha 's bi-monthly shōjo manga magazine, LaLa DX but has since moved to monthly LaLa and is published in collected volumes by Hakusensha. An anime adaptation produced by Warner Bros., Hakusensha, Showgate, The Klockworx Co. Ltd., Hakuhodo DY Media Partners, Docomo Anime Store, BS Fuji and Bones aired the first half of the season in Japan between July 6, 2015 and September 21, 2015. The second half of the season aired in Japan between January 11, 2016 and March 28, 2016.
Shirayuki is a normal herbalist in the kingdom of Tanbarun with one unique feature: her beautiful red hair. Due to her unusual hair color, Shirayuki was raised to always be careful of showing her hair in new surroundings and grew to be an independent young woman. However, her hair gets her noticed by Prince Raj, who orders her to become his concubine. Refusing his orders, she cuts her hair and leaves it behind as part of what he wanted and escapes to the neighboring kingdom of Clarines. On her way there, she meets and befriends Prince Zen and his two aides Mitsuhide and Kiki. When Zen is poisoned by an apple meant for Shirayuki gifted by Raj, Shirayuki successfully obtains the antidote and decides to accompany the trio to Clarines. Shortly thereafter, Shirayuki passes an exam for a position to train in the palace as a herbalist. Shirayuki and her friends find a place in Clarines and carries out her duties as a court herbalist. Over the course of the story, Zen and Shirayuki begin to fall in love with each other and eventually begin a romantic relationship, in spite of opposition due to their difference in social status.
A pirate organization that is known for human trafficking. Kazuki was once a member, but left the organization after being traded to a rich nobleman. Kazuki and Shirayuki were kidnapped by them to provoke the Mountain Lions.
The manga was serialized in Hakusensha 's monthly shōjo manga magazine, LaLa DX in 2006 but has since moved to LaLa and is published in collected volumes by Hakusensha. As of April 2017, 17 volumes have been published in Japan. It has been licensed in France by Kana and in Taiwan by Sharp Point Press. The eleventh volume ranked 21st in Oricon 's weekly manga ranking for the week of January 6.
The first volume was released in Chinese on June 16, 2008 by Sharp Point Press.
An anime television series adaptation was announced in 2015 April issue of Hakusensha 's LaLa magazine. The anime adaptation is produced by Warner Bros., Hakusensha, Showgate, The Klockworx Co. Ltd., Hakuhodo DY Media Partners, Docomo Anime Store, BS Fuji and Bones, which handled the animation. The anime was directed by Masahiro Andō and the script was written by Deko Akao with character designs by Kumiko Takahashi. The opening theme is "Yasashii Kibou '' (やさしい 希望, lit. "Gentle Hope '') by Saori Hayami and the ending theme is "Kizuna ni Nosete '' (絆 に のせ て) by Eyelis. Funimation has licensed the series for online streaming in North America. AnimeLab has secured streaming rights in Australia & New Zealand. An Original Anime DVD (OAD) bundled with limited edition of 15th volume of the original manga. The 30 - minute OAD features the same cast and staff with the anime television series. It adapts three chapters from the original manga (chapter 41, special chapter from volume 7, and special chapter from volume 11), and will not air as part of the anime television series. The OAD ending theme is "Ginsekai '' (銀 世界, lit. Snowy World) by Eyelis.
The second season of the anime television series aired in Japan from January 11, 2016 to March 28, 2016. The opening theme is "Sono Koe ga Chizu ni Naru '' (その 声 が 地図 に なる, lit. "The Voice Will Become A Map '') by Saori Hayami and Ending theme is "Page ~ Kimi to Tsudzuru Monogatari ~ '' (ページ 〜 君 と 綴る 物語 〜, lit. Page - The Story To Write With You) by Eyelis.
Izana confronts Zen and Shirayuki about the true nature of their relationship, causing Shirayuki to doubt her place beside Zen. At a tea party for Raji, he blurts out a lie that Shirayuki and Zen are engaged to cover up his embarrassment of previously wanting her as his concubine, causing gossip to spread around the castle and people to notice her more. It does n't help that her red hair makes her stand out either.
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where did the name aston villa come from | Aston Villa F.C. - Wikipedia
Aston Villa Football Club (/ ˈæstən ˈvɪlə /; nicknamed Villa, The Villa, The Villans and The Lions) is a professional football club in Aston, Birmingham, that plays in the Championship, the second level of English football. Founded in 1874, they have played at their current home ground, Villa Park, since 1897. Aston Villa were one of the founder members of the Football League in 1888 and of the Premier League in 1992.
Aston Villa are one of only five English clubs to be crowned champions of Europe, having won the 1981 -- 82 European Cup. They have also won the First Division Championship seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the Football League Cup five times, and the UEFA Super Cup once.
They have a fierce local rivalry with Birmingham City and the Second City derby between the sides has been played since 1879. The club 's traditional kit colours are claret shirts with sky blue sleeves, white shorts and sky blue socks. Their traditional badge is of a rampant lion.
The club is owned by Recon Group Limited, a company chaired by Chinese businessman Tony Xia, and managed by Steve Bruce.
Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874, by members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in Handsworth which is now part of Birmingham. The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes, Frederick Matthews, Walter Price and William Scattergood. Aston Villa 's first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team. As a condition of the match, the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under Rugby rules and the second half under Association rules. After moving to the Wellington Road ground in 1876, Villa soon established themselves as one of the best teams in the Midlands, winning their first honour, the Birmingham Senior Cup in 1880, under the captaincy of Scotsman George Ramsay.
The club won their first FA Cup in 1887 with captain Archie Hunter becoming one of the game 's first household names. Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors, William McGregor being the league 's founder. Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era, winning no fewer than five League titles and three FA Cups by the end of Queen Victoria 's reign. In 1897, the year Villa won The Double, they moved into their present home, the Aston Lower Grounds. Supporters coined the name "Villa Park ''; no official declaration listed the ground as Villa Park.
Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920, soon after though the club began a slow decline that led to Villa, at the time one of the most famous and successful clubs in world football, being relegated in 1936 for the first time to the Second Division. This was largely the result of a dismal defensive record: they conceded 110 goals in 42 games, 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an infamous 1 -- 7 defeat at Villa Park. Like all English clubs, Villa lost seven seasons to the Second World War, and that conflict brought several careers to a premature end. The team was rebuilt under the guidance of former player Alex Massie for the remainder of the 1940s. Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years came in the 1956 -- 57 season when another former Villa player, Eric Houghton led the club to a then record seventh FA Cup Final win, defeating the ' Busby Babes ' of Manchester United in the final. The team struggled in the league though and were relegated two seasons later, due in large part to complacency. However, under the stewardship of manager Joe Mercer Villa returned to the top - flight in 1960 as Second Division Champions. The following season Aston Villa became the first team to win the Football League Cup.
Mercer 's forced retirement from the club in 1964 signalled a period of deep turmoil. The most successful club in England was struggling to keep pace with changes in the modern game, with Villa being relegated for the third time, under manager Dick Taylor in 1967. The following season the fans called for the board to resign as Villa finished 16th in the Second Division. With mounting debts and Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two, the board sacked Tommy Cummings (the manager brought in to replace Taylor), and within weeks the entire board resigned under overwhelming pressure from fans. After much speculation, control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews, who also brought in Doug Ellis as chairman. However, new ownership could not prevent Villa being relegated to the Third Division for the first time at the end of the 1969 -- 70 season. However, Villa gradually began to recover under the management of former club captain Vic Crowe. In the 1971 -- 72 season they returned to the Second Division as Champions with a record 70 points. In 1974, Ron Saunders was appointed manager. His brand of no - nonsense man - management proved effective, with the club winning the League Cup the following season and, at the end of season 1974 -- 75, he had taken them back into the First Division and into Europe.
Villa were back among the elite as Saunders continued to mould a winning team. This culminated in a seventh top - flight league title in 1980 -- 81. To the surprise of commentators and fans, Saunders quit halfway through the 1981 -- 82 season, after falling out with the chairman, with Villa in the quarter final of the European Cup. He was replaced by his softly - spoken assistant manager Tony Barton who guided the club to a 1 -- 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam courtesy of a Peter Withe goal. The following season Villa were crowned European Super Cup winners, beating Barcelona in the final. This marked a pinnacle though and Villa 's fortunes declined sharply for most of the 1980s, culminating in relegation in 1987. This was followed by promotion the following year under Graham Taylor and a runners - up position in the First Division in the 1989 -- 90 season.
Villa were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992, and finished runners - up to Manchester United in the inaugural season. For the rest of the Nineties however Villa went through three different managers and their league positions were inconsistent, although they did win two League Cups and regularly achieved UEFA Cup qualification. Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 but lost 1 -- 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium. Again Villa 's league position continued to fluctuate under several different managers and things came to a head in the summer of 2006 when David O'Leary left in acrimony. After 23 years as chairman and single biggest shareholder (approximately 38 %), Doug Ellis finally decided to sell his stake in Aston Villa due to ill - health. After much speculation it was announced the club was to be bought by American businessman Randy Lerner, owner of NFL franchise the Cleveland Browns.
The arrival of a new owner in Lerner and of manager Martin O'Neill marked the start of a new period of optimism at Villa Park and sweeping changes occurred throughout the club including a new badge, a new kit sponsor and team changes in the summer of 2007. The first Cup final of the Lerner era came in 2010 when Villa were beaten 2 -- 1 in the League Cup Final. Villa made a second trip to Wembley in that season losing 3 -- 0 to Chelsea in the FA Cup semifinal. Just five days before the opening day of the 2010 -- 11 season, O'Neill resigned as manager, and after one year with Gérard Houllier in charge, Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish, despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment; this was the first time that a manager had moved directly between the two rivals. McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 -- 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place, and he was replaced by Paul Lambert. In February 2012, the club announced a financial loss of £ 53.9 million, and Lerner put the club up for sale three months later, with an estimated value of £ 200 million. With Lerner still on board, in the 2014 -- 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games, the lowest in Premier League history, and Lambert was sacked in February 2015. Tim Sherwood succeeded him, and steered the club away from relegation while also leading them to the 2015 FA Cup Final, but he was sacked in the 2015 -- 16 season, as was his successor Rémi Garde, in a campaign ended with Villa relegated for the first time since 1987.
In June 2016, Chinese businessman Tony Xia bought the club for £ 76 million. Roberto Di Matteo was appointed as the club 's new manager before the new season, and was sacked after 12 games, to be replaced by former Birmingham manager Steve Bruce.
The club colours are a claret shirt with sky blue sleeves, white shorts with claret and blue trim, and sky blue socks with claret and white trim. They were the original wearers of the claret and blue. Villa 's colours at the outset generally comprised plain shirts (white, grey or a shade of blue), with either white or black shorts. For a few years after that (1877 -- 79) the team wore several different kits from all white, blue and black, red and blue to plain green. By 1880, black jerseys with a red lion embroidered on the chest were introduced by William McGregor. This remained the first choice strip for six years. On Monday, 8 November 1886, an entry in the club 's official minute book states:
(i) Proposed and seconded that the colours be chocolate and sky blue shirts and that we order two dozen.
(ii) Proposed and seconded that Mr McGregor be requested to supply them at the lowest quotation.
The chocolate colour later became claret. Nobody is quite sure why claret and blue became the club 's adopted colours. Several other English football teams adopted their colours; clubs that wear claret and blue include West Ham United and Burnley.
A new badge was revealed in May 2007, for the 2007 -- 08 season and beyond. The new badge includes a star to represent the European Cup win in 1982, and has a light blue background behind Villa 's ' lion rampant '. The traditional motto "Prepared '' remains in the badge, and the name Aston Villa has been shortened to AVFC, FC having been omitted from the previous badge. The lion is now unified as opposed to fragmented lions of the past. Randy Lerner petitioned fans to help with the design of the new badge.
On 6 April 2016, the club confirmed that it would be using a new badge from the 2016 -- 17 season after consulting fan groups for suggestions. The lion in the new badge has claws added to it, and the word "Prepared '' was removed to increase the size of the lion and club initials in the badge.
Aston Villa forwent commercial kit sponsorship for the 2008 -- 09 and 2009 -- 10 seasons; instead advertising the charity Acorns Children 's Hospice, the first deal of its kind in Premier league history. The partnership continued until 2010 when a commercial sponsor replaced Acorns, with the hospice becoming the club 's Official Charity Partner. In 2014 -- 15, the Acorns name returned to Aston Villa 's home and away shirts, but only for children 's shirts re-affirming the club 's support for the children 's charity.
Since 2017 Villa 's shirt sponsors have been Unibet. Previous commercial sponsors have been Davenports (1982 -- 83), Mita (1983 -- 93), Müller (1993 -- 95), AST Computer (1995 -- 98), LDV (1998 -- 2000), NTL (2000 -- 02), Rover (2002 -- 04), DWS Investments (2004 -- 06), 32Red.com (2006 -- 08), FxPro (2010 -- 11), Genting Casinos (2011 -- 13), Dafabet (2013 -- 2015), and Intuit QuickBooks (2015 -- 2017). Since 2016, kit has been manufactured by Under Armour. Previous manufacturers have been Umbro (1972 -- 81, 1990 -- 93), le Coq Sportif (1981 -- 83), Henson (1983 -- 87), Hummel (1987 -- 90, 2004 -- 07), Asics (1993 -- 95), Reebok (1995 -- 2000), Diadora (2000 -- 04), Nike (2007 -- 12) and Macron (2012 -- 16).
Aston Villa 's current home venue is Villa Park, which is a UEFA 5 - star rated stadium, having previously played at Aston Park (1874 -- 1876) and Wellington Road (1876 -- 1897). Villa Park is the largest football stadium in the English Midlands, and the eighth largest stadium in England. It has hosted 16 England internationals at senior level, the first in 1899, and the most recent in 2005. Thus, it was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries. Villa Park is the most used stadium in FA Cup semi-final history, having hosted 55 semi-finals. The club have planning permission to extend the North Stand; this will involve the ' filling in ' of the corners to either side of the North Stand. If completed, the capacity of Villa Park will be increased to approximately 51,000.
The current training ground is located at Bodymoor Heath near Kingsbury in north Warwickshire, the site for which was purchased by former chairman Doug Ellis in the early 1970s from a local farmer. Although Bodymoor Heath was state - of - the - art in the 1970s, by the late 1990s the facilities had started to look dated. In November 2005, Ellis and Aston Villa plc announced a state of the art GB £ 13 million redevelopment of Bodymoor in two phases. However, work on Bodymoor was suspended by Ellis due to financial problems, and was left in an unfinished state until new owner Randy Lerner made it one of his priorities to make the site one of the best in world football. The new training ground was officially unveiled on 6 May 2007, by then manager Martin O'Neill, then team captain Gareth Barry and 1982 European Cup winning team captain Dennis Mortimer, with the Aston Villa squad moving in for the 2007 -- 08 season.
It was announced on 6 August 2014, that Villa Park would appear in the FIFA video game from FIFA 15 onwards, with all other Premier League stadiums also fully licensed from this game onwards.
The first shares in the club were issued towards the end of the 19th century as a result of legislation that was intended to codify the growing numbers of professional teams and players in the Association Football leagues. FA teams were required to distribute shares to investors as a way of facilitating trading among the teams without implicating the FA itself. This trading continued for much of the 20th century until Ellis started buying up many of the shares in the 1960s. He was chairman and substantial shareholder of "Aston Villa F.C. '' from 1968 to 1975 and the majority shareholder from 1982 to 2006. The club were floated on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) in 1996, and the share price fluctuated in the ten years after the flotation. In 2006 it was announced that several consortia and individuals were considering bids for Aston Villa.
On 14 August 2006, it was confirmed that Randy Lerner, then owner of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns, had reached an agreement of £ 62.6 million with Aston Villa for a takeover of the club. A statement released on 25 August to the LSE announced that Lerner had secured 59.69 % of Villa shares, making him the majority shareholder. He also appointed himself Chairman of the club. In Ellis 's last year in charge Villa lost £ 8.2 m before tax, compared with a £ 3m profit the previous year, and income had fallen from £ 51.6 m to £ 49m. Lerner took full control on 18 September, as he had 89.69 % of the shares. On 19 September 2006, Ellis and his board resigned to be replaced with a new board headed by Lerner. Lerner installed Charles Krulak as a non-executive director and Ellis was awarded the honorary position of Chairman Emeritus.
Lerner put the club up for sale in May 2014, valuing it at an estimated £ 200 million.
On 18 May 2016, Randy Lerner agreed the sale of Aston Villa to Recon Group, owned by Chinese businessman Xia Jiantong. The sale was completed on 14 June 2016 for a reported £ 76 million after being approved by the Football League, with the club becoming part of Recon Group 's Sport, Leisure and Tourism division. Recon Group were selected to take over Aston Villa following a selection process by the club.
Aston Villa have a unique relationship with the Acorns Children 's Hospice charity that is groundbreaking in English football. In a first for the Premier League, Aston Villa donated the front of the shirt on their kit, usually reserved for high - paying sponsorships, to Acorns Hospice so that the charity would gain significant additional visibility and greater fund raising capabilities. Outside of the shirt sponsorship the club have paid for hospice care for the charity as well as regularly providing player visits to hospice locations.
In September 2010, Aston Villa launched an initiative at Villa Park called Villa Midlands Food (VMF) where the club will spend two years training students with Aston Villa Hospitality and Events in association with Birmingham City Council. The club will open a restaurant in the Trinity Road Stand staffed with 12 students recruited from within a ten - mile (16 km) radius of Villa Park with the majority of the food served in the restaurant sourced locally.
Aston Villa have a large fanbase and draw support from all over the Midlands and beyond, with supporters ' clubs all across the world. Former Villa chief executive Richard Fitzgerald has stated that the ethnicity of the supporters is currently 98 % white. When Randy Lerner 's regime took over at Villa Park, they aimed to improve their support from ethnic minorities. A number of organisations have been set up to support the local community, including Aston Pride. A Villa in the Community programme has also been set up to encourage support among young people in the region. The new owners have also initiated several surveys aimed at gaining the opinions of Villa fans and to involve them in the decision making process. Meetings also occur every three months where supporters are invited by ballot and are invited to ask questions to the Board. In 2011, the club supported a supporter - based initiative for an official anthem to boost the atmosphere at Villa Park. The song "The Bells Are Ringing '' is to be played before games.
Like many English football clubs, Aston Villa have had several hooligan firms associated with them: Villa Youth, Steamers, Villa Hardcore and the C - Crew, the last mentioned being very active during the 1970s and 1980s. As can be seen across the whole of English football, the hooligan groups have now been marginalised. In 2004, several Villa firms were involved in a fight with QPR fans outside Villa Park in which a steward died. The main groupings of supporters can now be found in a number of domestic and international supporters ' clubs. This includes the Official Aston Villa Supporters Club which also has many smaller regional and international sections. There were several independent supporters clubs during the reign of Doug Ellis but most of these disbanded after his retirement. The supporter group My Old Man Said formed to stand up for Villa supporters ' rights, as a direct result of Villa supporters ' protest against the club 's appointment of Alex McLeish. The club 's supporters also publish fanzines such as Heroes and Villains and The Holy Trinity.
Aston Villa 's arch - rivals are Birmingham City, with games between the two clubs known as the Second City Derby. Historically though, West Bromwich Albion have arguably been Villa 's greatest rivals, a view highlighted in a fan survey, conducted in 2003. The two teams contested three FA Cup finals in the late 19th century. Villa also enjoy less heated local rivalries with Wolverhampton Wanderers and Coventry City. Through the relegation of West Brom and Birmingham City, to the Football League Championship, in the 2005 -- 06 season, at the start of 2006 -- 07 Premiership season, Villa were the only Midlands club in that League. The nearest opposing team Villa faced during that season was Sheffield United, who played 62 miles (100 km) away in South Yorkshire. For the 2010 -- 11 season, West Bromwich Albion were promoted and joined Aston Villa, Wolverhampton Wanderers, and Birmingham City in the Premier League. This marked the first time that the "West Midlands ' Big Four '' clubs have been in the Premier League at the same time, and the first time together in the top flight since the 1983 -- 84 season. Birmingham were relegated at the end of the 2010 -- 11 season, ending this period.
At the end of the 2015 -- 16 season Aston Villa had spent 105 seasons in the top tier of English football; the only club to have spent longer in the top flight are Everton, with 114 seasons, making Aston Villa versus Everton the most - played fixture in English top - flight football. Aston Villa were relegated in from the top tier of English football in 2016, having played in every Premier League season since its establishment in 1992 -- 93. They are seventh in the All - time FA Premier League table, and have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club with 21 wins.
Aston Villa currently hold the record number of league goals scored by any team in the English top flight; 128 goals were scored in the 1930 -- 31 season, one more than Arsenal who won the league that season for the very first time, with Villa runners - up. Villa legend Archie Hunter became the first player to score in every round of the FA Cup in Villa 's victorious 1887 campaign. Villa 's longest unbeaten home run in the FA Cup spanned 13 years and 19 games, from 1888 to 1901.
Aston Villa are one of five English teams to have won the European Cup. They did so on 26 May 1982 in Rotterdam, beating Bayern Munich 1 -- 0 thanks to Peter Withe 's goal.
Aston Villa have won European and domestic league honours. The club 's last major honour was in 1996 when they won the League Cup.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
These players can also play with the senior squad.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
These players can also play with the Under 23s and the senior squad.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
There have been many players who can be called notable throughout Aston Villa 's history. These can be classified and recorded in several forms. The Halls of Fame and PFA Players of the Year are noted below. As of 2014, Aston Villa, jointly with Tottenham Hotspur, hold the record for providing the most England internationals with 73. Aston Villa have had several players who were one - club men, including inaugural club Hall of Fame inductee Billy Walker. In 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of League football, The Football League released a list entitled the Football League 100 Legends that consisted of "100 legendary football players. '' There were seven players included on the list who had formerly played for Villa: Danny Blanchflower, Trevor Ford, Archie Hunter, Sam Hardy, Paul McGrath, Peter Schmeichel and Clem Stephenson.
Three Aston Villa players have won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award. In 1977 Andy Gray won the award. In 1990 it was awarded to David Platt, whilst Paul McGrath won it in 1993. The PFA Young Player of the Year, which is awarded to players under the age of 23, has been awarded to four players from Aston Villa: Andy Gray in 1977; Gary Shaw in 1981; Ashley Young in 2009 and James Milner in 2010. The National Football Museum in Preston, Lancashire administers the English Football Hall of Fame which currently contains two Villa teams, two Villa players and one manager. The 1890s team and 1982 team were inducted into the Hall of Fame in July 2009. Joe Mercer was inducted into the Hall of Fame at the same time for his career as a manager including his time at Aston Villa. The only two Villa players in the Hall of Fame are Danny Blanchflower and Peter Schmeichel.
In 2006 the club announced the creation of an "Aston Villa Hall of Fame. '' This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players, managers and directors named. Stiliyan Petrov was added to the list in May 2013.
Reference:
The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge or have been notable for Villa in the context of the League, for example Jozef Vengloš who holds a League record.
A number of television programmes have included references to Aston Villa over the past few decades. In the sitcom Porridge, the character Lennie Godber is a Villa supporter. When filming began on Dad 's Army, Villa fan Ian Lavender was allowed to choose Frank Pike 's scarf from an array in the BBC wardrobe; he chose a claret and blue one -- Aston Villa 's colours. The character Nessa in the BBC sitcom Gavin & Stacey was revealed as an Aston Villa fan in an episode screened in December 2009.
In the 1952 film The Card, the main character Denry Machin becomes a town councillor and purchases the rights to locally born Aston Villa player ' Callear ', the "greatest centre - forward in England '', for the failing local football club. Villa have also featured on several occasions in prose. Stanley Woolley, a character in Derek Robinson 's Booker shortlisted novel Goshawk Squadron is an Aston Villa fan and names a pre-war starting eleven Villa side. Together with The Oval, Villa Park is referenced by the poet Philip Larkin in his poem about the First World War, MCMXIV. Aston Villa are also mentioned in Harold Pinter 's play The Dumb Waiter.
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when do the originals come in vampire diaries | The vampire Diaries (season 2) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries, a 40 minute American supernatural drama, was officially renewed by The CW for a full 22 - episode season on February 16, 2010. The first episode premiered on September 9, 2010, at 8 p.m. ET. The season picks up immediately after the events of the season one finale. All the series regulars returned. Season two focuses on the return of Elena Gilbert 's (Nina Dobrev) doppelgänger, Katherine Pierce, the introduction of werewolves, the sun and moon curse, and the arrival of the original vampires. Tyler Lockwood 's (Michael Trevino) uncle, Mason Lockwood (Taylor Kinney), arrives in town searching for the moonstone, a family heirloom. Tyler later learns of his family 's werewolf curse. Meanwhile, Caroline Forbes (Candice Accola) is killed by Katherine while having Damon Salvatore 's (Ian Somerhalder) blood in her system, turning her into a vampire. The arrival of the original vampires, Elijah (Daniel Gillies) and Klaus Mikaelson (Joseph Morgan), also bring about complications. Klaus is a vampire - werewolf hybrid, but his werewolf side had been forced into dormancy by witches, as nature would not stand for such an imbalance in power. Therefore, Klaus arrives in town with plans to break the curse and unleash his werewolf side by channelling the power of the full moon into the moonstone, sacrificing a vampire and a werewolf, and drinking the blood of the doppelgänger. The season is currently on air in Urdu on filmax channel in Pakistan. It became available on DVD and Blu - ray on August 30, 2011.
On February 16, 2010, The CW officially renewed The Vampire Diaries for a full 22 - episode second season. It premiered on Thursday September 9, 2010, at 8 pm ET. The season finale aired on May 12, 2011.
On July 9, 2010, Entertainment Weekly announced Taylor Kinney would join the cast in a recurring role as Tyler 's uncle Mason, a werewolf who comes to town after his brother dies. Katherine sends Mason to Mystic Falls to get the moonstone for her. He succeeds, but Damon and Stefan find out that he works with Katherine, and Damon kills him. Mason has been described as a "cool '' uncle, sexy and athletic. Lauren Cohan joined the cast as Rose, a 500 - year - old vampire and possible love interest for Damon. She kidnaps Elena to hand her over to Elijah, but Elena is saved by Stefan and Damon. She then becomes their ally and even starts a small romantic relationship with Damon. She dies after being bitten by werewolf Jules.
Michaela McManus joined the cast in a guest role as a werewolf who comes to town looking for answers about Mason 's death. She helps Tyler deal with the discovery that he is a werewolf, but is later killed during the sacrifice. Bryton James portrays warlock Luka Martin in season two. He befriends Bonnie, but it is later revealed that he and his father work for Elijah. When he tries to save Elijah invisibly, Damon burns him to death. His father Jonas Martin, played by Randy J. Goodwin in season two, is introduced as a friend of Elijah. He is a warlock who, in order to save his daughter Greta, is willing and able to help defeat Klaus. He is later killed by Katherine, who is protecting the Salvatore brothers.
Gino Anthony Pesi portrays Maddox at the end of season two, a warlock who works for Klaus. Matt shoots him to death when he tries to overcome Damon. On February 18, 2011, it was announced that British actor Joseph Morgan had signed on to play original vampire Klaus.
The second season focuses mainly on the arrival of Elena 's doppelgänger Katherine Pierce and on her reasons for returning to Mystic Falls. It also introduces werewolves. Tyler 's werewolf uncle, Mason Lockwood, arrives after the death of Tyler 's father and tells Tyler about the so - called "Lockwood curse '' in their family. To activate the werewolf gene, the person must kill someone. Katherine turns Caroline into a vampire, so as to have a spy against Stefan and Elena. Katherine 's main reason for returning to Mystic Falls is to find the moonstone, with the help of Mason, who is killed by Damon. Katherine calls in a favor from a witch named Lucy to get the stone. Lucy casts a spell so that when Katherine is hurt, it also affects Elena.
When Lucy finds out that another Bennett is at the party and that Katherine had deceived her, she puts a spell on the moonstone, injuring Katherine. Damon then leaves her in the original tomb where she is trapped until the spell has been removed from the tomb. She tells him that her reason for not killing Elena is that she is in danger. Elena is later kidnapped by a masked individual and held hostage by vampires Rose and Trevor, who have been on the run from the Originals (the first generation of vampires). Rose reveals to Elena that she is the Petrova doppelgänger and needs to be sacrificed to break the sun and moon curse. Katherine was also a Petrova doppelgänger, who used Trevor to help her escape from the Originals and Rose to turn her into a vampire to save herself. Elena is rescued by Stefan and Damon by stabbing Elijah with a sharp wooden pole and they escape.
Klaus, one of the original vampires, arrives and is now hunting Elena. His brother Elijah has made a deal with Elena to protect her loved ones, because he wants to use her as bait to lure Klaus and kill him. Jules, a friend of Mason, tells the Lockwoods that Mason never came back to Florida and is missing. Alaric is suspicious of Jules and calls Damon to the Grill (local town hangout). Jules reveals that she is a werewolf. Damon tells Jules she wo n't find Mason and to leave town. Jules breaks into the Salvatore mansion in wolf form and attacks Damon, but Rose pushes him out of the way, getting bitten on the shoulder instead (werewolf bites are lethal to vampires). As Rose succumbs to the effects of the bite, Damon stakes her in a glorious dream they share, giving her a peaceful death.
Uncle John returns to Mystic Falls and comes as an unpleasant surprise to Elena, Damon, Jenna, and Alaric. John reveals to Damon that the only way to kill an Original is with a dagger dipped in white ash wood. A boy named Luka settle in the town with his father (they are both warlocks) and reveals that they are working for Elijah because Klaus has his sister Greta and they want him (Luka) dead as well. Luka becomes friends with Bonnie and tells her that Klaus will be weakened by the sacrificial ritual, meaning that Elena has to die so that Elijah can kill him and free his sister. John gives Damon the special dagger to kill Elijah.
Elena finds out that if a vampire uses the dagger, that vampire will die. Stefan warns Damon and Alaric stabs Elijah, but he pulls the dagger out and tells Elena their deal is off. Elena stabs herself in the stomach, and Elijah begs her to let him heal her. She stabs him with the dagger and leaves it in him. Elijah 's death means that Katherine is no longer compelled to stay in the tomb. She helps kill the Martin witches. When Isobel returns to town, Katherine double - crosses the Salvatores by kidnapping Elena and stealing the moonstone for Klaus in exchange for her freedom. But it is revealed that Klaus wanted Katherine and compelled Isobel to get her and the moonstone.
Klaus enters Alaric 's body and compels Katherine to stay in Alaric 's house. Bonnie and Jeremy find the site of the a witch massacre and Bonnie channels all the power. Alaric / Klaus blends with Stefan, Damon, and Elena and finds out that Bonnie has her powers. Damon tells Bonnie to put on a protection spell and make Alaric / Klaus believe that she is dead. Elena does not want Bonnie to die, so she pulls the dagger out of Elijah 's heart. After Elijah comes to life, Elena learns the full history of Klaus. The Aztec curse is fake and there is a curse on Klaus, as he is a vampire born in a werewolf bloodline. There is a ritual that involves killing a vampire and a werewolf and a Petrova doppelganger, that will unearth the werewolf side of Klaus making him a hybrid.
Elena realizes that the real curse is on Klaus, who therefore wants to kill her. But Elijah says he has an elixir that can save Elena from dying. Elena believes Elijah, but Damon says that there is another way to save her life and feeds her his blood. Stefan tries to stop him, but he stabs in the chest with the wooden dagger. Elena then cries that she will be a vampire against her will. Maddox kidnaps Tyler and Caroline. Damon frees them and is bitten. Then he goes to Klaus to tell him that he does not have a werewolf and witch, as he killed Maddox. Klaus says that he has backups. Klaus takes Elena from Stefan. Elena sees Jenna, who thinks she is dead, but Greta tells her she is transitioning. Damon asks Katherine about the vampire, and she says that Jenna is the backup vampire. He then checks his arm and sees that Tyler has bitten him.
In the season 's finale, Klaus is working on the ritual out in the woods and is near completion when he is about to kill Elena, but Stefan tries to work a deal with him. Klaus agrees to have Stefan work for him in exchange for Damon 's protection. Elena is "killed '' in the ritual but is shown to have survived. Regardless, Klaus 's werewolf side is unleashed and he becomes the first hybrid, half vampire half werewolf. Bonnie arrives and subdues Klaus with her powers, giving Elijah the opportunity to strike, but Klaus talks him down offering to help find their siblings. Elena 's survival is revealed as John had Bonnie cast a spell that had him die in Elena 's place. The next morning John succumbs and dies. At his funeral, Elena reads a note from John saying he will always love her and she will always be his daughter, even if she becomes a vampire. Damon also shows where he was bitten and walks away.
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "The throbbing red heart of The Vampire Diaries remains the tension between Damon and Paul Wesley 's Stefan, and their mutual attraction to whomever Dobrev is embodying at the time. '' Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald said, "The triangle -- quadrangle? -- becomes more twisted by episode 's end. It leads to shocking violence against outsiders that deepens the tragedy and the mythology at the core of the show. "Game on '' just might be the two most chilling words uttered this season. '' Matt Roush of TV Guide commented, "The Vampire Diaries is the sort of show where ' never say die ' is written into the mythology -- a good thing for several of the opening hour 's apparent victims. I do n't know how much longer The Vampire Diaries can keep churning stories at this feverish rate, but if this is your sort of guilty pleasure, you 'd be crazy not to bite. ''
For its second season The Vampire Diaries won five Teen Choice Awards, one People 's Choice Award, and a nomination in Saturn Awards.
The Vampire Diaries Season 2 was made available on DVD and Blu - ray on August 30, 2011. In region B, it was released on August 22, 2011.
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how many episodes is there of the handmaid's tale | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by streaming service Hulu with a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, with the production beginning in late 2016. The plot follows a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War where women, called "Handmaids '', are forced into sexual and child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, it was renewed for a second season to premiere on April 25, 2018. The Handmaid 's Tale received widespread critical acclaim and won eight Primetime Emmy Awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming platform to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It has also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Moss.
In the near future, human fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos in place, the totalitarian, Christian theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape with their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a specifically colored dress in a similar style. Handmaids wear red, Marthas wear green, and Wives wear blue. Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are sort of a mixture of all these categories, so they wear stripes. Wives are expected to run their households, Marthas are housekeepers and cooks, Aunts train and oversee the Handmaids; additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). She is subject to the strictest rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married, had a daughter and had her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in the hope that she can someday live free and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands or modernizes the book. She also co-wrote every episode and also had a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes will cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season will consist of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel will return as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned ten seasons of the show, stating "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo, beginning with the first two episodes premiering on April 30. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand on July 6, 2017.
The first season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 95 % based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 8.59 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 40 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show and certainly its most important ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump 's and Mike Pence 's election as President of the United States and Vice President of the United States, respectively. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, in which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
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shadow minister for voter engagement and youth affairs | Cat Smith - wikipedia
Catherine Jane Smith (born 16 June 1985) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Lancaster and Fleetwood since 2015. In September 2015 she was appointed to the Official Opposition frontbench as a Shadow Minister for Women, serving under Kate Green. In June 2016 she was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet, with a new portfolio for Voter Engagement and Youth Affairs.
Born in Barrow - in - Furness, Smith attended local comprehensive schools and Barrow - in - Furness Sixth Form College. She moved to Lancaster in 2003 where she studied at Cartmel College, Lancaster University. She graduated with a BA joint honours degree in Sociology and Gender Studies.
Smith first stood for election in the Lancaster City Council election, 2007 in the University ward, where she was unsuccessful. Before entering Parliament, Smith worked for Jeremy Corbyn and as a policy officer for the British Association of Social Workers. She unsuccessfully contested Wyre and Preston North in 2010.
Smith has contributed to publications and news blogs associated with the Labour Party, including LabourList and Tribune. She identifies herself as a Christian, socialist, feminist, republican and trade unionist.
Smith was one of the 36 Labour MPs to nominate Corbyn as a candidate in the Labour leadership election of 2015 and one of the 14 to support him. She has been critical of the 2016 European Union referendum, saying that younger people preferred to remain in the EU, while the majority result was to leave.
Corbyn soon appointed Smith to be Minister for Women in the Shadow Equalities Office, where she served under Kate Green. On 27 June 2016 Smith entered the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Minister for Voter Engagement and Youth Affairs. This followed on from a series of resignations of shadow ministers who had lost confidence in Corbyn 's leadership.
In addition to her other duties, Smith acts as Shadow Deputy Leader of the House, in which role she made her debut at the Despatch Box on 20 December 2016.
On 24 May 2016, Lancashire Constabulary announced that an investigation had been opened following allegations that Smith broke election spending laws by spending thousands of pounds more than she declared on expenses. In June 2016, Lancashire Constabulary were granted a year - long extension to investigate Smith 's election expenses, but in November 2016 they cleared Smith of any wrongdoing and fully exonerated her.
In September 2016 Smith married Ben Soffa, her partner of eleven years. She is one of 27 LGBTI MPs elected at the 2015 general election, identifying as bisexual. Smith is a Methodist; she has stated that she believes Jesus was a radical socialist.
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when does the new season of love and hip hop start | Love & Hip Hop - wikipedia
Love & Hip Hop is a media franchise that consists of several reality television series broadcast on VH1. The shows document the lives and relationships of hip hop and R&B musicians, performers, managers, and record producers residing in varying regions throughout the United States. The original franchise version, Love & Hip Hop: New York, premiered on March 6, 2011. Its success resulted in spin - offs located in Atlanta, Hollywood, and Miami. The subsequent installments have proven similarly successful, and have resulted in spin - offs of their own.
As of October 30, 2017, 253 original episodes of Love & Hip Hop have aired over eighteen seasons. The series is known for its large ensemble cast, with over 150 cast members.
Love & Hip Hop had its origins as a 2006 pilot called Keeping Up With the Joneses, which centered around rapper Jim Jones and was produced by Stefan Springman and Toby Barraud. When VH1 brought producer Mona Scott - Young on board, its focus shifted to include Jim 's girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin and her circle of friends. The series was first mentioned in VH1 's programming development report in early 2010 as Diary of a Hip Hop Girlfriend. On January 4, 2011, it was announced that Love & Hip Hop would debut on March 6, 2011, as an eight - episode series. The first season was later expanded to nine episodes in order to include the first season reunion, which aired on May 16, 2011.
On May 25, 2011, the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on November 14, 2011. The season garnered big ratings for the network, averaging 2.8 million total viewers per episode, making it VH1 's highest rated series in over three and a half years.
On May 15, 2012, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, the Atlanta - based spin - off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on June 18, 2012. After its premiere, the show 's audience grew substantially over the season, garnering even higher ratings than its predecessor. Its finale garnered 5.5 million people overall.
On September 7, 2012, VH1 announced that Chrissy Lampkin and Jim Jones would leave Love & Hip Hop, to star in their own spin - off show Chrissy & Mr. Jones. The third season of Love & Hip Hop, now titled Love & Hip Hop: New York in promotional material, premiered on January 7, 2013, with nearly a whole new cast.
On April 1, 2013, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta would be returning for a second season on April 22, 2013.
On October 10, 2013, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fourth season on October 28, 2013. The season premiered back - to - back with the second season of Chrissy & Mr. Jones.
On April 14, 2014, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta would be returning for a third season on May 5, 2014.
On August 18, 2014, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood, the Los Angeles - based spin - off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on September 15, 2014.
On October 15, 2014, VH1 announced the spin - off K. Michelle: My Life, starring cast member K. Michelle, would make its series premiere on November 3, 2014.
On December 2, 2014, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fifth season on December 15, 2014.
On April 9, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta would be returning for a fourth season on April 20, 2015, and would premiere alongside Love & Hip Hop Atlanta: The Afterparty Live!, a half - hour - long interactive after - show hosted by Big Tigger.
On April 14, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: The Wedding, a two - hour special featuring the marriage between cast members Yandy Smith and Mendeecees Harris, would air live on May 25, 2015.
On August 10, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood would be returning for a second season on September 7, 2015.
On October 12, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Out in Hip Hop, a round - table discussion moderated by T.J. Holmes of ABC News, would air on October 19, 2015. The special focused on the reality on being openly LGBT in the hip hop community, and coincided with the airing of the seventh episode "Truth '', in which bisexual cast member Miles comes out to his ex-girlfriend Amber.
On November 2, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a sixth season on December 14, 2015.
On December 2, 2015, VH1 announced the spin - off Stevie J & Joseline: Go Hollywood, starring Stevie J and Joseline Hernandez, would make its series premiere on January 25, 2016, back - to - back with the second season of K. Michelle: My Life.
On March 8, 2016, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta would be returning for a fifth season on April 4, 2016.
On August 3, 2016, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood would be returning for a third season on August 15, 2016.
On August 8, 2016, VH1 and 345 Games announced the release of Love & Hip Hop: The Game, a mobile game for iOS and Android. It was released worldwide on September 22, 2016.
On November 14, 2016, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop would be returning for a seventh season on November 21, 2016.
On December 1, 2016, VH1 announced the spin - off Leave It To Stevie, starring Stevie J, would make its series premiere on December 19, 2016, back - to - back with the third season of K. Michelle: My Life.
On February 21, 2017, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta would be returning for a sixth season on March 6, 2017. On April 19, 2017, VH1 announced Joseline 's Special Delivery, a special documenting the birth of Joseline 's child, which aired between the season 's eighth and ninth episodes on May 1, 2017. Additionally, Dirty Little Secrets 2, a special featuring unseen footage and deleted scenes, aired on May 10, 2017.
On April 13, 2017, VH1 announced that season four of Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood would premiere on July 17, 2017. On June 19, 2017, the season premiere date was moved to July 24, 2017. On July 3, 2017, three weeks before the season four premiere, VH1 aired Dirty Little Secrets, a special featuring unseen footage and deleted scenes from the show 's first three seasons, along with interviews with the show 's cast and producers.
On October 2, 2017, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would return for an eighth season on October 30, 2017. A behind - the - scenes special, Dirty Little Secrets, will air on October 17, 2017.
On October 30, 2017, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Miami, the Miami - based spin - off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on January 1, 2018.
Since 2013, Mona Scott - Young has discussed expanding the franchise to other cities, such as New Orleans, Detroit and Houston.
On February 28, 2016, it was reported that potential spin - offs set in Miami and Houston were in pre-production and the producers were auditioning potential cast members. However, Scott - Young denied reports of a spin - off being filmed in New Orleans, saying "I would love to do a show there but there is no Love & Hip Hop: New Orleans being cast or shot right now. '' Love & Hip Hop: Houston was to feature Jhonni Blaze, Kirko Bangz, Kat St. John, Just Brittany, Nessacary, J. Prince Jr, Propain, the Sauce Twinz, the Charlo Brothers, DJ Eric, Lil ' Keith, and Mehgan James as cast members. However, the show was put on hold indefinitely midway through filming in June 2016 due to concerns for the crew 's safety, after several shoots were shut down by cast violence, as well as locals interrupting filming. On July 7, 2017, Scott - Young said "Houston I love. We wanted to do Houston and we went into Houston to cast and we may go back to Houston. ''
Note:
During a speech at a campaign rally in North Carolina on November 4, 2016, President Barack Obama referenced the show, comparing the 2016 presidential race to reality television, saying "I mean, its like some Love & Hip Hop stuff. ''
On a 2013 episode of the BET television series The Game, Wendy Raquel Robinson 's character Tasha makes reference to the franchise, saying "Back in the day we were n't carrying ourselves like them damn crazies you see on Love & Hip Hop, we conducted ourselves as upstanding women who were looked up to in the community ''.
In the 2016 film Barbershop: The Next Cut, when Eve and Common 's characters get into an argument over their relationship, Cedric the Entertainer 's character makes a reference to the franchise, saying "This ai n't no Love & Hip Hop reunion. ''
Lee Daniels is a fan of Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta and his 2016 Fox television series Star (set in Atlanta) makes several references to the show. Joseline Hernandez appears in a recurring role as Michelle, a stripper. In the second episode, Lenny Kravitz 's character is seen watching a scene of the show featuring Mimi Faust and Stevie J. In a later scene in the same episode, Jessica Dime makes a cameo appearance as a stripper. The references to the franchise continue into the second season, with the premiere featuring Star (Jude Demorest) singing a line from Love & Hip Hop: New York cast member Mariahlynn 's single "Once Upon A Time (I Was a Hoe) ''. Additionally, Star cast member Jasmine Burke guest starred in Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta 's sixth season as herself.
In the 2017 pilot of the Netflix television adaptation Dear White People, a character attempts to break up an argument between two female characters by saying "Yo, fam, can we cut the Love & Hip Hop auditions and get to it? ''
In an overview of the television cultural divide, The New York Times reported that Love & Hip Hop was most popular show in the Black Belt.
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what is the function of cork to the tree | Cork cambium - wikipedia
Cork cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a tissue found in many vascular plants as part of the epidermis. The cork cambium is a lateral meristem and is responsible for secondary growth that replaces the epidermis in roots and stems. It is found in woody and many herbaceous dicots, gymnosperms and some monocots (monocots usually lack secondary growth). It is one of the plant 's meristems -- the series of tissues consisting of embryonic (incompletely differentiated) cells from which the plant grows. It is one of the many layers of bark, between the cork and primary phloem. The function of cork cambium is to produce the cork, a tough protective material.
Synonyms for cork cambium are bark cambium, pericambium and phellogen. Phellogen is defined as the meristematic cell layer responsible for the development of the periderm. Cells that grow inwards from there are termed phelloderm, and cells that develop outwards are termed phellem or cork (note similarity with vascular cambium). The periderm thus consists of three different layers:
Growth and development of cork cambium is very variable between different species, and is also highly dependent on age and growth conditions, as can be observed from the different surfaces of bark, which may be smooth, fissured, tesselated, scaly, or flaking off.
Commercial cork is derived from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). Cork has many uses including wine bottle stoppers, bulletin boards, coasters, hot pads to protect tables from hot pans, insulation, sealing for lids, flooring, gaskets for engines, fishing bobbers, handles for fishing rods and tennis rackets, etc. It is also a high strength - to - weight / cost ablative material for aerodynamic prototypes in wind tunnels, as well as satellite launch vehicle payload fairings, reentry surfaces, and compression joints in thrust - vectored solid rocket motor nozzles.
Many types of bark are used as mulch.
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who made up the days of the week | Week - wikipedia
A week is a time unit equal to seven days. It is the standard time period used for cycles of rest days in most parts of the world, mostly alongside -- although not strictly part of -- the Gregorian calendar.
The days of the week were named after the classical planets (derived from the astrological system of planetary hours) in the Roman era. In English, the names are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks within a given year -- each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week 's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday -- Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). ISO 8601 assigns numbers to the days of the week, running from 1 to 7 for Monday through to Sunday.
The term "week '' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days, such as the nundinal cycle of the ancient Roman calendar or the "work week '' or "school week '' referring only to the days spent on those activities.
The English word week comes from the Old English wice, ultimately from a Common Germanic * wikōn -, from a root * wik - "turn, move, change ''. The Germanic word probably had a wider meaning prior to the adoption of the Roman calendar, perhaps "succession series '', as suggested by Gothic wikō translating taxis "order '' in Luke 1: 8.
The seven - day week is named in many languages by a word derived from "seven ''. The archaism sennight ("seven - night '') preserves the old Germanic practice of reckoning time by nights, as in the more common fortnight. Hebdomad and hebdomadal week both derive from the Greek hebdomás (ἑβδομάς, "a seven ''). The obsolete septimane is cognate with the Romance terms derived from Latin septimana ("a seven '').
Slavic has a formation * tъ (žь) dьnь (Serbo - Croatian тједан, Ukrainian тиждень, Czech týden, Polish tydzień), from * tъ "this '' + * dьnь "day '', in some cases alongside nedělja (OCS нєдѣлꙗ), a loan - translation of Latin feria and sedmitsa (седмица), as ἑβδομάς derived from "seven ''. Chinese has 星期, as it were "planetary time unit ''.
A week is defined as an interval of exactly seven days, so that technically, except at daylight saving time transitions or leap seconds,
With respect to the Gregorian calendar:
In a Gregorian mean year, there are 365.2425 days, and thus exactly 52 ⁄ or 52.1775 weeks (unlike the Julian year of 365.25 days or 52 ⁄ ≈ 52.1786 weeks, which can not be represented by a finite decimal expansion). There are exactly 20,871 weeks in 400 Gregorian years, so 7 January 1618 was a Sunday just like 7 January 2018.
Relative to the path of the Moon, a week is 23.659 % of an average lunation, or 94.637 % of an average quarter lunation.
Historically, the system of Dominical letters (letters A to G identifying the weekday of the first day of a given year) has been used to facilitate calculation of the day of week. The day of the week can be easily calculated given a date 's Julian day number (JD, i.e. the integer value at noon UT): Adding one to the remainder after dividing the Julian day number by seven (JD modulo 7 + 1) yields that date 's ISO 8601 day of the week (for example, the Julian day number of 7 January 2018 is 2458126. Calculating (2458126 mod 7 + 1) yields 7, corresponding to Sunday.).
The days of the week were originally named for the classical planets. This naming system persisted alongside an "ecclesiastical '' tradition of numbering the days, in ecclesiastical Latin beginning with dominica (the Day of the Lord) as the first day. The Greco - Roman gods associated with the classical planets were rendered in their interpretatio germanica at some point during the late Roman Empire, yielding the Germanic tradition of names based on indigenous deities.
The ordering of the weekday names is not the classical order of the planets (by distance in the planetary spheres model, or, equivalently, by their apparent speed of movement in the night sky). Instead, the planetary hours systems resulted in succeeding days being named for planets that are three places apart in their traditional listing. This characteristic was apparently discussed in Plutarch in a treatise written in c. AD 100, which is reported to have addressed the question of Why are the days named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order? (the text of Plutarch 's treatise has been lost).
An ecclesiastical, non-astrological, system of numbering the days of the week was adopted in Late Antiquity. This model also seems to have influenced (presumably via Gothic) the designation of Wednesday as "mid-week '' in Old High German (mittawehha) and Old Church Slavonic (срѣда). Old Church Slavonic may have also modeled the name of Monday, понєдѣльникъ, after the Latin feria secunda. The ecclesiastical system became prevalent in Eastern Christianity, but in the Latin West it remains extant only in modern Icelandic, Galician and Portuguese.
A continuous seven - day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the phases of the moon was probably first practiced in Judaism, dated to the 6th century BC at the latest.
There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the biblical seven - day cycle.
Friedrich Delitzsch and others suggested that the seven - day week being approximately a quarter of a lunation is the implicit astronomical origin of the seven - day week, and indeed the Babylonian calendar used intercalary days to synchronize the last week of a month with the new moon. According to this theory, the Jewish week was adopted from the Babylonians while removing the moon - dependency.
However, Niels - Erik Andreasen, Jeffrey H. Tigay and others claimed that the sabbath is mentioned as a day of rest in some of the earliest layers of the Pentateuch dated to the 9th century BC at the latest, centuries before Judea 's Babylonian exile. They also find the resemblance between the biblical Sabbath and the Babylonian system weak. Therefore they suggested that the seven - day week may reflect an independent Israelite tradition. Tigay writes:
It is clear that among neighboring nations that were in position to have an influence over Israel - and in fact which did influence it in various matters - there is no precise parallel to the Israelite Sabbatical week. This leads to the conclusion that the Sabbatical week, which is as unique to Israel as the Sabbath from which it flows, is an independent Israelite creation.
The seven - day week seems to have been adopted, at different stages, by the Persian Empire, in Hellenistic astrology, and (via Greek transmission) in Gupta India and Tang China.
The Babylonian system was received by the Greeks in the 4th century BC (notably via Eudoxus of Cnidus). However the designation of the seven days of the week to the seven planets is an innovation introduced in the time of Augustus. The astrological concept of planetary hours is rather an original innovation of Hellenistic astrology, probably first conceived in the 2nd century BC.
The seven day week was widely known throughout the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD, along with references to the Jewish Sabbath by Roman scholars such as Seneca and Ovid. The seven day cycle ultimately replaced the older Roman system of the nundinal cycle, probably during the 4th century.
The earliest evidence of an astrological significance of a seven - day period is connected to Gudea, priest - king of Lagash in Sumer during the Gutian dynasty, who built a seven - room temple, which he dedicated with a seven - day festival. In the flood story of the Assyro - Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh the storm lasts for seven days, the dove is sent out after seven days, and the Noah - like character of Utnapishtim leaves the ark seven days after it reaches firm ground.
It seems likely that the Hebrew seven - day week is based on the Babylonian tradition, although going through certain adaptations. George Aaron Barton speculated that the seven - day creation account of Genesis is connected to the Babylonian creation epic, Enûma Eliš, which is recorded on seven tablets.
Counting from the new moon, the Babylonians celebrated the 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th as "holy - days '', also called "evil days '' (meaning "unsuitable '' for prohibited activities). On these days, officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish '', and at least the 28th was known as a "rest - day ''. On each of them, offerings were made to a different god and goddess.
In a frequently - quoted suggestion going back to the early 20th century the Hebrew Sabbath is compared to the Sumerian sa - bat "mid-rest '', a term for the full moon. The Sumerian term has been reconstructed as rendered Sapattu or Sabattu in Babylonian, possibly present in the lost fifth tablet of the Enûma Eliš, tentatively reconstructed "(Sa) bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid (month) ly ''.
The Zoroastrian calendar follows the Babylonian in relating the seventh and other days of the month to Ahura Mazda. The forerunner of all modern Zoroastrian calendars is the system used to reckon dates in the Persian Empire, adopted from the Babylonian calendar by the 4th century BC.
Frank C. Senn in his book Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical points to data suggesting evidence of an early continuous use of a seven - day week; referring to the Jews during the Babylonian Captivity in the 6th century BC, after the destruction of the Temple of Solomon. While the seven - day week in Judaism is tied to Creation account in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible (where God creates the heavens and the earth in six days and rests on the seventh; Genesis 1: 1 -- 2: 3, in the Book of Exodus, the fourth of the Ten Commandments is to rest on the seventh day, Shabbat, which can be seen as implying a socially instituted seven - day week), it is not clear whether the Genesis narrative predates the Babylonian Captivity of the Jews in the 6th century BC. At least since the Second Temple period under Persian rule, Judaism relied on the seven - day cycle of recurring Sabbaths.
Tablets from the Achaemenid period indicate that the lunation of 29 or 30 days basically contained three seven - day weeks, and a final week of eight or nine days inclusive, breaking the continuous seven - day cycle. The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day '', the "day of anger '', because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks '', also with sacrifices and prohibitions.
Difficulties with Friedrich Delitzsch 's origin theory connecting Hebrew Shabbat with the Babylonian lunar cycle include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Shabbat in any language.
In Jewish sources by the time of the Septuagint, the term "Sabbath '' (Greek Sabbaton) by synecdoche also came to refer to an entire seven - day week, the interval between two weekly Sabbaths. Jesus 's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican (Luke 18: 12) describes the Pharisee as fasting "twice in the week '' (Greek δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου dis tou sabbatou).
The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight - day nundinum but, after the Julian calendar had come into effect in 45 BC, the seven - day week came into increasing use. For a while, the week and the nundinal cycle coexisted, but by the time the week was officially adopted by Constantine in AD 321, the nundinal cycle had fallen out of use. The association of the days of the week with the Sun, the Moon and the five planets visible to the naked eye dates to the Roman era (2nd century).
The continuous seven - day cycle of the days of the week can be traced back to the reign of Augustus; the first identifiable date cited complete with day of the week is 6 February AD 60, identified as a "Sunday '' (as viii idus Februarius dies solis "eighth day before the ides of February, day of the Sun '') in a Pompeiian graffito. According to the currently - used Julian calendar, 6 February 60 was, however, a Wednesday. This is explained by the existence of two conventions of naming days of the weeks based on the planetary hours system: 6 February was a "Sunday '' based on the sunset naming convention, and a "Wednesday '' based on the sunrise naming convention.
The earliest known reference in Chinese writings to a seven - day week is attributed to Fan Ning, who lived in the late 4th century in the Jin Dynasty, while diffusions from the Manichaeans are documented with the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese or Central Asian Buddhist monk Bu Kong of the 7th century (Tang Dynasty).
The Chinese variant of the planetary system was brought to Japan by the Japanese monk Kobo Daishi (9th century). Surviving diaries of the Japanese statesman Fujiwara Michinaga show the seven - day system in use in Heian Japan as early as 1007. In Japan, the seven - day system was kept in use for astrological purposes until its promotion to a full - fledged Western - style calendrical basis during the Meiji era.
The seven - day week was known in India by the 6th century, referenced in the Pañcasiddhāntikā.. Shashi (2000) mentions the Garga Samhita, which he places in the 1st century BC or AD, as a possible earlier reference to a seven - day week in India. He concludes "the above references furnish a terminus ad quem (viz. 1st century) The terminus a quo can not be stated with certainty ''.
The seven - day weekly cycle has remained unbroken in Christendom, and hence in Western history, for almost two millennia, despite changes to the Coptic, Julian, and Gregorian calendars, demonstrated by the date of Easter Sunday having been traced back through numerous computistic tables to an Ethiopic copy of an early Alexandrian table beginning with the Easter of AD 311.
A tradition of divinations arranged for the days of the week on which certain feast days occur develops in the Early Medieval period. There are many later variants of this, including the German Bauern - Praktik and the versions of Erra Pater published in 16th to 17th century England, mocked in Samuel Butler 's Hudibras. South and East Slavic versions are known as koliadniki (from koliada, a loan of Latin calendae), with Bulgarian copies dating from the 13th century, and Serbian versions from the 14th century. Medieval Christian traditions associated with the lucky or unlucky nature of certain days of the week survived into the modern period. This concerns primarily Friday, associated with the crucifixion of Jesus. Sunday, sometimes personified as Saint Anastasia, was itself an object of worship in Russia, a practice denounced in a sermon extant in copies going back to the 14th century.
Sunday, in the ecclesiastical numbering system also counted as the feria prima or the first day of the week; yet, at the same time, figures as the "eighth day '', and has occasionally been so called in Christian liturgy.
Justin Martyr wrote: "the first day after the Sabbath, remaining the first of all the days, is called, however, the eighth, according to the number of all the days of the cycle, and (yet) remains the first ''.
A period of eight days, starting and ending on a Sunday, is called an octave, particularly in Roman Catholic liturgy. In German, the phrase in acht Tagen (literally "in eight days '') means one week from today.
Weeks in a Gregorian calendar year can be numbered for each year. This style of numbering is commonly used (for example, by schools and businesses) in some European and Asian countries, but rare elsewhere.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks -- each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week 's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday -- Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). For example, week 1 of 2004 (2004W01) ran from Monday, 29 December 2003 to Sunday, 4 January 2004, because its Thursday was 1 January 2004, whereas week 1 of 2005 (2005W01) ran from Monday, 3 January 2005 to Sunday, 9 January 2005, because its Thursday was 6 January 2005 and so the first Thursday of 2005. The highest week number in a year is either 52 or 53 (it was 53 in the year 2004). Schematically, this ISO convention translates as follows:
In some countries, though, the numbering system is different from the ISO standard. At least six numberings are in use:
The semiconductor package date code is often a 4 digit date code YYWW where the first two digits YY are the last 2 digits of the calendar year and the last two digits WW are the two - digit week number.
The tire date code mandated by the US DOT is a 4 digit date code WWYY with two digits of the week number WW followed by the last two digits of the calendar year YY.
The term "week '' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days. Such "weeks '' of between four and ten days have been used historically in various places. Intervals longer than 10 days are not usually termed "weeks '' as they are closer in length to the fortnight or the month than to the seven - day week.
Calendars unrelated to the Chaldean, Hellenistic, Christian or Jewish traditions often have time cycles between the day and the month of varying lengths, sometimes also called "weeks ''.
An eight - day week was used in Ancient Rome and possibly in the pre-Christian Celtic calendar. Traces of a nine - day week are found in Baltic languages and in Welsh. The ancient Chinese calendar had a ten - day week, as did the ancient Egyptian calendar (and, incidentally, the French Republican Calendar, dividing its 30 - day months into thirds).
A six - day week is found in the Akan Calendar. Several cultures used a five - day week, including the 10th century Icelandic calendar, the Javanese calendar, and the traditional cycle of market days in Korea. The Igbo have a "market week '' of four days. Evidence of a "three - day week '' has been derived from the names of the days of the week in Guipuscoan Basque.
The Aztecs and Mayas used the Mesoamerican calendars. The most important of these calendars divided a ritual cycle of 260 days (known as Tonalpohualli in Nahuatl and Tzolk'in in Yucatec Maya) into 20 weeks of 13 days (known in Spanish as trecenas). They also divided the solar year into 18 periods of 20 days and five nameless days, creating a 20 - day month divided into four five - day weeks. The end of each five - day week was a market day.
The Balinese Pawukon is a 210 - day calendar consisting of 10 different simultaneously running weeks of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 days, of which the weeks of 4, 8 and 9 days are interrupted to fit into the 210 - day cycle.
A 10 - day week, called décade, was used in France for nine and a half years from October 1793 to April 1802; furthermore, the Paris Commune adopted the Revolutionary Calendar for 18 days in 1871.
The Bahá'í calendar features a 19 - day period which some classify as a month and others classify as a week.
The International Fixed Calendar (also known as the "Eastman plan '') fixed every date always on the same weekday. This plan kept a 7 - day week while defining a year of 13 months with 28 days each. It was the official calendar of the Eastman Kodak Company for decades.
Between 1929 and 1931, the USSR changed from the seven - day week to a five - day week. There were 72 weeks and an additional five national holidays inserted within three of them, totaling a year of 365 days. In 1931, after its brief experiment with a five - day week, the Soviet Union changed to a six - day week. Every sixth day (6th, 12th, 18th, 24th and 30th) of the Gregorian Calendar was a state rest day. The five additional national holidays in the earlier five - day week remained and did not fall on the state rest day. But, as January, March, May, July, August, October and December have 31 days, the week after the state rest day of the 30th was seven days long (31st -- 7th). This extra day was a working day for most or an extra holiday for others. Also as February is only 28 or 29 days depending on whether it is a leap year or not, the first of March was also made a state rest day, although not every enterprise conformed to this. To clarify, the week after the state rest day, 24 / 25 February to 1 March, was only five or six days long, depending on whether it was a leap year or not. The week after that, 2 to 6 March, was only five days long. The calendar was abandoned 26 June 1940 and the seven - day week reintroduced the next day.
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who was president of india when first nuclear explosion was tested | Pokhran - II - Wikipedia
The Pokhran - II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code - named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.
Pokhran - II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India a full - fledged nuclear state. The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states, including Japan and the United States.
Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti -- 98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti - I through to Shakti - V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran - I.
Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India 's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy -- a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.
After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India 's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India 's nuclear program. The world 's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India 's challenge. The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance. At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India 's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.
As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management. Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.
The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy. In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.
Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan 's clandestine atomic bomb program. Contrary to India 's nuclear program, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program was akin to United States 's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program. The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.
In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance. Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.
In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.
Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan 's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.
Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995. In a speech delivered by then - Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue '' as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region. The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan -- the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area. ''
The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate. BJP 's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML (N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997. During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding -- such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan 's control. '' Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons '' and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. '' By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty. ''
Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr. Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.
It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields. '' Pakistan 's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee 's position to order the tests.
Unlike Pakistan 's weapon -- testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran. Contrary to high - altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert do n't provide much cover from probing satellites. The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries. The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army 's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer 's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy. ''
Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government did n't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning. The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data. A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug - out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation. Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three. They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high - voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN - 32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ' Prayer Hall '.
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ' White House ', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named ' Taj Mahal ', and the first sub-kiloton device in ' Kumbhkaran '. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the ' Kumbhkaran ' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8: 30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the ' White House ' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the ' Taj Mahal ' shaft was sealed at 7: 30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L - shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak - proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3: 45 pm the three devices were detonated.
Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti. All devices were weapon - grade plutonium and they were:
An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.
At 3: 43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors. On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST 6: 51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.
Following the Pokhran - II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister 's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large - scale approval by society in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country 's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country 's armed forces. The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country 's national security.
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44 bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions. The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions. In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade '' in detecting the preparations for the test.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.
From 1998 -- 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT. In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India 's nuclear program. India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India 's national security interest.
Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India 's actions and its High Commissioner. Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.
Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government - to - government credit lines. However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.
On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India, '' and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia. ''. The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned '' the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons ''. China further rejected India 's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable ''. In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People 's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India 's nuclear tests were a "serious matter, '' particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat ''. On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:
(sic)... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India 's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India 's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.
The most vehement and strong reaction to India 's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India. The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields '', he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent. ''
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk (sic) and was acting in a totally unrestrained way. '' Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security '', he said. Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home. Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai - I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai - II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India 's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai - I).
Pakistan 's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States. American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs do n't make a right '', criticising Pakistan 's tests as reactionary to India 's Pokhran - II. The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan 's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana - I).
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan 's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.
Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0 % of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0 % of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.
The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.
It was officially signed by then - Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.
Coordinates: 27 ° 04 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 43 ′ 20 '' E / 27.07884 ° N 71.722113 ° E / 27.07884; 71.722113
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the arrival of the spaniards in the caribbean | History of the Caribbean - wikipedia
The history of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers since the 15th century. In the 20th century the Caribbean was again important during World War II, in the decolonization wave after the war, and in the tension between Communist Cuba and the United States. Genocide, slavery, immigration, and rivalry between world powers have given Caribbean history an impact disproportionate to its size.
The oldest evidence of human settlement in the Caribbean has been found at Ortoiroid sites on Trinidad dating to the mid-6th millennium BC. They had reached Hispaniola and Cuba by the mid-5th millennium BCE, where their society is also known as the Casirimoid. The hunter - gatherer Guanahatabey present in western Cuba at the time of Columbus 's arrival may have represented a continuation of their culture or more recent arrivals from southern Florida or the Yucatan.
The islands were then repopulated by successive waves of invaders travelling south to north from initial bases in the Orinoco River valley. Between 400 and 200 BC, the Saladoid spread north from Trinidad, introducing agriculture and ceramic pottery. Sometime after AD 250, the Barrancoid followed and replaced them on Trinidad. This society 's settlements in the Orinoco collapsed around 650 and another group, the Arauquinoid (the later "Taíno '' or "Arawaks ''), expanded into the area and northward along the island chain. Around 1200 or 1300, a fourth group, the Mayoid (the later "Caribs ''), entered Trinidad. They remained dominant until the Spanish conquest.
At the time of the European arrival, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, The Bahamas and the Leeward Islands; the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands; and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak - speaking groups.
New scientific DNA studies have changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. Juan Martinez Cruzado, a geneticist from the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez designed an island - wide DNA survey of Puerto Rico 's people. According to conventional historical belief, Puerto Ricans have mainly Spanish ethnic origins, with some African ancestry, and distant and less significant indigenous ancestry. Cruzado 's research revealed surprising results in 2003. It found that, in fact, 61 % of all Puerto Ricans have Amerindian mitochondrial DNA, 27 % have African and 12 % Caucasian.
Soon after the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, both Portuguese and Spanish ships began claiming territories in Central and South America. These colonies brought in gold, and other European powers, most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France, hoped to establish profitable colonies of their own. Imperial rivalries made the Caribbean a contested area during European wars for centuries. In the Spanish American wars of independence in the early nineteenth century, most of Spanish America broke away from the Spanish Empire, but Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under the Spanish crown until the Spanish - American War of 1898.
During the first voyage of the explorer Christopher Columbus contact was made with the Lucayans in the Bahamas and the Taíno in Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola, and a few of the native people were taken back to Spain. Small amounts of gold were found in their personal ornaments and other objects such as masks and belts. The Spanish, who came seeking wealth, enslaved the native population and rapidly drove them to near - extinction. To supplement the Amerindian labor, the Spanish imported African slaves. (See also Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies.) Although Spain claimed the entire Caribbean, they settled only the larger islands of Hispaniola (1493), Puerto Rico (1508), Jamaica (1509), Cuba (1511), and Trinidad (1530). The Spanish made an exception in the case of the small ' pearl islands ' of Cubagua and Margarita off the Venezuelan coast because of their valuable pearl beds, which were worked extensively between 1508 and 1530.
The other European powers established a presence in the Caribbean after the Spanish Empire declined, partly due to the reduced native population of the area from European diseases. The Dutch, the French, and the British followed one another to the region and established a long - term presence. They brought with them millions of slaves imported from Africa to support the tropical plantation system that spread through the Caribbean islands.
The development of agriculture in the Caribbean required a large workforce of manual labourers, which the Europeans found by taking advantage of the slave trade in Africa. The Atlantic slave trade brought African slaves to British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the Americas, including the Caribbean. Slaves were brought to the Caribbean from the early 16th century until the end of the 19th century. The majority of slaves were brought to the Caribbean colonies between 1701 and 1810. Also in 1816 there was a slave revolution in the colony of Barbados.
The following table lists the number of slaves brought into some of the Caribbean colonies:
Abolitionists in the Americas and in Europe became vocal opponents of the slave trade throughout the 19th century. The importation of slaves to the colonies was often outlawed years before the end of the institution of slavery itself. It was well into the 19th century before many slaves in the Caribbean were legally free. The trade in slaves was abolished in the British Empire through the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807. Men, women and children who were already enslaved in the British Empire remained slaves, however, until Britain passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. When the Slavery Abolition Act came into force in 1834, roughly 700,000 slaves in the British West Indies immediately became free; other enslaved workers were freed several years later after a period of forced apprenticeship. Slavery was abolished in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo; Spain ended the slave trade to these colonies in 1817, after being paid ₤ 400,000 by Britain. Slavery itself was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.
"The official plantocratic view of slave marriage sought to deny the slaves any loving bonds or long - standing relationships, thus conveniently rationalising the indiscriminate separation of close kin through sales. '' "From the earliest days of slavery, indiscriminate sales and separation severely disrupted the domestic life of individual slaves. '' Slaves could be sold so that spouses could be sold separately. "Slave couples were sometimes separated by sale... They lived as single slaves or as part of maternal or extended families but considered themselves ' married. ' '' Sale of estates with "stock '' to pay debts, more common in the late period of slavery, was criticized as separating slave spouses. William Beckford argued for "families to be sold together or kept as near as possible in the same neighbourhood '' and "laws were passed in the late period of slavery to prevent the breakup of slave families by sale,... (but) these laws were frequently ignored ''. "Slaves frequently reacted strongly to enforced severance of their emotional bonds '', feeling "sorrow and despair '', sometimes, according to Thomas Cooper in 1820, resulting in death from distress. John Stewart argued against separation as leading slave buyers to regret it because of "despair (,)... utter despondency (,) or ' put (ting) period to their lives ' ''. Separated slaves often used free time to travel long distances to reunite for a night and sometimes runaway slaves were married couples. However, "sale of slaves and the resulting breakup of families decreased as slave plantations lost prosperity. ''
European plantations required laws to regulate the plantation system and the many slaves imported to work on the plantations. This legal control was the most oppressive for slaves inhabiting colonies where they outnumbered their European masters and where rebellion was persistent, such as Jamaica. During the early colonial period, rebellious slaves were harshly punished, with sentences including death by torture; less serious crimes such as assault, theft or persistent escape attempts were commonly punished with mutilations, such as the cutting off of a hand or a foot.
Under British rule, slaves could only be freed with the consent of their master, and therefore freedom for slaves was rare. British colonies were able to establish laws through their own legislatures, and the assent of the local island governor and the Crown. British law considered slaves to be property, and thus did not recognize marriage for slaves, family rights, education for slaves, or the right to religious practices such as holidays. British law denied all rights to freed slaves, with the exception of the right to a jury trial. Otherwise, freed slaves had no right to own property, vote or hold office, or even enter some trades.
The French Empire regulated slaves under the Code Noir (Black Code) which was in force throughout the empire, but which was based upon French practices in the Caribbean colonies. French law recognized slave marriages, but only with the consent of the master. French law, like Spanish law, gave legal recognition to marriages between European men and black or Creole women. French and Spanish laws were also significantly more lenient than British law in recognizing manumission, or the ability of a slave to purchase their freedom and become a "freeman ''. Under French law, free slaves gained full rights to citizenship. The French also extended limited legal rights to slaves, for example the right to own property, and the right to enter contracts.
The exploitation of the Caribbean landscape dates back to the Spanish conquistadors around 1600 who mined the islands for gold which they brought back to Spain. The more significant development came when Christopher Columbus wrote back to Spain that the islands were made for sugar development. The history of Caribbean agricultural dependency is closely linked with European colonialism which altered the financial potential of the region by introducing a plantation system. Much like the Spanish enslaved indigenous Indians to work in gold mines, the 17th century brought a new series of oppressors in the form of the Dutch, the English, and the French. By the middle of the 18th century sugar was Britain 's largest import which made the Caribbean that much more important as a colony.
Sugar was a luxury in Europe prior to the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessity in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes. Caribbean islands with plentiful sunshine, abundant rainfalls and no extended frosts were well suited for sugarcane agriculture and sugar factories.
Following the emancipation of slaves in 1833 in the United Kingdom, many liberated Africans left their former masters. This created an economic chaos for British owners of Caribbean sugar cane plantations. The hard work in hot, humid farms required a regular, docile and low - waged labour force. The British looked for cheap labour. This they found initially in China and then mostly in India. The British crafted a new legal system of forced labour, which in many ways resembled enslavement. Instead of calling them slaves, they were called indentured labour. Indians and southeast Asians began to replace Africans previously brought as slaves, under this indentured labour scheme to serve on sugarcane plantations across the British empire. The first ships carrying indentured labourers for sugarcane plantations left India in 1836. Over the next 70 years, numerous more ships brought indentured labourers to the Caribbean, as cheap and docile labor for harsh inhumane work. The slave labor and indentured labor - both in millions of people - were brought into Caribbean, as in other European colonies throughout the world.
The New World plantations were established in order to fulfill the growing needs of the Old World. The sugar plantations were built with the intention of exporting the sugar back to Britain which is why the British did not need to stimulate local demand for the sugar with wages. A system of slavery was adapted since it allowed the colonizer to have an abundant work force with little worry about declining demands for sugar. In the 19th century wages were finally introduced with the abolition of slavery. The new system in place however was similar to the previous as it was based on white capital and colored labor. Large numbers of unskilled workers were hired to perform repeated tasks, which made if very difficult for these workers to ever leave and pursue any non farming employment. Unlike other countries, where there was an urban option for finding work, the Caribbean countries had money invested in agriculture and lacked any core industrial base. The cities that did exist offered limited opportunities to citizens and almost none for the unskilled masses who had worked in agriculture their entire lives. The products produced brought in no profits for the countries since they were sold to the colonial occupant buyer who controlled the price the products were sold at. This resulted in extremely low wages with no potential for growth since the occupant nations had no intention of selling the products at a higher price to themselves.
The result of this economic exploitation was a plantation dependence which saw the Caribbean nations possessing a large quantity of unskilled workers capable of performing agricultural tasks and not much else. After many years of colonial rule the nations also saw no profits brought into their country since the sugar production was controlled by the colonial rulers. This left the Caribbean nations with little capital to invest towards enhancing any future industries unlike European nations which were developing rapidly and separating themselves technologically and economically from most impoverished nations of the world.
The Caribbean region was war - torn throughout much of colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were borne of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.
Piracy in the Caribbean was often a tool used by the European empires to wage war unofficially against one another. Gold plundered from Spanish ships and brought to Britain had a pivotal effect on European interest in colonizing the region.
The plantation system and the slave trade that enabled its growth led to regular slave resistance in many Caribbean islands throughout the colonial era. Resistance was made by escaping from the plantations altogether, and seeking refuge in the areas free of European settlement. Communities of escaped slaves, who were known as Maroons, banded together in heavily forested and mountainous areas of the Greater Antilles and some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. The spread of the plantations and European settlement often meant the end of many Maroon communities, although they survived on Saint Vincent and Dominica, and in the more remote mountainous areas of Jamaica, Hispaniola, Guadeloupe and Cuba.
Violent resistance broke out periodically on the larger Caribbean islands. Many more conspiracies intended to create rebellions were discovered and ended by Europeans before they could materialize. Actual violent uprisings, involving anywhere from dozens to thousands of slaves, were regular events, however. Jamaica and Cuba in particular had many slave uprisings. Such uprisings were brutally crushed by European forces.
The following table lists slave rebellions that resulted in actual violent uprisings:
Haiti, the former French colony of Saint - Domingue on Hispaniola, was the first Caribbean nation to gain independence from European powers in 1804. This followed 13 years of war that started as a slave uprising in 1791 and quickly turned into the Haitian Revolution under the leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, where the former slaves defeated the French army (twice), the Spanish army, and the British army, before becoming the world 's first and oldest black republic, and also the second - oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. This is additionally notable as being the only successful slave uprising in history. The remaining two - thirds of Hispaniola were conquered by Haitian forces in 1821. In 1844, the newly formed Dominican Republic declared its independence from Haiti.
The nations bordering the Caribbean in Central America gained independence with the 1821 establishment of the First Mexican Empire -- which at that time included the modern states of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The nations bordering the Caribbean in South America also gained independence from Spain in 1821 with the establishment of Gran Colombia -- which comprised the modern states of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama.
Cuba and Puerto Rico remained a Spanish colonies until the Spanish -- American War in 1898, after which Cuba attained its independence in 1902, and Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States, being the last of the Greater Antilles under colonial control.
Between 1958 and 1962 most of the British - controlled Caribbean was integrated as the new West Indies Federation in an attempt to create a single unified future independent state -- but it failed. The following former British Caribbean island colonies achieved independence in their own right; Jamaica (1962), Trinidad & Tobago (1962), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua & Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts & Nevis (1983).
In addition British Honduras in Central America became independent as Belize (1981), British Guiana in South America became independent as Guyana (1966), and Dutch Guiana also in South America became independent as Suriname (1975).
It should be noted that as of the early 21st century, not all Caribbean islands have become independent. Several islands continue to have government ties with European countries, or with the United States.
French overseas departments and territories include several Caribbean islands. Guadeloupe and Martinique are French overseas regions, a legal status that they have had since 1946. Their citizens are considered full French citizens with the same legal rights. In 2003, the populations of St. Martin and St. Barthélemy voted in favour of secession from Guadeloupe in order to form separate overseas collectivities of France. After a bill was passed in the French Parliament, the new status took effect on 22 February 2007.
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are officially insular areas of the United States, but are sometimes referred to as "protectorates '' of the United States. They are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior.
British overseas territories in the Caribbean include:
Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are all presently separate constituent countries, formerly part of the Netherlands Antilles. Along with Netherlands, they form the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Citizens of these islands have full Dutch citizenship.
Since the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the twentieth century this influence was extended by participation in The Banana Wars. Areas outside British or French control became known in Europe as "America 's tropical empire ''.
Victory in the Spanish -- American War and the signing of the Platt amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban revolution of 1959 relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis and successive US attempts to destabilise the island. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola (present day Dominican Republic and Haiti) for 19 years (1915 -- 34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The United States invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean - Bertrand Aristide.
In 1965, 23,000 U.S. troops landed in the Dominican Republic to quash a military coup in what was the first U.S. military intervention in Latin America in more than 30 years. President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he claimed to be a "Communist threat '', but the mission appeared ambiguous and was condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983 the United States invaded Grenada to remove populist left - wing leader Maurice Bishop. The United States maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose "area of responsibility '' is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.
As an arm of the economic and political network of the Americas, the influence of the United States stretches beyond a military context. In economic terms, the United States represents a primary market for the export of Caribbean goods. Notably, this is a recent historical trend. The post-war era reflects a time of transition for the Caribbean basin when, as colonial powers sought to disentangle from the region (as part of a larger trend of decolonization), the US began to expand its hegemony throughout the region. This pattern is confirmed by economic initiatives such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), which sought to congeal alliances with the region in light of a perceived Soviet threat. The CBI marks the emergence of the Caribbean basin as a geopolitical area of strategic interest to the US.
This relationship has carried through to the 21st century, as reflected by the Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act. The Caribbean Basin is also of strategic interest in regards to trade routes; it has been estimated that nearly half of US foreign cargo and crude oil imports are brought via Caribbean seaways. During wartime, these figures only stand to increase. It is important to note that the United States is also of strategic interest to the Caribbean. Caribbean foreign policy seeks to strengthen its participation in a global free market economy. As an extension of this, Caribbean states do not wish to be excluded from their primary market in the United States, or be bypassed in the creation of "wider hemispheric trading blocs '' that stand to drastically alter trade and production in the Caribbean Basin. As such, the US has played an influential role in shaping the Caribbean 's role in this hemispheric market. Likewise, building trade relationships with the US has always figured in strongly with the political goal of economic security in post-independence Caribbean states.
The mainstay of the Caribbean economy, sugar, has declined gradually since the beginning of the 20th century, although it is still a major crop in the region. Caribbean sugar production became relatively expensive in comparison to other parts of the world that developed their own sugar cultivation industries, making it difficult for Caribbean sugar products to compete. Caribbean economic diversification into new activities became essential to the islands.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the Caribbean islands enjoyed greater political stability. Large - scale violence was no longer a threat after the end of slavery in the islands. The British - controlled islands in particular benefited from investments in the infrastructure of colonies. By the beginning of World War I, all British - controlled islands had their own police force, fire department, doctors and at least one hospital. Sewage systems and public water supplies were built, and death rates in the islands dropped sharply. Literacy also increased significantly during this period, as schools were set up for students descended from African slaves. Public libraries were established in large towns and capital cities.
These improvements in the quality of life for the inhabitants also made the islands a much more attractive destination for visitors. Tourists began to visit the Caribbean in larger numbers by the beginning of the 20th century, although there was a tourist presence in the region as early as the 1880s. The U.S. - owned United Fruit Company operated a fleet of "banana boats '' in the region that doubled as tourist transportation. The United Fruit Company also developed hotels for tourist accommodations. It soon became apparent, however, that this industry was much like a new form of colonialism; the hotels operated by the company were fully staffed by Americans, from chefs to waitresses, in addition to being owned by Americans, so that the local populations saw little economic benefit. The company also enforced racial discrimination in many policies for its fleet. Black passengers were assigned to inferior cabins, were sometimes denied bookings, and were expected to eat meals early before white passengers. The most popular early destinations were Jamaica and the Bahamas; the Bahamas remains today the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean.
Post-independence economic needs, particularly in the aftermath of the end of preferential agricultural trade ties with Europe, led to a boom in the development of the tourism industry in the 1980s and thereafter. Large luxury hotels and resorts have been built by foreign investors in many of the islands. Cruise ships are also regular visitors to the Caribbean.
Some islands have gone against this trend, such as Cuba and Haiti, whose governments chose not to pursue foreign tourism, although Cuba has developed this part of the economy very recently. Other islands lacking sandy beaches, such as Dominica, missed out on the 20th century tourism boom, although they have recently begun to develop eco-tourism, diversifying the tourism industry in the Caribbean.
The development of offshore banking services began during the 1920s. The close proximity of the Caribbean islands to the United States has made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks. Clients from the United States take advantage of offshore banking services to avoid U.S. taxation. The Bahamas entered the financial services industry first, and continues to be at the forefront of financial services in the region. The Cayman Islands, the British Virgin Islands, and the Netherlands Antilles have also developed competitive financial services industries.
Ports both large and small were built throughout the Caribbean during the colonial era. The export of sugar on a large scale made the Caribbean one of the world 's shipping cornerstones, as it remains today. Many key shipping routes still pass through the region.
The development of large - scale shipping to compete with other ports in Central and South America ran into several obstacles during the 20th century. Economies of scale, high port handling charges, and a reluctance by Caribbean governments to privatize ports put Caribbean shipping at a disadvantage. Many locations in the Caribbean are suitable for the construction of deepwater ports for commercial ship container traffic, or to accommodate large cruise ships. The deepwater port at Bridgetown, Barbados, was completed by British investors in 1961. A more recent deepwater port project was completed by Hong Kong investors in Grand Bahama in the Bahamas.
Some Caribbean islands take advantage of flag of convenience policies followed by foreign merchant fleets, registering the ships in Caribbean ports. The registry of ships at "flag of convenience '' ports is protected by the Law of the Sea and other international treaties. These treaties leave the enforcement of labour, tax, health and safety, and environmental laws under the control of the registry, or "flag '' country, which in practical terms means that such regulations seldom result in penalties against the merchant ship. The Cayman Islands, Bahamas, Antigua, Bermuda, and St. Vincent are among the top 11 flags of convenience in the world. However, the flag of convenience practice has been a disadvantage to Caribbean islands as well, since it also applies to cruise ships, which register outside the Caribbean and thus can evade Caribbean enforcement of the same territorial laws and regulations.
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which of the following is a provision of the employee retirement income security act of 1974 (erisa) | Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 - wikipedia
The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) (Pub. L. 93 -- 406, 88 Stat. 829, enacted September 2, 1974, codified in part at 29 U.S.C. ch. 18) is a federal United States tax and labor law that establishes minimum standards for pension plans in private industry. It contains rules on the federal income tax effects of transactions associated with employee benefit plans. ERISA was enacted to protect the interests of employee benefit plan participants and their beneficiaries by:
ERISA is sometimes used to refer to the full body of laws that regulate employee benefit plans, which are mainly in the Internal Revenue Code and ERISA itself.
Responsibility for interpretation and enforcement of ERISA is divided among the Department of Labor, the Department of the Treasury (particularly the Internal Revenue Service), and the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation.
In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy created the President 's Committee on Corporate Pension Plans. The movement for pension reform gained some momentum when the Studebaker Corporation, an automobile manufacturer, closed its plant in 1963. Its pension plan was so poorly funded that Studebaker could not afford to provide all employees with their pensions. The company created a program in which 3,600 workers who had reached the retirement age of 60 received full pension benefits, 4,000 workers aged 40 -- 59 who had ten years with Studebaker received lump sum payments valued at roughly 15 % of the actuarial value of their pension benefits, and the remaining 2,900 workers received no pensions.
In 1963, Senator John L. McClellan (D) of Arkansas began an investigation through the Permanent Investigations Senate Subcommittee into labor leader George Barasch, alleging misuse and diversion of $4,000,000 of union benefit funds. After three years the investigation had failed to find any wrongdoing, but had resulted in several proposed laws, including McClellan 's October 12, 1965 bill setting new fiduciary standards for plan trustees. Additionally, due much in part to his "dismay '' over Barasch 's sole control over union benefit plan funds, Senator Jacob K. Javits (R) of New York also introduced bills in 1965 and 1967 increasing regulation on welfare and pension funds to limit the control of plan trustees and administrators and to address the funding, vesting, reporting, and disclosure issues identified by the presidential committee. His bills were opposed by business groups and labor unions, which sought to retain the flexibility they enjoyed under pre-ERISA law. Provisions from all three bills ultimately evolved into the guidelines enacted in ERISA.
On September 12, 1972, NBC broadcast an hour - long television special, Pensions: The Broken Promise, that showed millions of Americans the consequences of poorly funded pension plans and onerous vesting requirements. In the following years, Congress held a series of public hearings on pension issues and public support for pension reform grew significantly.
ERISA was enacted in 1974 and signed into law by President Gerald Ford on September 2, 1974, Labor Day. In the years since 1974, ERISA has been amended repeatedly.
ERISA does not require employers to establish pension plans. Likewise, as a general rule, it does not require that plans provide a minimum level of benefits. Instead, it regulates the operation of a pension plan once it has been established.
Under ERISA, pension plans must provide for vesting of employees ' pension benefits after a specified minimum number of years. ERISA requires that the employers who sponsor plans satisfy certain minimum funding requirements.
ERISA also regulates the manner in which a pension plan may pay benefits. For example, a defined benefit plan must pay a married participant 's pension as a "joint - and - survivor annuity '' that provides continuing benefits to the surviving spouse unless both the participant and the spouse waive the survivor coverage.
The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation was established by ERISA to provide coverage in the event that a terminated defined benefit pension plan does not have sufficient assets to provide the benefits earned by participants. Later amendments to ERISA require an employer who withdraws from participation in a multiemployer pension plan with insufficient assets to pay all participants ' vested benefits to contribute the pro rata share of the plan 's unfunded vested benefits liability.
There are two main types of pension plans: defined benefit plans and defined contribution plans. Defined benefit plans provide retirees with a certain level of benefits based on years of service, salary and other factors. Defined contribution plans provide retirees with benefits based on the amount and investment performance of contributions made by the employee and / or employer over a number of years.
ERISA does not require that an employer provide health insurance to its employees or retirees, but it regulates the operation of a health benefit plan if an employer chooses to establish one.
There have been several significant amendments to ERISA concerning health benefit plans:
Other relevant amendments to ERISA include the Newborns ' and Mothers ' Health Protection Act, the Mental Health Parity Act, and the Women 's Health and Cancer Rights Act.
During the 1990s and 2000s, many employers who promised lifetime health coverage to their retirees limited or eliminated those benefits. ERISA does not provide for vesting of health care benefits in the way that employees become vested in their accrued pension benefits. Employees and retirees who were promised lifetime health coverage may be able to enforce those promises by suing the employer for breach of contract, or by challenging the right of the health benefit plan to change its plan documents to eliminate promised benefits.
Before ERISA, some defined benefit pension plans required decades of service before an employee 's benefit became vested. It was not unusual for a plan to provide no benefit at all to an employee who left employment before the specified retirement age (e.g. 65), regardless of the length of the employee 's service.
Under the Pension Protection Act of 2006, employer contributions made after 2006 to a defined contribution plan must become vested at 100 % after three years or under a 2nd - 6th year gradual - vesting schedule (20 % per year beginning with the second year of service, i.e. 100 % after six years). (ref. 120 Stat. 988 of the Pension Protection Act of 2006.) The Technical Explanation of H.R. 4, of the PPA, Page 156 Vesting Rules, states that the PPA amends both the ERISA and Code. Different rules apply with respect to employer contributions made before 2007. Employee contributions are always 100 % vested. Accrued benefits under a defined benefit plan must become vested at 100 % after five years or under a 3rd - 7th year gradual vesting schedule (20 % per year beginning with the third year of vesting service, and 100 % after seven years). (ref. 26 U.S.C. 411 (a) (1) (B), 29 U.S.C. 203 (a) (2).)
ERISA established minimum funding requirements for pension plans, which includes defined benefit plans and money purchase plans but not profit sharing or stock bonus plans.
Before the Pension Protection Act of 2006 (PPA), a defined benefit plan maintained a funding standard account, which was charged annually for the cost of benefits earned during the year and credited for employer contributions. Increases in the plan 's liabilities due to benefit improvements, changes in actuarial assumptions, and any other reasons were amortized and charged to the account; decreases in the plan 's liabilities were amortized and credited to the account. Every year, the employer was required to contribute the amount necessary to keep the funding standard account from falling below $0 at year - end.
In 2008, when the PPA funding rules went into effect, single - employer pension plans no longer maintain funding standard accounts. The funding requirement under PPA is simply that a plan must stay fully funded (that is, its assets must equal or exceed its liabilities). If a plan is fully funded, the minimum required contribution is the cost of benefits earned during the year. If a plan is not fully funded, the contribution also includes the amount necessary to amortize over seven years the difference between its liabilities and its assets. Stricter rules apply to severely underfunded plans (called "at - risk status '').
The PPA has different funding requirements for multiemployer pension plans, which preserve most of the pre-PPA funding rules, including the funding standard account. Under PPA, increases and decreases in the plan 's liabilities are amortized, but the amortization period for benefit improvements adopted after 2007 are shortened. As with single - employer plans, multiemployer pension plans that are significantly underfunded are subject to restrictions. The restrictions, which may limit the plan 's ability to improve benefits or require the plan to reduce employees ' benefits, vary depending whether a pension plan 's funding status is termed "endangered '', "seriously endangered '', or "critical ''. The restrictions accompanying each deficient funding status are progressively more severe as funding status worsens.
ERISA Section 514 preempts all state laws that relate to any employee benefit plan, with certain, enumerated exceptions. The most important exceptions -- i.e. state laws that survive despite the fact that they may relate to an employee benefit plan -- are state insurance, banking, or securities laws, generally applicable criminal laws, and domestic relations orders that meet ERISA 's qualification requirements.
A major limitation is placed on the insurance exception, known as the "deemer clause '', which essentially provides that state insurance law can not operate on employer self - funded benefit plans. The Supreme Court has created another limitation on the insurance exception, in which even a law that regulates insurance is preempted if it purports to add a remedy to a participant or beneficiary in an employee benefit plan that ERISA did not explicitly provide.
A three - part analysis is used to decide whether ERISA preempts state law. First, preemption is presumed if the state law "relates to '' any employee benefit plan. Second, a state law relating to an employee benefit plan may be protected from preemption under ERISA if it regulates insurance, banking, or securities. The third step of the ERISA preemption analysis concerns the "deemer '' clause. State insurance regulation may be saved only to the extent that it regulates genuine insurance companies or insurance contracts. As a result, a state may not "deem '' that an employee benefit plan is an insurance plan in an effort to sidestep preemption if the benefit plan would not otherwise meet the requirements as an insurance company or contract. The "deemer '' clause therefore restricts the use of the "savings '' clause to conventionally insured employee benefit plans.
The result of ERISA preemption is that the only remedy available to a covered person who has been denied benefits or dropped from coverage altogether is to seek an order from a federal judge (no jury trial is permitted) directing the Plan (in actuality the insurance company that underwrites and administers it) to pay for "medically necessary '' care. If a person dies before the case can be heard, however, the claim dies with him or her, since ERISA provides no remedy for injury or wrongful death caused by the withholding of care.
Even if benefits are improperly denied, the insurance company can not be sued for any resulting injury or wrongful death, regardless of whether it acted in bad faith in denying benefits. Insurers operating ERISA plans enjoy several immunities not available to other types of insurance companies. ERISA preempts all conflicting state laws, including state statutes prohibiting unfair claims practices and causes of action arising under state common law for insurance bad faith. There is no right to a jury trial in ERISA benefits actions. Although Americans normally take for granted the right to testify on their behalf, plaintiffs have no right to present live testimony in ERISA bench trials, in which the judge simply reads through the documents that formed the record originally before the ERISA plan administrator and performs de novo review. Finally, punitive damages are not allowed in actions for ERISA benefits.
It has been argued that in the case of health benefits, the effect of all of this may paradoxically have been to leave plan participants worse off than if ERISA had not been enacted.
Many persons included among the some 29 million people presently without health care coverage in the United States are former ERISA "subscribers '', insurance terminology for Plan beneficiaries, who have been denied benefits - usually on the ground that the prescribed care is not medically necessary or is "experimental '' - or dropped from coverage, often because they have lost their jobs due to the very illness for which care was denied.
Many consumer and health care advocates have called for a "restoration of the freedom of contract enforcement, '' to the 75 % of Americans insured under these work place group plans - in effect, a repeal of the ERISA preemption. Permitting these insured persons access to customary state remedies (98 % of all civil disputes are resolved in state courts) would, they contend, result in a substantial reduction in arbitrary denial of care benefits, simultaneously alleviating a major burden on state Medicaid systems and clogged federal court dockets.
ERISA contains an exemption specifically regarding the Hawaii Prepaid Health Care Act (Hawaii Revised Statutes Chapter 393), which was enacted by that state a few months before ERISA was signed into law. As a result, private employers in Hawaii are bound by the rules of that state law in addition to ERISA. The exemption also freezes the law in its original 1974 form, meaning the Hawaii legislature is not able to make non-administrative amendments without Congressional approval.
Title I protects employees ' rights to their benefits. The following are some of the ways in which it achieves that goal:
Title I also includes the pension funding and vesting rules described above.
The United States Department of Labor 's Employee Benefits Security Administration ("EBSA '') is responsible for overseeing Title I, promulgating regulations implementing and interpreting the statute as well as conducting enforcement. Plan fiduciaries and plan participants may also bring certain civil causes of action in Federal Court.
The current Assistant Secretary of Labor for Employee Benefits and head of the Employee Benefits Security Administration is the Hon. Phyllis Borzi, who was confirmed on July 10, 2009 (1). Past Assistant Secretaries include the Hon. Bradford P. Campbell, the Hon. Ann L. Combs and the Hon. Olena Berg - Lacy.
Title II amended the Internal Revenue Code (IRC). The changes include the following:
Title III outlines procedures for co-ordination between the Labor and Treasury Departments in enforcing ERISA.
It also created the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries, which licenses actuaries to perform a variety of actuarial tasks required of pension plans under ERISA. The Joint Board administers two examinations to prospective Enrolled Actuaries. After an individual passes the two exams and completes sufficient relevant professional experience, she or he becomes an Enrolled Actuary.
Title IV created the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) to insure benefits of participants in underfunded terminated plans. It also describes the procedures that a pension plan must follow to terminate itself, and for the PBGC to initiate an involuntary termination.
An employer may terminate a single - employer plan under a standard termination if the plan 's assets equal or exceed its liabilities. If the assets are less than the liabilities, the employer must contribute the amount necessary to fully fund the plan. A standard termination is sometimes referred to as a voluntary termination because the employer has chosen to terminate the plan.
In a standard termination, all accrued benefits under the plan become 100 % vested. The plan must purchase annuity contracts for all participants. If the plan permits the payment of lump sums, employees may be offered the choice of a lump sum payment or an annuity.
If any assets remain in the plan after a standard termination has been completed, the provisions of the plan control their treatment. In some plans, the excess assets revert to the employer; in other plans, the excess assets must be used to increase participants ' benefits.
An employer may terminate a single - employer plan under a distress termination if the employer demonstrates to the PBGC that one of these conditions exists:
If the PBGC finds that a distress termination is appropriate, the plan 's liabilities are calculated and compared with its assets. Depending on the difference between the two values, the termination may be treated as if it had been a standard termination or as if it had been initiated by the PBGC.
PBGC may initiate proceedings to terminate a single - employer plan if it determines one of the following:
A termination initiated by the PBGC is sometimes called an involuntary termination.
The benefits paid by the PBGC after a plan termination may be less than those promised by the employer. See Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation for details.
A multiemployer plan may be terminated in one of three ways:
In 2005, the BAPCPA amended the Bankruptcy Code, by exempting most organized retirement plans, even those not subject to ERISA, and accorded them protected status, claimable as exempt property by a debtor declaring bankruptcy under the U.S. Bankruptcy Code.
Now, most pension plans have the same protection as an ERISA anti-alienation clause giving these pensions the same protection as a spendthrift trust. The only remaining unprotected areas are the SIMPLE IRA and the SEP IRA. The SEP IRA is functionally similar to a self - settle trust, and a sound policy reason would exist to not shield SEP IRAs, but many financial planners argue that a rollover (or direct transfer) from a SEP IRA to a rollover IRA would give those funds protected status, too.
Portions of ERISA are codified in various places of the United States Code, including 29 U.S.C. ch. 18, and Internal Revenue Code sections § 219 and § 408 (relating to the Individual Retirement Account) and sections § 410 through § 415, and § 4971, § 4974 and § 4975. A cross-reference between the sections of the ERISA law and the corresponding sections in the U.S. Code can be found at http://www.harp.org/erisaxref.htm.
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who played eric forman on that 70's show | Topher Grace - wikipedia
Christopher John "Topher '' Grace (/ ˈtoʊfər /; born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for playing Eric Forman in the Fox sitcom That ' 70s Show, Eddie Brock / Venom in Sam Raimi 's film Spider - Man 3, Carter Duryea in the film In Good Company, and Edwin in the 2010 film Predators.
Grace was born in New York City, the son of Pat, an assistant to the schoolmaster of the New Canaan Country School, and John Grace, a Madison Avenue executive. He has a sister, Jenny.
Grace grew up in Darien, Connecticut, where actress Kate Bosworth was a middle - school friend; and actress Chloë Sevigny -- who later appeared with him in high school stage plays -- was sometimes his babysitter.
Grace was cast as Eric Forman on Fox 's That ' 70s Show, which debuted in 1998. He played the role until season 7. His character was written out and replaced with a new character named Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers). Grace made a brief guest appearance in the final episode.
Grace plays a prep school student who uses marijuana and introduces his girlfriend to freebasing in director Steven Soderbergh 's 2000 film Traffic, as well as having uncredited cameos as himself in Soderbergh 's Ocean 's Eleven and its 2004 sequel, Ocean 's Twelve. "The joke is that you 're supposed to play the worst version of yourself and I do n't think too many people are comfortable with that. I never thought for a second that people were really going to think that 's what I was like. I think that people will know that I was faking it in those movies, '' he told Flaunt magazine in 2007.
He planned to cameo in Ocean 's Thirteen. However, due to his role in Spider - Man 3, he had to abandon these plans. As Grace said, "I was doing reshoots on Spider - Man 3. I was bummed. I actually talked to Steven Soderbergh about that and we had a thing and then I could n't do it. '' He appeared in director Mike Newell 's 2003 film Mona Lisa Smile.
In 2004, Grace played the leading roles in Win a Date with Tad Hamilton! and In Good Company. That same year, he starred in P.S., which received only a limited theatrical release. Grace won the National Board of Review 's 2004 award for Breakthrough Performance Actor for his work in In Good Company and P.S.
On January 15, 2005, Grace hosted Saturday Night Live. In 2007, Grace portrayed Eddie Brock / Venom in Spider - Man 3, directed by Sam Raimi. Grace himself was a fan of the comics and read the Venom stories as a kid. In 2009, Grace became the subject of a recurring column on the entertainment / pop culture site Videogum, entitled "What 's Up With Topher Grace? ''.
In 2010, Grace appeared in the ensemble comedy Valentine 's Day and played the character of Edwin in Predators, the newest installment of the science fiction franchise.
In 2011, Grace appeared in the 1980s retro comedy Take Me Home Tonight. He co-wrote the script and co-produced the film. Grace also starred opposite Richard Gere in the spy thriller The Double.
In 2012, Grace starred alongside Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Matthew Gray Gubler in the social film The Beauty Inside, which won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Approach to an Original Daytime Program or Series in 2013. The film was directed by Drake Doremus and written by Richard Greenberg.
In 2014, Grace starred in the indie thriller The Calling, alongside Susan Sarandon, and appeared in Christopher Nolan 's sci - fi adventure Interstellar, in a supporting role.
In October 2013, Grace joined HBO comedy pilot People In New Jersey with Sarah Silverman, but in January 2014, the pilot was passed on.
Grace co-starred in the comedy film American Ultra (2015), alongside Jesse Eisenberg and Kristen Stewart, playing a CIA agent. That same year, he co-starred in Truth, with Robert Redford and Cate Blanchett, and based on the story of CBS 's 60 Minutes report that George W. Bush had received preferential treatment to keep him out of the Vietnam War. Grace played Mike Smith, a researcher on the story.
In January 2014, Grace joined the upcoming supernatural - thriller Delirium, which centers on a man recently released from a mental institute who inherits a mansion after his parents die. After a series of disturbing events, he comes to believe it is haunted.
Grace started dating actress Ashley Hinshaw in January 2014, and the two were engaged in January 2015. On May 29, 2016, Grace and Hinshaw married near Santa Barbara, California. On August 1, 2017, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace are expecting their first child.
Grace is a supporter of FINCA International, a microfinance organization.
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when did the state abbreviations change to 2 letters | Canadian postal abbreviations for provinces and territories - wikipedia
Canadian provincial and territorial postal abbreviations are used by Canada Post in a code system consisting of two capital letters, to represent the 13 provinces and territories on addressed mail. These abbreviations allow automated sorting.
ISO 3166 - 2: CA identifiers ' second elements are all the same as these; ISO adopted the existing Canada Post abbreviations.
These abbreviations are not the source of letters in Canadian postal codes, which are assigned by Canada Post on a different basis than these abbreviations. While postal codes are also used for sorting, they allow extensive regional sorting. In addition, several provinces have postal codes that begin with different letters.
The codes replaced the inconsistent traditional system used by Canadians until the 1990s. Apart from the postal abbreviations, there are no officially designated traditional (or standard) abbreviations for the provinces. Natural Resources Canada, however, maintains a list of such abbreviations which are recommended for "general purpose use '' and are also used in other official contexts, such as the census conducted by Statistics Canada. Some of the French versions included a hyphen. Nunavut (created in 1999) does not have a designated abbreviation because it did not exist when these codes were phased out, though some can be found in other official works.
The sources of the postal abbreviations vary. Some are from the initials of two of the words in the name of a province or territory, while others are from the first and final letter or from the first and some other letter in the name. All of these names are based on the English form of the name, though they also correspond to their French equivalents in various ways (for example, NT could be read for the first and last letters of Nord - Ouest, instead of Northwest Territories). For Quebec and New Brunswick, the two provinces with large numbers of French - speakers, the initials in both languages are identical. French equivalents of each abbreviation once existed: see Traditional abbreviations.
These abbreviations are fully compatible with the equivalent two - letter codes used for states and territorial areas of the United States, because no abbreviations overlap. The policy of not overlapping adjacent - country abbreviations, which helps the postal processing systems to avoid dealing with naming collisions, precludes use of NV for Nunavut (compare NV for Nevada) and TN for Terre - Neuve / Terra Nova / Newfoundland (compare TN for Tennessee). Manitoba 's abbreviation, MB, is due to U.S. states already having abbreviations in all of the letters of the province 's name besides "B ''. This policy later became a formal agreement between Canada Post and the USPS. The USPS changed the abbreviation for the U.S. state of Nebraska from NB to NE in November 1969 to avoid a conflict with New Brunswick.
The Canadian policy of adopting province abbreviations that did not overlap with the state abbreviations of adjacent countries differed from the situation in Mexico, where two - letter combinations for Mexican states were chosen by various competing commercial organizations (in the absence of any official Correos de México list) regardless of whether that combination was already in use in the United States or Canada, e.g., CO (Coahuila / Colorado), MI (Michoacán / Michigan), MO (Morelos / Missouri), NL (Nuevo León / Newfoundland and Labrador), BC (Baja California / British Columbia).
ISO 3166 - 2, an international standard, offers an alternative with globally unique administrative division identifiers, whose division elements are all between 1 and 3 letters long. This is very useful for software and web development, although it may be moot for established postal systems. Its codes for Canada, the U.S., and Mexico are listed at ISO 3166 - 2: CA, ISO 3166 - 2: US, and ISO 3166 - 2: MX, respectively.
Newfoundland and Labrador 's "NL '' abbreviation became effective 21 October 2002 to reflect the provincial name change from "Newfoundland '' to "Newfoundland and Labrador '' on 6 December 2001.
In 1991, the code for Quebec was changed from PQ to QC.
Nunavut 's code became effective 13 December 2000; before this date, but after Nunavut 's creation on 1 April 1999, the abbreviation "NT '' was used for Nunavut as well as the Northwest Territories. Canadian postal codes begin with "X '' for both NT and NU, the only two territorial or provincial jurisdictions to share the same initial postal code letter. However, the new code NU was chosen to stem possible confusion and to reflect the new territory 's creation.
Source: Canadian Addressing Guide
John Doe 27 - 1643 DUNDAS ST W TORONTO ON M6K 1V2
For International mail:
John Doe 1643 DUNDAS ST W APT 27 TORONTO ON M6K 1V2 CANADA
Note that the street type, unit type, and city quadrant, if applicable, are abbreviated, without periods (though using periods, or even spelling out every word in its entirety, is unlikely to affect delivery in any way). Note also, for domestic mail, the lack of a comma between municipality and province / territory, the double space between the latter and the postal code, and the single space between segments of postal code, all on one line. For domestic mail, this must be the last line of the address, while for international mail, it is followed by a final line giving only the unabbreviated country name. Addresses should be done in all - upper - case without punctuation, and the unit number may follow street number, with a suitable unit identifier, e.g., "1643 DUNDAS ST W APT 27 '' using the above example.
The last line of the address block area must include only the complete country name (no abbreviations) written in uppercase letters. Foreign postal codes, if used, should be placed on the line above the destination country. The following shows the order of information for the destination address
LINE 1: NAME OF ADDRESSEE LINE 2: STREET ADDRESS OR POST OFFICE BOX NUMBER LINE 3: CITY OR TOWN NAME, OTHER PRINCIPAL SUBDIVISION (such as PROVINCE, STATE, or COUNTRY) AND POSTAL CODE (IF KNOWN) (Note: in some countries, the postal code may precede the city or town name) LINE 4: COUNTRY NAME (UPPERCASE LETTERS IN ENGLISH)
From the USPS IMM 122.1 Destination address To Canada, there must be two spaces between the province abbreviation and the postal code, as shown below between "ON '' and "K1A 0B1 '': The following format should always be used for destination addresses to Canada:
MS HELEN SAUNDERS 1010 CLEAR STREET OTTAWA ON K1A 0B1 CANADA
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who played gaston in beauty and the beast 1991 | Gaston (Disney) - wikipedia
Gaston is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). Voiced by American actor and singer Richard White, Gaston is an arrogant hunter whose unrequited feelings for the intellectual Belle drive him to murder his adversary, the Beast, once he realizes she cares for him instead. Gaston serves as a foil personality to the Beast, who was once as vain as Gaston prior to his transformation.
An original character who is not present in the Beauty and the Beast fairy tale by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont upon which the film is based, Gaston was inspired by Avenant, a character filmmaker Jean Cocteau created specifically for his 1946 film adaptation of the story. Created by screenwriter Linda Woolverton, who based the character on some of the ex-boyfriends she dated in her past, Gaston was developed specifically for Disney 's adaptation of Beauty and the Beast because the studio felt that the film could benefit from a strong villain, who is lacking in the original fairy tale. As the character evolved from a nonthreatening aristocrat into an arrogant hunter relentlessly seeking Belle 's hand in marriage, Gaston ultimately replaced a female relative of Belle 's who the filmmakers had originally created to serve as the film 's villain.
Both Disney and supervising animator Andreas Deja initially struggled with the concept of animating a handsome villain, which had never been attempted by the studio before. Deja ultimately based Gaston 's appearance on those of handsome soap opera actors in order to create a grotesque version of the Prince Charming stock character, while some of White 's own operatic mannerisms were incorporated into the character. Gaston both physically and emotionally embodies hypermasculinity. In direct contrast to his adversary the Beast, Gaston is depicted as handsome with an unattractive personality. Gaston has been generally positively received by film critics, although some of them dismissed the character as an inferior, less memorable villain than some of the studio 's previous efforts. Considered to be one of Disney 's most famous villains, Gaston is frequently ranked within the top - tens of Disney villain rankings released by several media publications.
Gaston is one of several elements unique to Disney 's animated adaptation of the "Beauty and the Beast '' fairy tale, written by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont. Under Richard and Jill Purdum 's direction, Gaston originally resembled a "foppish aristocrat '' as opposed to the strong, arrogant hunter he would ultimately be revised into; The Huffington Post described early drafts of Gaston as "a weaselly, sort of wimpy character ''. In fact, Gaston was originally intended to resemble more of an annoying than antagonistic character, while the main villainous role belonged to Belle 's aunt Marguerite instead, who plotted to force Belle into marrying Gaston. This version of Gaston was abandoned along with much of the original film treatment 's elements, including Marguerite, at the behest of Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg.
After Katzenberg insisted that development on the film be completely overhauled, the studio ultimately decided to incorporate elements from filmmaker Jean Cocteau 's 1946 film adaptation of the fairy tale into their own version of Beauty and the Beast. Gaston, a character who does not exist in the original fairy tale, was among several elements borrowed from the live - action version of the story, based on a character Cocteau himself had created specifically for his film: Avenant, portrayed by French actor Jean Marais who also plays the Beast in a duo role. Similar to Cocteau 's addition of Avenant, Gaston was created for the animated adaptation because Disney felt that the story could potentially benefit from a legitimate villain, which the original text lacks, in addition to instilling Beauty and the Beast with a more prominent element of danger. With Marguerite completely eliminated, Gaston replaced her and ultimately became a more formidable villain. Musicals in Film: A Guide to the Genre author Thomas S. Hischak observed that Gaston himself had been developed as "a new kind of Disney villain '' because he is introduced as a harmless, comic individual who gradually changes and evolves into a much more sinister character as the film progresses. With its handsome villain and liberated heroine, both of whom had been developed into fully realized, multi-dimensional characters, finally established, Beauty and the Beast 's storyline began to solidify. However, some filmmakers continued to contest whether or not Gaston was actually a strong enough villain.
In addition to eliminating Belle 's sisters, screenwriter and creator Linda Woolverton introduced Gaston as a "blockheaded suitor '' for the heroine, basing the character on boyfriends she had dated in the past. Several darker elements originally conceived for the film were ultimately written out of the final version, among them the idea of Gaston himself first visiting the insane asylum in which he plans on imprisoning Belle 's father Maurice. After Woolverton re-wrote Belle into a more liberated Disney heroine, the animators struggled to realize the screenwriter 's vision and briefly depicted the character shoving Gaston into a closet after he proposes to her, an idea Woolverton strongly contested and fought to have written out of the film in favor of Belle rejecting her suitor 's proposal in a less "bitchy '' way. During Gaston and the Beast 's climatic battle, the character was originally intended to yell "Time to die! '' to his opponent, but the writers ultimately replaced this line with "Belle is mine! '' in order to return some of the scene 's focus to the heroine of the story, over whom the two men are fighting. Additionally, Gaston 's death was originally intended to have resulted from him being eaten alive by wolves after surviving his fall from the Beast 's castle, suffering only a broken leg; this idea was ultimately discarded and eventually resurrected for Scar 's death in The Lion King (1994). The writers also briefly deliberated having Gaston kill himself once he realizes that Belle will never love him, but this idea was also quickly discarded. Small skulls were drawn in Gaston 's eyes as he descends from the Beast 's castle to confirm that he does, in fact, die from his fall.
Disney hosted an open casting call for the character, which several actors attended. Among the actors who auditioned for the role was Rupert Everett, who Disney decided not to cast because the filmmakers felt that he did not sound arrogant enough to voice such a proud character; Everett would ultimately go on to voice Prince Charming, a similar character who appears in the Shrek film series, using the critique of not sounding arrogant enough to play Gaston to secure the role. American actor and opera singer Richard White was selected to voice Gaston. His initial audition was first recorded on audio cassette, a copy of which was then forwarded to Disney. White 's feature film debut, the actor recalled that lyricist and executive producer Howard Ashman guided him through discovering how he would approach voicing Gaston without telling him exactly how to do it, describing having the opportunity to voice a character like Gaston as "freeing... cathartic, in a way ''. Although White did not feel like it was necessary for him to physically "become '' his character in order to voice him, in retrospect, he admits that he acted much more like Gaston during recording sessions. Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune compared White 's "brash '' vocal performance to that of actor Howard Keel.
Andreas Deja served as Gaston 's supervising animator. The first villainous character to whom Deja had been assigned by Disney, the animator immediately recognized that Gaston was unique in terms of Disney villains because he was not designed to frighten both the film 's hero and audience, as previous Disney villains had been. In the case of Gaston, Deja stated that viewers are unable to immediately decipher whether or not the character is actually an antagonist based on his physical appearance alone. White agreed that Gaston is "full of himself, of course, but he 's not recognizably villainous '' until his opinions and expectations of Belle are further explored. Deja initially struggled with the idea of designing a "supremely handsome '' villain, a specific instruction administered to him by Katzenberg, but he eventually grew to understand the concept upon studying the film 's underlying themes of not judging a book by its cover and "deceptive appearances ''. Deja explained, "I understood him from a story point of view, but visually was hard '', and at times argued with Katzenberg over whether or not the character was handsome enough. Some Disney executives also shared Deja 's initial hesitation over the character 's appearance. Deja ultimately overcame his deliberations about the character 's appearance by modeling Gaston based on handsome soap opera actors, a creative decision Katzenberg approved of, explaining to the animator "the story we 're trying to tell here is do n't judge a book by its cover, so Gaston has to have the opposite qualities of the Beast... no one said it was going to be easy! ' ''.
White 's casting ultimately influenced Gaston 's design; the animators adjusted the character 's appearance after hearing White 's operatic singing voice for the first time, making Gaston similarly operatic in his movements, gestures and mannerisms. According to White, Gaston 's early designs initially looked "much more Brutish '' before the animators ultimately decided to go in a "more beautiful '' direction, basing the character "on a grotesque version '' of the Prince Charming character. Describing the design process as highly collaborative between actor and animator, White would record his lines while the animators drew his character, alternating back and forth for several months. This process allowed the animators to incorporate White 's acting performance into Gaston. Because White continued to perform on Broadway while working on Beauty and the Beast, Disney would accommodate his stage career by hiring a studio to work wherever he was located. White recalled, "The experience is kind of like an actor 's sandbox. You 're in a room by yourself and are invited to be as creative as you can be. Anything you could imagine... they could draw! '' In his book Tradigital Animate CC: 12 Principles of Animation in Adobe Animate, author Stephen Brooks observed that Deja 's challenge "was to let (audiences) know that Gaston is not as courageous as everyone says he is... but also keep him a real and credible threat '' since he is a villain nonetheless.
Both Gaston 's personality and physical appearance evolved dramatically during production over the course of two and a half years. Originally drawn by Deja to resemble a "brute '', White revealed that earlier versions of Gaston varied from "fat and sloppy '' to a character based on actor Errol Flynn with a mustache. Deja incorporated physical attributes of several of Disney 's "classic '' villains into Gaston 's design, specifically the wide chest and square jawline of Captain Hook from Peter Pan (1953). One particular challenge of animating a realistic - looking character like Gaston was the difficulty of having him express certain emotions that would not result in him looking too "cartoony '', but at the same time trying to instill the character 's performance with "life ''. Gaston 's experssions were exaggerated to the point of which they exceeded normalcy, essentially "overacting. '' Deja recalled that he was constantly "walking a fine line by drawing and animating Gaston in subtle ways, yet he also had to be able to articulate emotions like arrogance, anger and evil. '' To make Gaston a multi-dimensional character, Deja worked to incorporate various "expressions - the sarcasm, the broadness and the expressiveness - that the handsome leading man seldom gets to show ''. According to Den of Geek 's Simon Brew, Gaston is "animated really carefully, as it would have been easy to slip, and allow us to see the less jovial, more sinister side of his character earlier. '' Deja maintains "a real discipline here in holding Gaston back, to let the audience hook into him, before allowing his gradual slide. '' Deja also exaggerated Gaston 's proportions to help audiences believe that the character could actually physically face the beast head - on. In terms of research, Deja sought inspiration from male Los Angeles residents who constantly adore themselves, observing them as they fix their hair and admire themselves in mirrors, explaining, "It was fun to observe them and bring some of that attitude to Gaston. '' Creating the character 's chest hair, which he exposes during his performance of "Gaston '', was a fiercely debated subject among animators. Deja described early renditions of the character 's chest hair as "peculiar '' in design because of the way in which it was comed, "from the inside out. '' The final version was decided via a contest, in which the animators vied to determine who could best design Gaston 's chest hair. Colors were used to indicate characters ' emotions and affiliations in the film; while Gaston is dressed in red to represent evil, Belle and the Beast wear blue to depict goodness. Following Gaston 's success, Deja would develop a reputation of animating Disney villains, continuing with Jafar from Aladdin (1992) and Scar from The Lion King (1994).
Gaston is depicted as a very narcissistic, self - centered and superficial individual, motivated by extreme jealousy. Identified as the film 's villain by the Orlando Sentinel 's Joy Boyar, Gaston is not ugly in appearance, nor does he realize that he himself is a villain until approximately midway through the film and during "The Mob Song '', a musical number he uses to convince his loyal followers to storm the Beast 's castle and kill him, although traces of his villainy are first hinted after he proposes to Belle. Simon Brew of Den of Geek attributes Gaston 's increasing villainy to "his raging jealousy and insecurity '' that ultimately "transforms him into the story 's antagonist '' after he finally succumbs to "circumstance (s) of his life ''. The character 's villainy peaks after he attempts to have Maurice incarcerated, although his transformation remains far from complete. Further distinguishing Gaston from the villains in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Sleeping Beauty (1959) and The Little Mermaid (1989), respectively, the character does not undergo a hideous physical transformation before he dies. Mania. com 's Rob Vaux observed that Gaston is "small - minded '' in comparison to other Disney villains because his ideas tend to resemble those of school bullies, particularly one whose ego has been inflated "by the people around him '', as opposed to "grand schemes ''; the character has no known desire to conquer the world, lacking ambitions beyond simply marrying the woman he is attracted to. The character is also void of both magical powers and political influence. The Huffington Post 's Lauren Duca agreed that Gaston is "more aggressively intolerable than horrifying. ''
Beloved by nearly every character in the film, most of whom revere him as the town 's most eligible bachelor, Decent Films film critic Steven D. Greydanus agreed that Gaston initially resembles "merely the ultimate dumb jock ''. Gaston 's bodybuilder physique serves as a deliberate exaggeration upon "the stereotyped image of male beauty ''; The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook author Jerry Griswold compared the character 's appearance to actors Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger, while the Chicago Tribune 's Gene Siskel described him as a "Robert Goulet clone on steroids. '' Tradigital Animate CC: 12 Principles of Animation in Adobe Animate author Stephen Brooks likened Gaston 's exaggerated facial expressions to the way in which people "give away their lies as they try to overcompensate. '' According to From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture author Elizabeth Bell, Gaston "functions... to contrast to the Beast '', whose personality ultimately helps make the Beast a more appealing hero despite the latter character 's own flaws. While the Beast maintains "a heart of gold '' despite being hideous in appearance, Gaston boasts a handsome exterior but remains "rotting on the inside ''; the Beast risks becoming like Gaston on the inside if he fails to change his ways. Gaston represents "the difference between outward beauty and beauty of the soul '', one of the film 's central themes. The fact that Gaston 's cruel nature is not mirrored by his handsome exterior "further emphasiz (es) the film 's message about inner beauty. '' A visual reference to the Beast 's "half - man, half - animal '' appearance, Gaston 's body is temporarily attached to a pig 's head when he falls into a large mud puddle upon having his marriage proposal rejected by Belle. Ultimately, although Gaston mortally wounds the Beast, he is still unable to kill the human who continues to thrive within him. In the end, Gaston becomes the monster the Beast was originally depicted as, and his failure "to transform into a New Man '' ultimately results in his own death. At the same time, Gaston 's cowardice is demonstrated by his decision to stab the Beast in the back immediately after the reformed creature offers him a choice to walk away unharmed.
From very early during the film, audiences are led to expect that Gaston 's obsession with Belle will eventually drive him to battle the Beast, Belle 's love interest and protector. Despite their obvious differences, Gaston and the Beast boast several similarities, namely their shared interest in Belle -- Gaston 's climatic fight with the Beast is driven by the fact that both characters are in love with the same person, albeit differently -- exaggerated musculature, and respective goals motivated by their own insecurities. Additionally, both characters use Belle 's loyalty to her father to manipulate her. The scene in which Gaston sits in his large chair in the village tavern is a reference to him and the Beast 's similarities. Decorated with fur and horns, Gaston 's chair resembles the Beast when viewed from behind. In his book The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook, author Jerry Griswold observed that "given the dramatic contrast between Gaston and the Beast... the title of the film may actually refer to them alone. '' In her book Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, author Phyllis Frus observed that the villain 's subtle, entirely non-physical transformation into a more demonic version of himself forces the character to suffer a "loss of humanity '', in the end justifying his ultimate death. By the end of the film, Gaston has essentially traded places with the Beast, the latter of whom was originally depicted as the story 's antagonist. Frus elaborated, "few viewers predict that '' Gaston "will finish the film snarling like an animal... before falling to his death '', concluding that the character "does not need to magically turn into a beast at the end because, as a male, he is already ' beastly '. ''
Beauty and the Beast parodies the idea of excessive masculinity, a trait shared by both Gaston and the Beast. Obsessed with his own virility, Gaston shares several opinions associated with "the hyper - masculine male '', boasting many "traditionally heroic '' qualities and beliefs. Representing "everything that can go wrong in the heterosexual male '' according to The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook author Jerry Griswold, Gaston is essentially a caricature of hypermasculinity; he proudly hunts, drinks, fights, spits, bullies and lies in addition to being shallow and ignorant, exuding what are considered to be some of the worst masculine traits. Gaston intimidates and threatens anyone opposed to his ideas, and actively attends male social gatherings via which he can exercise his "alpha male '' status. Extremely egotistical, Gaston appears to pride himself as the greatest at any task he attempts. Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun wrote, "at the foundation of (Gaston) 's personality is something that is merely hinted at in conventional star personas: an overweening vanity. He 's in love with the face in the mirror, and the pathology of male vanity is a very ' 90s idea. ''
Gaston is Disney 's most chauvinistic villain to - date, although this trait is approached with humor, making him at times a comic relief character early on, unlike Disney 's previous villains. According to Yahoo! Movies ' Will Perkins, Gaston believes that "he 's God 's gift to women and the world. '' Referred to as a personification of misogyny, Gaston is accustomed to acquiring anything he desires, and believes he deserves to marry Belle only because she is considered to be the most beautiful girl in his hometown, and thus "the best. '' According to Practicing Passion: Youth and the Quest for a Passionate Church author Kenda Creasy Dean, the character "only understands love as self - fulfillment, which allows him to perpetrate domination, viciousness and violence '' in pursuit of it. Greg Garrett, author of The Gospel According to Hollywood, determined that Gaston serves as "a reminder that what the world loves is not worth emulating ''. Determined to win Belle as a trophy wife, Gaston never attains her; the character 's ego is sorely bruised when his vision of a provincial life is threatened by Belle 's rejection, only augmenting his determination to marry her at whatever cost, and bringing his insecurities to the forefront for the first time. Gaston fails to understand Belle 's passion for reading. Gaston effectively uses his charm, good looks and a fabricated image of the Beast to rally the entire village against his opponent, demonstrating his ability to convince others that he is a gentleman despite never actually having shown concern for anyone other than himself; only Belle remains unfazed by Gaston 's facade and uncovers his true nature, further highlighting the heroine 's strength and independence. Opposed to the idea of women reading, Gaston believes that he 'll be able to "cure '' Belle of her thirst for intellect after marrying her, although at the same time these same passions appear to heighten his interest in her. The film makes sure that Gaston 's opinions about women are viewed as little more than "boorish ''; Woolverton wanted Gaston to teach young boys "how not to treat women ''.
As a strong leader, Gaston is able to convince a large following to do as he commands and trigger conformity and bigotry in others, although he remains incapable of implementing such ideas on his own. Richard Corliss of Time observed that the character 's "bigotry, for wanting to marry Belle because she 's the prettiest girl in town... corrodes into malevolence when he consigns Belle 's eccentric father to an asylum and leads the ignorant villagers on a torches - and - pitchforks crusade, '' which has been compared to scenes from the horror film Frankenstein (1931). Brett Seegmiller of Medium compared Gaston 's leadership skills to those of German politician Adolph Hitler because he combines "a call to action with the command to follow him... after he 's whetted our appetites for some action. '' Additionally, author Jerry Griswold wrote in his book The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook that Gaston 's hypermasculinity potentially "amounts to a resistance to his own homosexuality '' (after all, he is in love with himself), comparing him to Lester Burnham 's homophobic neighbor in the film American Beauty (1999). Toying with gender expectations, Gaston 's masculinity is depicted as ridiculous, while Belle becomes drawn to the Beast 's "gentle vulnerability ''. The Beast gifting Belle a library further emphasizes the differences between the two male characters because Gaston frowns upon reading, accusing the activity of giving women ideas and allowing them to think for themselves as opposed to solely bearing children. Ultimately, Gaston and the Beast embody bad and good masculinity, respectively; the characters are used "to play the New Age sensitive man off against the macho man, '' according to Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature author John Stephens.
Gaston debuted in Beauty and the Beast as an arrogant hunter who is determined to marry Belle, whom he considers to be the village 's most beautiful woman. However, she refuses his proposal when he throws a wedding party without her prior knowledge. Belle is the only one in town who actually dislikes Gaston for the person he is inside. Thoroughly humiliated, he sulks, but when her father Maurice shows up saying that she has been captured by a hideous Beast, he comes up with the idea of having him thrown into an insane asylum, unless Belle agrees to marry him. His plan fails when Belle proves the Beast does exist, and she says that he is her friend, and that he is a better person than Gaston. He becomes jealous, snaps, and decides to gather a band of villagers to kill the Beast, playing off their fears that the Beast might wreak havoc on their village. In the ensuing fight, he shoots the Beast with an arrow and beats him down, taunting him about his appearance, and still refusing to believe that Belle will not marry him. The Beast has no heart to fight until he sees that Belle came back for him, at which point he easily overpowers Gaston and intends to kill him. However, when Gaston begs for his life, the Beast decides to be the better man and have mercy, and climbs back up to Belle. Gaston then stabs the Beast in the back, but loses his balance when the Beast swings his arm backwards at him; consequently, Gaston dies from the fall.
Gaston appears in the 2017 remake as played by Welsh actor Luke Evans. During an interview with Empire magazine, Evans said that Gaston would retain his hunter background, yet would also be a former soldier in the French army. He also implied that this version of Gaston is darker than the original. In the film, Gaston plays out the same role as in the animated movie, though with a few differences. Bored with his peaceful life after returning from the war, Gaston pursues Belle, determined to marry her, as she is the most beautiful girl in the village and the only one good enough for him. He also finds her independence to be a thrilling challenge, and shows obvious disgust with the bimbettes who constantly fawn over him purely because of his appearance. He accosts her at her home, subtly offering his hand in marriage for when Maurice dies, but she turns him down. Gaston sulks in the tavern until LeFou cheers him up with a song. Maurice appears, claiming that Belle has been imprisoned by the Beast. Intrigued, Gaston offers to help Maurice free her as means of gaining both Maurice and Belle 's favor. Gaston comes to doubt Maurice 's claims and reveals the only reason for helping him was so he could give Gaston Belle 's hand in marriage. When Maurice refuses to allow Gaston to marry Belle, Gaston ties him to a tree, leaving him to the wolves. He hopes by doing this, it would coerce Belle into marrying him, as he tells Lefou that after Maurice dies there will be no one to take care of Belle except for him. Maurice later accuses Gaston of his crime, but Gaston fools the people into thinking Maurice is mad and arranges for him to be locked up in the asylum. He privately offers to put a stop to it if he lets him marry Belle, but Maurice still refuses. When Belle turns up and proves the Beast 's existence with the mirror, Gaston 's jealousy drives him to rally the people to storm the castle and kill the Beast but not before he orders Tom, Dick, and Stanley to lock Belle alongside her father to prevent her from warning the Beast. He confronts the Beast alone and shoots him multiple times. Belle appears and the Beast fights back, holding Gaston over a chasm, but Gaston begs for mercy and is spared. Instead of leaving, Gaston stands on a nearby bridge and shoots the Beast again, fatally. In response to the Beast 's life fading, the castle begins to crumble and the bridge where Gaston is standing breaks into pieces, sending Gaston falling to his death. Unlike in the animated movie, Gaston 's death is shown onscreen.
Gaston appears in Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, which premiered at the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on April 18, 1994. The role was originated by actor Burke Moses, who received a nomination for a Drama Desk Award and won a Theatre World Award. Besides the songs "Belle '', "Gaston '', and "Kill the Beast '' (which were from the Disney movie), Gaston performs "Me '' (in which he self - centeredly proposes to Belle), "Gaston (Reprise) '' (which was expanded to have Gaston and Lefou sing about his wicked plan, with Gaston also admitting he "wo n't feel the least bit remorseful '' so long as it works), and "Maison de Lunes '' (in which he recruits the asylum owner to have Maurice committed). In the Melbourne stage production of the film, he was played by Hugh Jackman. Notable actors who have played the role on Broadway include Burke Moses, Marc Kudisch, Christopher Sieber, and Donny Osmond.
Gaston is also featured in the Marvel Comics serial for Beauty and the Beast, taking place during Belle 's stay at the castle. He generally served as comic relief and effectively the "protagonist '' of the village B - stories, where he is trying to come up with some scheme to get Belle to marry him, only for the triplets to interfere and sabotage his plans in order to get him to focus on them over Belle. He also appears in an expanded role in Serena Valentino 's 2014 book The Beast Within: A Tale Of Beauty 's Prince, which takes place prior to the start of the original film. In the novel, Gaston and the Beast are portrayed as childhood friends, with the curse erasing Gaston 's memory of the prince. He has a brief cameo in the fourth Kingdom Keepers book, where he alongside Prince John and Horned King were present with the Overtakers at Tom Sawyer Island. He also had a section dedicated to himself in the tongue - in - cheek book Villain Files alongside the other Disney Villains, with it implying that his meeting Belle was during archery practice. He also was in Descendants: Isle of the Lost, the tie - in novel to Descendants, where he had to belle as their wife and had two sons, whom he evidently named after himself due to his egomania. They also shared his egomania to some extent, but were comparatively kinder than their father.
Gaston has appeared in the television series Disney 's House of Mouse, and was voiced again by White. The character also makes sporadic appearances in Sing Me a Story with Belle, mostly acting as a comedic foil, always stating "No one (insert action) like Gaston! '' while walking by, rudely interrupting people 's conversations and this phrase is frequently used as rip - offs by other characters. A live - action version of Gaston appears in two episodes of the fantasy television series Once Upon a Time, in which he is first portrayed by Sage Brocklebank and later by Wes Brown. The first was in the first season, where he was Belle 's fiancé and attempted to save Belle from Rumplestiltskin, but got transfigured into a rose. The second time was in the fifth season, where he befriended Belle. He was depicted in a more lighter manner compared to the original movie, where it is implied that his love for Belle was genuine.
He is included in the 1993 video game adaptations Beauty & The Beast: Belle 's Quest and Beauty & The Beast: Roar of the Beast. Although he acted as the main antagonist for both games, he also acted as an ally character in the former, using his strength to help in a task early in the game. In the Disney Princess video game, he acts as the main antagonist of Belle 's chapter. Like in the film, he attempts to rabblerouse the villagers into attacking the castle. This time, however, he simply tries to convince the villagers the castle was evil and of dark magic, and thus needed to be destroyed, and to that end tried to abduct Mrs. Potts, Chip, Cogsworth, and Lumiere to act as proof. However, Belle outsmarted him. He also had a mention in Kinect Disneyland Adventures, and also appeared briefly as a disguise for the villain Misrabel in Epic Mickey: Power of Illusion. Gaston also appears as a non-playable character in the Kingdom Hearts video game series as an antagonist who controls an army of Heartless.
Gaston has received generally favorable reviews from film critics. Simon Brew of Den of Geek was very receptive towards the character: "thanks to a mix of humour, believable character development, compelling motivation and the excellent voicing work of Richard White (proving you do n't need a big movie star on voice duties), he 's an utterly compelling antagonist, and an extremely interesting one. '' Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman hailed Gaston as "a wonderful character '', while The Daily Beast lauded the character as "a triumphantly funny villain ''. The New York Times ' Janet Maslin described Gaston 's "fatuousness '' as "well conveyed '' while praising White 's performance, writing that the actor "do (es) wonders in bringing... Gaston to life. '' Writing for IndieWire, Drew Taylor felt the fact that Gaston is "a strapping cad '' as opposed to a witch or hideous creature contributes to making the film "a wholly unique experience ''. Reviewing the film 25 years after its original theatrical release, Creative Loafing 's Matt Brunson admitted that he "never grow (s) tired of watching the boorish Gaston ''. The Seattle Times ' John Hartl called White "hilarious '' as Gaston.
However, critical opinions of Gaston have been rather lackluster in comparison to those of other, more acclaimed Disney villains; reviewers generally prefer Scar, Maleficent and Jafar. While dubbing Gaston 's characterization "one of the movie 's cleverest touches '', at the same time Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun felt that the character lacks the charisma of some of Disney 's earlier female villains, namely the Evil Queen and Cruella de Vil from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1964), respectively. Times ' Richard Corliss called Gaston "a way - too - handsome galoot '' and "Dudley Do - Right gone wrong. '' Hal Hinson of The Washington Post felt that Gaston was "overbearing '' because "everything about him is comically exaggerated and satirized to the point that you feel as if the cleft in his chin might swallow you whole. '' In her book From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture, author Elizabeth Bell reviewed Gaston as a "Chauvinist Pig, the kind that would turn the women of any primetime talkshow audience into beasts themselves. '' Similarly, The Media and the Models of Masculinity author Mark Moss accused the character of uttering "the most anachronistic nonsense heard on the screen for quite some time. '' JoBlo.com reviewed Gaston as an "inferior villain '', writing, "While White 's performance is terrific, the character itself is ultimately basic and bland. '' Jaime N. Christley of Slant Magazine dismissed the character as juvenile and little more than the film "reducing every aspect of its source material to the level a kindergartner would understand ''. Film critic Roger Ebert described Gaston as too "insufferable '' as he "degenerates... from a chauvinist pig to a sadistic monster '', but at the same time cited White among the film 's "gifted cast ''.
Gaston is considered to be one of Disney 's "classic '' villains, as well as one of the studio 's most famous. Prior to Gaston 's debut, virtually every Disney villain before him had been unattractive in appearance; Den of Geek writer Simon Brew holds Gaston accountable for changing the reputation of future Disney villains. The character 's villainy tends to resonate with audiences more than those of other Disney villains because fans can often identify someone similar to him in real life. Medium contributor Brett Seegmiller strongly believes that "Gaston is one of the best villains in the Disney canon '' because audiences both respect and fear him, as well as the best leader in his opinion. MTV crowned Gaston "Disney 's smarmiest villain '', while Thomas S. Hischak, author of Musicals in Film: A Guide to the Genre, dubbed him "one of Disney 's most fiendish human villains ''. Crowning the character the "Most Terrifying Disney Villain of All '', Bustle 's Mary Grace Garis praised Gaston 's depiction of a misogynistic villain: "because Gaston is the walking embodiment of patriarchy at it 's most comically aggressive, anyone... from a 3 - year - old to a 23 - year - old can look at him and be like, ' THAT. That 's the enemy. ', '' with Gaston being easier to relate to than other Disney villains due to him lacking "magic power or political influence '' and being "just your everyday alpha - male trying to mansplain to you when you 're just trying to live your life ''.
Gaston frequently appears within the top - tens of Disney villain rankings organized by various media publications; however, he is usually placed closer towards the middle of these countdowns and seldom ranks number one. E! ranked the character the sixth best Disney villain. TVOvermind also ranked Gaston sixth despite his lack of magical powers "because of his overwhelming douchebaggery '' whose "general intolerance makes for a terrific villain. '' On The Huffington Post 's "Definitive Ranking Of 25 Classic Disney Villains '', Gaston was featured at number eight, while About.com placed the character ninth on a similar list. Yahoo! Movies included Gaston at number 11 on their ranking of "the 12 most famous Disney villains from worst to best '', awarding him "points for not only being a huge jerk, but for also trying to blackmail Belle into marrying him... and for leading a mob to kill Beast. '' According to the Orlando Sentinel, Gaston is the 12th greatest Disney villain. Meanwhile, on Babble 's list of "The Top 15 Disney Villains Ranked from Bad to Worst '', which ranked the characters based on scariness, Gaston was placed 10th. CNN agreed that Gaston is one of "Disney 's scariest villains '', writing, "the only thing worse than a cocky, demanding guy who ca n't take a hint is a cocky, demanding guy who organizes a mob to kill your boyfriend '', concluding, "He may not have looked scary, but he was obviously the movie 's real beast. '' Featured among Collider.com 's "9 Most Wicked Animated Villains '', contributor Matt Goldberg hailed Gaston as "a delightful caricature of an idiotic jock. '' Facetiously, Beamly considers Gaston to be among "8 Disney villains who are better than the heroes '' for catching their attention despite being an "awful and sexist '' character. Moviefone was less receptive towards the character, ranking him 25th out of 30 on their list of the "Top Disney Villains of All Time ''. Oh My Disney ranked Gaston 's line "The most beautiful girl in town, that makes her the best! And do n't I deserve the best? '' the ninth most sinister quote uttered by a Disney villain.
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when was the last time michigan won a big ten championship | List of Big Ten Conference football champions - wikipedia
This is a list of yearly Big Ten Conference football champions. Co-champions are listed in alphabetical order.
Note: an asterisk (*) denotes a national championship for that season recognized by the College Football Data Warehouse.
^ Ohio State vacated all wins from the 2010 season and its share of the championship due to NCAA violations.
Italics indicate a school no longer competing in the Big Ten.
Bold indicates an outright conference championship.
^ Ohio State vacated all wins from the 2010 season and its share of the title.
^ Ohio State vacated all wins from the 2010 season and their share of the championship * Active Big Ten coach
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do mainland chinese need a visa for taiwan | Visa policy of Taiwan - wikipedia
Visitors to Taiwan must obtain a visa or authorization in advance, unless they come from one of the visa exempt countries or countries whose nationals are eligible for visa on arrival. All visitors must hold a passport valid for 6 months (except the citizens of Japan and the United States who are only required to hold a passport valid for the entire duration of stay).
Taiwan has special entry requirements to current or former nationals of China who reside or previously resided in Mainland China.
Although the Republic of China (Taiwan) has only one type of nationality, not all ROC nationals have the right of abode in Taiwan. Under the Immigration Act, only those with household registration in Taiwan (nationals with household registration, or NWHRs) have the right of abode in Taiwan and can enter Taiwan without prior authorization. Holding one of the documents listed below is sufficient to demonstrate such status:
ROC nationals without household registration in Taiwan (NWOHRs) are ineligible to receive a National Identification Card. To enter Taiwan, one must, in addition to a Taiwan passport, hold one of the following documents:
NWOHRs holding documentations listed below can obtain an entry permit on arrival:
Alternatively, they may enter Taiwan with their non-ROC passports without prior authorization if also having nationalities of a visa exempt country.
NWOHRs are subject to immigration control while in Taiwan, and can only remain in Taiwan for a limited time authorized by the entry permit or the immigration officer. Those without any of the above - listed documents will be denied entry to Taiwan.
Holders of passports of the following 63 jurisdictions do not require a visa to visit Taiwan for less than 90 days unless otherwise noted (duration of stay starts from the next day of arrival). Extensions are not possible except for citizens of Canada and the United Kingdom, who may apply to extend the stay from 90 days to 180 days in accordance with the principle of reciprocity.
Taiwan grants visa - free access to holders of passports of all 18 states which recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of China, with the exception of Swaziland, as well as four countries in Oceania which are scheduled to receive this privilege in the near future: Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Palau and Solomon Islands.
The visa exemption does not apply for holders of emergency or temporary passports, except for citizens of Japan and the United States. Other visa exempt nationals holding such passports, however, would still be able to apply for a visa on arrival.
Citizens of India, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos holding current or past immigration documents or visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, any of the Schengen countries, the United Kingdom, or the United States may obtain ROC Travel Authorization Certificates granting visa exemption.
Stateless permanent residents of Brunei holding the Bruneian International Certificate of Identity (ICI) with a validity of at least 6 months are also exempt from visa requirement until 31 July 2018. The duration of stay is 30 days.
In addition, holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Belize, Burkina Faso, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nauru, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Swaziland do not require a visa for up to 90 days.
unknown: Turkey; Hong Kong, Macau
Nationals of the following countries can obtain a visa on arrival for a fee:
In addition, holders of emergency or temporary passports with validity of more than 6 months issued by visa - exempt countries are eligible for visa on arrival for a fee. The duration of stay is 30 days regardless of nationality and can not be extended. This measure does not apply to holders of emergency or temporary passports issued by Japan or the United States as they are visa exempt.
Visa on arrival is only available at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport. For passengers arriving at Taipei Songshan Airport, Kaohsiung International Airport or Taichung Airport, they would be issued a temporary entry permit and will have to apply for a visa at the Bureau of Consular Affairs office or one of the offices of Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Taiwan at their earliest convenience. Failure to comply may result in a derogatory record. Passengers arriving at ports of entry other than those listed above will be denied entry.
Permanent residents of Hong Kong and / or Macau, who are either Chinese nationals or British Nationals (Overseas), may be eligible for an Exit & Entry Permit upon arrival for NT $ 300 or may apply for an Entry Permit online at no cost to visit Taiwan for less than 30 days.
The requirements are:
First time applicants not born in Hong Kong or Macau are also able to apply for Exit and Entry Permit online from 8 February 2017. Unlike those qualified for the no - fee Entry Permit or Entry and Exit Permit on arrival, the applicants are required to pay a processing fee of NT $600. The processing time is 5 business days. These visitors are required to hold their Hong Kong Permanent Identity Cards or Macau Permanent Resident Identity Cards, as well as their proof of previous visits to Taiwan, when applying for Exit and Entry Permits on arrival or the no - fee Entry Permits for subsequent visits.
Since 1 January 2017, Hong Kong and Macau residents are able to apply for double - entry Entry Permits online, providing that they are entering Taiwan by cruise for at least one portion of their trip.
Since 12 January 2016, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ROC started to implement the eVisa Program. Citizens of the following countries can apply for a single - entry eVisa to visit Taiwan for less than 30 days. The fee for each application is NT $1,632. On 7 October 2016, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ROC further expanded the list of countries eligible to apply for eVisa.
Nationals of the following countries may apply for a single - entry eVisa for a maximum stay of 30 days if they are travelling with an approved tour group:
Also, all foreign nationals except Chinese nationals who are invited by the Taiwanese government to attend international conferences, sports events, trade fairs or other activities organized, co-organized or sponsored by Taiwanese government agencies or certain NGOs are also eligible for an eVisa. Such applicants must obtain an e-code from their host organizations in Taiwan prior to applying for an eVisa.
Nationals of the following countries are eligible for business eVisas if they have obtained recommendations from the local Taiwan External Trade Development Council since 1 June 2017.
Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the code "TWN '' on the back of the card can enter Taiwan visa - free for business trips for up to 90 days. ABTCs are issued to nationals of:
ABTCs are also issued to nationals of China and permanent residents of Hong Kong; however, Chinese nationals residing in Mainland China are subject to entry restrictions and can not use the card to enter Taiwan. Chinese nationals permanently residing in Hong Kong are also ineligible and are required to obtain an Exit and Entry Permit.
Nationals of the following countries can apply for a no - fee Travel Authorization Certificate online for multiple visits to Taiwan, for a duration of no more than 30 days each visit during the certificate 's 90 - day validity period, if they have never been employed as a guest worker to Taiwan and have met the additional requirements listed below:
They are required to hold a residential or visitor visa (including Visa Waiver Registration Certificates issued by Japan to Indonesian nationals, and e-Visas), or a residential certificate (including permanent residency) issued by the following countries. The visa can be either valid or expired, but it must not have expired for more than 10 years prior to the date of arrival in Taiwan. Holders of work permits as well as visas marked "void '', "cancelled '' or "cancelled without prejudice '' are not eligible. In addition, travelers utilizing the scheme must also hold a return or onward plane or ship ticket and will be required to present it to the immigration officer.
Frequent visitors to Taiwan from these countries can also receive multiple entry visas with validity of two to five years.
From 1 June 2017, nationals of these countries who have received a Taiwanese visa (other than a work visa) in the last 10 years are eligible for online registration.
As all Filipino nationals will be exempt from visa requirements on 1 November 2017, they will no longer be able to register for the certificate from that day onwards. All certificates will no longer be valid for entry after 31 October 2017. Passengers entering Taiwan prior to 1 November 2017 are still allowed to stay for up to 30 days, while those entering Taiwan on or after that day can only stay for up to 14 days.
Nationals of the People 's Republic of China with residency (hukou) in Mainland China (including those who are non-permanent residents of Hong Kong or Macau and have relinquished their hukou in Mainland China) require prior approvals from Taiwanese government and are required to hold an Exit and Entry Permit prior to travelling to Taiwan. As of August 2016, Mainland residents can only visit Taiwan as a part of a pre-approved tour group unless they qualify for one of the exemptions:
As of May 2016, Mainland resident visitors applying from Mainland China are subject to a daily quota imposed by Taiwan of 14,600 persons per day, with half of the quota available to individual tour applicants. Those who applied from Hong Kong, Macau or a third country are not subject to a quota. It was reported that the Chinese authorities also has an unofficial "soft cap '' on the numbers of individual and group tourists, ranging from 40 % to 50 % of the Taiwanese quota.
All PRC nationals who are residents of Mainland China can not travel to Taiwan on their passports when departing from Mainland China and must hold a Travel Permit to and from Taiwan (往來 台灣 通行證), colloquially known as Mainland Resident Travel Permit (大通 證), issued by the Chinese authorities. The current card - type version of the permit is similar to the design of the Two - way permit while older version is a pink, passport - like travel document. Permits must have the appropriate valid exit endorsements (similar to exit visas) on them for the holder to depart from Mainland China. Although travelling with the Mainland Resident Travel Permit is not mandatory when departing from Hong Kong, Macau or a third country, the Exit and Entry Permit itself is not a travel document but a de facto entry visa, and is usually tied to the document number of Mainland Resident Travel Permit or the Chinese passport, hence the travelers are still required to carry the travel document they used to apply for the Exit and Entry Permit when travelling to Taiwan.
Since January 2016, Mainland residents are no longer required to hold a Mainland Resident Travel Permit if they depart from airports in Chongqing, Kunming or Nanchang and are only in transit through Taiwan to a third country. Otherwise, the Mainland Resident Travel Permit with exit endorsement is also required for transit through Taiwan if departing from Mainland China, but the Exit and Entry Permit is not required if the passengers do not pass immigration control in Taiwan and only remain airside.
From 28 March 2017, Mainland Chinese residents are able to apply for the Exit and Entry Permit online if they are residing in a third country.
Although the aforementioned restrictions do not apply to former nationals of People 's Republic of China with Mainland residency, they also face entry restrictions and are required to apply for an Exit and Entry Permit unless they meet the following requirements:
If the requirements are met, they may enter Taiwan according to the visa requirements of the nationality they have acquired. However, documentations supporting the change in nationality, such as a naturalization certificate, is required.
Nationals of the following countries are eligible to apply for the Taiwanese working holiday visa (named as "Youth Mobility Scheme '' for British and Canadian citizens) through Taiwanese diplomatic missions of their countries of nationality, if they are ordinary residents in their country of nationality and are within the age limits:
Most visitors arriving to Taiwan on short term basis were from the following countries of residence:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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how many chick-fil-a's are there in the world | Chick - fil - A - wikipedia
Chick - fil - A (/ tʃ ɪkfɪˈleɪ / chik - fil - AY, a play on the American English pronunciation of "fillet '') is an American fast food restaurant chain headquartered in the city of College Park, Georgia, specializing in chicken sandwiches. Founded in May 1946, it operates more than 2,200 restaurants, primarily in the United States. The restaurant serves breakfast before transitioning to its lunch and dinner menu. Chick - fil - A also offers customers catered selections from its menu for special events.
Many of the company 's values are influenced by the religious beliefs of its late founder, S. Truett Cathy, a devout Southern Baptist. Most notably, all Chick - fil - A restaurants are closed for business on Sundays, as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas.
The chain 's origin can be traced to the Dwarf Grill (now the Dwarf House), a restaurant opened by S. Truett Cathy, the chain 's former chairman and CEO, in 1946. The restaurant is located in Hapeville, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, and is near the location of the now - demolished Ford Motor Company Atlanta Assembly Plant, for many years a source of many of the restaurant 's patrons.
In 1961, after 15 years in the fast food business, Cathy found a pressure - fryer that could cook the chicken sandwich in the same amount of time it took to cook a fast - food hamburger. Following this discovery, he registered the name Chick - fil - A, Inc. The company 's trademarked slogan, "We Did n't Invent the Chicken, Just the Chicken Sandwich, '' refers to their flagship menu item, the Chick - fil - A chicken sandwich.
The first Chick - fil - A opened in 1967, in the food court of the Greenbriar Mall, in a suburb of Atlanta. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the chain expanded by opening new franchises in suburban malls ' food courts. The first freestanding franchise was opened April 16, 1986, on North Druid Hills Road in Atlanta, Georgia, and the company began to focus more on this type of franchise than on the food court type. Although it has expanded outward from its original geographic base, most new restaurants are located in Southern suburban areas. In October 2015, the company opened a three - story 5,000 - square - foot restaurant in Manhattan that became the largest free - standing Chick - fil - A in the country at that time. As of 2016, the chain has approximately 1,950 locations. It also has 31 drive - through - only locations. Chick - fil - A also can be found at universities, hospitals, and airports through licensing agreements.
Since 1997, the Atlanta - based company has been the title sponsor of the Peach Bowl, an annual college football bowl game played in Atlanta on New Year 's Eve. Chick - fil - A also is a key sponsor of the SEC and the ACC of college athletics.
The company expanded for the first time outside of the United States by opening an outlet at the Calgary International Airport in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in May 2014. This restaurant is located near the departure area for flights bound for the United States. However, as with its American locations, it is closed Sundays and Christmas Day (it is, however, open on what would be Thanksgiving Day in America; as Thanksgiving Day is celebrated the month prior in Canada).
Chick - fil - A retains ownership of each restaurant. Chick - fil - A selects the restaurant location and builds it. Chick - fil - A franchisees need only a $10,000 initial investment to become an operator. Each operator is handpicked and goes through a rigorous training program; the interviews plus training can take months and is not an easy process. Chick - fil - A states on their site: "This is not the right opportunity for you if you: - Are seeking a passive investment in a business. - Want to sell property to Chick - fil - A, Inc. - Are requesting that Chick - fil - A, Inc. build at a specified location. - Are seeking multi-unit franchise opportunities. ''
Since 2010, Chick - fil - A has led the fast food industry in average sales per restaurant, despite being open only six days a week, earning an average $4.8 million per restaurant in 2016 (Whataburger was second with $2.7 million per restaurant).
"Eat Mor Chikin '' is the chain 's most prominent advertising slogan, created by The Richards Group in 1995. The slogan is often seen in advertisements, featuring Holstein dairy cows that are often seen wearing (or holding) signs that (usually) read: "Eat Mor Chikin '' in all capital letters. The ad campaign was temporarily halted during a mad cow disease scare on January 1, 2004, so as not to make the chain seem insensitive or appear to be taking advantage of the scare to increase its sales. Two months later, the cows were put up again. The cows replaced the chain 's old mascot, Doodles, an anthropomorphized chicken who still appears as the C on the logo.
Chick - fil - A vigorously protects its intellectual property, sending cease and desist letters to those they think have infringed on their trademarks. The corporation has successfully protested at least 30 instances of the use of an "eat more '' phrase, saying that the use would cause confusion of the public, dilute the distinctiveness of their intellectual property, and diminish its value.
A 2011 letter to Vermont artist Bo Muller - Moore who screen prints T - shirts reading: "Eat More Kale '' demanded that he cease printing the shirts and turn over his website. The incident drew criticism from Vermont governor Peter Shumlin, and created backlash against what he termed Chick - fil - A 's "corporate bullying. '' On December 11, 2014, Bo Muller - Moore announced that the U.S. Patent Office granted his application to trademark his "Eat More Kale '' phrase. A formal announcement of his victory took place on December 12, 2014, with Shumlin and other supporters on the Statehouse steps. His public fight drew regional and national attention, the support of Shumlin, and a team of pro-bono law students from the University of New Hampshire legal clinic.
After 22 years with The Richards Group, Chick - fil - A switched to McCann New York in 2016. Along with the cows, ads included famous people in history in a campaign called "Chicken for Breakfast. It 's not as crazy as you think. ''
Truett Cathy opened his first restaurant, The Dwarf Grill -- later renamed the Dwarf House -- in Hapeville, Georgia, in 1946, and developed the pressure - cooked chicken breast sandwich there. At the original Chick - fil - A Dwarf Grill, in addition to the full - size entrances, there is also an extra small - sized front door. The original Dwarf House in Hapeville, Georgia is open 24 hours a day, six days a week, except on Sundays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The store closes at 10: 00 p.m. on Saturday nights, and the day before Thanksgiving and Christmas and reopens at 6 a.m. on Monday mornings and day after Thanksgiving and Christmas. It has a larger dine - in menu than the other Dwarf House locations as well as an animated seven dwarfs display in the back of the restaurant. It was across the street from the former Ford Motor Company factory called Atlanta Assembly.
Truett 's original, full - service restaurants offer a substantial menu and provide customers a choice of table service, walk - up counter service or a drive - thru window. As of 2012, 13 Chick - fil - A Dwarf House restaurants were operating in the metro Atlanta area.
In 1996, the first Truett 's Grill was opened in Morrow, Georgia. The second location opened in 2003 in McDonough, Georgia, and a third location opened in 2006 in Griffin, Georgia. Similar to the Chick - fil - A Dwarf Houses, these independently owned restaurants offer traditional, sit - down dining and expanded menu selections in a diner - themed dinner. In 2017, Chick - fil - A demolished several Dwarf House locations to replace them with Truett 's Grill locations.
S. Truett Cathy was a devout Southern Baptist; his religious beliefs had a major impact on the company. The company 's official statement of corporate purpose says that the business exists "To glorify God by being a faithful steward of all that is entrusted to us. To have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick - fil - A. ''
Cathy 's beliefs are also responsible for the chain 's most well - known and distinctive feature: all Chick - fil - A locations (both corporate owned and franchised) are closed on Sundays, as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas. Cathy states as the final step in his Five - Step recipe for Business Success "I was not so committed to financial success that I was willing to abandon my principles and priorities. One of the most visible examples of this is our decision to close on Sunday. Our decision to close on Sunday was our way of honoring God and of directing our attention to things that mattered more than our business. ''
In an interview with ABC News 's Nightline, Truett 's son Dan T. Cathy told reporter Vicki Mabrey that the company is also closed on Sundays because "by the time Sunday came, he was just worn out. And Sunday was not a big trading day, anyway, at the time. So he was closed that first Sunday and we 've been closed ever since. He figured if he did n't like working on Sundays, that other people did n't either. '' The younger Cathy also quoted his father as saying, "I do n't want to ask people to do that what I am not willing to do myself. ''
Their website states, "The Chick - fil - A culture and service tradition in our Restaurants is to treat every person with honor, dignity and respect -- regardless of their belief, race, creed, sexual orientation or gender. ''
Chick - fil - A 's reputation on being closed on Sundays extends to non-traditional locations. On December 17, 2017 Chick - fil - A broke their tradition and opened on a Sunday to prepare meals for passengers left stranded, during the power outage at Atlanta Hartsfield - Jackson International Airport. In addition to countless shopping malls and airports, a Chick - fil - A location at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta will be closed on Sundays despite its main tenant, the Atlanta Falcons, playing most of their home games on Sundays. The location will be open when the Falcons have a Monday night, Thursday night or Saturday home game, as well as non-Sunday home games of Atlanta United FC and other events at the stadium. On Sundays, the digital signs will be flipped and concessionaire Levy Restaurants will sell nonbranded food and drinks at the location.
In January 2011, the media reported that Chick - fil - A was co-sponsoring a marriage conference with the Pennsylvania Family Institute (PFI), an organization that has opposed same - sex marriage legislation. Chick - fil - A clarified that "one of our independent Restaurant Operators in Pennsylvania was asked to provide sandwiches to two Art of Marriage video seminars ''. The WinShape Foundation, a charitable organization founded by Truett and his wife, also stated that it would not allow same - sex couples to participate in its marriage retreats.
Chick - fil - A has donated over $5 million, via WinShape, to groups that oppose same - sex marriage. Of this, more than $3 million was donated primarily to Christian organizations whose agendas included positions that oppose same - sex marriage, with the money donated between 2003 and 2009. A total of $1.9 million was donated in 2010 to groups such as the Marriage & Family Foundation, Exodus International, and the Family Research Council (FRC). That year, the FRC, which received $1,000 was listed as an anti-gay hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. WinShape has also contributed to Christian groups including the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and Exodus International, the latter of which is noted for supporting ex-gay conversion therapy. In response, students at several colleges and universities worked to ban or remove the company 's restaurants from their campuses. On January 28, 2013, Shane L. Windmeyer, the leader of Campus Pride, suspended their campaign.
In June and July 2012, Chick - fil - A 's chief operating officer Dan T. Cathy made several public statements about same - sex marriage, saying that those who "have the audacity to define what marriage is about '' were "inviting God 's judgment on our nation ''. Several prominent politicians expressed disapproval. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino and Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe '' Moreno said they hoped to block franchise expansion into their areas. The proposed bans drew criticism from liberal pundits, legal experts, and the American Civil Liberties Union. The Jim Henson Company, which had a Pajanimals kids ' meal toy licensing arrangement with Chick - fil - A, said it would cease its business relationship, and donate the payment to the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. Chick - fil - A stopped distributing the toys, claiming that unrelated safety concerns that had arisen prior to the controversy. Chick - fil - A released a statement on July 31, 2012, saying, "We are a restaurant company focused on food, service, and hospitality; our intent is to leave the policy debate over same - sex marriage to the government and political arena. ''
In response to the controversy, former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee initiated a Chick - fil - A Appreciation Day movement to counter a boycott of Chick - fil - A launched by same - sex marriage activists. More than 600,000 people RSVPed on Facebook for Huckabee 's appreciation event. On August 1, Chick - fil - A restaurants experienced a large show of public support across the nation with the company reporting record - breaking sales. A consulting firm estimated that the average Chick - fil - A restaurant had 29.9 percent more sales and 367 more customers than it did on a typical Wednesday.
In September 2012, The Civil Rights Agenda (TCRA) announced that Chick - fil - A had "ceased donating to organizations that promote discrimination, specifically against LGBT civil rights. '' Chick - fil - A officials did state in an internal document that they "will treat every person equally, regardless of sexual orientation. '' In a letter from Chick - fil - A 's Senior Director of Real Estate, the company states, "The WinShape Foundation is now taking a much closer look at the organizations it considers helping, and in that process will remain true to its stated philosophy of not supporting organizations with political agendas. ''
According to Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe '' Moreno, Chick - fil - A has a statement of respect for all people regardless of sexual orientation in an internal document called Chick - fil - A: Who We Are. A document released by Chick - fil - A on September 20, 2012, does not mention any organizations opposed to same - sex marriage as being part of Chick - fil - A 's donation base. WinShape Marriage will continue to be supported financially, with a stated focus on couple retreats to strengthen marriages.
According to Focus on the Family 's website, CitizenLink.com, "Chick - fil - A and its charitable - giving arm, the WinShape Foundation, did not agree to stop making donations to groups that support the Biblical definition of marriage in exchange for being allowed to open a franchise in Chicago. '' Mike Huckabee stated that he "talked earlier today personally with Dan Cathy, CEO of Chick Fil - A about the new reports that Chick Fil - A had capitulated to demands of the supporters of same sex marriage. This is not true. The company continues to focus on the fair treatment of all of its customers and employees, but to end confusion gave me this statement. '' The statement provided by Chick - fil - A was posted on Huckabee 's website.
Though Chick - fil - A has always used trans - fat free processes in its chicken sandwiches, anticipating the dietary concerns of consumers, in 2008, it became the first fast - food restaurant to become completely trans - fat free.
In 2011, food blogger and activist Vani Hari wrote a post titled "Chick - fil - A or Chemical Fil - A? '' on her website, FoodBabe.com. She noted that Chick - fil - A sandwiches contained nearly 100 ingredients, including peanut oil with TBHQ. In October 2012, Chick - fil - A invited Hari to meet with company executives at its Atlanta, GA headquarters. In December 2013, Chick - fil - A notified Hari that it had eliminated the dye Yellow No. 5 and had reduced the sodium content in its chicken soup. The company also said that it is testing a peanut oil that does not contain TBHQ and that it would start testing sauces and dressings made without high - fructose corn syrup in 2014.
According to the Food and Drug Administration, antibiotics used in livestock, many of which are also used to treat humans, have contributed to the rise of dangerous bacteria. In December 2012, the FDA announced plans to phase out certain antibiotics in the food production industry.
In February 2014, Chick - fil - A announced plans to serve chicken raised without antibiotics in its restaurants nationwide within five years. Chick - fil - A is the first quick service restaurant to set forth a plan and commit to serving only poultry raised without antibiotics.
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luther vandross song can i take you out tonight | Take You Out - Wikipedia
"Take You Out '' is a song by American recording artist Luther Vandross. The song was released as the lead single in support of his platinum selling album, Luther Vandross. "Take You Out '' became a top ten R&B hit, the single peaked to # 7 on Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and was a top 40 hit at # 27 on Billboard Hot 100 singles.
The song was later sampled by American rapper Jay - Z in his song "Excuse Me Miss '', on his album The Blueprint 2: The Gift & The Curse, released in 2002.
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united states center for excellence in disaster management & humanitarian assistance | Center for Excellence in disaster management and humanitarian Assistance - wikipedia
The Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (CFE) is a direct reporting unit to the U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) and principal agency to promote disaster preparedness and societal resiliency in the Asia - Pacific region. As part of its mandate, CFE facilitates education and training in disaster preparedness, consequence management and health security to develop domestic, foreign and international capability and capacity.
CFE partners with a wide variety of national and international governmental, nongovernmental and international organizations to provide relevant education, training, interagency coordination and research. CFE 's initiatives include establishing field offices at each US Regional Combatant Command and establishing strategic partnerships with public and private sector entities, such as Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS), Pacific Disaster Center (PDC), Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, University of Hawaii, foundations, institutes, and universities.
A community of nations prepared to respond, collaborate, and manage natural and man - made disasters.
Nations with disaster management plans, prepared to respond to plausible contingencies, and willing to participate in a regional collaborative framework.
CFE was established by an act of the US Congress in 1994. US Code Title 10,182 established that, "the (Secretary of Defense) may operate a Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance. ''
The Health Emergencies in Large Populations (HELP) course is hosted by the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (CFE) in collaboration with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the partnership of University of Hawaii 's John A. Burns School of Medicine 's Office of Public Health Studies. This is a three - week, intensive, graduate - level training course, providing participants with an understanding of the major public health issues to be addressed among populations affected by natural disasters, complex emergencies, and internal displacement.
The CFE has conducted the HELP course for fifteen consecutive years, graduating over 250 students from diverse backgrounds in public health, medicine, humanitarian assistance and disaster management backgrounds. The course provides participants with the tools, frameworks, and decision - making skills necessary to achieve a sustainable outcome for the affected population (s) and enable graduates to plan coherent, appropriate relief operations.
With its focus on civilian - military relations, including interacting with agencies of the Affected State and humanitarian agencies, HART provides a key professional development opportunity for evolving requirements of the U.S. military. The course will consist of lectures and case studies on civilian humanitarian agencies and their roles and operations, international law protecting affected populations, fundamental humanitarian principles and response measures of effectiveness and measures of performance, to name a few. Over the three - day period, HART participants will apply their knowledge during a military planning and decision making exercise.
CMEP is a global *, OSD directed, CFE - DMHA managed *, and Geographic Combatant Commander prioritized security cooperation program that uses "all hazard '' emergency preparedness to support a variety of DoD objectives including:
CMEP supports the GCC 's security cooperation and capacity building objectives by enhancing partner nation capacities in preparedness, interoperability and civil - military cooperation related to disaster mitigation and response. CMEP leverages broad U.S. and international disaster management expertise and perspective as well as supporting programs to enhance GCC 's efforts with their partner nations. Mutually supporting activities and participation are encouraged.
(* NOTE: The Center for Civil - Military Relations is the interim program manager through FY14. CFE - DMHA will assume Program Management in FY15. See POCs below for current program manager. Additionally, CMEP will begin to expand to provide global support starting in FY15.)
Liaison is CFE 's biannual journal of disaster management and humanitarian relief collaborations. Articles are original work from throughout the DMHA community focusing on advances, partnerships, technology and applied research, and training and education. The journal aims to promote the ability of DMHA partners to learn from one another through lessons learned to build a stronger DMHA community through shared learning.
On 14 -- 15 September 2009, CFE and United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) co-hosted the annual Asia - Pacific Conference on Military Assistance to Disaster Relief Operations (APC - MADRO) in Honolulu, Hawaii.
CFE Director, Lt. Gen. John F. Goodman gave the keynote address at the 9th annual Association for Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Forum Inter-Sessional Meeting on Disaster Relief (ARF ISM - DR) in Honolulu, 16 -- 18 September.
Coordinates: 21 ° 21 ′ 37 '' N 157 ° 57 ′ 35 '' W / 21.3603 ° N 157.9597 ° W / 21.3603; - 157.9597
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who does the voice of joel last of us | Troy Baker - wikipedia
Troy Edward Baker (born April 1, 1976) is an American voice actor and musician known for portraying lead characters in video games. He is known for portraying Joel in The Last of Us, Booker DeWitt in BioShock Infinite, Delsin Rowe in Infamous Second Son, The Joker in Batman: Arkham Origins and Batman: Assault on Arkham, Rhys in Tales from the Borderlands, Talion in Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor, Jack Mitchell in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, Vincent Brooks in Catherine, Yuri Lowell in Tales of Vesperia, Samuel Drake in Uncharted 4: A Thief 's End and Pagan Min in Far Cry 4. He also voiced in a number of English adaptations of Japanese anime shows, including Basilisk, Trinity Blood, Fullmetal Alchemist, One Piece, Bleach and Naruto: Shippuden.
Before pursuing acting, Baker was the lead singer and rhythm guitarist for the indie - rock band Tripp Fontaine, which released the radio single "Burning Out '' from their debut album Random Thoughts on a Paper Napkin in 2004. His first solo album, Sitting in the Fire, was released on October 14, 2014. On October 6, 2017, Baker and the backing band of Sitting in the Fire released a second album called Moving Around Bias under the new name Window to the Abbey.
Baker began his voice acting career doing radio commercials. He was recruited by Chris Sabat to do voice - over work at Funimation for the English adaptation of the anime Case Closed. He then went on to work with anime such as Bleach, Dragon Ball Z, Fullmetal Alchemist, Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, Naruto, Naruto: Shippuden, and One Piece. He began working on Marvel - based animated series where he provided the voice of various characters in The Avengers: Earth 's Mightiest Heroes, and Hawkeye and Loki in Ultimate Spider - Man and Avengers Assemble.
His career in the video game industry began when he voiced Matt Baker in Gearbox Software 's Brothers in Arms. In an interview with The Griff, Baker said that "It was starting to become necessary for actors to become involved (in gaming), so I got into that and it was literally stumbling from one job into the next. That was kind of my first snowball effect. '' His most notable roles came in 2013 where he provided the voice of Booker DeWitt in Irrational Games ' BioShock Infinite and performed the voice and motion capture of Joel in Naughty Dog 's The Last of Us. Both games earned critical acclaim, earning scores over 90 % in GameRankings and Metacritic, and commercial success. Baker got nominated for both of these roles in the VGX 2013 and ended up winning for The Last of Us. Baker again worked with Naughty Dog on Uncharted 4: A Thief 's End opposite Nolan North playing Nathan Drake 's older brother Sam. He reprised the role again in Uncharted: The Lost Legacy.
In 2011 he became the voice of Siris, the hero from Chair Entertainment 's blockbuster mobile series Infinity Blade, and Talion, the protagonist of Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor which earned a rating of 9.3 on IGN. He also voiced Ace (Experiment 262) in the English dub of the anime Stitch!. Entertainment Weekly has listed him in their Best of 2013 issue for best breakout actor in the video game industry for his performance as Joel in The Last of Us, Booker DeWitt in BioShock Infinite and the Joker in Batman: Arkham Origins. He is one of the few actors to have portrayed Batman (Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, Lego Dimensions and Batman: The Telltale Series), the Joker (Batman: Arkham Origins) and the three major iterations of Robin (Batman: Arkham City, Injustice: Gods Among Us and Batman: Arkham Knight).
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where was the movie how the west was won filmed | How the West was Won (film) - wikipedia
How the West Was Won is a 1962 American Metrocolor epic - Western film. The picture was one of the last "old - fashioned '' epic films made by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer to enjoy great success. Set between 1839 and 1889, it follows four generations of a family (starting as the Prescotts) as they move ever westward, from western New York state to the Pacific Ocean. The picture was filmed in the curved - screen three - projector Cinerama process.
The all - star cast includes (in alphabetical order) Carroll Baker, Lee J. Cobb, Henry Fonda, Carolyn Jones, Karl Malden, Gregory Peck, George Peppard, Robert Preston, Debbie Reynolds, James Stewart, Eli Wallach, John Wayne, and Richard Widmark. The film is narrated by Spencer Tracy.
The score was listed at # 25 on AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores. The film also gained unanimous widespread critical acclaim, and a perfect 100 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In 1997, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
The film begins with narration by Spencer Tracy as the aerial - borne camera sweeps over the Rocky Mountains. "This land has a name today, '' says Tracy in the opening lines of the film, "and is marked on maps. ''
The film then moves into "The Rivers '' sequence (considerably to the east of the Rockies).
Mountain man Linus Rawlings (James Stewart) is making his way by horse and waterway through the mountains. He confers with a group of Indians. The scene then shifts to Zebulon Prescott and his family.
Prescott (Karl Malden) and his family set out west for the frontier via the Erie Canal, the "West '', at this time, being the Ohio River country, at the southern edge of Illinois. Along the journey, they meet Rawlings, who is traveling east, to Pittsburgh, to trade his furs. Rawlings and Zebulon 's daughter, Eve (Carroll Baker), are attracted to each other, but Linus is not ready to settle down.
Linus Rawlings stops at an isolated trading post, run by a murderous clan of river pirates, headed by "Alabama Colonel '' Jeb Hawkins (Walter Brennan). Linus is betrayed when he accompanies seductive Dora Hawkins (Brigid Bazlen), into a cave, modeled after the real outlaw haunt, of Cave - In - Rock State Park, to see a "varmint ''. Dora Hawkins stabs him in the back and Rawlings falls into a deep hole. He is not seriously wounded, and is able to rescue the Prescott party from a similar fate. The bushwhacking thieves (Lee Van Cleef plays one), including Dora and Hawkins, are dispatched, being killed in an attack by Rawlings, in a form of rough, frontier justice.
After Zebulon prays to God for their lost loved ones and commends to Him the thieves ' souls "whether You want ' em or not '', the settlers continue down the river, but their raft is caught in rapids, and Zebulon and his wife Rebecca (Agnes Moorehead) drown. Linus, finding that he can not live without Eve, reappears and marries her. She insists on homesteading, at the spot where her parents died.
Directed by Henry Hathaway.
Eve 's sister Lilith (Debbie Reynolds) chooses to go to St. Louis, where she finds work performing in a dance hall. She attracts the attention of professional gambler Cleve Van Valen (Gregory Peck). After overhearing that she has just inherited a California gold mine, and to avoid paying his debts to another gambler (John Larch), Cleve joins the wagon train taking her there. He and wagonmaster Roger Morgan (Robert Preston) court her along the way, but she rejects them both, much to the dismay of her new friend and fellow traveler Agatha Clegg (Thelma Ritter), who is searching for a husband.
Surviving an attack by Cheyenne Indians, Lilith and Cleve arrive at the mine, only to find that it is worthless. Cleve leaves. Lilith returns to work in a dance hall in a camp town, living out of a covered wagon. Morgan finds her and again proposes marriage unromantically. She tells him, "Not now, not ever. ''
Later, Lilith is singing in the music salon of a riverboat. By chance, Cleve is a passenger. When he hears Lilith 's voice, he leaves the poker table (and a winning hand) to propose to her. He tells her of the opportunities waiting in the rapidly growing city of San Francisco. She accepts his proposal.
Directed by Henry Hathaway.
Linus Rawlings joins the Union army as a captain in the American Civil War. Despite Eve 's wishes, their son Zeb (George Peppard) eagerly enlists as well, looking for glory and an escape from farming. Corporal Peterson (Andy Devine) assures them the conflict will not last very long. The bloody Battle of Shiloh shows Zeb that war is nothing like he imagined and, unknown to him, his father dies there. Zeb encounters a similarly disillusioned Confederate (Russ Tamblyn) who suggests deserting.
By chance, they overhear a private conversation between Generals Ulysses S. Grant (Harry Morgan) and William Tecumseh Sherman (John Wayne). The rebel realizes he has the opportunity to rid the South of two of its greatest enemies and tries to shoot them, leaving Zeb no choice but to kill him with the bayonet from his shattered musket. Afterward, Zeb rejoins the army.
When the war finally ends, Zeb returns home as a lieutenant, only to find his mother has died. She had lost the will to live after learning that Linus had been killed. Zeb gives his share of the family farm to his brother, who is content to be a farmer, and leaves in search of a more interesting life.
Directed by John Ford.
Following the daring riders from the Pony Express and the construction of the transcontinental telegraph line in the late 1860s, two ferociously competing railroad lines, the Central Pacific Railroad and the Union Pacific Railroad, one building westward and the other eastward, open up new territory to eager settlers.
Zeb becomes a lieutenant in the U.S. cavalry, trying to maintain peace with the Indians with the help of grizzled buffalo hunter Jethro Stuart (Henry Fonda), an old friend of Linus. When ruthless railroad man Mike King (Richard Widmark) violates a treaty by building on Indian territory, the Arapaho Indians retaliate by stampeding buffalo through his camp, killing many, including women and children. Disgusted, Zeb resigns and heads to Arizona.
A subplot with Hope Lange as Jethro Stuart 's daughter, named Julie, leading to a love triangle between Zeb and Mike King with Julie marrying and later leaving Zeb was deleted.
Directed by George Marshall.
In San Francisco, widowed Lilith auctions off her possessions (she and Cleve had made and spent several fortunes) to pay her debts. She travels to Arizona, inviting Zeb and his family to oversee her remaining asset, a ranch.
Zeb (now a marshal), his wife Julie (Carolyn Jones), and their children meet Lilith at Gold City 's train station. However, Zeb also runs into an old enemy there, outlaw Charlie Gant (Eli Wallach). Zeb had killed Gant 's brother in a gunfight. When Gant makes veiled threats against Zeb and his family, Zeb turns to his friend and Gold City 's marshal, Lou Ramsey (Lee J. Cobb), but Gant is not wanted for anything in that territory, so there is little Ramsey can do.
Zeb decides he has to act rather than wait for Gant to make good his threat someday. Suspecting Gant of planning to rob an unusually large gold shipment being transported by train, he prepares an ambush with Ramsey 's reluctant help. Gant and his entire gang (one member played by Harry Dean Stanton) are killed in the shootout and resulting train wreck. In the end, Lilith and the Rawlings family travel to their new home.
Directed by Henry Hathaway.
A short epilogue shows modern Los Angeles and San Francisco in the early 1960s, including the four - level downtown freeway interchange and Golden Gate Bridge.
Directed by Henry Hathaway.
The film marked then sixty - six - year - old Raymond Massey 's last appearance as Abraham Lincoln, a role that he had previously played on stage (Abe Lincoln in Illinois and the stage adaptation of John Brown 's Body), on screen (Abe Lincoln in Illinois) and on television (The Day Lincoln Was Shot, and two more productions of Abe Lincoln in Illinois).
How the West Was Won was one of only two dramatic feature films (the other being The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm) made using the three - strip Cinerama process. Although the picture quality when projected onto curved screens in theatres was stunning, attempts to convert the movie to a smaller screen suffer from that process 's technical shortcomings. When seen in letterbox format the actors ' faces are nearly indistinguishable in long shots.
Parts of the film were shot in Monument Valley, Utah.
John Ford complained about having to dress such huge sets, since Cinerama photographed a much wider view than the standard single camera process Hollywood directors were used to. Director Henry Hathaway was quoted as saying, "That damned Cinerama. Do you know a waist - shot is as close as you can get with that thing? ''
A portion of the film 's profits were meant to go to St John 's Hospital. This led Irene Dunne and others to persuade the movie 's stars to take less than their usual fees. However, the hospital later sued for a share of the film 's profits.
A more difficult problem was that the film had to be shot with the actors artificially positioned out of dramatic and emotional frame, and out of synchronization with one another. Only when the three - print Cinerama process was projected upon a Cinerama screen did the positions and emotions of the actors synchronize -- such as normal eye - contact or emotional harmony between actors in a dramatic sequence. Because of the nature of Cinerama, if the film were shown in flat screen projection it would appear as if the actors made no eye contact, at all. One brief scene of Mexican soldiers was generously sourced by John Wayne from the 1960 version of The Alamo, which he starred in, produced, and directed.
Stuntman Bob Morgan, husband of Yvonne De Carlo, was seriously injured and lost a leg during a break in filming a gunfight on a moving train while filming "The Outlaws '' portion. Chains holding logs on a flat - bed car broke, crushing Morgan as he crouched beside them.
In a scene in which George Peppard 's character reminisces about his late father, Peppard improvised by doing an imitation of James Stewart 's voice. Director John Ford initially objected, but Peppard felt it was important in such a long, sprawling film to remind the audience which character his father was supposed to be.
The film later inspired an ABC television series of the same name.
The music for the film was composed and conducted by Alfred Newman. The soundtrack album was originally released by MGM Records. Dimitri Tiomkin, well known for scores to western films, was the first composer approached to compose the music for the film. However, Tiomkin became unavailable as a result of eye surgery, and Newman was hired as a replacement.
The score is widely considered to be one of Newman 's best, and appears on the AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores list. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score, losing to Tom Jones.
Debbie Reynolds sings three songs in the film: "Raise A Ruckus Tonight '' starting a party around the camp fire, "What Was Your Name In The States? '', and "A Home in the Meadow '' to the tune of "Greensleeves '', with lyrics by Sammy Cahn. Her rendition is heard by Cleve (Gregory Peck), who is so moved he proposes marriage. This scene ends The Plains segment.
Surprisingly for such an American film, How the West Was Won had its World Premiere in the United Kingdom at London 's Casino Cinerama Theatre on November 2, 1962. The film ran at the Casino for 123 weeks, ending in April 1965.
How the West Was Won was a massive commercial success. Produced on a then large budget of $15 million, it grossed $46,500,000 at the North American box office, making it the second highest - grossing film of 1963. The film grossed $50 million worldwide.
The film won three Academy Awards for:
It was also nominated for:
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
In 2000, MGM gave Crest Digital the task of restoring the original Cinerama negative for How the West Was Won. As part of the process, they built their own authentic Cinerama screening room. There have also been efforts, led by HP, to combine the three image portions to make the Cinerama image look more acceptable on a flat screen. This has finally been accomplished on the latest DVD and Blu - ray Disc release. Previously, the lines where the three Cinerama panels joined were glaringly visible (as seen in the stills on this page), but this has been largely corrected on the Warner Bros. DVD and Blu - ray Disc -- though the joins remain visible in places, especially against bright backgrounds.
The restoration also corrects some of the geometric distortions inherent in the process. For instance, in the final shot, the Golden Gate Bridge appears to curve in perspective as the camera flies underneath it, whereas in the Cinerama version, it breaks into three straight sections at different angles.
The Blu - ray Disc also contains a "SmileBox '' version, simulating the curved screen effect.
Even though the aspect ratio of Cinerama was 2.59: 1, Warner 's new BD and DVD releases of the film offer an aspect ratio of 2.89: 1, incorporating image information on both sides that was never meant to be seen when projected. The BD - exclusive SmileBox alternative has the intentional cropping intact.
In 2006, Warner Bros. Motion Picture Imaging performed digital restoration on How the West Was Won. They digitally restored the film frame by frame at Prasad Corporation to remove dirt, tears, scratches, and other damage -- restoring the original look. The restored Warner Bros. release has been shown on television since October 2008, on the Encore Westerns channel.
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